Genre Shift and Identity Maintenance – An Analysis of Iranian Genres )1980_2013( with Niklas Luhmann’s Social Systems Theory

Golnaz Sarkar Farshi*

Received: 2018/01/15 Accepted: 2018/08/11

Abstract A close observation of -Iraq war films in the Iranian society reveals that their genres have shifted in the course of the society’s evolution. This questions the category-based principles of genre we have known so far in literature concerning film theory and necessitates a new conceptualization of genre, which can be realized with the aid of Niklas Luhmann’s social systems theory. This theory abandons categorization in favor of functional differentiation and helps us observe Iranian war movies in their societal context. By taking a close look at the function of film in the society as one of the mass media, and through locating the concepts of memory, reality, identity and genre in Luhmann’s theory, I shall find a pattern in the mentioned genre shift which is in turn punctuated by the Iranian society’s different stages of evolution. To do so, I shall rely on a qualitative, analytical and critical method.

Keywords: film genre, identity, Iran-Iraq war, Niklas Luhmann, social systems theory, war film

*. PhD student of Media Philosophy, Bauhaus-University Weimar. Email: [email protected]...... Genre Shift and Identity Maintenance – An Analysis of

Introduction within scientific jargon. The outcome of these The 8-year war between Iran and Iraq endeavors was to attribute a film’s genre was, like any war in any society, post factum to its formal qualities (western), its themes widely reflected on in the Iranian mass media: and motifs (war film, apocalyptic film), its from the TV documentary series Ravāyat-e main characters (doctor films, detective Fath1 to epics which illustrated the prowess of films) among other qualities. However, these Iranian soldiers who were fighting for the sake principles of genre are still not informative of Shia Islam and in favor of protecting the enough despite their diversity. For example, still young “Islamic Revolution”. The close considering a genre as “war film” is not helpful observer can however trace a shift of war in a case like ours because all of the films film genres in different stages of the Iranian mentioned above thematize the 8-year war, society’s evolution after the war. The late whereas they perform totally different social 1980s and almost the entire 1990s witnessed functions. It is here that Niklas Luhmann’s films in which the movie camera did not roam social systemic theories of art and mass at the war front any more, but rather behind media can open up distinct ways of looking the front, observing stories starring children2, at the question of genre, not as classification questions of nationality and identity3, but rather as functional differentiation. prisoners of war and missing soldiers4 and the Furthermore, Luhmanns theory can contribute social problems of war veterans5. to finding answers to the following questions: It is implicit in the above observations that - Why is the Iranian society still reflecting 57 the element-based or theme-based principles on a war which it experienced 39 years ago of genre which we have known by now do through the medium of film?7 not come in handy in such a treatment of - What socio-evolutional shifts have led to motion pictures. As opposed to the definition the change of war film genres in the Iranian of genre in literary theory by philosophers society? and literary theorists such as Northrop Frye I shall answer the above questions and G.W.F. Hegel6 – who lived with enough in a qualitative, analytical and critical historical distance to different literary genres argumentation. In order to make my position on the one hand and were armed with apt and discussions more clear I shall focus on theoretical tools on the other to be able to concrete examples of each genre as well as the develop solid, all-encompassing theories genre shifts mentioned, and I will try to explain of literary genre – the term “genre” in texts the latter with the aid of Luhmann’s social about film was first applied by film critics and systems theory. This analysis presupposes a journalists contemporary to the conception concise critical reading of Luhmann’s theories and development of the motion picture. of art and mass media, which make way for Film theorists only arrived on the scene to developing a Luhmannian theory of film. take genre as their research subject when the multitude of different concepts of the term What is film and what are its genres? were already too widespread to be rethought. Doubtlessly, Niklas Luhmann views film They were confronted with an already- as one of the mass media, which he considers existing term which now had to be regularized a social system with its specific function. For Quarterly Seventh Year, No. 29 Winter 2019 ......

him, the mass media are all of the arrangements of by the Polity subsystem) and art films in a society, (which belong to the subsystem of Art) among “which are at the service of many others. To close this gap, we should disseminating information through approach film from another angle of social technical means of duplication. In systems theory, starting with the notions of the first place books, magazines and communication media and codes. newspapers come to mind which are In his communication theory, Luhmann products of the printing press; but enumerates three different problems or we can also think of photographic or improbabilities10 on the way of communication. electronic copying processes of any These are: kind, as long as they create products - the improbability of communicating at in massive numbers and with unknown all; addressees.”8 (Luhmann 1996, 10) - the improbability of reaching the The fact that movies are made only once addressees, since it is not always possible for and then hundreds and sometimes millions of both communication parties to be present at their copies are perceived by addressees out the same place at the same time; and of the director’s reach shows that the motion - the improbability of the success (i.e. pictures fit within Luhmann’s definition of acceptance) of communication. the mass media. The paradox in his theory is Societies develop specialized solutions 58 faced then, when he considers information/ to these problems. The first improbability is not-information to be the symbolically overcome with the emergence of language. generalized medium of communication9 The second is removed thanks to the invention specific to the system of mass media, and then of mass dissemination media. The first of he attributes three distinct programs to this these is the written language, which makes code, namely news/reports, advertisement the writing of letters possible and which is and entertainment. (ibid: 51) Obviously, in further developed following the emergence making this statement which serves as the of the printing press. Telegraph, telephone foundation of his entire theory of mass media, and fax are other forms of mass dissemination Luhmann is only thinking of TV and radio media. But the final problem is specific to programs and newspapers. Hence he loses social systems. Let us clarify this problem and sight of all other mass media such as books the solution to it with an example. Suppose or movies – each of which in turn embrace a you are walking along the street. You are very wide range of forms and subjects and perform hungry but you have left your wallet at home. vastly diverse functions. Of course there are You come across a bakery. What keeps you films which have been merely made for the from helping yourself to the freshly-baked sake of entertainment, and the existence of breads and just walking away? This is the informative and advertising films cannot be most likely thing one would do if only one’s denied. But Luhmann fails to take note of physiology were concerned. But one refrains pedagogic films (which are made/consumed from doing it, which is an improbable reaction, by the Education subsystem of society), because the Law designates this act as rubbery propaganda films (which are taken advantage and punishes it. Furthermore, one’s Moral or ...... Genre Shift and Identity Maintenance – An Analysis of

Religious upbringing have taught them that to attribute them to other systems, for stealing is bad. Law, Morality, Religion: instance to the Economy system or to these are three different social subsystems, a (difficult to identify) system of “free each of which functions with a symbolically time” consumption.” (ibid: 126-27) generalized medium of communication and a I want to set this assumption as my starting binary code, which make a certain improbable point, and from there try to formulate a new communication likely to happen. The Law definition for film. I shall start my investigation system’s code is lawful/unlawful, with those from the hypothesis that the mass media do of Morality and Religion being right/wrong not count as a social system (which would and good/evil respectively. Each side of these necessitate the assignment a unified success codes is valued as either negative of positive, code and specific programs to them), but they and it is the positive side, which is also the are rather mass dissemination media which improbable side, for which each subsystem are taken advantage of, among others, by Art strives.11 and Entertainment social subsystems. Luhmann’s definition of the system of mass media is highly controversial. I argue that the Film: Art and/or Entertainment? programs of the mass media cannot be reduced Luhmann defines the function of art as to entertainment, advertisement and news/ follows: reports. Furthermore, the code information/ “through art, new possibilities of the not/information is too general to embrace the acoustic and optic world are discovered 59 complexity of communications of the mass and are made available, and the result media. But then the question would be: how is: when looking for [problem] solution can entertainment, news and advertisement strategies, more possible world orders be understood within Luhmann’s theory can be gained than what the world without a system of mass media? What if [without art] would put at our disposal.” we hypothesized that they belong to other (ibid,1986: 9) social subsystems? That is to suppose that In that sense, Art generally elevates advertisement belongs to the Economy the societal system’s level of creativity in system, news to a supposed subsystem of communication by proposing “alternative “Information”, and that Entertainment were realities”. For Dirk Baecker, Art offers an an autonomous subsystem in itself. Luhmann alternative means of communication to does not negate the latter hypothesis. In the three communication media explained rejecting the idea of considering the mass above. (Baecker 1996, 82-83) A thorough media simply as technical dissemination discussion regarding the function, creation media at the service of the communicative and reception of Art requires a separate paper. operations of other subsystems, he adds that, Let us content ourselves with the function and “there are such considerations communication code of the Art system which for the news sector [namely that the we have at hand, and move on from here to news be an autonomous system]. But Entertainment which is, as per my hypothesis then advertisement and entertainment also a social system. remain left over, and one shall have I propose the code interesting/boring for Quarterly Seventh Year, No. 29 Winter 2019 ......

the Entertainment system, with its function border between Art and Entertainment being, as mentioned above, the passing of time becomes very fragile. How is it possible to which would otherwise have no “meaning”12. distinguish the two, when consciousness As Luhmann puts it, alters from Ego to Ego13? This refers us back “entertainment has an amplifying to the Kantian problem of the subjectivity effect on the knowledge already at of aesthetics14, without his answer being hand. But it is not aimed at instructing, satisfactory enough for the present argument as the news and reports do. It rather because here we are dealing with societal and uses the already available knowledge to not with consciousness systems. It would also silhouette itself against it. Entertainment be highly problematic to thematize motion aims [...] at activating what one has pictures (or more generally films) since they experienced, hoped, feared, forgotten are in our assumption a communication – as the oral myths once did. […] medium to which no social functions can Entertainment re-impregnates what be attributed. No consensus can be reached one already is without it.” (Luhmann, upon whether a certain film is purely artistic 1996:108-109) or merely entertaining. It is nevertheless Entertainment alters the audience’s possible to attribute common functions to existing life and value balance and their Art and Entertainment systems which in familiar routines in the beginning, but turn enable their structural coupling.15 60 relieves them in the end by reassuring them To unfold these functions presupposes that everything is as it used to be – be it in a discussing concepts of memory and Hollywood romance or in an amusement park, reality. or in returning “back home” after a concert or a football match. Memory and Reality Here the question of the difference It is important to note that Luhmann does between Art and Entertainment is brought not theorize the memory of a society as a up: apparently an eternal question with yet storage which safeguards all the information no satisfactory answers. However, Baecker about which the society has communicated proposes an answer which is very compatible and constantly remembers that information, with generally-confirmed observations of the but rather it is a mechanism of forgetting! two systems: The reason is that the society always needs “This is […] what differentiates to free its communication capacities for new literature, and art generally, from operations. Otherwise it would have no future. entertainment: in entertainment Remembrance only then takes place, “when experiences of the identity of the current operations offer an opportunity communication and consciousness for repetition, for “re-impregnation” of are staged, but in art, on the contrary, the freed capacity.” (Luhmann 1996, 180) experiences of the difference between Paradoxical as this statement might sound at them.” (Baecker 1996, 101) (Emphases the first glance, it can be confirmed byour added) common experience as psychic systems or If we accept this explanation, then the consciousnesses. Luhmann brings the example ...... Genre Shift and Identity Maintenance – An Analysis of

of a host, serving a drink to their guests. The (ibid: 19) host fills the glasses without ever thinking that It can be concluded from the above the glasses per se are unknown objects which statement that there exist multiple realities only exist as a subjective composition. We within the internal environment of a society, see it rather this way: when there are guests each generated by a different social subsystem. and when there is a drink, then there are also And it is very much possible that these realities glasses. (ibid: 162-63) In other words, after enter into conflict with each other. At their the information about glasses was processed acutest, system conflicts can turn into crises, once by consciousness, it needs not be called which implies that the system can only solve upon every time they are confronted, but them with a change of its structures. rather it can be forgotten. Among the mentioned realities, we can Thus the significant role of memory in now point out those constructed by the the evolution of a society is emphasized. systems of Art and Entertainment. Returning Thanks to its leaving behind the earlier to fashions of a societal system’s relating to conflict managements, a society can, in its time, I would like to sketch an adjunction communicative operations, always create to Luhmann’s theory founded on the past/ free space for new and more complex future dichotomy. If, according to Baecker, communication, thereby reaching higher Entertainment is based on the identity of stages of evolution. Furthermore, memory current information in communication with functions as a control mechanism for earlier experience, then we can assume that 61 ensuring the consistency of the system. For Entertainment in principle relies on memory its observational operations, the system as its information reservoir, while Art either needs a two-way orientation in time: memory manages to communicate new information or (which targets the past) on the one hand, and to present the information already available an open future on the other in which chances in memory in a defamiliarized way, in order of shifting between the two sides of any for the Ego to rethink, criticize, and revise the difference are contingent16. In order to assure past in favor of the future. It is noteworthy the availability of that future, the system that I do not claim this time-relation to be a should always check if its current operations principle of aesthetics, which is in turn the are consistent by comparing them to contents program17 specific to the communication of its memory. Every time this consistency code of Art, namely beautiful/ugly; it rather is approved, reality is constructed within the addresses the social function of the systems system. In Luhmann’s words, in question: while one functions to stabilize “reality is nothing more than the and “re-load” the society’s memory, the indicator of a successful examination other directs attention towards the future of consistence within the system. and the necessity of evolution by offering Reality is processed, within the system, alternative information and/or utterances for through sense-making. It occurs when communication. inconsistencies which can emerge due With these alleged functions, it becomes to the involvement of memory in the clear how each of the mentioned systems system operations are solved […].” constructs reality: entertaining reality Quarterly Seventh Year, No. 29 Winter 2019 ......

reassures the society that the state of the illusion” (ibid: 14) as opposed to reality in the affairs is unchanged and even if the society common sense. is experiencing conflicts, they are soluble just Having introduced a rough sketch of a like the conflicts which were experienced in proposed Luhmannian theory of motion the past. It guarantees that the familiar order pictures, I can finally set out to cast a systems of things still exists or will soon be retained theoretical glance at the genre shifts of the again. Artistic reality, on the other hand, Iranian war cinema. invites the society to proceed towards the unknown future and to cast a new, critical The question of identity and the glance at its memory to avoid recession. In evolution of Iranian war cinema this sense, films as mass dissemination media In order to identify itself, a society should are simultaneously coded by both Art and be able to perform a second-order observation 18 Entertainment social subsystems . Thus, of its own operations through the re-entry of its the social function of film, like any other differentiation from the external environment communication medium commonly used by into its internal environment.19 According Art and Entertainment, is to construct a unit of to Luhmann, “in the context of a theory of reality with reference to time. The difference autopoietic systems, identity marks a form between film and other media like the novel that is secured by the continuity of operations in this respect is that the perception of reality in a system; that is, through differentiating 62 in the movie theater is the closest to the between identical/not-identical.” (Luhmann experience of life-world reality, hence making 1990, 21) In other words, identity is obtained cinematographic communication more likely continuously by the system as it checks the to be accepted. compatibility of its current state of operations It is important to draw a distinction to the previous ones which are “remembered” between this statement and the prescriptive by the memory. theories of realists like André Bazin and Armed with this notion of identity, Siegfried Kracauer. Their theories of film were let us consider the Iranian society after based on a pessimism which resulted from the the 1979 revolution. This is a new-born experience of Fascism and Nazism in Europe, societal system which differentiated itself which were ideologically amplified through from the environment based on the friend/ propaganda films within Italian and German foe dichotomy through its communicative societies. Let me emphasize again that when operations.20 Its identity, that is its reassurance I speak of reality in the context of Luhmann’s that its borders are safe and that it can operate theory, it is not a claim on the conformity of consistently, is secured through the recurrent reality constructed by film with the “real” or generation and observation of the same the everyday reality, but rather this reality is differentiation principle.21 This presupposes a construct of Art and Entertainment in their a constant return to the society’s memory of structural coupling in the medium film with its early moments of differentiation. For the regard to the notions of societal time and Iranian society, the friend/foe dichotomy was memory. As Luhmann puts it, the mass media symbolized by the eight-year war with Iraq. create, in the Kantian sense, “a transcendental This clarifies the repeated thematization of the ...... Genre Shift and Identity Maintenance – An Analysis of war in the Iranian cinema from 1980 to 2013, concluded that a specific work of literature but it fails to explain the change of genres (which I would like to call level 5 in this which the war films have demonstrated. To specific medium/form succession) is a form understand this diversity, the concepts of of the medium of genre (level 4), which is in medium/form will come in handy. turn a form of the medium of literary modes Luhmann defines medium as a set of (level 3), which are forms of the medium of loosely-coupled elements, out of which “literary utterance” (level 2), which is itself numerous tight couplings are possible.22 Forms a form out of the medium of language (level can always serve as media for the formation 1). The same structural principle applies to of further forms, and this succession goes on fiction film. It is true that fiction film takes permanently. The best way to understand this advantage of a wider variety of media in level is through an example: The English alphabet 1, but these sonar and visual media only make with its 26 signs serves as a medium for the the levels 1 and 2 richer at the service of the formation of English words. These words construction of “more real” diegetic forms. in turn function as medium for language as Genres are distinguishable not only form, which is in turn a medium for literature structurally, but also with reference to and so on. This is our link to the subject of their social function. These functions are genres, because they can be understood as determined based on the type of social a certain stage in a chain of medium/form “conflict” each genre chooses to communicate developments. about. According to Rahnama (1998), these 63 In his poetics, Aristotle assumes that conflicts are: every tragedy is necessarily composed of - Epic: the conflict of the societal system “plot, character, diction, thought, spectacle (right) with its environment (wrong); and song”23. Bakhtin, in turn, introduces the - Drama: the conflict of one social concept of chronotope or “time space” which subsystem (right) with another (which is also implies the intrinsic connection of time and right in its own terms); space in a work of literature.24 I would like - Lyric: the conflict of one system with to conclude from the above statements that itself, that is, the conflict of right as wrong “literary utterance25” is a medium composed of with wrong as right; specific elements which serve as the foundation - Novel: which is the synthesis of all of the for the formation of numerous forms, namely above. works of literature. These elements, which are In epic, the hero is not introduced as an loosely-coupled before any work of literature individual with personal interests, but rather is created out of their tight coupling, are: as the representative of a society which is narration, characterization, chronotope, and still in its early stages of differentiation from themes and motifs. It is out of this medium that the environment. The epic hero is destined literary modes as forms emerge. According to to secure social demarcations. Drama, on the Bakhtin, literary modes may be conceived of other hand, engages with conflicts which occur as potentially containing all genres available between two or more hierarchical groups (in at their time26, or in systems-theoretical terms, stratified societies) or subsystems (as they as media for genres to be forms. So it can be are in the early stages of differentiating and Quarterly Seventh Year, No. 29 Winter 2019 ......

defining themselves). For example, Antigone example is Neynava (Rasoul Mollagholipour, represents the conflict between the subsystems 1983) which narrates the story of two of Religion and Polity, or Macbeth that wounded soldiers who, despite their severe between Polity and Morality. Rahnama injuries, keep the enemy back at the frontline. suggests a very interesting function for lyric A close look at other contemporary movies to literature: In order to be able to observe itself, the war makes the attribution of the epic genre each social subsystem needs to imagine to these movies more plausible. These include itself outside of itself, observing itself as if it A Voice from Beyond (Saeed Hajimiri, belonged at the same time to its environment. 1984), A Boat towards the Riverbank In such a state of affairs, the literary subsystem (Rasoul Mollagholipour, 1986), Kani-Manga of ART maintains its own beautiful/ugly code (Seifollah Dad, 1987), Man and Weapon while reversing the codes of other subsystems (Mojtaba Raie, 1989). in its observations of the state of the society. As already pointed out, a common point in This is how the conflict of right (as wrong) the characterization of the epic genre is that with wrong (as right) occurs.27 Finally, the its protagonists embody less of personal traits novel can be understood as the synthesis of all and more of the virtues of a national hero. of the above mentioned genres, with the added Coupled as the friend/foe dichotomy is for characteristic that it also thematizes conflicts the Iranian society with the code of Religion between consciousness systems besides social good/evil, protagonists of epic war movies are 64 systems. As a result of the novelization of the perfect examples of mystical beliefs on the earlier genres, they can also tend to conflicts one hand and bravery and selflessness for the between psychic systems.28 protection of their homeland (geographical Returning to the subject of film, a major borders) and the young “Islamic revolution” number of Iranian war movies made between (functional differentiation of the Iranian 1980 and 1988 – that is, synchronously to the society) on the other. This coupling of the war – manifest elements of the epic genre. communication codes of Religion and Polity The theme of conflict between right (the is best manifest in war films with allegories Iranian society) and wrong (the Iraqi society to epic reproductions of the battle of Karbala, which was supported by the European and based on which Imam Hussein and his 72 American governments of the time against accompanying soldiers were martyred in 680 Iran) is not only present, but also illustrated AD. A good example of these films is Flying with the chronotpe being the war front at at Night (Rasoul Mollagholipour, 1986). the borders of Iran and Iraq. One successful By the end of the war, the Iranian society example of epic war movies is The Eagles faces a dilemma in its communications. (Samuel Khachikian, 1984) which not only On the one hand, the society’s identity is depicts the battles of the Iranian society to based on a dichotomy strongly symbolized protect its borders from Iraqi invaders, but by the war. On the other hand, when the also shows how the Kurds (who were leading war is not current anymore, it would be a civil war at the time for their independence evolution-hindering to busy the society’s as a state) cooperate with the combatants to communication capacity with memories of save an Iranian pilot. (Image 1) Another good war, hence leaving no space for operations ...... Genre Shift and Identity Maintenance – An Analysis of which target the future. To solve this problem, future), Davoud (representing the grasp of the the society should take one step further in society on its past) and Jom’e (), its course of evolution, which also manifests an Afghan man who guards the tank graveyard itself in Art and Entertainment systems. War (and who symbolizes a reasonable, sometimes films of this era rely on new modes and genres economical approach to the affairs). Jom’e which embrace contemporary themes. The lives in the nick of time, in the very present Glass Agency (, 1998) moment, without any attachment to the past is a drama concerning the conflicts of war or future, perhaps because he is not a member veterans who are still struggling with the of the Iranian society and therefore does not physical and psychic aftermath of war, and the relate to it temporally. (Image 3) authorities who are enjoying order and safety In these movies, the war plays a in the society, having forgotten the heroes background role and functions not as the main who have actually made this state of relief theme any more, but only as the cause of the possible. This conflict is representative of that conflicts which emerge in the Iranian society. of the society with its put-behind memory of Examples of dramatic Iranian war films are war which was constantly refreshed for eight galore. Among them are the following films successive years and then “forgotten” for the and the intra-social conflicts about which sake of increasing social complexity. This they communicate: Bashu, the Little Stranger movie can be considered the statement of the (Bahram Beizai, 1989) with the conflict Iranian society’s anxiety about the loss of its between different Iranian ethnicities which 65 principle of differentiation. (Image 2) Another noteworthy film of this genre by Hatamikia is (1999). His cinema knows by now that nostalgic communication about the epic past stops short of making any contribution to social evolution. So it moves on to narrate a return story, in which the event of war belongs to the diegetic past but the story is unfolded in a former war front. The Red Ribbon stars Davoud () who has been demining the desert ever since the end of the war when Mahboubeh (Azita Hajian) returns to the area, determined to reside in the ruins which used to be her home prior to the war. The film ends with the spouting of a spring amidst the dry desert, which signifies hope for the future. Like , this movie too complies with principles of drama in presenting the conflict between

Mahboubeh (representing hope for the Image 1. The Eagles, film poster (www.sourehcinema.com) Quarterly Seventh Year, No. 29 Winter 2019 ......

encounter each other because of the war (image (Image 5) 4); Snake Fang (Masud Kimiai, 1990) which As the mentioned examples among many casts a look on the conflict between morality other war films made since 1980 demonstrate, and financial profit that is embedded in the there has been a shift of genres from epic to economic hardships of the post-war Iranian drama and lyric. The reason for this genre society; In the Alleys of Love (Khosrow shift seems to be the change of the Iranian Sinai, 1991) which unfolds the inner conflicts society’s attitude towards its primary principle of a homecoming war refugee; Kimia of differentiation. As soon as communication (Ahmadreza Darvish, 1995) which thematizes can no longer offer new information, or as the legal question of the right to parenthood; soon as the repetition of information that is Trip to Chazabeh (Rasoul Mollagholipour, analogous with former experience becomes 1995) which thematizes the society’s conflict functionless, the communication process is between its memory including the war and its deprived of meaning. The above examples evolution-oriented temporal tendencies. The show that it suffices to maintain at least one of latter tries to relieve the society by ensuring the war-related elements of literary utterance29 it that the war, hence the differentiation to make communication about the war principle to which it contributed, will never possible – be it a soldier, a war veteran, the be forgotten. chronotope of war, etc. With such an abundant The last epoch I would like to examine reservoir of Iran-Iraq war films, it would be 66 from this theoretical point of view is the 21st very difficult to produce further meaningful century war , which has made way for the emergence of two specific approaches in its few but still existing war films. In Che (2013), Hatamikia both relies on new means of utterance, namely digital special effect, and shifts to a new genre for telling a story of the war time again. He thematizes a lyrical conflict faced by (Fariborz Image 2. The Glass Agency (www.sourehcinema.ir) Arabnia) who has been sent to Paveh to end the civil war between the separatist Kurds and the revolutionary communication about war within the genres guards. He tries to solve the conflict through epic, drama and lyric. Masoud Dehnamaki’s dialogue, since he cannot resolve to open fire trilogy Deportees (2007, 2009, 2011) is a on the rebel Kurds who are on the one hand witness to the fact that thematizing the war endangering the consistency of the society, in our times without a shift of genre would but are also his compatriots on the other. end up in a merely-entertaining work (if at all) ...... Genre Shift and Identity Maintenance – An Analysis of that cannot surpass the level of modes (being advertisement and entertainment. I proposed romance and comedy in this case) and hence to consider an Entertainment subsystem fails to perform any social function. Now in (modern) societal systems to argue how the only genre left unexperienced here is the film functions as a common communication novel. But the emergence of novelized war medium between Art and Entertainment at films in the Iranian society is very improbable the service of creating reality. The temporal as long as the social subsystem of Polity orientation of this reality in each movie claims an exclusive right to communication depends on which one of these subsystems, about the society’s principle of differentiation, Art or Entertainment, plays a stronger role hence making it impossible to thematize the in the formation of that movie. I based this strongest symbol of this differentiation from thesis on the assumption that in their reality- an individual point of view.30 constructing communicative operations, Art tends towards the future by exploring Conclusion new information and means of utterance for My starting point in this analysis was communication, whereas Entertainment relies the question: why have Iranian war film on the society’s memory as its information genres changed in the course of the Iranian supply. society’s evolution since 1980? To answer this Having conceptualized the function of film question, I first questioned the term genre as it in a society, I set out to establish the concept is used in existing film-theoretical discourses. of film genres in a model originally derived 67 I resorted to Niklas Luhmann’s social systems from literary genre theory. In this model, genre theory because I found the existing, category- is a stage in the medium/form succession: based theories of genre dysfunctional. The language → literary utterance →literary advantage of Luhmann’s theory is that is modes → literary genres → a specific work relies on functional differentiation instead of of literature. I ventured to find a functional categorization, and hence operates at a meta- definition of film genres based on the sort of level of theoretical enquiry conflict about which they communicate, and which offers possibilities of context-based analysis. Casting a critical view on Luhmann’s theory of mass media, I demonstrated how these media cannot function as a social system if we, legitimately, include films or books within them. So I explored the theoretical body at hand for possibilities of the inclusion of the programs ascribed to the mass media, namely news/reports, Image 3. The Red Ribbon (http://avinyfilm.ir) Quarterly Seventh Year, No. 29 Winter 2019 ......

communications made by and within the society in its different phases of evolution. This inquiry could be, and should be, complemented with further elaboration on the social function and sociological conceptualization of Art and Entertainment. More specifically, Entertainment has received very little attention in Luhmann’s theory and in other social theores. It has been less understood as an abstract philosophical concept than it has been observed in its concrete forms in specific societies and as a subset of culture. I hope that this, together with the Image 4. Bashu, the Little Stranger (http://www.dreamlabfilms.com) still open conceptualization of film genres in social systems theory, serves scholars

showed how these conflicts have successively emerged in the course of the Iranian society’s reference 68 to its memories of war, resulting in the formation of the war film genres epic, dramatic and lyric. I then mentioned examples of Iranian war movies made in different genres during the different phases of the Iranian society’s evolution. (Table 1) I consequently suggested reasons for why it is not possible for the Iranian society to reflect on the war in a novelized film due to its principle Image 5. Che (http://www.whatsupiran.com) of differentiation from the environment. This paper does not at all claim that films in cultural studies, film studies, philosophy of made in a specific phase of evolution in a art and sociology as an anchor point for their society are solely confined to the genres further critical and analytical contributions. that were mentioned here. Surely there are always exceptions to this principle. What this text would rather like to suggest is, that the quantity of certain film genres is higher at specific stages of evolution in societies with specific principles of identity. This also applies to other artistic and entertaining ...... Genre Shift and Identity Maintenance – An Analysis of

Name of the movie Name of the director Production year

Neynava Rasoul Mollagholipour 1983 The Eagles Samuel Khachikian 1984 A Voice from Beyond Saeed Hajimiri 1984 Flying at Night Rasoul Mollagholipour 1986 A Boat towards the Riv- Rasoul Mollagholipour 1986 erbank Kani-Manga Seifollah Dad 1987

Bashu, the Little Stranger Bahram Beizai 1989 Snake Fang Masud Kimiai 1990 In the Alleys of Love 1991 Kimia Ahmadreza Darvish 1995 Trip to Chazabeh Rasoul Mollagholipour 1995 The Glass Agency Ebrahim Hatamikia 1998 The Red Ribbon Ebrahim Hatamikia 1999

Che Ebrahim Hatamikia 2013 69 Table 1. Notable war movies produced in the Iranian society and their genres

Endotes 25-34); also (Luhmann 1976, 61). 1. Moreteza Avini, 1986-1988. 10. Unwahrscheinlichkeiten 2. Adults’ Game, , 1992. 11. According to Jahraus, “in order for a 3. Bashu, the Little Stranger, Bahram Beizai, system to be able to differentiate itself, in 1989. order for it to be able to distinguish itself 4. Scent of Yousef’s Shirt, Ebrahim Hatamikia, from its environment, it needs an operative 1995. and operational criterium of differentiation, 5. The Glass Agency, Ebrahim Hatamikia, which it can handle as an indicating 1998. difference. Luhmann calls this indicating 6. See for example (Frye, Anatomy of difference the code of the system in question. Criticism 1973), (Frye, The Secular Scripture, He relies on a strict binary schema and an A Study of the Structure of Romance 1976) asymmetry between a positive and a negative and (Roche 2005). value.” (Jahraus 2012, 238-39). For further 7. With the latest instances being Che information on communication media see (Ebrahim Hatamikia, 2013) and the trilogy (Luhmann 1987, 217-222). Deportees (Masoud Dehnamaki, 2007, 2009, 12. For a more elaborate definition of meaning 2011). in Luhmann’s theory see (Kirchmeier 2012). 8. All translations from German to English are 13. The Luhmannian “Ego” can be equalled mine. to the “addressee of communication” in 9. For a definition of symbolically generalized the formalists’ sense. In Talcott Parson’s media of communication see (Luhmann 1981, communication model which was adopted Quarterly Seventh Year, No. 29 Winter 2019 ......

by Luhmann, communication is the synthesis sense (Spencer-Brown 1972) that is, drawing of three successive selections – namely a distinction between the object of observation information, utterance and understanding – and everything else which it is not. When which takes place between Alter and Ego. performing an observation, a system cannot For compact information on the concept of observe itself unless through an act of “re- communication in social systems theory see entry”, which means that the system enters (Baecker 2012). its own differentiation from the environment 14. See (Kant 2014). back into its communicative operations, as 15. For a deliberate explanation of structural if it were an external observer, observing its coupling, see (Luhmann 1997, 92-119). own observation. In this sense, its observation 16. For example the Newtonian physics of its own operations is considered a second- provided a program for coding further order observation. statements in physics with true/false – which 20. Every society which goes through is the binary communication code of Science. a revolution or any other overthrow of The existence of a future equals considering structures such as a war needs to develop a the contingency of the alteration of these new principle of differentiation from the code values in the present time. And this environment. Another example of a changed actually was the case when Einstein’s theory principle of identity is the post-Second World of relativity changed the selections which the War German society which had to abandon its 70 Science system would make regarding the race-based way of identification after losing trueness/falseness of its communications. the war and the subsequent crises it had to 17. While the code assures the operative closure endure. of the system, programs are responsible for its 21. The friend/foe principle is not the only openness. Programs make it possible to decide principle of differentiation accessible to for one or the other side of a binary code. For societal systems. Each societal system example theories as programs in the system of develops, based on the context in which it Science help us assign any statement to one of differentiates itself from its environment, the sides of the code true/false. different principles of identification and these 18. And here I am solely thematizing fiction principles reappear in the society’s cultural films. Otherwise, it goes without saying that communications over and over again. purely artistic films like the avant-garde works 22. See (Luhmann 1986). of Hans Richter, Maya Deren, Luis Buñuel 23. See (Aristotle 2000). and the likes have existed and do exist, not 24. See (Bakhtin 1981). to mention the merely entertaining box-office 25. Again, utterance is meant here in the sense Hollywood productions. of the Parsonian communication model, i.e. 19. Put roughly, social systems differentiate the synthesis of information, utterance and themselves from their environment through understanding. a border which is nothing more than their 26. See (Bakhtin 1981). specified communicative operations. Luhmann 27. See (Rahnama 1998, 84f.). calls this operative closure. Observation, in 28. Ibsen’s plays are a convenient example of its turn, is a form in Georg Spencer-Brown’s novelized drama. 29. or should we rename this medium ...... Genre Shift and Identity Maintenance – An Analysis of cinematographic utterance in favor of the Suhrkamp. present study? Kirchmeier, Christian. (2012). “Sinn.” 30. Which is understandable given the fact that In Luhmann Handbuch: Leben-Werk- the society cannot risk making its principle Wirkung, edited by Armin Nassehi, Mario of differentiation from the environment Grizelj, Irmhild Saake, Christian Kirchmaier available to polyphonic, hence novelized, und Julian Müller Oliver Jahraus, 117-119. interpretation. This shall not happen until the Weimar: Verlag J.B.Metzler. society has assured a secure consistency of its Luhmann, Niklas. (1986). “Das Medium operations and an unconditional functionality der Kunst.” Delfin 7: 6-15. of its principle of identity. ______. (1997). Die Gesellschaft der Gesellschaft. Vol. 1. Frankfurt am Main: References Suhrkamp. Aristotle. (2000). The Poetics of Aristotle. ______(1996). Die Realität der Translated by S.H. Butcher. Pennsylvania: Massenmedien. 2. Opladen: Westdeutscher The Pennsylvania State University. Verlag. Baecker, Dirk. (1996). “Die Adresse der ______(1976). “Ist Kunst kodierbar?” In Kunst.” In Systemtheorie der Literatur, edited “Schön”: Zur Diskussion eines umstrittenen by Harro Müller Jürgen Fohrmann, 82 ff. Begriffs, edited by Siegfried J. Schmidt, 60- München: Fink. 95. München: Wilhelm Fink Verlag. ______(2012). “Systemtheorie als ______. (1987). Soziale Systeme: Kommunikation.” In Luhmann Handbuch: Grungriß einer allgemeinen Theorie. Frankfurt 71 Leben-Werk-Wirkung, edited by Armin am Main: Suhrkamp. Nassehi, Mario Grizelj, Irmhild Saake, ______. (1981). Soziologische Christian Kirchmaier und Julian Müller Oliver Aufklärung 3 - Soziales System, Gesellschaft, Jahraus, 52-57. Weimar: Verlag J.B.Metzler. Organisation. Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag. Bakhtin, M.M. (1981). The Dialogic ______. (1990). Soziologische Imagination. Translated by Caryl Eerson and Aufklärung 5 - Konstruktivistische Michael Holquist. Austin: University of Texas Perspektiven. Opladen: Westdeutschter Press. Verlag. Frye, Northrop. (1973). Anatomy of Rahnama, Hooshang. 1998. Persian Criticism. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Lyric Poetry: Systems Approach, a Study in Press. Generic Criticism. Pennsylvania: University ______. (1976). The Secular Scripture, of Pennsylvania. A Study of the Structure of Romance. Roche, Mark W. (2005). “The Greatness Massachusetts: Harvard Universtiy Press. and Limits of Hegel’s Theory of Tragedy.” In Jahraus, Oliver. 2012. “Die Kunst der A Companion to, edited by Rebecca Bushnell, Gesellschaft (1995).” In Luhmann Handbuch: 51-67. Oxford: Blackwell. Leben-Werk-Wirkung, edited by Armin Spencer-Brown, Georg. (1972). Laws of Nassehi, Mario Grizelj, Irmhild Saake, Form. New York: The Julian Press, INC. Christian Kirchmaier, Julian Müller Oliver Jahraus, 236-241. Weimar: Verlag J. B. Metzler. Kant, Immanuel. (2014). Kritik der Urteilskraft. 21. Frankfurt am Main: