UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, IRVINE The State of Resistance: National Identity Formation in Modern Iran DISSERTATION submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in History by Assal Rad Dissertation Committee: Professor Touraj Daryaee, Co-Chair Professor Mark LeVine, Co-Chair Professor Roxanne Varzi 2018 © 2018 Assal Rad TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF FIGURES iv NOTE ON TRANSLITERATION v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS vi CURRICULUM VITAE viii ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION ix CHAPTER 1: Introduction 1 I. Introduction 1 II. Framework 4 III. Background 10 IV. What’s Been Said 13 V. What’s To Come 26 VI. Conclusion 37 CHAPTER 2: The Foreign Shah and the Failure of Pahlavi Nationalism 39 I. Introduction 39 II. Background: Foreign Power and Iranian Decline 40 III.I. The Shah’s Nationalism: Revolution, Independence and Persian Dominion 47 III.II. The Shah’s Naiveté: Disconnect and Foreignness 57 III.III. 1971: The Party of the Century and the Apex of IGnorance 64 IV.I. The Opposition: ResistinG Imperialism 67 IV.II. Khomeini’s LeGacy: A Revolution and Modern Iran 75 V. Conclusion 79 CHAPTER 3: The Islamic Republic and Its Culture of Resistance 82 I. Introduction 82 II. 1979: The Islamic Republic’s Permanent Revolution and Iranian Independence 89 III.I. The Ultimate Resistance CampaiGn: The Holy Defense 95 III.II. Victory in Death and the CampaiGn of Martyrdom 101 III.III. The Holy Defense Museum 107 IV.I. ChallenGinG Power: The Endless Search for Yazid 115 IV.II. The Shadow of Hossein: Perpetual Quest for Justice 120 ii V. Conclusion 130 CHAPTER 4: Iranian Identity and Popular Music 135 I. Introduction 135 II.I. Need for Identity 143 II.II. Identity as Resistance: Dual Narratives and Glorification of the Past 152 III. Vatan: Land as a Fixed ObJect of Adoration 162 IV. Fusion: Rejecting Bipolar Narratives 170 V. Conclusion 178 CHAPTER 5: Media and the Struggle Over Representation 183 I. Introduction 183 II. War Films: From Sacred Defense to ReJects 187 III. ChallenGinG Narratives: Alternative Histories and Satirical DisGuises 197 IV. Need for Expression 206 V. Beyond “Iranian” Stories: AsGhar Farhadi 212 VI. Conclusion 219 CHAPTER 6: Conclusion 222 I. Introduction 222 II. The Paradox of Imperial Democracy and the ForeiGn Prince 223 III. The People’s Resistance 231 IV. Conclusion 242 SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY 248 iii LIST OF FIGURES Page Figure 2.1 Pahlavi 50 Rials Bank Note 50 Figure 2.2 Pahlavi 200 Rials Bank Note 50 Figure 2.3 Pahlavi 50 Rials Bank Note: “Land Deeds” 57 Figure 2.4 Pahlavi Bank Note: “Khun āshām-e tārikh” 79 Figure 3.1 “VeilinG of Women” 83 Figure 3.2 Pahlavi Schoolbook: Shah 85 Figure 3.3 Islamic Republic Schoolbook: Khomeini 85 Figure 3.4 Defense Museum: Flowers in Rifles 108 Figure 3.5 Defense Museum: Mine Field 111 Figure 3.6 Defense Museum: Street SiGns 111 Figure 3.7 Defense Museum: DoG TaGs 112 Figure 3.8 Defense Museum: Mother’s Embrace 112 Figure 3.9 Defense Museum: Minority Martyrs 114 Figure 3.10 Palestine Film Poster 124 Figure 3.11 Islamic Republic 1,000,000 Rials Bank Note 133 Figure 4.1 Chaataar Poster 173 Figure 6.1 Reza Pahlavi: “Revolution” 230 Figure 6.2 Muharram in Tehran 235 Figure 6.3 “Sabz va Banafsh Nadāreh” 238 Figure 6.4 “I Will Vote” 240 Figure 6.5 Nature Bridge 244 iv NOTE ON TRANSLITERATION For transliteration of Persian I use the Iranian Studies scheme as outlined by the Association of Iranian Studies. Names have been transliterated accordinG to this scheme except for cases in which there are commonly used EnGlish forms. In cases of Persian names with Arabic oriGins, the Persian diction is used. v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to express deep appreciation to the History Department, School of Humanities and Samuel Jordan Center for Persian Studies at the University of California, Irvine for their continued support. The work of the staff is essential to our ability as graduate students to navigate what can feel like a labyrinth of stages in the course of our graduate work. To this end, I must thank YutinG Wu, Marc Kanda, Amy FuJitani, Amanda Swain and Saeid Jalalipour for graciously answering countless questions and providing guidance at every turn with patience. It is only with the dedication of this underappreciated group that the completion of my dissertation was made possible. While the committed staff at UCI provided the moral and financial support to assist in my proJect, my professors provided the intellectual challenges and social principles that made them invaluable teachers inside and outside the university. I met my Co-Chair, Mark LeVine, as an undergraduate student, when he tauGht me my first important lesson, that we do not teach history because it mattered “then,” but precisely because it matters now. Professor LeVine shared more than the facts, he imparted lessons in humanity that stayed with me and brouGht me back to UCI to study history as a graduate student. In a climate of uncertainty and wars, he remained steadfast in his views, teaching about conflicts such as in Palestine and Iraq without the inflection of an agenda. Instead, he taught with the commendable Goal of buildinG bridGes and understandinG. This is the same Generosity of character I experienced with my Co-Chair, TouraJ Daryaee, whom I met the first time in Iran before my Graduate studies beGan. From our first meeting and throuGhout these years, Professor Daryaee has continued to inspire me with his devotion to teachinG and providinG the Iranian-American community a voice. Even when faced with challenges that go beyond the scope of the academy, he has been a source of optimism and strenGth. For these reasons and more, I am Grateful to them both for teachinG me siGnificant lessons with implications far outside the walls of the classroom. I am also Greatly indebted to Roxanne Varzi and Nasrin Rahimieh for their thouGhtful contributions to my studies and dissertation proJect. While I can certainly thank them for their remarkable scholarly works, which I utilized in my dissertation by providinG me with new ways to think about my own proJect, what I owe them is more profound. As an Iranian woman raised in the United States, role models with whom I could identify were not an everyday occurrence. In our contemporary political climate, calls for representation have become ubiquitous. My experience has shown me why these pleas are so important. For me, Professor Rahimieh and Professor Varzi are more than mentors, they are trailblazers and the impact of their presence in the course of my work cannot be overstated. A list of professors to thank would not be complete without Joseph McKenna. Though Professor McKenna was not part of the team that directly assisted with my dissertation, I have worked with him more than any other professor at UCI as a TeachinG Assistant durinG my Graduate studies. His classes in ReliGious Studies provided thought-provoking questions for the students and the TAs alike. My classes with Professor McKenna helped me realize the siGnificance of teachinG and communication. Moreover, our many talks and lonG vi discussions honed my own skills and expanded my thinkinG on numerous topics. I am confident that the work I have produced has been positively influenced as a consequence of my time with him. Of course, the path to this moment Goes back much further than my studies at the university. ThouGh it is quite a satisfyinG feelinG of personal accomplishment to have completed my dissertation, I am wholly coGnizant of the privileGe that has afforded me this occasion. My only hope is to contribute somethinG of worth to a world that has Given me so much. These are the lessons that were tauGht to me throuGhout my life by my family and friends. While a doctoral dissertation is an often-lonely endeavor, it is only because of their unwaverinG encouraGement and support that I was able to realize my Goals. As such, I am thankful to my friend and colleaGue, Pouya AlimaGham, for stayinG a few steps ahead of me in this process and helpinG to Guide me throuGhout. Our lonG conversations over shared interests influenced my ideas and kept me motivated to continue my work. I am also thankful to my older brothers, Behdad and Babak, who I could always count on to protect me while nurturinG my independence. To Behdad I am especially Grateful for his Generosity and for giving me a sense of security. To Sanna, my partner in everythinG, I owe so much for bearinG the brunt of my anxieties and somehow findinG a way to put me at ease. But it is to my parents that I owe the most. They always emphasized the value of an education and made it clear that they would go to any length to ensure that I had every opportunity possible. I admired my father’s erudition as a child and will be forever indebted to him for sparkinG my interest in world affairs and Iran’s vast history. It is hard to express my Gratitude towards my mother, for without her resolute devotion to her children I am certain I would not be writinG these words today. ThrouGh all the many upheavals that life produced, my mother’s determination never wavered. She was a role model for inteGrity and perseverance. She is not the stronGest woman I know, but the stronGest person. Thank you both for the life you have Given me, I will always strive to make you proud. vii CURRICULUM VITAE Assal Rad 2005 B.A in PsycholoGy University of California, Irvine 2006-08 M.A.