Proposed Strategy for Decreasing the Illegal Logging and Trade of Rosewood (Dalbergia spp.)

Capstone Project

By Zijing Lyu

Supervisor: Prof. Sally Krigstin

Submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Mater of Forest Conservation

Daniel’s Faculty University of Toronto

© Copyright by Zijing Lyu, January 2021

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Proposed Strategy for Decreasing the Illegal Logging and Trade of Rosewood (Dalbergia spp.)

Zijing Lyu Master of Forest Conservation Daniel’s Faculty, University of Toronto

Acknowledgments I would like to thank Prof. Sally Krigstin for her supervision and assistance throughout the MFC program and capstone project. I would also like to thank Isabelle Duchenese for being my external reader and giving my capstone project extra guidance and suggestion. Lastly, I would like to thank Tony Ung for guidance of wood identification and Haolin Wei for helping me complete the xylarium catalog, as the prerequisite for this project.

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Table of Contents 1. Introduction··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ···· 7 1.1 Illegal logging worldwide ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· 7 1.2 Role of rosewood (Dalbergia spp.) ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· 9 1.3 Current status of rosewood ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· 10 1.4 Rosewood anatomy ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· 11 1.5 Illegal logging of rosewood ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· 12 1.6 Literature review ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· 12 1.6.1 Madagascar ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· 12 1.6.2 Brazil ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· 13 1.6.3 Panama ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· 15 1.6.4 China ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· 16 1.7 Objectives ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· 18 2. Methodology ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· 19 2.1 Data collection ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· 19 3. Results ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· 19 3.1 Factors of decreasing rosewood inventory ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· 19 3.1 Rationale for illegal logging ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· 20 3.3 The effects of controlling illegal rosewood logging ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· 20 4. Discussion ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· 23 4.1 Developing local economies ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· 23 4.2 Canada ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· 24 4.3 Brazil ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· 25 4.4 The U.S. ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· 25 4.5 China ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· 26 4.6 Improving timber identification methods ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ···. ··· ··· 26 5. Recommendations ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· 27 7. References ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· 29 8. Appendices ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· 33

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List of Tables Table 1. Top ten countries for average annual net loss of forest area (2010-2020). ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· 14 Table 2. Comparisons of rosewood trade volumes upon CITES designation ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· 22 Table 3. Average volumes of exploited and potential illegally traded rosewood and seizures ··· 23

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List of Figures Figure 1. Brazilian rosewood guitar (back) ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· 15 Figure 2. Seized rosewood (kg), 2005 to 2015. Conversions applied ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ···· ··· ··· 16 Figure 3. Solid rosewood furniture ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· 17 Figure 4. Total value of Chinese imports of rosewood logs ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· 17 Figure 5. China’s rosewood (Dalbergia spp.) log imports by supply region ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· 18 Figure 6. Export/import volume (m3) of rosewood (2010-2018) ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· 21 Figure 7. Unaccounted volume of rosewood exports by Ghana ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· 22

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List of Appendices

Appendix 1. Characteristics of common rosewood (Dalbergia) species ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· 33 Appendix 2. Key identification methods, advantages, and limitations ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· 35

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Abstract The critical importance of forest conservation has become magnified due to the incessant development and exploitation of forest resources. Nevertheless, many tree species remain at the edge of extinction or are becoming extremely rare. The primary focus of this project is rosewood (Dalbergia spp.); the most pervasive negative issues for this species on a global scale relates to illegal logging, where much of the rosewood trade remains unreported (Taylor et al., 2012). The aims of this project include an assessment of the current status of rosewood (Dalbergia spp.), and the development of strategies to reduce its illegal logging. Based on the results, it was found that rosewood species require conservation to maintain/improve global stocks. Illegal logging and international trade persist despite its being banned under CITES regulations. It is suggested that additional research is required to assess overall trends in the rosewood trade. Further thought and negotiation are also warranted toward the establishment, amendment, or integration of prudent legislation against illegal rosewood logging to ensure sustainability. Several recommendations in terms of government, education, technology, and international collaboration will be provided in this paper.

1. Introduction

1.1 Illegal logging worldwide

Forests comprise a precious natural resource that play a critical role in developing economies through the manufacture and trade of wood products to provide building materials, fuel, medicines, and forestry-related jobs, as well as the creation of platforms for economic growth. In some developing countries, forestry has provided a positive impetus for industrialization through the creation of jobs and income opportunities (Bethlehem and Dlomo, 2003). In today’s rapidly developing society, illegal logging has undoubtedly become a huge hindrance in a myriad of ways.

In terms of ecology, illegal logging is one of the causes of deforestation and forest degradation. In Brazil, 44% (46,149 ha) of tropical forests were illegally logged between 2015 and 2016 in Pará, where the most tropical timber is produced in the Brazilian Amazon (Pedro et al., 2018). Not only does the increasingly higher demand for forest products lead to more intense harvesting operations that decrease forest cover; forests are ` 8

also shrinking due agriculture and other land uses (Hoare, 2015). It is estimated that 70% of the deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon is caused via the establishment of farmland for agricultural purposes. However, both types of land conversion have been linked to illegal logging (Boekhout, 2014).

As the major competitor of legal logging, illegal logging drives down the market price of timber and sabotages investments that support decreased impact logging and the execution of no-cutting zones. The system currently used to control timber exploitation in the Amazon is weak; therefore, timber moratoriums may only relieve overharvesting to a certain extent, rather than resolving the problem fundamentally (Pedro et al., 2018). Illegal logging is a serious issue in forestry, which is often associated with deforestation (Tacconi, 2007). In Mexico, illegal logging has become one of the most common triggers of deforestation and degradation (Vidal et al., 2014). In Indonesia, most deforestation is also caused by illegal logging (Schmitz, 2016), and South America has suffered significantly from its effects.

As an attribution to most deforestation in tropical areas, illegal logging has fallen under the radar of criminologists. Many public prosecutors have largely ignored the forestry crimes and rural crimes, preferring to study urban crimes, which has led to a significant deficit in law enforcement as it relates to timber logging and trades (Boekhout, 2014). Besides, the conditions in tropical forests are much more complex than urban regions, with far more difficulties and hazardous. Another important reason of rampant illegal logging in the Brazilian Amazon is due to violence. Loggers and farmers are adept at using guns, or resort to other violent means to threaten or even kill protesting leaders of communities when there are conflicts regarding land use report (Boekhout, 2014).. Collusion between governments and businesses, as well as sophisticated tax fraud schemes associated with illegal logging are common occurrences according to a UNEP/Interpol report (Boekhout, 2014).

Illegal logging is also one of the most severe problems against the economically sustainable development of forestry. Illegal logging results in large revenue losses for society. An estimate from the World Bank in 2004 suggests that approximately USD 10- 15 billion in revenues are lost worldwide every year due to illegal logging. The annual value of the global illegal timber trade according to a 2015 study was set at ~USD 17 billion (Santos et al., 2018). In Brazil, unemployment caused by illegal logging has an ` 9

underlying negative social impact, which has been estimated to be ~1.2 million person- days every year in the Amazon Basin. Illegal logging also reduces worker safety, and those who work under these unstable conditions lack formal workers’ rights and social security taxation. Nevertheless, in Brazil, formal workers’ rights and social security taxation can comprise up to ¾ of the workers’ wages, equivalently (Santos et al., 2018).

Forestry has been recognized as a significant sector not only in economic terms, but also regarding its political aspects. For instance, forests gradually begin to influence foreign policies through their association with trade and environment-related issues. Currently, the relentless anthropogenic extraction of natural resources has led to many irreversible consequences (FAO, 1995). Changes in the quality of forest ecosystems and their protective canopies have emerged as key global environmental concerns as forests are intimately related to climate change and biodiversity. These changes trigger immense pressures on national governments, which compels them to consider forests when it comes to international relations (FAO, 1995). The conservation of endangered tree species such as rosewood and plans to address illegal logging are difficult to establish. Overwhelming bureaucracy is an obstacle toward the implementation of these goals, particularly for poorer countries (Santos et al., 2018).

1.2 Rosewood (Dalbergia spp.)

Rosewood is a valuable timber that typically originates from tropical regions such as Brazil, Honduras, Jamaica, Africa, and India. The Dalbergia genus includes more than 300 species, shrubs, and vines. Common names of rosewood are African blackwood, Kingwood, Tulipwood, Palissanders, and Cocobolos. The Dalbergia species may be found across an extensive range in more than 100 countries, including the tropical regions of Africa, Asia, and Central and South America (Environment and Climate Change Canada).

Rosewood regeneration rates are extremely poor as the seeds of few fruiting trees are mostly eaten or damaged by rodents. Little is known regarding the reproduction of rosewood such as Brazilian rosewood (wood-database.org). Among the Dalbergia species, the most common commercial rosewood species are Honduras rosewood (Dalbergia stevensoni), and Brazilian rosewood (Dalbergia nigra). These species have become desirable due to their unique and outstanding qualities (Lisa, 2019). Rosewood ` 10

can be used for marquetry, veneers, sculptures, and handicrafts, and is a popular material for furniture and musical instruments. It continues to be employed for making piano cases and guitar soundboards (Environment and Climate Change Canada).

Brazil, Jamaica, and Honduras are countries that have exported large quantities of rosewood. However, suppliers have reduced and limited supplies of rosewood due the sharp decline in rosewood stocks (Vivek Abhinav, 2012). Indian rosewood is the most popular and common raw material for the fabrication of high-end musical instruments such as guitars as it has an attractive and desirable color, grain patterns, and durability. These remarkable characteristics are often used for the most distinctive portions of guitars and furniture. The reason why rosewood is so durable is because it is rot-resistant and waterproof; therefore, rosewood is negligibly damaged by external factors. With the development of technology and the economy, the demand for rosewood is becoming increasingly vast due to the significant use of high-end musical instruments and luxury furniture in Asian countries such as China (Wenbin and Xiufang, 2013).

1.3 Current status of rosewood and CITES

Currently, the situation for rosewood is not optimistic, as most of its countries of origin face stock shortages. There are also an increasing number of international rosewood trade regulations emerging these days to conserve them. During the summer, Haolin and I rearranged the U of T Xylarium Catalog Database, where several wood samples of rosewood (Dalbergia) species in the collection are included on the CITES red list.

CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) is a multilateral treaty to conserve endangered plants and animals. It was drafted as a result of a resolution adopted in 1963 at a meeting held by International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). The convention was opened for signatories in 1973 and CITES came into effect on July 1st, 1975. It serves to protect wild animals and plants from being threatened during international trade in specimens, and more than 35,000 plants and animals are protected to varying degrees.

To ensure that there was no violation of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), consultations were held with the GATT secretariat during the drafting process (CITES.org). To solve the issue of endangered species, many countries are ` 11

striving for decreasing, or outright bans on the import/export of rosewood, since a few specific species such as Brazilian rosewood (Dalbergia nigra) were added to CITES Appendix I stipulates that rosewood cannot be traded/cannot be traded without certification in some cases. To be specific, the CITES list is divided into three sections including Appendices I, II, and III. Appendix I is the most strictly controlled category that contains species considered at risk of extinction, which means that the commercial trade of these rosewood species is generally not allowed.

The most common example is Brazilian rosewood (Dalbergia nigra). Some individuals have even had their guitars (made of rosewood) confiscated when travelling internationally. Appendix II is relatively less strict and describes a list of vulnerable species in need of protection in case these species attain the status of Appendix I. Trade of these species in Appendix II may still be approved with the appropriate permits. Since 2017, more than 300 rosewood species have been listed in CITES Appendix II as endangered species and have been traded under controls and monitoring.

The most valuable rosewood species are Brazilian rosewood, Indian rosewood, and Madagascar rosewood. There are also some subspecies that are inferior such as Bolivian rosewood, Australian rosewood, and New Guinea rosewood. Some unscrupulous merchants attempt to pass these “shoddy products” off as those of supreme quality. The least restrictive category is Appendix III, which typically states the requirements of some specific tradable species with exact source countries and species. Appendix III requires source countries to monitor their trade (CITES.org, wood- database.com and Government of Canada).

1.4 Rosewood anatomy

Different species of rosewood may look similar in appearance. It can be difficult to distinguish Dalbergia species once they have been harvested and turned into rough logs, sawn wood, or finished products (Karen et al., 2016). The ability of customs or law enforcement officers to differentiate rosewood species has become one of the main obstacles in terms of the trade management of rosewood species (Karen et al., 2016). To facilitate improved identification, knowledge of the anatomy of the wood is vital. Particularly for customs officers, it is an essential skill to identify different rosewood ` 12

species to prevent smuggling valuable rosewoods in various forms such as timber, furniture, handiwork, etc. If rosewood species cannot be well identified, CITES regulations on rosewood logging and trade will not be fully implemented. Rosewood is a hardwood that contains diffuse porosity, where different rosewood species typically have pores with different densities. Its color can often range from light yellow to dark red contingent of the species and sanding processes, and the end grain patterns are also variable. The characteristics of several common rosewood species on CITES can be seen in the Appendix (Table 1).

1.5 Illegal logging of rosewood Illegal logging is a serious issue that threatens the world’s forests, as well as a barrier that limits the mitigation of climate change, and the achievement of sustainable development (Hoare, 2015). Many small-scale logging companies have surged in many countries due to the lack of supervision. Worse still, most of them conduct illegal logging operations, which remain beyond the scope of forestry policies and management efforts (Hoare, 2015). Illegal logging occurs on a global scale, particularly in tropical countries, which have abundant rosewood resources such as Madagascar, Brazil, and so on. For instance, Brazil rosewood (Dalbergia nigra) is listed in Appendix I, which means that this species is very vulnerable and should not be traded generally. In this case, any type of Brazilian rosewood product, including timber and finished products, are not allowed for trade in general. Other common rosewood species such as African blackwood (Dalbergia melanoxylon) and Amazon rosewood (Dalbergia spruceana) are in the Appendix II and likely to be very rare and expensive but possible to be exported and imported with the proper permits (the wood-database). Any harvesting and trade of rosewood without approval can be considered as illegal logging (the wood-database).

1.6 Case Studies

1.6.1 Madagascar

The rainforests of Madagascar were once rich in rosewood, especially Malagasy rosewood, which garnered attention for a long time due to its outstanding wood quality, as well as fine color and luster. However, since it was known that rosewood could generate millions of dollars if harvested and sold, the scramble to harvest Malagasy ` 13

rosewood began; thus, this species was pushed to the verge of extinction (Schuurman & Lowry II 2009). The extraction of Malagasy rosewood emerged from the early 20th century, during the colonial era (Waeber et al., 2018). Illegal logging was still widespread following the independence of Madagascar in 1960, and most Malagasy rosewood was even sourced from conservation areas.

Although undergoing a political crisis from 2009-2013, the logging of Malagasy rosewood intensified to unprecedented levels (Waeber et al., 2018). In conservation areas, park staff were insufficient and lacked the authority to control the illegal logging activities in the park, which made it more difficult to fulfill the promise of the conservation of valuable natural resources. Consequently, the locals began to lose confidence and question the ability of local governments (Schuurman & Lowry II 2009). With the pressure of the international community on unabated Malagasy rosewood logging, the Malagasy government began to confiscate and stockpile Malagasy rosewood timber, which was spearheaded by the World Bank, where all 45 Malagasy rosewood species were enrolled in CITEs Appendix II in 2013. The World Bank also became the facilitator of a seminar that focused on the Malagasy rosewood stockpile, in Antananarivo, in June, 2018 (Waeber et al., 2018).

1.6.2 Brazil

Brazil has been famous for its rich tropical forest resources, and the harvesting of timber such as Brazilian rosewood in the Amazon has been ongoing for centuries. However, it has been an arduous and long path to manage the timber sector and combat illegal logging. In the 1950’s, trees along the Amazon River had been found to be suitable as raw materials for plywood; thus, timber harvesting boosted the export trade and local economies. As road expansion and the construction of buildings were rapidly carried out during the 1970’s-90’s, the harvesting of old-growth tropical forests made huge progress in the frontier development. The logging volume reached a peak between 1985 and 1997 and exceeded 20 million m3 annually. A drop in the logging volume occurred from 1997 to 2003, to ~15 million m3 annually, which decreased further to ~13.8 million m3 in 2014. From TABLE 2 we can see that Brazil is the country with the highest average annual net loss of forest area among ten countries from 2010 to 2020.

TABLE 1. Top ten countries for average annual net loss of forest area (2010-2020). ` 14

(Source: FAO, Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020 Main Report)

These lost forests include the precious rosewoods (Dalbergia spp.) caused by illegal logging (Boekhout, 2014). The development of music and high-end musical instruments drives the demand for rosewood. Nevertheless, in the late 1960’s, the supplies of Brazilian rosewood dropped dramatically due to the unbridled harvesting of Brazilian coastal forests. Since Brazilian rosewood was banned in 1969, Indian rosewood as well as other varieties have become replacements. Brazilian rosewood was listed in the CITES treaty in 1992 and its export was strictly prohibited. Nowadays, only guitars (Fig. 1) or any other commodities made of Brazilian rosewood prior to the CITES ban can be exported, or only naturally fallen rosewood trees can be harvested for the production of goods, where a certificate of provenance under both circumstances is indispensable (Dave, 2017). As governments strive to ease the burden and dissatisfaction of musical instrument manufacturers, since 2017, CITES has loosen the rosewood restrictions for the musical instrument trade, which means that manufacturers do not have to obtain permits for their rosewood products (Vardeman and Runk, 2020).

FIGURE 1. Brazilian rosewood guitar (back). ` 15

(Source: photo by Moses Gunesch)

1.6.3 Panama

Panama is rich in cocobolo rosewood (Dalbergia retusa), which has been mostly utilized as small pieces for artisanal carving over the last 75 years. This was attributed to a sharp increase in demand from the Chinese rosewood market over the last decade (Vardeman and Runk, 2020). To date, there is no publicly available data on cocobolo rosewood logging. Cocobolo rosewood logging can only be estimated based on some media reports and long-term socioenvironmental studies due to the non-transparency of logging data (Vardeman and Runk, 2020). Panama’s cocobolo rosewood peaked from 2011 to 2015, which for the most part, did not meet the legal requirements (Vardeman and Runk, 2020).

Due to several external force factors, such as the 2014 election following the dry season, media coverage of cocobolo rosewood logging gradually decreased, which subsequently facilitated additional illegal logging. Due to increasing logging demands, harvesting of cocobolo rosewood transitioned from selective logging on western private lands to Eastern Panama forests owned by indigenous communities. The regulation of cocobolo rosewood in Panama used to allow timber harvesting on indigenous farms and the auctioning of confiscated logs. With the global restrictions of commercial rosewood, ` 16

cocobolo rosewood logging was banned, which decreased the volume of rosewood harvesting during the thriving period of demand. It was just such a challenge for rosewood management that induced CITES to recently loosen the controls of musical instruments made of rosewood (Vardeman and Runk, 2020).

1.6.4 China China is currently the largest consumer of wood products worldwide (Hoare, 2015). China used to import rosewood largely from Madagascar, with the minority coming from Tanzania and India (Fig. 2). Furniture made of rosewood is popular in China not only because it is durable and for its superior qualities, but also because it imbues certain cultural attachments (Fig. 3). The huge demand for rosewood in China has become a trigger for a rampant illegal rosewood trade (Sandy, 2019). As the most trafficked natural products in the world, the great majority of rosewood is flocking into China’s overwhelming and booming luxury furniture market. Since using rosewood for luxury furniture has a long history, it is difficult to abruptly give up this cultural tradition over a short time period (Sandy, 2019).

FIGURE 2. Seized rosewood (kg), 2005 to 2015. Conversions applied.

(Source: Rosewood World WISE Data) ` 17

It is an exaggeration to turn to entire rosewood forests into furniture; however, greedy traffickers are always searching for various methods to achieve their goals. In the early years, extremely rare species called “fragrant rosewood” (Dalbergia odorifera) were found in Southern China. This rosewood species was obtained in small in quantities and was overharvested. After China opening up its economy, it was more common to import rosewood from Southeast Asia in the late 1970’s (Sandy, 2019).

FIGURE 3. Solid rosewood furniture

(Source: ChinaFurnitureOnline.com)

FIGURE 4. Total value of Chinese imports of rosewood logs

(Source: World Trade Atlas, Chinese Customs)

The total value of Chinese imports of rosewood logs continued to rise through 2004 to 2014 at an increasing growth rate (Fig. 4). China imported 757,600 m3 of ` 18

rosewood in 2012, comprising a proportion of less than 10% of Chinese total tropical log imports. Some species not listed in the national standards are not included in Fig. 5. From 2003 - 2006, the value of China’s rosewood imports increased only slightly. A relatively sharp growth occurred from 2006 to 2007, followed by a decline from 2007 to 2009, which was most likely related to the global economic crisis in 2008. Subsequently, rosewood import volumes bounced back rapidly from 2010 to 2012, and the regions from which rosewood was imported had also become diverse, with the exception of Asia, where increasing quantities of rosewood are imported from Africa.

FIGURE 5. China’s rosewood (Dalbergia spp.) log imports by region of supply.

(Source: China Customs, complied by Huang Wenbin and Sun Xiufang, 2013)

1.7 Objectives

The objectives of this study were to:

1) Introduce the background of Dalbergia species: Review literature and compile information related to physical appearance, macroscopic and microscopic anatomy, distribution, how they are grown, current supply, regional regulations for its protection, common uses, cultural importance, how they are traded, status in the worldwide wood market, world stocks including the case histories in this section

2) Evaluate illegal logging of Dalbergia spp.: In general, illegal logging refers to the harvesting, transportation, purchase, or sale of timber in violation of established laws. There are various laws for different countries ` 19

for the rosewood trade. The objective is to consider and determine factors that influence illegal logging of Dalgerbia species.

3) Provide recommendations that can enhance policies and regulations against illegal rosewood logging/trade: What has been ongoing against the illegal logging of Dalbergia spp. including what the promulgated legislation and regulations in different nations are, and what actions are required to progress this initiative.

2. Methodology Data Collection Available online resources and databases including a number of public documents on governmental websites (specifically, natural resources or forestry departments) can be accessed to obtain the world stocks of rosewood and the quantities of import/export lumber and commodities. There are also scientific journals that study the effects of CITES rosewood regulations, which include historical data of the rosewood trade. From these resources, the import/export data of certain species of rosewood between two countries, or internationally over specified periods of time are presented in detail. Some of these were extracted and integrated to illustrate recent trends in the rosewood trade worldwide. I extracted several representative examples of countries where illegal logging and trade of rosewood are occurring. We can thus observe whether established legislation and laws are having an effect or not by comparing and analyzing rosewood inventories and the quantity of trade. Several historical cases will be presented on how various countries use rosewood differently and what actions they take in various situations. There is also a comparison of the different legislation of various countries, and the different trade requirements for diverse rosewood species in the CITES Appendices.

3. Results 3.1 Factors of decreasing rosewood inventory Based on the relevant research, rosewood stocks are typically decreased through 1) legal logging, in which legally cut rosewood is used for import and export of commodities with permits and quantity controls, and 2) illicit logging supported by organized crime which often occurs in tropical areas due to the known inadequacy of legal supervision. ` 20

3.2 Rationale for illegal logging The inducements for illegal logging include the immense demands of international markets, benefits for loggers/organized criminals, corruption of officials, underlying poverty due to social inequities, resource contention, urbanization and the development of agriculture, inattention to laws, (which threatens human rights, as indigenous people are murdered when attempting to protect Amazon forests) etc. 3.3 The effects of controlling illegal rosewood logging According to the research literature, it was found that there remain some unaccounted for unreported logging and the trade of rosewood species that neglect CITES regulations. The effects of CITES in regulating (and importantly) enforcing illegal international rosewood trade is significantly lacking (Siriwat and Nijman, 2018). CITES has established international trade controls on rosewood species. Using rosewood species in Ghana as an example, the ban of rosewood harvesting, and export has not yet had any influence on the reduction of rosewood exploitation (Dumenu, 2019). On the contrary, it was found that the logging of rosewood actually increased during the enforcement phase of the ban. During the pre-ban period (2010 to 2014), the total volume of rosewood logged was 449,746 m3 (average: 7496 m3). As the largest importer of African rosewood, China has imported a total volume of 462,968 m3 (average: 17,146 m3) during the ban period, which was from 2016 to 2018, indicating a 129% increase compared to the volume accumulated during the pre-ban period. Unfortunately, a significant impact on the CITES ban of rosewood was present only during the first year (2015) after the ban had come into effect (Fig. 6). This massive decrease was fleeting, as continually increasing rosewood harvesting proceeded over the next several years. Compared with previous years (except for a peak in 2014) the export/import volume of rosewood following the ban exceeded the previous years prior to the ban (Dumenu, 2019). It is worthy of note that the export/ import volume of rosewood demonstrated a gradual decreasing trend following the CITES regulations due to some rosewood species being transferred from Appendix III to Appendix II. Although this might be considered a positive trend, it cannot be ensured that the CITES controls of rosewood species will have an enduring positive impact (Dumenu, 2019).

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FIGURE 6. Export/import volume (m3) of rosewood (2010-2018).

(Source: TIDD timber and wood products export report 2010–2018 converted into RWE; China Customs data obtained from Global Trade Atlas (2010–2018), courtesy Environmental Investigation Agency.)

The updated CITES Appendices III and II with additional rosewood species to be restricted in logging and trade is considered to be helpful to the future sustainability of rosewood. CITES aims to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival. The most critical issue is to reduce the illegal logging and trade of this species. However, it was found that there are discrepancies and inconsistencies in the volume of rosewood exported and imported. For instance, in 2016, CITES received a report of China’s imported volume of rosewood from Ghana, indicating that the volume was 46,772 m3. In stark contrast, the date recorded by China Customs indicated 205,659 m3. In 2017, Ghana reported a rosewood export volume of 78,182 m3, while the TIDD timber and wood products export report manifests a volume of 58,541 m3. These obvious disparities strongly suggest that a significant quantity of undeclared rosewood trade continues without compliance to the CITES, which is most likely illegal logging (Dumenu, 2019) (Fig. 7, Table 3).

FIGURE 7. Unaccounted volume of rosewood exports by Ghana.

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(Source: TIDD timber and wood products export report 2010–2018 converted into RWE; China Customs data obtained from Global Trade Atlas (2010–2018), courtesy Environmental Investigation Agency.)

TABLE 2. Comparisons of rosewood trade volumes upon CITES designation.

Exporter reported quantity to Importer reported quantity to Year Official export volume Official import volume CITES CITES

2016 Not reported 46772 m3 (logs, sawn wood) 96,549 m3 205,659 m3

95,182 m3 (logs, sawn wood, 2017 78,182 m3 (logs) 58,541 m3 165,074 m3 timber)

(Sources: CITES trade database; TIDD timber and wood products export report (2016–2017); China Customs data obtained from Global Trade Atlas (2016–2017), courtesy Environmental Investigation Agency.)

TABLE 3. Average volumes of exploited and potential illegally traded rosewood and seizures.

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Volume Period Source

3 2010–2014 Based on imported volumes of rosewood 7496 m (Pre-ban period) averaged over 60 months Exploited rosewood

3 2016–2018 Based on imported volumes of rosewood 17,146 m (Ban period) averaged over 27 months

2010–2015 Based on estimated undeclared quantities 3446 m3 Potential illegally traded (Pre-CITES period) averaged over 72 months rosewood 2016–2018 7574 m3 Based on estimated undeclared quantities (CITES-designated period) averaged over 27 months

Feb.–Dec. 2017

Total quantity of rosewood 3 (CITES-designated period Official statement by Minister of Lands and seizures 4986 m particularly, Appendix II up- Natural Resources listing)

(Sources: Fig. 6 & Fig. 7)

4. Discussion (potential solutions to decrease illegal rosewood logging) 4.1 Developing local economies Illegal logging has caused economic losses by creating price distortions on the global wood markets, which decreases the competitiveness of legal wood producers. Stakeholders cannot obtain profits with equality and justice. Direct collaborations with governments can be a good choice for the support of local economies. NGOs and governments should seek strategies for strengthening the awareness of rosewood protection and mutual understanding, as well as balancing multiple interests and objectives. The insistence of Brussels on multi-stakeholder negotiation on combating illegal logging and trade won praise from the European Union (EU). Indonesian NGOs also boosted their reputation within the government by enhancing access and contact. Cooperation and mutual benefits are beneficial toward reaching consensus on the sustainable management of forests (Schmitz, 2016). Fighting against illegal logging would undoubtedly recover economic losses, support local economies, and establish a better overall forestry industry in the future.

4.2 Canada ` 24

Countries should protect endangered rosewood species while conducting rosewood trade that respects the laws of other countries. The booming demand for rosewood on a global scale has resulted in certain species being over-harvested, which are likely pose serious irreversible threats to their survival if this trend is not stopped. Many countries have certain forms of legislation for the conservation of Dalbergia species and trade, given the natural traits of rosewood and the significance of international trade. In this case, international cooperation becomes particularly essential, being effective in the regulation of the rosewood trade. The 17th Conference of Parties (Cop17) has been a promoter of rosewood trade control. According to this convention, all rosewood and specimens of all types are controlled by it and requires the authorization of the exporting country to legally cross international borders. Brazilian rosewood (Dalbergia nigra) remains on CITES Appendix I, and both a CITES export authorization issued by the exporting country and a CITES import permit issued by the importing country must be approved for rosewood to legally cross borders. If one is planning to travel to another country with rosewood, a permit should be obtained. Application forms can be found online, and travellers or traders should contact relevant CITES Management Authority of the destination country for more information on the requirements. All countries that are party to CITES are shown on a list with corresponding information at the following website: http://cites.org/eng/cms/index.php/component/cp Before applying for a permission, the information of the rosewood specimens being transported, as well as the contact information for the exporter/importer is required. If there is any uncertainty or confusion, it will be necessary to contact Environment and Climate Change Canada’s CITES Management Authority to explain the situation and determine the qualification of the permits. Canada is working well on improving the timber administration system and strengthening supervision. There have been changes to the international trade controls for rosewood (Dalbergia spp.) in Canada. Regulations are evolving over time as new species are threatened, and Canada adapts its legislation accordingly. The government has implemented increased trade controls for rosewood species due to the overharvesting of specific rosewood species. This is a unidirectional process when rosewood products are in huge demand, while the quantity of rosewood trees is decreasing sharply. This ` 25

inevitable and irreversible situation has severely aggravated the development of rosewood protection and conservation. Canada’s Wild Animal and Plant Trade Regulation (WAPTR) adopted a decision that was previously made by the CoP17 for the Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, to update and increase the international trade controls for Dalbergia spp. to further protect them. Specifically, all species of Dalbergia that were not listed in the CITES Appendices previously, were added to the CITES Appendix II, where the CITES trade controls are now officially applied to all types of rosewood, finished products included. Subsequent to the revised CoP17, the amended CITES Appendices went into effect on January 2nd, 2017, and WAPTR has implemented these amendments in Canada (Environmental and Climate Canada, 2017). However, these enhanced trade controls do not apply to all specimens of rosewood in Canada. Certain types of rosewood specimens are exempted from CITES such as non- commercial rosewood exports with a weight of less than 10 kg in total per shipment.

4.3 Brazil The Brazilian government approved a Federal Law in 2006, which allowed for the timber harvesting in public forests to facilitate the development of legal logging. Only 160,000 m3 of timber were harvested during 2010 to 2013 under limited concessions (Santos et al., 2018). This law enhanced the enforcement of controlling rosewood logging, and to some extent cracked down on illegal logging. Social and ecological rights and interests were safeguarded to a certain degree in this way.

4.4 The U.S. To avoid the over-occupation of other countries rosewood resources and over dependence on imported rosewood, the U.S is now looking for ways to plant rosewood itself. Since rosewood is severely threatened by extinction, several countries are industriously engaged with planting rosewood trees in countries or regions other than Brazil, India, Madagascar, etc. to compensate for the decrease of rosewood due to these import bans. Through the results of long-term investigations, timber investors found that Southern Florida and Arizona are suitable for rosewood plantations in the U.S., due to warm temperatures, which align with those of tropical regions and can get extremely hot ` 26

during the summer. There is rarely a frost threat; thus, these areas are suitable for rosewood trees with origins in tropical or subtropical regions (Tree plantation, 2000).

4.5 China In addition to strict controls on rosewood exports, akin to Brazil, illegal rosewood trade seizures by destination countries are effective in regulating the rosewood trade. A total of 7,783 metric tons of rosewood, which were primarily in transit through Hong Kong was seized by the government of China from 2007 and 2015. The huge profits that can be made from rosewood draw the attention of loggers and smugglers (Sawa, 2017). The confiscation of rosewood is one the most powerful blows to smugglers who try to illegally import rosewood into the country.

4.6 Improving timber identification methods Except for strengthening the effects of legislation, developing methods of wood identification is also crucial. Timber identification and tracking has been improved through the development of scientific methods for the improved verification of timber legality. Visual identification, chemical methods, and DNA approaches have been mostly used in wood identification (Karen et al., 2016). Visual identification includes wood anatomy and dendrochronology. Chemical approaches include mass spectrometry, near- infrared spectroscopy, stable isotopes, and radiocarbon dating (Pedro et al., 2018). DNA technologies are burgeoning and have been tested in several countries to combat illegal logging. This includes DNA barcoding, population genetics/phylogeography, and DNA fingerprinting (Pedro et al., 2018). In Indonesia, the combination of compulsory forest certification and a national system of timber legality increases international credibility for timber harvesting control systems. I this case, an independent auditor assesses whether the logging operations are illegal according to laws of the country. There are also many successful instances in other countries to combat illegal logging since they have their own systems of controlling and monitoring the tropical timber chain. Field checking and stump inspection are major contributions to this success. Travel permits are required for timber transportation control. In Thailand, there are checkpoints everywhere, including those that operate 24/7. In Suriname, a computerized log-tracking system called LogPro has been developed. It serves as an excellent digital assistant for the monitoring of all timber data, ` 27

tracking harvest operations, payment for forest fees, and forest planning. Detailed timber information is required by timber producers, which are dually registered in the system. There are two independent data processors crosscheck the information to ensure that all the timber data is correct. Consequently, data corruption is significantly reduced via cross information and checking for incompatibilities by the system (Pedro et al., 2018).

5. Recommendations

Generally, decreasing illegal logging aims at enhancing rosewood conservation. As well as curbing illegal logging and the illegal timber trade, increasing the quality of rosewood species is necessary. Although most countries have established laws on illegal logging, they might respond differently contingent of the situation. However, actions should be simultaneously taken from two perspectives, which encompass decreasing illegal logging and improving rosewood growth.

The recommendations of this study are as follows:

a) The government urgently needs to crack down on corruption, while strengthening resources to support efficient law enforcement, the supervision over timber companies, and National Forest Administration and other forestry-related organizations. b) Identify an appropriate substitute for rosewood-based products. This will require a change in attitudes towards rosewood products to some extent. Public education needs to be reinforced as to the importance of rosewood conservation. c) For those countries or regions that used to be rich in rosewood resources and are still suitable for rosewood, the artificial cultivation of rosewood species can be conducted. Some locations have recently been proven to be suitable for rosewood establishment, which can serve as new breeding grounds for rosewood plantations. d) Rosewood import/export data, variation trends of rosewood quality can enhance public awareness of the conservation of endangered wood species. Improved access and timely updates to these data are required. Simultaneously, advanced technologies can be applied to data collection and report accomplishments. e) Customs officers need to be well-trained with high-quality wood identification manuals/guidance, to improve their skills in the identification of wood species that are or ` 28

are not allowable for import/export. Additional research toward improving sufficient and available reference databases should be conducted to support wood taxonomy and timber identification. This goal is urgently required through collaborations that include forestry departments, governments, or other professional institutes. f) Forestry closely interacts with other aspects including agriculture, ecological industries, climate change, etc. Due to the rapid expansion of natural resources based industries, illegal logging is becoming difficult to avoid. Timber buyers cannot only rely on governments but must also enhance the enforcement and transparency of licensing processes, such as being proactive and requiring proper certification like the FSC. Consequently, cross-departmental, and interdisciplinary collaborations are required to tackle illegal logging. Except for the forestry sector, which requests control and supervision, other related natural resource departments need more supervision as well. g) Most small-scale timber companies are often paid less attention, which makes them more likely to exploit loopholes of laws to be opportunistic. From large to the small, progressive regulatory strategies should be strengthened, such that laws can work better to restrain illegal logging. h) The import of rosewood consumers should be declined on their own initiative while the export of rosewood suppliers should be the same. Exporting countries should consider addressing domestic illegal rosewood logging as a national priority. i) Governments should make logging data public as soon as possible. The role of media in assessing illegal logging should be highlighted if rosewood logging data cannot be made public. j) Relevant departments should strengthen the punishment of illegal logging and pay more attention to forestry crimes to ensure the enforcement of rosewood regulations. k) It is vital that international societies collaborate. The collaboration between governments, countries, and international authoritative organizations is indispensable.

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6. References

Alison Hoare (2015) Chatham House Report: Tackling Illegal Logging and Related Trade: What progress and where next. The Royal Institute of International Affairs, London.

Benjamin Elisha Sawe (2017) Share Of Illegal Rosewood Trade Seizures By Destination Countries, Environment.

Boekhout van Solinge T (2014) Researching illegal logging and deforestation. InternationalJournalforCrime,JusticeandSocialDemocracy 3(2): 35‐48. doi:10.5204/ijcjsd.v3i2.179

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (2013). "Appendices I, II and III". Retrieved 13 September 2013.

CITES (2012) "What is CITES?".cites.org. CITES. Retrieved 13 February 2012.

Ella Vardeman, Julie Velásquez Runk (2020) Panama’s illegal rosewood logging boom from Dalbergia retusa, Global Ecology and Conservation, Volume 23, ISSN 2351-9894, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gecco.2020.e01098.

Forest Legality Initiative. (2008) https://forestlegality.org/risk-tool/species/indian-rosewood

Government of Canada: Trade in protected species: international conventionhttps://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/convention- international-trade-endangered-species.html

Dave Hunter (2017) What’s the Big Deal About Brazilian Rosewood

Derek Schuurman & Porter P. Lowry II (2009) The Madagascar rosewood massacre. Madagascar Conservation and Development. Vol. 4 No. 2. Doi: 10.4314/mcd.v4i2.48649

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Environment and Climate Change Canada (2017) Changes to international trade controls for Rosewood (Dalbergia spp.)https://www.canada.ca/content/dam/eccc/migration/main/cites/9e21fdbf-3f22-4caa- 9417-c656c9dbedab/rosewoods-en.pdf

FAO (1995) State of the World's Forests, Designed and produced by Words and Publications, Oxford, UK, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

FAO (2020) Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020: Main report. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/ca9825e

Lael Bethlehem and Maud Dlomo (2003) Forests, Economics, and The Development Agenda, XII World Forestry Congress, Quebec City, Canada

Lisa Dingman (2019) What Is a Rosewood Tree? https://www.hunker.com/12506300/what-is-a- rosewood-tree

Luca Tacconi, et al., (2007) Illegal Logging: Law Enforcement, Livelihoods and the Timber Trade. ISBN-13: 987-1-84407-348-1

Huang Wenbin and Sun xiufang (2013) Tropical Hardwood Flows in China: Case Studies of Rosewood and Okoumé, Forest Trends Association, Washington DC.

Taylor, V., Kecse-Nagy, K. and Osborn, T. (2012). Trade in Dalbergia nigra and the European Union. Report prepared for the European Commission. ISBN 978-1-85850-355-4

Tree plantation (2000), https://treeplantation.com/rosewood.html

Patrick Waeber, Derek Schuurman, & Lucienne Wilmé (2018) Madagascar’s rosewood (Dalbergia spp.) stocks as a political challenge. 10.7287/peerj.preprints.27062v1.

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Pedro H. S. Brancalion, Danilo R. A. De Almeida, Edson Vidal, Paulo G. Molin, Vanessa E. Sontag, Saulo E. X. F. Souza, Mark D. (2018) Schulze. Science Adanvances 15 Aug 2018 : EAAT1192

Penthai Siriwat and Vincent Nijman (2018) Online media seizure reports: A tool to monitor CITES implementation in regulating the international rosewood trade, Forest Policy and Economics, vol 97, pages 67-72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2018.09.004

Regenerating Rosewood. (2012) https://caminoverde.org/blog/regeneratingrosewood

Sandy Ong & Edward Carver (2019) The Rosewood Trade: An Illicit Trail from Forest to Furniture. https://e360.yale.edu/features/the-rosewood-trade-the-illicit-trail-from-forest- to-furniture

Santos de Lima L, Merry F, Soares-Filho B, Oliveira Rodrigues H, dos Santos Damaceno C, Bauch MA (2018) Illegal logging as a disincentive to the establishment of a sustainable forest sector in the Amazon. PLoS ONE 13(12): e0207855. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0207855

Schmitz, M (2016) Strengthening the rule of law in Indonesia: the EU and the combat against illegal logging. Asia Eur J 14, 79–93. https://doi- org.myaccess.library.utoronto.ca/10.1007/s10308-015-0436-8

The wood database. Are rosewood really banned by CITES https://www.wood- database.com/wood-articles/rosewoods-bubinga-really-banned-cites/

Vidal, O., Lopez‐Garcia, J. and Rendon‐Salinas, E. (2014), Trends in Deforestation and Forest Degradation after a Decade of Monitoring in the Monarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve in Mexico. Conservation Biology, 28: 177-186. https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.12138

Vivek Abhinav (2012) Rosewood tree and timber. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/plant/rosewood-tree-and-timber

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William Kwadwo Dumenu (2019) Assessing the impact of felling/export ban and CITES designation on exploitation of African rosewood (Pterocarpus erinaceus), Biological Conservation, Volume 236, Pages 124-133, ISSN 0006-3207, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2019.05.044.

Winfield, Karen & Grayson, Cassandra & Scott, Michelle. (2016). CITES CoP17 Information Document 48 - Global Status of Dalbergia and Pterocarpus Rosewood Producing Species in Trade. 10.13140/RG.2.2.24590.00321.

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7. Appendices

Appendix 1. Characteristics of common rosewood (Dalbergia) species.

Species Wood Figure Endgrain Color Average Density Scent Distribution

Tends to be more Has a distinct, rose- Brazilian Rosewood 52 lbs/ft3 variegated, and more like scent when being Brazil (Dalbergia nigra ) (835 kg/m3) on the reddish side worked.

52 lbs/ft3 (830 kg/m3) Tends to be a dark The two weights are so Has a distinct, rose- India, Sri East Indian Rosewood chocolate or purplish close, for all intents and like scent when being Lanka, and (Dalgergia latifolia ) brown purposes, density is worked Indonesia identical

Heartwood: light yellow- brown to a darker orange or Has a distinct, rose- Madagascar Rosewood 58 lbs/ft3 reddish brown. Darker black like scent while being Madagascar (Dalbergia baronii ) (935 kg/m3) streaks are common, worked Sapwood: pale yellow

Different colors ranging from yellow, orange, red, and shades Has a distinct spice- Cocobolo 69 lbs/ft3 Central of brown with streaks of black or like scent when being (Dalbergia retusa ) purple. Sapwood is typically a (1,095 kg/m3) America very pale yellow. Colors are worked darken with age

Orange or reddish brown, with darker contrasting Has a distinct, rose- Brazil, Amazon Rosewood streaks.Lighter 68 lbs/ft3 like scent while being Venezuela, and (Dalbergia spruceana ) yellowish sapwood is clearly (1,085 kg/m3) demarcated from worked Bolivia heartwood. ` 34

Species Tree size Common uses Availability Sustainability Veneer, musical instruments (guitar bodies and fingerboards), Highly regulated Brazilian Rosewood 30-40m tall f u r n i t u r e , c a b i n e t r y, inlays, (reclaimed or pre- CITES Appendix I (Dalbergia nigra ) 1-1.2 trunk diameter carving, turned objects, and existing pieces of IUCN Red List other small specialty wood lumber.) items. Generally good Fine furniture, musical East Indian Rosewood up to 30m availability in both CITES Appendix II instruments, veneer, turned and (Dalgergia latifolia ) 0.6-1.2 trunk diameter board and turning blank IUCN Red List other specialty wood objects. form. Veneer, musical instruments (guitar bodies and fingerboards), Madagascar Rosewood 15-23m tall f u r n i t u r e , c a b i n e t ry, inlays, International trade is CITES Appendix II (Dalbergia baronii ) 0.3-1.1 trunk diameter carving, turned objects, and currently restricted. IUCN Red List other small specialty wood items. Cocobolo is in limited Fine furniture, musical supply, and is also in Cocobolo 14-18m tall CITES Appendix II instruments, turnings, and other relatively high demand, (Dalbergia retusa) 0.5-0.6 trunk diameter IUCN Red List small specialty objects. (for ornamental purposes) Amazon Rosewood is a Knife scales, guitars (back/sides), Amazon Rosewood rare wood and supplies small to medium pens, and other small turned CITES Appendix II (Dalbergia spruceana) are likely to be very objects. limited

(Source: wood-database.com) ` 35

Appendix 2. Main Identification methods; advantages and limitations.

(Source: CITES CoP17 information Paper – Global Status of Dalbergia and Pterocarpus Rosewood Producing Species)