Abstract the RUSSIAN ADVANCE in CENTRAL ASIA and the BRITISH RESPONSE 1834 - 1885 by Gali Oda Tealakh Supervisor Dr
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Abstract THE RUSSIAN ADVANCE IN CENTRAL ASIA AND THE BRITISH RESPONSE 1834 - 1885 by Gali Oda Tealakh Supervisor Dr. David W. Sweet This thesis is a study of Russia's expansion at the expense of the Khanates of Central Asia in the nineteenth century, beginning with the early exploratory missions of the 1 830s and 1 840s, continuing with the conquest of Kokand and Bukhara in the 1860s, the subjection of Khiva in 1873, and concluding with the fall of Mery in 1884. The threat to British interests represented by this expansion is examined, including a study of Russian projects for the invasion of India, and the failure of the British to react more decisively than they did is explained: only when the Russian advance threatened the continuation of Afghanistan as a buffer state did the British exert their influence to halt the Russian advance. The motives and procedures of Russia's expansion in the region are examined, specifically through the case history of the construction of the Central Asian railroad, and more generally in the policy of Russification upon which the Russians embarked even before their conquest was complete. An examination of the interaction of economic, political and military motives underlying the Russian expansion leads to the conclusion that, although its long-term economic, social, and cultural consequences for Central Asia were enormous, the more immediate logic purpose of the Russian conquests was military, administrative, and political. THE RUSSIAN ADVANCE IN CENTRAL ASIA AND THE BRITISH RESPONSE 1834 - 1884 By Gall Oda Tealakh The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. No quotation from it should be published without his prior written consent and information derived from it should be acknowledged. A Thesis Submitted in Fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy The University of Durham Department of History 1991 14 OCT 1992 cLI IA Copyright © 1991 by Gali 0. Tealakh The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. No quotation from it should be published without his prior written consent and information derived from it should be acknowledged. Declaration This thesis was carried out at the University of Durham, Department of History. No part of it has been published before, or submitted for any other degree. CONTENTS Dedication vii Acknowledgements viii Notes on transliteration and translation x Introduction 1 - Russia in Asia - Historiography - Geography and ethnology I Russia and Central Asia: the historical background 13 - Russia's early contacts with Central Asia - Phases of the Khanates' history - Intensification of the Russian advance - Origins of the Anglo-Russian rivalry II Russian policy and the relations between the Khanates 33 - Rivalry and conflict between the Uzbek Khanates - Russian policy and the moving frontiers - Russia's political missions to Central Asia: methods and purposes - Dc Maizon's mission (1834) - The mission of Vitkevich (1836) and its aftermath - Perovskii's Expedition against Khiva (1839) - Nikiforov's mission to Khiva (1841) - Butenev's mission to Bukhara (1841) - Danilevskii's mission to Khiva (1842) - Ignatiev's mission to Khiva and Bukhara (1858) - Consequences of the Crimean War III The Russian advance against Kokand and Bukhara 68 - British reactions to the Russian advance - Prince Gorchakov's circular of November 1864 - The conquest of Tashkand (1865) - The formation of the Turkestan General-Governorship (1867) - The reduction of Bukhara (1868) IV The subjection of Khiva and the menace to Afghanistan 104 - Traditional attitudes and new prospects - The conquest of Khiva (1873) and the confrontation with Britain - Britain and the policy of the buffer zone V The Russian threat to British India 132 - Early projects against India - Obstacles to the invasion of India - Russian strategies for the invasion of India (1854-1881) lv VI The Central Asian military railroad 160 - Origins of the Transcaspian railway project - Military imperatives and the building of the railway - The consequences of the Central Asian railway VII Immigration and Russification 186 - Russian settlement in Central Asia: the military phase - Russian settlement in Central Asia: the civilian phase - Education policy and the attempt at Russification VIII The Campaign against the Turkomans 206 - Kaufmann and the Yomuds - The massacre of the Yomuds (1873) - The appointment of Skobelev and the conquest of Akhal Tekke (1880-188 1) - The fall of Mery (1884) - Epilogue: the Penjdeh incident Conclusion 237 Appendices 241 - Guide lines to De Maizon (1834) - Gorchakov's circular (1864) - Decree for the formation of the province of Turkestan (1867) - Russo-Khivan treaty (1873) - Russo-Bukharan treaty (1873) Abbreviation and glossary 263 Notes and references 265 Bibliography 323 V List of maps and illustrations Maps - Central Asia before the Russian advance, facing page 13 - The Russian advance in Central Asia, facing page 68 - Central Asia in 1885, facing page 206 Illustration - Portrait of Said Muhammad Khudayar, Khan of Kokand, facing page 33 - Portrait of Muzaffanid-Din, Amir of Bukhara, facing page 68 - Portrait of General Kaufmann, facing page 68 - Portrait of Muhammad Rahim, Khan of Khiva, facing page 104 - Portrait of General Golovachev, facing page 104 - Portrait of General Annenkov, facing page 160 - Railway brigade clearing sand dunes, facing page 160 vi This work is dedicated by the author to HIS MOST GRACIOUS MAJESTY HUSEIN BIN TALAL THE AUGUST SOVEREIGN OF THE HASHEMITE KINGDOM OF JORDAN PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The current work is offered as a contribution to historical knowledge and understanding of the nature of, and the imperatives behind, the Russian march into Central Asia in the nineteenth century, and of the British response to it. Throughout her advance in the region, which extends from the steppe zone in the north to the borders of Afghanistan and Persia in the south, Russia's expansion in all its phases was justified by official Russian statements as an attempt to bring the benefits of order and civilization to a turbulent and barbarous region. In this study I shall attempt to establish the political and strategic motives behind these justifications, and I shall consider the Anglo-Russian rivahy as one of the major influences upon the political behaviour of both great empires, which shaped their relation in Asia, and indeed more generally, throughout the nineteenth century. I shall also attempt to give due weight to the economic and cultural implications of the Russian annexations in Central Asia. I want to thank my supervisor Dr. David W. Sweet for his unfailing advice, encouragement, and sincere efforts throughout my work on this topic. I am obliged to him for his continuous attention, originality, and recommendations. My thanks are also due to Dr. John Slatter, Chairman of the Russian Department, for his remarks especially on translation and quotations from Russian sources. I am thankful as well to Mr. R. T. B. Langhorne, St. John's College, University of Cambridge, for his kindness during my stay at Cambridge University during the winter of 1988. During the years of study I was so fortunate to be inspired by distinguished statesmen and intellectuals from my country. At the top of my list comes His Highness Khalifah Bin Hamad Al-Thani The Amir of The State of Qatar, for his care and encour- agement; my due recognition to his Lordship my father-in-law Mr. Jom'a Hammad, member of the Upper Chamber of the Jordanian Parliament, and first Secretary General of the National Union, for his fatherly care and affection, his sincere counsel and compassionate encouragement were indispensable; to His Excellency Mr. Kamil el- Sharif, Minister of the Religious Affairs, the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan for his yin interest in the subject and goodwill; to Mr. MahmUd el-Sharif, publisher of ad-Dustur Daily Newspaper and the Jerusalem Star, for his warm and sincere thoughtfulness and attention; to His Excellency Mr. 'Isa al-Kauwari, Minister of Information of the State of Qatar, for his earnest consideration; and to Professor Abbas Qalidar for his suggestion and advice. Now the boat is gently floating over high seas and the sail is full of germane breeze, it is time to give due respect and thanks to those who gave me the early inspiration to start from rough shores. My thanks due to Professor Barbara Jelavich, for early attention and encouragement; pertinent gratitude as well to Professor Charles Jelavich, both from the Department of History, Indiana University. My thanks are due as well to Miss Ann Foley, a sincere and thoughtful friend. Also, I am grateful to the Committee of Vice-Chancellors and Principals of the Universities of the United Kingdom; to Mrs. J. Butterfield, and to Mr. Miles Roddis; to Dr. V. Armitage, Dean of the Colleges, University of Durham; and to Mr. John R. White. During those ardent years of solitary work I had a never-ending source of inspiration that made them tolerable and fruitful continuously flowing from those to whom I am most obliged: my father, who through heavenly love, stamina, patience, and boundless energy gave me, my brothers, and sisters the needed education with great sacrifice; to my family: my beloved wife and my innocent sons, whom I believe suffered most during my absence and would be most cheerful to share this modest achievement with me; I am most obliged to members of my family who generously financed my stay in the United Kingdom insisting not to be singled out from other members of the family nor to be mentioned by name. I would like to extend my gratitude to those authors, translators, and editors whose books and articles were beneficial for me during the years of preparing this thesis. My deep appreciation to Ms. Lesley Forbes, and to all the personnel of the Library of the University of Durham, the inter-library loan desk and the circulation desk, who through friendly concern and commitment have a hand in every success.