INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR INNOVATION EDUCATION AND RESEARCH

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Volume- 4 Number- 8

August Edition International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-4 No-8, 2016 About the Journal

Name: International Journal for Innovation Education and Research

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Edition: August 2016

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International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher ©2016 Online-ISSN 2411-2933, Print-ISSN 2411-3123 August 2016

Editorial

Dear authors, reviewers, and readers

It has been a month since I was given the privilege to serve as the Chief Editor of the International Journal for Innovation Education and Research (IJIER). It is a great pleasure for me to shoulder this duty and to welcome you to THE VOL-4, ISSUE-8 of IJIER which is scheduled to be published on 31st August 2016.

International Journal for Innovation Education and Research (IJIER) is an open access, peer-reviewed and refereed multidisciplinary journal which is published by the International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher (IERFP). IJIER aims to promote academic interchange and attempts to sustain a closer cooperation among academics, researchers, policy makers and practitioners from a wide range of disciplines, which contribute to state of the art in science, education, and humanities. It provides a forum for the exchange of information in the fields mentioned above by welcoming original research papers, survey papers, and work-in-progress reports on promising developments, case studies, and best practice papers. The journal will continue to publish high-quality papers and will also ensure that the published papers achieve broad international credibility. The Chief Editor, appointed by the Associate Editors and the Editorial Board, is in charge for every task for publication and other editorial issues related to the Journal. All submitted manuscripts are first screensed by the editorial board. Those papers judged by the editors to be of insufficient general interest or otherwise inappropriate are rejected promptly without external review. Those papers that seem most likely to meet our editorial criteria are sent to experts for formal review, typically to one reviewer, but sometimes more if special advice is needed. The chief editor and the editors then make a decision based on the reviewers' advice. We wish to encourage more contributions from the scientific community to ensure a continued success of the journal. We also welcome comments and suggestions that could improve the quality of the journal.

I would like to express my gratitude to all members of the editorial board for their courageous attempt, to authors and readers who have supported the journal and to those who are going to be with us on our journey to the journal to the higher level.

Thanks, Dr Eleni Griva Ass. Professor of Applied Linguistics Department of Primary Education University of Western Macedonia- Greece Email: [email protected]

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher ©2016 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-4 No-8, 2016 Table of content

Paper ID Title Page 575 Causal nexus between fiscal deficit and economic growth Empirical evidence from 1-19 South Asia Authors: Ravinthirakumaran Navaratnam, Kasavarajah Mayandy 576 Pre-Service Basic Science Teachers’ Self-Efficacy Beliefs and Attitudes towards 20-41 Science Teaching Authors: Ernest Immaare Ngman-wara, Dorwu Ishmael Edem 577 Accelerated Bridge Construction (ABC), A Better Approach to Bridge Construction? 42-71 Authors: Mishal Ahmad Alashari 578 Two Armenian Bibles with Arabic Influences of miniature painting (Gregor Tatevatsi 72-100 1346-1410) Authors: Mahmoud Ahmed Darwish 579 Impactful Academic Advising What Students Recall Years Later 101-107 Authors: Rene Couture 580 ARCHITECTURAL PLANNING OF MINIA MOSQUES 108-131 Authors: Mahmoud Ahmed Darwish

581 MINTS The Next Economic Frontier for Investment – A Financial Analysis of the 132-145 Pharmaceutical Industry Authors: Joseph Henry Jurkowski, Dion D Daly 582 Exploration on the Management Concept of University Teachers under the New 146-150 Background of Endowment Insurance Authors: Xiang Lv 583 The Potential Disparate Impact CAEP Standard 3.2 on the Protected Classes of 151-160 Alaska Native, American Indian, African American, and Latino Members of Descent Authors: Roy Roehl 584 Simulated Impacts of Climate Change on Surface Water Yields over the Sondu Basin 161-173 in Kenya Authors: Stephen Kibe Rwigi, Jeremiah N. Muthama, Alfred O. Opere, Franklin J. Opijah, Francis N. Gichuki

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher ©2016 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-4 No-8, 2016

Causal nexus between fiscal deficit and economic growth: Empirical evidence from South Asia

Ravinthirakumaran Navaratnam Business School, Department of Accounting, Finance and Economics, Griffith University, Australia

Kasavarajah Mayandy Central Bank of Sri Lanka Sri Lanka Abstract The impact of fiscal deficit on economic growth is one of the most widely debated issues among economists and policy makers in both developed and developing countries in the recent period. This paper seeks to examine the impact of fiscal deficit on economic growth in selected South Asian countries, namely, Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka using time series annual data over the period 1980 to 2014. The paper uses cointegration analysis, error correction modelling and Granger causality test under a Vector Autoregression (VAR) framework. The results from this study confirmed that the fiscal deficit has a negative impact on economic growth in the South Asian countries considered in this study except Nepal, which confirmed the positive impact. The results also highlighted that the direction of causality for the SAARC countries is mixed where fiscal deficit causes economic growth for Bangladesh, Nepal and Pakistan, but the reverse is true for India and Sri Lanka.

Key Words: Fiscal Deficit; Economic Growth; Granger Causality; South Asia

JEL Codes: H62, O40, C32.

1. Introduction Over the decades, the impact of fiscal deficit on economic growth has generated considerable interest among economists and policy makers and acknowledged to hold forefront of policy debate in both developed and developing economies including South Asia. It is also broadly established in the literature that rising fiscal deficit could be considered as one of the key constraints which hinder the growth performance of many developing economies1. Meanwhile, Fisher also argued that large fiscal deficit is simply an indicator of general macroeconomic instability which is injurious to economic growth (Fisher, 1993). The importance of fiscal deficit as an instrument of economic growth was first envisaged by Keynes

1 The Fiscal deficit arises when the demand for government expenditure far exceeds government revenue that needs to be financed by net lending.

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 1 Online-ISSN 2411-2933, Print-ISSN 2411-3123 August 2016 in his General Theory (Keynes, 1936). He proposed that fiscal deficit can contribute to growth in times of recession. In a recession, private sector spending falls, and saving rises which in turn leads to unused resources. Government borrowing is a way of utilizing these unused savings and ‘kick starting’ the economy. The deficit spending can help to promote higher growth, which will enable to generate higher tax revenue and thereby to reduce the fiscal deficit over time.

While the impact of fiscal deficit on economic growth is a highly debated issue among economists and policy makers, there is no consensus among them whether fiscal deficit is good, bad, or neutral in terms of its real effects on economic growth. Increasing fiscal deficit is a paramount issue in maintaining macroeconomic stability. In this context, examining the impact of fiscal deficit on economic growth has much more implications from the policy-makers view about the appropriate strategies and policies which required to be adopted to promote sustainable growth and development. Though many empirical studies have shed some lights and brought the relationship of fiscal deficit and economic growth to the fore of academic discussion, the literature still remains limited in scope and the empirical results remain inconclusive. Thus, the objective of this paper is to fill the existing gap in the empirical literature via re-investigating the relationship between fiscal deficit and economic growth mainly focusing on selected South Asian countries over the period from 1980 to 2014, and to enhance the strength of the results via employing more appropriate econometric techniques.

Among the South Asian economies, there have been persistent tendency towards fiscal deficit since their independence due to continually expanding government expenditure (such as fuel and fertilizer subsidies and social welfare programs) and inadequate revenue generation capacity of government (World Bank, 2013a). Notably, since early 1980s, the South Asia witnessed an unprecedented increase in fiscal deficit (Ravinthirakumaran et al., 2016). Figure 1 shows the average fiscal deficit as a percentage of GDP and economic growth for six developing regions, including the South Asia, over the period 2000 to 2013. Considering the fiscal position, the SAARC region, on average, has the highest fiscal deficit (7.52 per cent) among the six developing regions (World Bank, 2013a). During this period, the economic growth in South Asian was 6.6 percent, which is the second highest rate compared with other developing regions except the East Asia and Pacific region which had highest economic growth (8.2 per cent).

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Figure 1: Average Fiscal Deficit and Economic Growth in Selected Region, 2000-2013

Source: World Bank, 2013a.

High fiscal deficit in the SAARC countries compared to other developing countries are likely to crowd out productive investment and eroding future growth potential. In light of this, an empirical investigation of the impact of fiscal deficit on economic growth in the case of South Asian countries are playing a crucial to both policy makers in these countries and international agencies such as the World Bank who provide the financial assistance.

With this brief introduction, the remainder of this paper is structured as follows. Section two presents the relevant theoretical and empirical literature on the nexus between fiscal deficit and economic growth. While fiscal deficit and growth performance of South Asian countries are discussed in section three, the section four presents the empirical analysis and estimation results. The final section provides the concluding remarks and policy implications.

2. Literature review

2.1 Theoretical exposition Theoretically, there are three schools of thought regarding the impact of fiscal deficit on economic growth; the Keynesian perspective, the Neo-classical perspective and the Ricardian Equivalence Hypothesis (REH). Among the mainstream analytical perspectives, while Keynesian economies claimed that there is a positive impact of fiscal deficit on economic growth, the Neo-classical paradigm considers fiscal deficit detrimental to economic growth. Meanwhile, the Ricardian equivalence hypothesis asserts that fiscal deficit does not really matter and confirmed that there is neutral relationship between these two variables (Barro, 1989).

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Keynesian economies argue that high fiscal deficit accelerate capital accumulation and hence economic growth. Keynesians provided an argument in favor of crowding-in effect by making reference to the expansionary effects of fiscal deficit. In this respect, an increase in fiscal deficit due to public sector investment, especially in infrastructure, which makes private investors more optimistic about the future course of the economy encourages the private sector investments and thereby eventually results to an improvement in the overall economic growth. This is generally referred to as the positive “crowding in” impact of fiscal deficit. Therefore, Keynesian view advocates the active role of government due to its multiplier effects (Fazzari, 1994).

Conversely, Neo-classical model believes that government economic involvement may “crowd out” private sector economic activities (Buiter, 1977). Neo-classicalist argues that an increase in the fiscal deficit will significantly affect the economy in the long term. They emphasized when the government runs fiscal deficit, it is spending more than it is taking in. In this way, the government’s savings decreases. A reduction in government saving or an increase in government dis-saving2 could have a negative impact on economic growth if the reduction in government saving is not fully offset by a rise in private saving, thereby resulting in a fall in the overall saving rate. This situation not only put some pressure on the interest rate but it has also some adverse impact on output growth. Therefore, it has been widely emphasized by many economists that the government should limit its intervention in the economic activities.

In the perspective of Ricardian, a decrease in government saving which is implied by the fiscal deficit may be accompanied by an offsetting increase in private saving, leaving the national saving and, therefore, investment unchanged. Then, there is no impact on the real interest rate. Supporters of this view believe that a fiscal deficit represents trading taxes in the future for taxes today. That is, if the government spends more than it taxes today, then it must tax more than it spends tomorrow. Since people understand this, they will spend and save accordingly. As a result, the fiscal deficit have little or no long-term impact on economic growth. Considering the different role of the above different approaches in the literature, some of the empirical studies in these areas have been highlighted below.

2.2 Empirical literature Despite the fact that several studies covering different groups of countries and different periods have found that fiscal deficit is an important determinant of economic growth, the empirical studies reveal ambiguous results upon this topic. While some empirical studies (e.g. Gupta et al., 2005; Bose, Haque and Osborn, 2007; Buscemi and Yallwe, 2012; Taylor et al., 2012) indicated that there is a positive impact of fiscal deficit on economic growth, some other studies (e.g. Cebula, 1995; Brender and Drazen, 2008; Ghosh and Hendrik, 2009; Avila, 2011; Fatima, Ahmed and Rehman, 2011 and 2012) confirmed the opposite outcome. At the same time, another group of studies (e.g. Nelson and Singh, 1994; Tan, 2006; Dalyop, 2010; Rahman, 2012) revealed no underlying impact of fiscal deficit on economic growth. Given the

2The fiscal deficit implies a reduction in government saving or an increase in government dis-saving.

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 4 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-4 No-8, 2016 number of literatures, we have limited our empirical literature via referring to selected highly influential studies upon this topic.

Gupta et al. (2005) examined the impact of fiscal consolidation and expenditure composition on economic growth in a sample of 39 low-income countries during the 1990s. The result confirmed that the strong fiscal positions are generally associated with higher economic growth in both short term and long term. Bose, Haque and Osborn (2007) examined the relationship between fiscal deficit and economic growth for a panel of 30 developing countries over the period 1970 to 1990. They identified that fiscal deficit had a positive impact on economic growth, particularly they highlighted that it was mainly as a result of increased productive expenditure such as education, health and capital expenditure. Meanwhile, Buscemi and Yallwe (2012) examined the effects of fiscal deficit on saving and sustainability of economic growth for three emerging countries namely China, India and South Africa using the reduced form of Generalized Method of Moment’s (GMM) method for dynamic panel data over the period 1990 to 2009. They found that the coefficient for fiscal deficits significant and positively correlated to economic growth. Taylor et al. (2012) examined the relationship between the fiscal deficit, economic growth and debt over the period 1961 to 2011 focusing on the USA economy via employing cointegration analysis and Vector Autoregression framework. The result confirmed a strong positive effect of fiscal deficit on economic growth.

On the other hand, Cebula (1995) investigated the impact of federal fiscal deficit on per capita real economic growth in USA with quarterly data over the period 1955 to1992. The empirical findings confirmed that federal fiscal deficit, over time, reduces the rate of economic growth. Meanwhile, Brender and Drazen (2008) investigate the effects of fiscal performance and economic growth on reelection in a sample of 74 countries over the period 1960-2003. They found that high fiscal deficit recorded by a country will give a negative signal to the citizens saying that the government authorities did not perform well in managing the funds of a country. As a result, there is a probability of re-election process to be conducted in order to replace the authorities. Indirectly, the authorities who did not perform well may not be able to bring the country to the upper level. Hence, it will not contribute to high economic growth due to lack of confidence among citizens, investors and other neighboring countries. Ghosh and Hendrik (2009) examined the impact of fiscal deficit on economic growth by using the time series annual data from 1973 to 2004 on the USA economy. Their results indicate that an increase in fiscal deficit slows growth. Avila (2011) analyzed the relationship between fiscal deficit, macroeconomic uncertainty and growth of Argentina for the period 1915 to 2006. The study found that the fiscal deficit hampered on per capita income growth in Argentina through the volatility in relative prices. Fatima, Ahmed and Rehman (2011) examined the effects of fiscal deficit on investment and economic growth using time series data from 1980 and 2009 in Pakistan. The study showed the negative impacts of fiscal deficit on economic growth. More recently, Fatima, Ahmed and Rehman (2012) reexamined the effects of the fiscal deficit on economic growth in Pakistan using time series data over the period 1978 to 2009. The findings of the study explored

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 5 Online-ISSN 2411-2933, Print-ISSN 2411-3123 August 2016 a negative impact of fiscal deficit on economic growth and suggested that the government requires to avoid certain levels of fiscal deficit in order to achieve the desired level of economic growth.

To investigate the effect of fiscal deficit on GDP growth, Nelson and Singh (1994) used data on 70 developing countries during two time periods, 1970-1979 and 1980-1989. The empirical results showed that the fiscal deficit had no significant effect on economic growth of these countries in both periods. Tan (2006) examined both the short term and long term relationship between fiscal deficit, inflation and economic growth in Malaysian economy during 1966 to 2003. The study found the absence of long term relationship among these variables and also found that fiscal deficit appeared to have neither short term nor long term links with income. Dalyop (2010) investigated the impact of fiscal deficit on GDP growth in Nigeria. The study confirmed that the fiscal deficit had little effect on the level of economic activity and supported the Ricardian Equivalence Hypothesis. Keho (2010) examined the causal relationship between fiscal deficit and economic growth for seven West African countries over the period 1980 to 2005. The empirical evidence showed mixed results. The study found while there is no causality between fiscal deficit and economic growth in three countries, the remaining four countries, and the deficit had adverse effects on economic growth. More recently, Rahman (2012) investigated the relationship between fiscal deficit and economic growth from Malaysia’s perspective by using quarterly data from 2000 to 2011. By using ARDL approach the study confirmed that there is no long term relationship between fiscal deficit and economic growth in Malaysia which confirmed the Ricardian equivalence hypothesis. Table 1 presents a summary review of a literature.

Table 1: A review of empirical studies on Fiscal deficit and Economic growth Author/ Year Country(ies) Period Methodology Conclusion Gupta et al. (2005) 39 Low-income 1990-2000 Generalized Method of Strong budgetary positions countries Moments, A pooled are generally associated with mean-group estimator higher economic growth

Bose et al. (2007) 30 Developing 1970-1990 Panel Data Analysis Fiscal deficit had a positive countries impact on economic growth

Buscemi and Yallwe China, India and 1990-2009 A dynamic GMM panel Fiscal deficits has a significant (2012) South Africa data approach and positively correlated to economic growth

Taylor et al. (2012) USA 196-2011 Cointegration analysis, A strong positive effect of Vector Autoregression fiscal deficit on economic Framework growth Cebula (1995) 76 Developed 1955-1992 Instrumental Variables Federal fiscal deficit reduces and Developing (IV) estimate the rate of economic growth countries.

Brender and Drazen 74 countries 1960-2003 Panel Data,

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(2008)

Ghosh and Hendrik USA 1973-2004 simultaneous equation An increase in fiscal deficit (2009) model slows growth

Avila (2011) Argentina 191 2006 Correlation and The fiscal deficit hampered on regression per capita income growth

Fatima et al. (2011) Pakistan 1980-2009 The two-stage least The negative impacts of fiscal squares method deficit on economic growth

Fatima et al. (2012) Pakistan 1978-2009 OLS model A negative impact of fiscal deficit on economic growth Nelson and Singh 70 Developing 1970-1979 OLS model The fiscal deficit had no (1994) countries 1980-1989 significant effect on economic growth

Tan (2006) Malaysia 1966-2003 Johansen cointegration Fiscal deficit appeared to have and Granger causality neither short term nor long term links with income

Dalyop (2010) Nigeria 1982-2008 OLS model Supported the Ricardian Equivalence Hypothesis

Keho (2010) 7 West African 1980-2005 Granger causality test No causality between fiscal countries developed by Toda and deficit and economic growth Yamamoto in three countries

Rahman (2012) Malaysia 2000-2011 An ARDL approach No long term relationship between fiscal deficit and economic growth

The above reviews of the empirical findings confirmed that though the relationship between fiscal deficit and economic growth has mostly supported that fiscal deficit has a negative impact on economic growth, the evidence on the relationship is mainly suggests a mixed findings. This inconclusive results arises due to the types of data, time periods that was considered, the alternative econometric methods, and the characteristics of various countries. 3. Economic Growth and Fiscal Deficit in South Asia Considering the availability of data, five south Asian countries namely, Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka were included in the analysis. Despite the fact that most of the countries experienced sluggish growth rates throughout the seventies, they have undergone structural reforms during 1980s. As a

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 7 Online-ISSN 2411-2933, Print-ISSN 2411-3123 August 2016 result, the region has translated itself from a position of slowest growing region during the 1970s to one of the fastest growing regions in the world since 1980s (Jain and Singh, 2009 and Radha, 2011).

Figure 2 illustrates the trend of fiscal deficit and economic growth in the SARRC region in the last two decades. It can be seen that the trend of fiscal deficit in the SARRC region has continuously increased from 1990 to 2014 while the actual rate varies substantially over time. Conversely, the trend of economic growth in the region gradually increases while the actual growth rate fluctuates significantly over time. The South Asia’s average economic growth was around 5.5 per cent in the period from 1990 to 1999, 6.5 per cent in the period from 2000 to 2009, and 6.8 per cent in the period from 2010 to 2014. Economic growth in South Asian region decelerated sharply during 2012, extending a slowing trend following the rapid recovery from the financial crisis in 2008. The slowdown in 2012 mainly reflects a continuing steep deceleration in India, which represents about four-fifth of the region’s GDP, to 5.0 percent in the 2012 from 6.2 percent in 2011 and 9.3 percent in 2010. At the same time, growth in other regional economies also slowed. In this regard, growth in Sri Lanka slowed sharply, by almost 2 percentage points in 2012 (World Bank, 2013a).

Figure 2: Fiscal Deficit and Economic Growth in South Asia

Source: World Bank (2013a), Global Economics Prospects (2016)

However, in order to gain a clear understanding on the existing relationship, the trend of growth and deficit are individually plotted over the period 1990 to 2014. Figures from 3 to 7 illustrate the time series plots of the fiscal balance and economic growth in the selected South Asian countries.

As can be seen from figure 3, the fiscal balance in Bangladesh was high during the 1980s but managed to record a surplus in the first half of the 1990s. Since then, the fiscal balance has deficit and remained

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 8 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-4 No-8, 2016 steady, except 2001 and 2008. When looking at the economic growth, it has continuously increased during 1990 to 2014 period. The country's average economic growth was around 3.2 per cent in the period from 1980 to 1989, 4.8 per cent in the period from 1990 to1999, 5.8 per cent in the period from 2000 to 2009 and 6.2 per cent in the period from 2010 to 2012. Thus the economic growth was very impressive but it was adversely affected by rapid population growth.

Figure 3: Fiscal deficit and economic growth in Bangladesh, 1980-2014

Source: World Bank (2013b), Global Economics Prospects (2016)

Figure 4 depicts the trend of fiscal deficit and economic growth in India over the last three decades, which span both the pre-and post-reform period, helps to understand the relationship between fiscal expansion and economic growth in the Indian economy. During this period, the country’s average fiscal deficit was around 8.0 per cent of GDP and it has increased continuously except the first half of the 1990s and mid of 2000s.On the other hand, India has maintained a high level of average economic growth rate of 6.3 per cent during the period 1980 to 2014. While the growth rate improved since 1980s, the economy grew at an annual rate of 5.7 percent and from 2000 to 2010 it was 6.8 percent.

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Figure 4: Fiscal deficit and economic growth in India, 1980-2014

Source: World Bank (2013b), Global Economics Prospects (2016)

Fiscal deficit in Nepal had a decreasing trend throughout 1980 to 2014 except the early 1990s. It can be seen from Figure 5 that the country’s average fiscal deficit was around 5.5 per cent of GDP. In the meantime, economic growth was averaged at 4.4 percent during the period 1980 to 2014 and reached a historically high level of 9.7 percent in 1984 and recorded low level of -2.9 percent in 1983.

Figure 5: Fiscal deficit and economic growth in Nepal, 1980-2014

Source: World Bank (2013b), Global Economics Prospects (2016)

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Meanwhile, fiscal deficit in Pakistan has continuously increased from 1980 to 1990 and then declined until 2004 and subsequently it increased again (Figure 6). It averaged 5.9 percent of GDP from 1980 to 2014, reaching an all-time high of 8.8 per cent of GDP in 1990 and a record low of -1.9 percent in 2004. Pakistan recorded fiscal deficit equal to 5 percent of the country's GDP in 2014. The average economic growth for Pakistan during the period 1980 to 2014 was 4.9 percent with a minimum of 1 per cent in 1997 and a maximum of 10.2 per cent in 1980.

Figure 6: Fiscal deficit and economic growth in Pakistan, 1980-2014

Source: World Bank (2013b), Global Economics Prospects (2016)

Sri Lanka has managed to maintain a low level of fiscal deficit during the 1980s, however, it has continuously increased since 1990, possibly due to political instability and civil war (Figure 7). Following policy reforms in 1977, there was a considerable increase in the average growth rates to the level of about 5 percent from 1980 to 1986. In the latter half of the 1980s, however, the growth rate slowed down as a result of macroeconomic and political instability in the country. The average economic growth rate declined to 2.2 percent during the period 1987 to1989. Since then, the economy has been able to maintain its growth momentum at a moderate level of 5.2 per cent ranging from the highest of 8.3 per cent in 2011 to the lower of a negative 1.5 per cent in 2001. The long term growth performance is characterized by an increase in the share of manufacturing and service sectors with a decline in the share of the agriculture sector.

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Figure 7: Fiscal deficit and economic growth in Sri Lanka, 1980-2014

Source: World Bank (2013b), Global Economics Prospects (2016)

The above time series trends are not sufficient for any valid inference to investigate the impact of fiscal deficit on economic growth for the countries under reviewed. Hence, the study would use the quantitative econometric techniques to examine the possible impact of fiscal deficit on economic growth in South Asian countries.

4. Empirical Analysis and Results

4.1 Data and Methodology The main variables employed in this study include government fiscal deficit and real gross domestic product. Annual time series data on gross domestic product (proxy for economic growth) and fiscal deficit over the period 1980 to 2014 were used in this study for the analysis. Further, all the data were taken from the World Bank (2015) and International Monetary Fund (2015).

Furthermore, this study employs the econometric techniques of cointegration and Granger causality test to examine the dynamic relationship among the selected variables. This approach can capture the short run and long run equilibrium dynamics among the variables unlike a simple regression which only reveal the correlation between variables. As a first step towards analyzing the impacts of fiscal deficit on output growth, the estimation process started with the test of stationarity for all the variables included in this study. For the purpose of identifying the presence of unit roots in time series data, we applied both the Augmented Dickey-Fuller test (1979) and Phillips-Perron (1988) test procedure. This unit root test is conducted both at the levels and the first differences for each series.

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The Johanson and Juseliues (1990) method was employed to test for cointegration. The Johanson (1988) cointegration methodology is a system method which allows determination of how many independent cointegration relationships exist among the set of variables being considered. The two likelihood test statistics known as trace and maximum Eigen value statistics that estimate the number of cointegrating vectors in Johansen’s cointegration procedure will be applied to this study. Further, the optimal lag length choice was selected by examining the lag order selection criteria. Accordingly, AIC has been used which minimizes the overall sum of squared residuals or maximizes the likelihood ratio for the lag selection. This cointegration approach could be further extended with the Granger (1969) causality analysis to examine the causality among variables under reviewed.

5. Results and Discussions

5.1 Unit root Test In general, as many macroeconomic variables are non-stationary (Nelson and Plosser, 1982), a standard regression with nonstationary data can lead to the problem of spurious. This problem can occur when two time series variables in a regression are highly correlated whereas there is no actual relationship between them. Hence, it is vital to include the stationery variables for the regression. The first step for cointegration test is to examine the stationery properties of all the variables. The Augmented Dickey Fuller (ADF) and Phillips Perron (PP) tests are employed to examine the properties of the time series variables and to determine the order of integration for each series in this study. If all the variables are found to be integrated of the same order, the Johanson cointegration approach will be applied to test the cointegration among the variables.

The results of the ADF and PP unit root tests are presented in Table 2. The results indicate while the series are unit roots in the level form for all countries, however, all the series are stationary at the first differences. This implies that all the variables are integrated with the order one, I (1).

Table 2: Results of ADF and PP tests Augmented Dickey-Fuller Phillips-Perron First differenced First differenced Country Variable Level form form Level form form - p- - p- - p- - p- statistic value statistic value statistic value statistic value Bangladesh lnGDP -0.231 0.989 -6.214 0.000 -0.173 0.991 -6.579 0.000 FD -1.822 0.671 -6.182 0.001 -1.789 0.686 -6.287 0.000 India lnGDP -0.980 0.933 -5.357 0.001 -0.743 0.961 -6.811 0.000 FD -1.367 0.851 -6.281 0.000 -1.416 0.837 -6.297 0.000 Nepal lnGDP -2.564 0.298 -7.183 0.000 -2.528 0.314 -8.198 0.000

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FD -3.279 0.088 -6.039 0.000 -3.158 0.111 -6.735 0.000 Pakistan lnGDP -2.059 0.547 -3.745 0.034 -2.141 0.505 -3.709 0.037 FD -0.758 0.959 -6.142 0.000 -0.763 0.959 -6.151 0.000 Sri Lanka lnGDP -0.281 0.988 -4.771 0.003 -0.460 0.981 -4.770 0.003 FD -2.551 0.304 -6.303 0.000 -2.543 0.307 -7.105 0.000

5.2 Cointegration test As the above unit root results indicate that both the fiscal deficit and gross domestic product series for all the countries are I (1) process, the analysis will be extended to test the cointegrating relationship between these two variables. This is accomplished by using the Johansen (1988) and Johansen-Juselius (1990) cointegration technique which determines the number of cointegrating vectors for any set of I (1) variables based on both Trace test and Maximum Eigen values test.

Table 3 provides the results of cointegration test. Results of both the Trace test and Maximum Eigenvalue test indicate the existence of a cointegrating relationship among the variables at the 5 percent level of significance for Bangladesh, Nepal and Pakistan, however, not for India and Sri Lanka. As the above results indicate that there no any long term equilibrium relationship between fiscal deficit and growth for India and Sri Lanka, the analysis will be extended to examine the causality direction between fiscal deficit and economic growth using VAR (vector autoregression) model in first difference form. For all other countries, the Granger causality test will be carried out.

Table 3: Results of Johanson cointegration test Trace value test Maximum Eigen Value

Country H0 H1 Test H1 Test p-value p-value statistic statistic Bangladesh r = 0 r ≥ 1 21.691 0.005 r = 1 19.809 0.006 r 1 r ≥ 2 1.882 0.170 r = 2 1.882 0.170 India r = 0 r ≥ 1 6.746 0.607 r = 1 6.241 0.582 Nepal r = 0 r ≥ 1 24.939 0.001 r = 1 24.035 0.001 r  1 r ≥ 2 0.904 0.342 r = 2 0.904 0.342 Pakistan r = 0 r ≥ 1 15.639 0.048 r = 1 14.505 0.046 r  1 r ≥ 2 1.134 0.287 r = 2 1.134 0.287 Sri Lanka r = 0 r ≥ 1 9.407 0.329 r = 1 7.314 0.453

5.3 Causality test The Granger causality test is employed based on the following equations. Where Δ is first difference operator,  t and t are serially uncorrelated white noise disturbance terms; and k, l , m and n are lag lengths for each variable in each equation.

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k l lnGDPt 0 1ilnGDP it  2 FD   tjtj (1) i1 j1

m n FDt 0 1i FD it 2 j lnGDP   tjt (2) i1 j1

For India and Sri Lanka, as FD and lnGDP were not cointegrated, we report the Granger causality test results in table 4. It could be seen for India and Sri Lanka that the null hypothesis of “FD does not Granger cause lnGDP” can’t be rejected while the null hypothesis of “lnGDP does not Granger cause FD” could be rejected at five percent level. This implies that there is a unidirectional causality which is running from lnGDP to FD for India and Sri Lanka.

Table 4: Granger Causality test for India and Sri Lanka Country Null Hypothesis 2 Test p- Decision at 5% statistic value level

India Ho: FD does not Granger cause GDP 0.154 0.695 Do not reject Ho

Ho: GDP does not Granger cause FD 4.272 0.039 Reject Ho

Sri Lanka Ho: FD does not Granger cause GDP 4.309 0.116 Do not reject Ho

Ho: GDP does not Granger cause FD 8.452 0.015 Reject Ho

When the variables are I(1) and cointegrated, we use the following vector error correction (VEC) model by incorporating the error correction term in the standard Granger causality procedure with the variables in first differenced form, which yields equations (3) and (4).

m n (3) lnGDPt 0  1i lnGDP it  2 FD  eˆ 11   ttjtj i1 j1 p q (4) FDt 0  1i FD it  2 j  lnGDP  uˆ 12   ttjt i1 j1

Where Δ is first difference operator, t and t are white noise terms, and eˆt and uˆt are the error correction terms, which are the residuals from the long-run relationships of the form, lnGDPt  10 FD  ett and FDt   10 ln uGDP tt , respectively. Now based on equation (3), we can test whether FD does not cause lnGDP in the long run by testing the null hypothesis Ho: 1 = 0, and whether FD does not cause lnGDP in the short run by testing the null hypothesis Ho: 21 = 22 = …= 2n= 0. Similarly, based on equation (4) we can test lnGDP does not cause FD in the long run by testing the null hypothesis

Ho: 2 = 0, and whether lnGDP does not cause FD in the short run by testing the null hypothesis Ho: 21 =

22 = …= 2q= 0.

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Since for all the countries except India and Sri Lanka, we found that FD and lnGDP are cointegrated. Based on models (3) and (4), we use the above procedure to test for causality and the results are reported in table 5. In case of Bangladesh, the results show that there is an unidirectional causality which is running from fiscal deficit to economic growth in the long run at the 5 per cent significance level. In case of Nepal and Pakistan, there is bidirectional causality in the long run but unidirectional causality runs from economic growth to fiscal deficit in the short run at the 5 per cent level of significance. The diagnostics test results for serial correlation, heteroscedasticity and normality of the residuals are also presented in table 5 which indicates that there is no any evidence for serial correlation, heteroscedasticity and non-normality.

Table 5: Granger Causality test using Error Correction Model (ECM) Short-run Long-run Test p-value of the test causality causality p- Decision p- Decision Serial Heterosce Normality (Direction Country value value correlation -dasticity J-B test of causality) B-G LM test ARCH(1) Bangladesh FD  GDP 0.288 No 0.002 Yes 0.709 0.541 0.691 GDP  FD 0.302 No 0.702 No 0.550 0.953 0.983

Nepal FD  GDP 0.287 No 0.035 Yes 0.341 0.494 0.316 GDP  FD 0.006 Yes 0.001 Yes 0.415 0.482 0.939 Pakistan FD  GDP 0.535 No 0.456 Yes 0.332 0.695 0.582 GDP  FD 0.002 Yes 0.002 Yes 0.329 0.617 0.448

6. Conclusion This paper examined the impact of fiscal deficit on economic growth in major countries of South Asian region; Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka using annual time series data over the period 1980 to 2014. The empirical evidence in this study showed mixed results. In particular, while the fiscal deficit had a negative impact on economic growth for Bangladesh, India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka whereas the results found that there is a positive impact for Nepal. Further, it confirmed that the persistent increase in fiscal deficit hindered economic growth for most of the South Asian countries except Nepal and therefore the deficit targeting within the region becomes extremely important. Further, the negative impacts confirm the neoclassical view. In the meantime, the directions of causality for South Asian countries are mixed. The results confirmed that fiscal deficit cause economic growth for Bangladesh, Nepal and Pakistan whereas the reverse is true for India and Sri Lanka. Hence, it is vital that the policy makers need to make attempt to reduce the persistent high levels of fiscal deficit in these countries in order to achieve the desired levels of growth. A large fiscal deficit played as an important issue in the South Asian countries though it is not accompanied by an improvement in economic growth. Hence, it is recommended that the governments of many South Asian countries should undertake policy actions to control their fiscal deficit so that economic growth could be manageable. In this regard, governments could either decrease current expenditure by lowering its size or try to increase tax revenue. Since reduction in government expenditure is not plausible, the tax net of South Asian countries should be expanded to capture all taxable

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 16 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-4 No-8, 2016 individuals and firms. At the same time, attempt to maintain the trade balance at a sustainable level also could help to mitigate the exiting fiscal deficit in South Asia.

References Avila, J. C. (2011). Fiscal Deficit, macro-uncertainty, and growth in Argentina, Serie Documentosde Trabajo, No. 456, available at http://ssrn.com/abstract=1898355 or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1898355 Barro, R. J. (1989). The Ricardian approach to fiscal deficit, Journal of Economic Prospect, 3(2), 37-54. Bose, N., Haque, M.E. and Osborn, D. R. (2007). Public expenditure and economic growth: A disaggregated analysis for developing countries, The Manchester School, 75(5), 533-556. Brender, A. and Drazen, A. (2008). How do fiscal deficit and economic growth affect re-election prospects? Evidence from a large panel of countries, The American Economic Review, 98(5), 2203-2220. Buiter, W. H. (1977). Crowding out and the effectiveness of fiscal policy, Journal of Public Economics, 7(3), 309-328. Buscemi, A. and Yallwe, A. H. (2012). Fiscal deficit, national saving and sustainability of economic growth in emerging economies: A dynamic GMM panel data approach, International Journal of Economics and Financial Issues, 2(2), 126-140. Cebula, R. J. (1995). The impact of federal government fiscal deficit on economic growth in the United States: An empirical investigation, 1955-1992, International Review of Economics and Finance, 4(3), 245-252. Dalyop, G.T. (2010). Fiscal deficit and the growth of domestic output in Nigeria, Jos Journal of Economics, 4(1), 153-173. Dickey, D. A., and Fuller, W. A. (1979). Distribution of the estimators for autoregressive time series with a unit root, Journal of the American Statistical Association, 74(366), 427-431. http://www.deu.edu.tr/userweb/onder.hanedar/dosyalar/1979.pdf Fatima, G., Ahmed, A. M. and Rehman, W.U. (2011). Fiscal deficit and economic growth: An analysis of Pakistan’s economy, International Journal of Trade, Economics and Finance, 2(6), 501-504. Fatima, G., Ahmed, A. M. and Rehman, W. U. (2012). Consequential effects of fiscal deficit on economic growth of Pakistan, International Journal of Business and Social Science, 3(7), 203-208. Fazzari, S. M. (1994). Why doubt the effectiveness of Keynesian fiscal policy?, Journal of Post Keynesian Economics, 17(2), 231-248. Fisher, S. (1993). The role of macroeconomic factors in growth, Journal of Monetary Economics, 32(3), 485-512. Ghosh, R. and Hendrik, V. B. (2009). Budget deficit and US economic growth, Economics Bulletin, 29(14), 3015-3030. Granger, C. W. J. (1969). Investigating causal relations by econometric models and cross-spectral methods, Econometrica, 37(3), 424-438.

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Gupta, S., Benedict, C., Emanuele, B., and Carlos, M. (2005). Fiscal policy, expenditure composition, and growth in low income countries, Journal of International Money and Finance, 24(3), 441-463. International Monetary Fund, (2015). World Economic Outlook Database, accessed 17 November 2015: http://www.imf.org/external/error.htm?URL=http://www.imf.org/%20external/pubs/ft/weo/ 2015/01/weodata/download.aspx Jain, R. and Singh, J. B. (2009). Trade pattern in SAARC countries: Emerging trends and issues, Occasional Papers, Reserve Bank of India, 30. Johansen, S. (1988). Statistical analysis of cointegration vectors, Journal of Economic Dynamics and Control, 12(2&3), 231-254. Johansen, S. and Juselius, K. (1990). Maximum likelihood estimation and inference on cointegration with applications to the demand for money, Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, 52(2), 169-210. Keho, Y. (2010). Fiscal deficit and economic growth: Causality evidence and policy implications for WEAEMU countries, European Journal of Economics, Finance and administrative Sciences, 18, 99–104. Keynes, J.M. (1936). The general theory of employment, interest, and money, London: Macmillan. Nelson, C. R. and Plosser, C. L. (1982). Trends and random walks in macroeconomic time series: Some evidence and implications, Journal of Monetary Economics, 10(2), 139-162. Nelson, M. A. and Singh, R. D. (1994). The deficit-growth connection: Some recent evidence from developing countries, Economic Development and Cultural Change, 43(1), 167–191. Phillips P.C.B., Perron P. (1988). Testing for a unit root in time series regression, Biometrika, 75(2), 335-346. Radha, R. (2011). The experience of SAARC as a regional block and its future potentialities, Indian Journal of Economics and Business, 10(1), 57-72. Rahman, N.H.A. (2012). The relationship between fiscal deficit and economic growth from Malaysia’s perspective: An ARDL approach, International Conference on Economics, Business Innovation, International Proceedings of Economics Development and Research (IPEDR), 38, IACSIT Press, Singapore, available athttp://www.ipedr.com/vol38/011-ICEBI2012-A00020.pdf Ravinthirakumarana, N., Selvanathan, S and Selvanathan, E.A. (2016). The twin deficits hypothesis in the SAARC countries: An empirical Investigation’, Journal of the Asia Pacific Economy, 21(1), 77-90. Tan, E. C., (2006). Fiscal deficit, inflation and economic growth in a successful open developing economy, Review of Applied Economics, 2(1), 129-139. Taylor, L., Proano, C. R.,Laura de, C. and Barbosa, N. (2012). Fiscal deficit, economic growth and government debt in the USA, Cambridge Journal of Economics, 36(1), 189-204. World Bank, (2013a). Less volatile, but slower growth, Global Economic Prospects, Volume 7, Washington, DC, available at https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/13892 World Bank, (2013b). World development indicators, Retrieved 01 December 2013, available from the World Bank, http://databank.worldbank.org/data/views/variableSelection/selectvariables.aspx?source=world-devel opment-indicators

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World Bank, (2015). World development indicators, Retrieved 12 January 2015, available from the World Bank, http://databank.worldbank.org/data/reports.aspx?source=world-development-indicators#

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Pre-Service Basic Science Teachers’ Self-Efficacy Beliefs and Attitudes towards Science Teaching

Ernest Immaare Ngman-Wara Department of Integrated Science Education, Senior Lecturer University of Education, Winneba Ghana

Dorwu Ishmael Edem Department of Science Education Akatsi College of Education, PMB, Akatsi Ghana Abstract The main purpose of the study was to explore preservice basic pre-service science teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs and attitude regarding science teaching. Data were collected by administering science teaching self-efficacy beliefs and attitude towards science teaching instruments to 100 pre-service basic science teachers (92 males and 8females). Descriptive statistical techniques such as mean scores, standard deviations and percentages were used to analyse the data. Results of the study showed that the pre-service basic science teachers have very high level of self-efficacy beliefs and positive attitudes towards basic science teaching. However, the respondents had some reservations about their ability to facilitate hands-on activities and laboratory work in their future science lessons. It was recommended that science tutors should integrate science content into their science methods courses to improve the pre-service teachers’ science content and pedagogical content knowledge.

Keywords: Pre-service Science Teachers; Self-Efficacy Beliefs; attitude; science teaching; colleges of education

1. Introduction Over the past four decades, teacher education in Ghana has undergone a number of reforms (Government of Ghana, 1987, 2004) as a result of policy changes aimed at producing well trained teachers to meet the educational needs of the country. The Government of Ghana (2001, 2009) developed policies on science and technology education aimed at producing various categories of science professionals and technologists to facilitate the industrialization of the Ghanaian economy. This led to the upgrading of the 38 teacher training colleges into diploma awarding institutions and re-designated as colleges of education (Newman, 2013). Fifteen of the colleges of education are mandated to train competent science and mathematics teachers to teach science and mathematics at the basic schools in the country.

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From a global perspective, science educators continue to convey the need for reforms in science education in an effort to promote a more critical scientific literacy (Bybee, 1997; Hodson, 1998). Such a critical scientific literacy has been described as multi-dimensional and considered in terms of three major elements: learning science, learning about science and doing science. For a teacher to be able to achieve these objectives, it is important to build a strong subject content knowledge as well as pedagogical content knowledge to be competent enough to deliver. However, pre-service teachers are admitted into the colleges of education with varied science background. in fact most of the students are admitted into the science colleges of education with poor grades (C4 to C6) obtained in the West African Senior Secondary Certificate Examination (Akyeampong, 2001). This fact is corroborated by the poor performance of the pre-service teachers in the end of semester examinations in science conducted by the Institute of Education, University of Cape Coast (Institute of Education, University of Cape Coast, [IEUCC]. The Chief Examiner (2007, 2008, 2009) reported that over 70% of the pre-service teachers obtained D+.

Other factors that influence elementary science instructions are attitudes and beliefs toward teaching. Many research studies have reported that teachers’ attitude toward science teaching is a strong indicator of both quality and quantity of science taught to the pupils (Schoeneberger & Russell, 1986: Wallace & Louden, 1992) as positive attitude towards science teaching results in effectiveness and quality time spent on teaching. In a study by Koballa and Crawley (1985), it was found that teachers who had low beliefs in their ability to teach science also developed negative attitudes towards science. These teachers eventually avoided teaching science.

Another factor that influences elementary science teachers’ instruction is their self-efficacy beliefs (Aydin & Boz, 2010). The teacher’s efficacy beliefs are indicators of his/her instructional performance. Bandura (1977) defined self- efficacy in his social cognitivist theory as “beliefs in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the course of action required to manage prospective situations” (p.3). In the context of science teaching, self-efficacy consists of personal science teaching efficacy and science teaching outcome expectancy. Personal science teaching efficacy refers to the belief that one is capable of effective science instruction, while science teaching outcome expectancy refers to the teacher’s beliefs about students’ ability to learn science. According to Schunk (2003), even though self-efficacy is crucial to teacher achievement it is not the only important factor in that regard. He argued that another very inextricable influence on teacher achievement is knowledge. Pajares (1992) also asserted that knowledge and beliefs cannot be considered separately. In view of this one can deduce that pre-service science teachers who have good content knowledge and self-efficacy beliefs will also adopt positive attitudes and teach science effectively.

Some earlier studies have suggested that teacher efficacy is linked to student achievement (Tschannen-Moran, & Woolfolk Hoy, 2001), student motivation (Midgley, Feldlaufer &Eccles, 1989; Lewandowski, 2005; Woolfolk Hoy, 2000), provides the foundation for teacher motivation (Adyin & Boz, 2010) and classroom management strategies (Ashton & Webb, 1986). Therefore it is important for

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 21 Online-ISSN 2411-2933, Print-ISSN 2411-3123 August 2016 colleges of educations to be mindful of the importance of pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs and attitude towards science teaching during instructions. This is because there is positive relationship between strong science content knowledge and positive attitudes and high self-efficacy towards science teaching and vice versa (Stevens & Wenner, 1996).

It has also been observed by the junior researcher that during teaching practice programmes, pre-service teachers usually exhibit low efficacy beliefs and negative attitudes towards the teaching of science. This is made clear when they make comments such as ‘am afraid I would not be able to teach science effectively and ‘it is difficult to get materials to teach science’. The study therefore examined third year pre-service science teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs and attitudes toward science teaching as they prepared for off-campus teaching practice. According to Aydin and Boz (2010), teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs help us to predict their motivation and choice and to ascertain their actions in class. It is therefore important to determine the pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs towards science teaching due to the fact that they will be teachers in the future. Any detection of low self-efficacy towards science teaching can be addressed before they complete their programme. A similar argument can be made for the study of pre-service teachers’ attitude towards science teaching. The study was guided by the following research questions: 1. What are the levels of basic pre-service science teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs toward science teaching? 2. What is the attitude of the basic pre-service science teachers towards science teaching?

2. Theoretical/Literature Review The conceptualisation of teaching efficacy have been based on Bandura’s (1977; 1997) social cognitive theory and his construct of self-efficacy. According to Bandura, self-efficacy is the belief in one’s capabilities to deal with different situations and to perform a certain task required to produce given attainments and this belief is dependent on the individual’s beliefs in his/her abilities (Bandura, 1997). Teachers' sense of efficacy is a construct derived from Bandura's (1986) theory of self-efficacy in which the generalised behaviour of an individual is based on two factors, (a) a belief about action and outcome and (b) a personal belief about his/her own ability to cope with a task. According to Bandura, the self-efficacy belief can be analysed in two dimensions as: ‘personal efficacy and ‘outcome expectancy’. Personal efficacy is the judgement about the individual’s own values and beliefs in terms of personal competencies affecting an assigned responsibility. Outcome expectancy is a judgement about the individual’s belief in a performance to be realised in a strategic test. Teachers’ efficacy beliefs have a crucial role on their performance and motivation (Lewandowski, 2005; Tschannen-Moran & Woolfolk-Hoy, 2001). Teachers with high expectations will work hard, apply management and strategies stimulating students’ autonomy (Woolfolk Hoy, 2000) and deal with the needs of low level ability students very closely. It can be said that teachers’ high self-efficacy beliefs are a factor which positively affect students’ learning and thus quality of teaching.

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To sum up, these studies revealed that teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs are related to teacher effectiveness, student achievement, teaching anxiety and instructional strategies. Because of strong relationship between self-efficacy beliefs and teaching behaviours, teacher education programmes need to evaluate efficacy beliefs of their education students.

The word attitude is defined within the framework of social psychology as a subjective or mental preparation for action. A commonly used definition of attitude is a learned disposition to respond in a consistently favourable or unfavourable manner with respect to a given subject, object or event (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975; Koballa cited in Bayraktar, 2011). Oppenheim (1992) also described attitude as a state of readiness or a tendency of a person to respond in a certain manner when confronted with a certain stimulus. Both definitions highlight a consistent behavioural response in relation to a given attitude. Attitudes are rooted in experience and become automatic routine conduct (Gunstone & White, 1998). Therefore, science teachers’ actions in science classrooms may be based on their ideas and beliefs manifested in their attitudes towards science teaching and learning.

Science teachers’ attitude towards science and science teaching has been cited by elementary school teachers as an obstacle to effective science instruction (Koballa, & Crawley, 1994). For example, motivation to undertake science activities requires the teacher to value the tasks (Pintrich, Marx & Boyle, 1992), which includes a view that science can have personal relevance for most people (Watters & Ginns, 1995). If the science teacher finds relevance of science in their context then they will be interested to teach it.

However, teachers’ attitudes towards science teaching cannot directly be observed but must be inferred from what they say or do (Garrison & Magoon, 1972; Nespor, 1987; Pajares, 1992). What they say is reflected in their response to attitude scales (Aldridge, & Fraser, 2000; Simpson, & Oliver, 1990) and what they do can be determined through their classroom practices of that approach (Lumpe, Haney, & Czerniak, 1998). Indeed, the science teacher’s classroom practices are functions of his/her attitude (Brickhouse, & Bodner, 1992). This informed the study and the development of the instrument for measuring teachers’ attitude towards science instruction.

2.1 Pre-service Teachers’ Self-Efficacy Beliefs towards Science Teaching Many researchers have focused on self-efficacy and outcome expectancy in relation to teaching (Ashton & Webb, 1986; Enochs & Riggs, 1990; Gibson & Dembo, 1984; Guskey, 1988; Wool folk & Hoy, 1990). According to Ashton, Webb and Doda (1983) a teacher’s sense of efficacy can be interpreted by the proposal of a blueprint which is made up of teaching efficacy, personal efficacy and personal teaching efficacy. A teachers’ belief about the general relationship between teaching and learning is teaching efficacy and this seems to be the same as Bandura’s outcome expectancy. In a general sense, a teacher own general ideas about his/her own effectiveness which is not specific to any particular situation is referred to as personal efficacy. Personal teaching efficacy is considered to be a combination of one’s

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 23 Online-ISSN 2411-2933, Print-ISSN 2411-3123 August 2016 teaching proves and personal efficacy. It is considered to be important to keep teaching and personal efficacy as separate elements conceptually as suggested by Ashton et al. (1983). This is because strategies for intervention to produce change may depend on the origin of a teacher’s sense of efficacy. Personal Teaching Efficacy is postulated by Ashton et al. as an accurate indicator of a teachers’ behaviour. Teachers who have a high efficacy, for instance, have been found to have the propensity to use the inquiry and student-centred teaching strategies (Cantrell, Young & Moore, 2003). On the other hand teachers who tend to have a low sense of efficacy are rather prone to use teacher centred technique/methods like lecturing, and /or reading from prepared notes or even directly from textbooks (Czerniak, 1990).

In the view of Gibson and Dembo (1984), teachers who have higher scores on both teaching and personal teaching efficacy would be active and confident in their responses to students’ needs. These teachers persist longer and provide greater academic leverage in the classroom and show varieties of feedback. On the hand teachers’ low scores on both general teaching and personal efficacy relates to the amount of personal effort the teachers make in class and their persistence. In conclusion, one can state that researchers who used Gibson and Dembo’s instruments must have discovered that teacher efficacy is replicated in the teacher’s own classroom behaviour which is akin to his receptiveness to try out new concepts.

In a study to identify changes in pre-service elementary teachers' sense of efficacy in teaching science, Ginns, & Tulip (1995) reported that Science Teaching Efficacy (STE) and Science Teaching Outcome Expectancy (STOE) were not significantly correlated, the former being more dependent on personal traits such as internal locus of control and self-concept, whereas the latter was related to levels of aspiration, academic interest and satisfaction. The study concluded that the STOE is more easily influenced by the teacher education programme than the STE, as the latter is concerned more with global personality traits. It is, the concern of teacher educators to improve the students' sense of STE, as this has implications for the teachers' ability to teach science, and the children's ability to learn science (Riggs, & Enochs, 1990). Kahraman, Yilmaz, Bayrak and Gunes (2014) investigated 114 Turkish pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs of science teaching with respect to gender and grade. The participants completed the science teaching self-efficacy beliefs scale originally developed Enochs and Riggs (1990). The results indicated that the pre-service teachers had very high self-eccacy beliefs of science teaching. In sum teacher self-efficacy has been related to teachers’ classroom behaviour, their openness to new ideas and their attitudes towards science teaching. Riggs and Enoch (1990) suggest that teacher educators must be aware of their students’ beliefs and plan for experiences which will have positive impact on teacher personal science teaching efficacy and outcome expectancy. It is therefore important to investigate pre-service basic science teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs. This will serve as a key in understanding how to increase their sense of efficacy in science teacher education programmes.

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For nearly three decades researchers have investigated teacher self-efficacy beliefs and made significant progress in understanding its nature, how it is related to other variables such as students’ achievement and how it can be measured. Yet, little or no work seems to have been done on this construct involving pre-service teachers in colleges of education in Ghana. Therefore, this study was an attempt to bridge this gap. Also analysis of such beliefs may provide information that will direct training of science teachers capable of innovative science instruction in Ghanaian basic schools.

2.2 Attitudes toward Science Teaching Interest in how teachers’ attitudes toward science affect learning and science teaching has over the years gained prominence. In an earlier study, Allport (1935) expressed attitude as the most distinctive and indispensable concept in contemporary social psychology. He insisted that attitude toward science should not be confused with scientific attitude, which may be aptly labeled scientific attributes (e.g., suspended judgment and critical thinking). “I like science”, “I hate science” and “Science is horrible!” are considered to be expressions of attitudes toward science because they denote a general positive or negative feeling toward the formal study of science or science as an area of research (Koballa & Crawley, 1985). In a much broader sense, a person’s attitude toward science conveniently summarizes his or her emotional response to basic beliefs about science. So attitudes help others predict the kinds of science related behaviours we are likely to engage in more accurately than almost anything else we can tell them (Koballa & Crawley, 1985).

The study of attitude towards science has become an important concept for a number of reasons. First, attitudes toward science are taught to fulfill basic psychological needs, such as the need to know and the need to succeed. Second, attitudes toward science are thought to influence future behaviours, such as interest in working on a science project and scientific activities. The quality of science instruction and teachers’ attitudes toward science have been shown to positively influence students’ attitude and achievement in science as well as their decision to enroll in science courses and pursue science and technology-related careers (Turkmen, 2008). Teachers with greater interest and appreciation for science tend to be more motivated to teach science, impart their interest to students, and encourage retention of students’ natural curiosity. Again, teachers’ attitude toward science is one of the major influences on students’ attitude toward science. Turkmen and Bonnstetter (1999) studied 612 Turkish pre-service science teachers’ attitudes toward science and science teaching by using a Turkish version of Science Teaching Attitudes Scale (STAS II) developed by Moore and Foy (1997). The results of this study indicated that pre-service Turkish science teachers had positive attitudes toward science and science teaching.

The relationship between level of science knowledge, beliefs and attitude toward science teaching has been shown to be positive in some studies (Crawley, 1991; Manning, Esler & Baird, 1982; Mechling, Stedman, & Donnellon, 1982) while other studies (Stepans & McCormack, 1985; Feistritzer, & Boyer, (1983) have shown no relationship or even a negative relationship. However, most of these studies were

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 25 Online-ISSN 2411-2933, Print-ISSN 2411-3123 August 2016 conducted using university students and none of them was conducted in colleges of education. Again, most studies that investigated the influence of factors such as teacher knowledge, efficacy beliefs and attitudes on science teaching were done in countries in Asia, and Europe while very little was conducted in Africa and Ghana for that matter (Ngman-Wara, 2012). Because of these reasons literature on these factors that affect the teaching of science is mostly from foreign sources. This study therefore sought to bridge the gap by investigating pre-service science teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs and attitudes toward science teaching.

3. Methodology A descriptive survey research design was used in this study. Descriptive surveys are used to learn about people’s attitudes, beliefs, values, opinions and other types of information (McMillian & Schumacher, 2004).

3.1 Description of participants Purposive sampling technique was used to obtain a sample of 100 pre-service (92 males and 8 females) third year science students from two Ghanaian science and mathematics Colleges of Education, Akasti College of Education (65) in the Volta Region and Ada College of Education (35) in the Greater Accra Region. Purposive sampling was used because the researchers deliberately targeted the final year science students who were preparing for their one year mandatory off-campus teaching practice or out-segment programme of the three year diploma programme run by colleges of education.

The pre-service teachers are educated through a three year diploma in basic education programme made up of two years of taught courses in science content and methodology. The method courses for teaching science include nature of science, science curriculum and curriculum material studies and assessment in science. The programme also includes on-campus teaching practice which prepares them for one year out-segment programme for the first ten months of their third year in partner schools after which they come back to campus for post out-segment orientation from the Ghana Education Service officials on their future professional development when there are engaged by the Service. They also write they final examinations on two education courses during this period.

3.2 Instrumentation The instrument, Self-Efficacy Beliefs towards Science Teaching (STEBI-B) developed by Enochs and Riggs (1990) and Science Teaching Attitude Scale developed by Thompson and Shringly (1986) were used to collect data for the study. The STEBI-B scale was used to collect data on pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs regarding science teaching. The instrument consists of a 23 item 5-point Likert-Type scale.The STEBI-B has two subscales, Personal Science Teaching Efficacy (PSTE) and Science Teaching Outcome Expectancy (STOE). The PSTE has 13 items while the STOE has 10 items. The Personal science teaching efficacy beliefs refer to the extent teachers believe that they have the capacity to positively affect students’ achievement. The science teaching outcome expectancy reflects science teacher’s beliefs that

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 26 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-4 No-8, 2016 student learning can be influenced by effective teaching. Each item of the scale consisted of a statement followed by five responses with weightings: strongly agree (5), agree (4), not certain (3), disagree (2), and strongly disagree (1). The respondents answered the questions by selecting one of the responses that best expressed their opinion on the item.

The Science Teaching Attitude Scale was used to collect data on pre-service science teachers’ attitude toward science teaching. Its adoption and use was informed by the fact that it has proven to be efficient in many studies on pre-service teachers’ attitudes with consistent results. The scale is also a Likert- type with 20 items. The responses are categorized with weightings as strongly agree (5), agree (4), not certain (3), disagree (2), and strongly disagree (1).

Pilot tests were carried out with 100 pre-service basic science teachers from a College of Education that shared similar characteristics with the sampled college to establish Cronbach reliability coefficients of the instruments. The Cronbach reliability coefficient of STEBI-B was found to be 0.87 and the subscales, PTSE subscale and STOE had reliability values of 0.89 and 0.76 respectively. The reliability coefficient of the attitude scale was .87.

3.3 Data Collection Procedure The junior researcher administered the questionnaires. He obtained obtain permission from the Principal of each college to conduct the study and solicited the involvement of the selected pre-service teachers. The STEBI-B was administered first followed by the attitude scale after 45 minutes. The participants were guaranteed confidentiality and the instruments were filled anonymously with no identifying information. No time limit was given during completion of the questionnaires. The questionnaires were collected when a participant indicated that she/he had completed them.

3.4 Data Analysis The data were analysed through SPSS software version 16 for windows. Descriptive statistics were used to describe and summarise the data. Negatively worded items were scored in reverse with strongly disagree (1), disagree (2) undecided (3), agree (4) and strongly agree (5). Accordingly, negative questionnaire items 3, 6, 8, 10, 13, 17, 19, 21, and 23 for STEBI-B and 1, 3, 5, 8, 9, 10, 12, 17, 18 for the attitude scale were scored inversely to produce consistent values between positively and negatively worded items. The participants’ responses for each scale were categorised into agree, neutral or disagree and frequencies of their responses were determined and converted into percentages. The means and standard deviations of the responses were also determined. Mean ratings of 1.0 to 1.75 represent low, 1.76 to 2.25 moderate, 2.26 to 3.25 high and 3.26 to 4.00 very high. These criteria were used by Shamsid-Deen and Smith (2006) in a similar study. The Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficients for the STEBI-B scale and for the subscales, PTSE and STOE, were found to be 0.89, 88 and 80 respectively while that of the attitude scale was 0.89

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4 Results

4.1 Background information of participants The background information of the participant is provided in Table 1. The study sample consisted of 92% males and 8 % females. The dominant age group ranged between 24 and 26 years (39%, n=39) and less dominant age group was 31 and above (11%, n=11). The pre-service teachers indicated six programmes they offered at the senior high school level. About a third (35 %) of the sample offered elective science at the Senior High School which is the most preferred requirement for science in the Colleges of Education. The programme with the second largest number of participants was Agricultural science (29 %) and the programme with the least number of participants was general arts (5 %). Further details are provided in the table.

Table 1. Background information on the participants

Variable Category N Percent Gender Male 92 92 8 8 Female Age 18-20years 12 12 21-23years 22 22 24-26years 39 39 27-30years 16 16 >31years 11 11 Elective Elective Science 35 35 programme Agricultural Science 29 29

Business 15 15 Arts 5 5 Technical 10 10 Home Economics 6 6

4.2 Research question 1: What are basic pre-service science teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs toward science teaching? Table 2 presents the mean scores, standard deviations and percentage frequencies of respondent’ scores for each item of STEBI-B scale. In addition, the table presents the descriptive statistics for each item of PSTE and STOE subscales. Mean ratings of 1.0 to 1.75 represent low, 1.76 to 2.25 moderate, 2.26 to 3.25 high and 3.26 to 4.00 very high. In this context, except for items 10 and 13, the pre-service teachers indicated very high level of self-efficacy beliefs regarding the teaching of science on both dimensions. The means scores of items of the STEBI-B scale ranged between 2.2 and 4.6 the standard deviations also

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 28 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-4 No-8, 2016 ranged between 0.6 and 1.3. Most of the items had mean scores above the general mean of 3.0 of the scale. Only items 10 (M= 2.2, SD =1.1) and 13 (M = 2.4, SD = 1.3) had mean scores less than the general mean of the scale. The overall mean score and standard deviation of the scale were 88.2 and 9.1 respectively. Generally the results indicate that the pre-service teachers exhibited high self-efficacy beliefs towards science teaching. Table 2. Item mean scores, standard deviations and percentage frequencies of respondents’ scores on items of STEBI-B Scale subscale Item Mean Score Standard AGREE UNDECIDED DISAGREE number Deviation PSTE 2 4.6 0.6 97.6 0.0 2.4 *3 3.8 1.1 59.5 26.2 14.3 5 4.4 0.8 78.6 14.4 7.0 *6 3.7 1.1 11.9 16.3 67.0 8 3.8 1.1 66.7 21.4 11.9 12 4.0 0.9 81.0 9.5 9.5 *17 4.1 0.9 85.7 9.5 4.8 18 3.8 0.9 85.7 7.2 7.1 *19 3.6 1.2 61.9 16.7 21.4 20 3.6 1.3 61.9 21.4 16.7 *21 4.4 0.9 88.1 9.5 2.4 22 3.8 1.0 71.4 16.7 11.9 *23 4.3 1.0 88.1 9.5 2.4 STOE 1 4.0 1.2 76.2 14.3 9.5 4 3.8 1.0 78.6 11.9 9.5 7 4.0 1.2 14.6 18.7 66.7 9 4.4 0.7 90.5 7.1 2.4 *10 2.2 1.1 14.3 9.5 76.2 11 3.7 0.9 95.2 2.4 2.4 *13 2.4 1.3 21.4 11.9 66.7 14 3.8 1.0 73.8 11.9 14.3 15 4.1 0.9 83.3 9.5 7.2 16 3.4 1.1 88.1 7.5 4.4 *scoring reversed for negatively worded items; scale M =71.7, SD = 10.6

Similar trends are observed with the item mean scores of the subscales. The mean scores of the items of subscale PTSE ranged between 3.6 and 4.6 with subscale mean score of 45.2 and standard deviation of 13.4. The standard deviations of the items ranged from 0.6 and 1.3. The mean scores of the items of subscale STOE ranged between 2.2 and 4.4 with subscale mean score of 36.3 and standard deviation of 10.3. The standard deviations of the items ranged from 0.7 and 1.3. These results can also be interpreted that the pre-service basic school teachers have very high PSTE and STOE, that is, they have the capability to teach science effectively and a very high level of science teaching outcome expectancy.

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The participants’ percentage responses for each item of the STEB-B scale are presented in Table 2. The results indicated very high self-efficiency beliefs towards teaching science among the pre-service science teachers. Majority of the respondents (76.2%) largely agreed that a little extra effort exerted by the science teacher could make the students perform better than usual (Item 1). Similarly 78.6% of the respondents asserted that if the teacher found a more effective ways of teaching, the grades of students in science would improve (Item 4). Also, 66.7% of the respondents disagreed that ineffective science teaching is the most likely cause of students under achievement (Item 7). Contrary to this a similar percentage (66.7%) of the respondents indicated their general ineffectiveness in teaching science (Item 8). In addition, 76.2% of the respondents disagreed with the fact that the low science achievement of some students cannot generally be blamed on their teachers (Item 10). This suggests that science teachers are partly the cause of students’ performance. It is however heart-warming that 90.5% indicated that good teaching is the antidote to overcoming students’ inadequate science backgrounds (Item 9). They may strive to attain that.

Respondents generally agreed (95.2%) that the teachers’ extra attention to low achieving students could help them progress in class (Item 11) but 66.7% of the respondents disagreed with the statement that increased efforts in science teaching may not produce any desirable result (Item 13). About 73.8% of the respondents indicated that the teacher is generally responsible for students’ achievement in science (Item 14) and 88.1% of respondents shared the view that if parents commend their wards for their interest in science, it is a commendation of the outstanding performance of the child’s teacher (Item 16). These assertions are supported by majority of the respondents (83.3 %) who indicated that students’ achievement in science is directly related to their achievement (Item 15).

About 98 % of respondents indicated their readiness to always adopt improved approaches to teach science (Item 2). On the contrary, a little more than half of the respondents (59.5%) were of the view that they could not teach science as well as they could teach other subjects (Item 3). About 67% of the respondents also indicated that they would not be very effective in ensuring successful science experiments (Item 6). In addition, 85.7% of the respondents claimed they may not be able to explain the principle’s underlying science experiments (Item 17). About 62 % of the pre-service science teachers were not confident of possessing the necessary skills for science teaching (Item 19). Many respondents (61.9%) would not want their science lessons to be observed if they have the choice (Item 20). This could well be because the respondents were not very confident they had what it takes to present a science lesson successfully. On a more positive note, 71.4% of the pre-service science teachers believed that they generally welcome students’ questions (Item 22) while 85.7% of the respondents claimed they have what it takes to answer students’ questions (Item 18). Also 78.6% of them also indicated that they know the steps necessary to teach science effectively (Item 5). However, 88.1% of the pre-service teachers asserted that they do not know what to do to turn students to science (Item 23). This could be because the respondents lacked the

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 30 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-4 No-8, 2016 confidence or creativity in helping students to be more interested in science and learning science as a whole.

Almost four-fifths of the respondents (81.0%) indicated that they understand science concepts well enough to teach science effectively (Item 12) yet 88.1 % of the respondents are at a loss as how to help a student understand a difficult concept (Item 21). This can be interpreted to mean they lack the pedagogical content knowledge to handle such difficult situations.

4.3 Research question 2: What is the attitude of basic pre-service science teachers towards science teaching? The mean scores, standard deviations and percentage frequencies of the respondents’ scores are presented in Table 3.

Table 3. Mean scores, standard deviations and Percentages of Respondents’ Score on Science Teaching Attitude Scale Item Item Description Mean SD Agree Neutral Disagree Number (%) (%) (%) *1 I will feel uncomfortable teaching science. 3.74 1.16 72.2 10.1 17.7 2 The teaching of science process is 4.44 0.76 94.9 1.3 3.8 important in the elementary classroom *3 I fear that I will be unable to teach science 3.35 1.26 51.9 17.7 30.4 adequately 4 I will enjoy the lab/hands on time when I 4.08 0.85 84.8 8.9 6.4 teach Science *5 I have a difficult time understanding 3.63 1.16 65.8 11.4 22.8 science 6 I feel comfortable with the science content 3.92 1.11 75.9 7.6 16.5 in the elementary school curriculum. 7 I would be interested in working on an 4.05 0.90 81.0 11.4 7.6 Experimental science curriculum *8 I dread teaching science 3.14 1.18 41.7 24.1 34.2 *9 I am not looking forward to teaching 3.80 1.15 16.5 12.7 70.8 science in my elementary classroom *10 I am afraid that pupils will ask me 3.80 1.15 70.8 8.9 20.3 questions that I cannot answer 11 I will enjoy manipulating science 4.25 0.91 86.0 8.9 5.1 equipment. *12 In the classroom, I fear science 3.54 1.23 60.8 16.4 22.8 experiments won’t turn out as expected. 13 I hope to be able to excite my pupils about 4.30 .76 91.1 6.3 2.6 science 14 I plan to integrate science into other subject 3.97 0.92 53.5 28.1 12 areas

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15 Science would be one of my preferred 3.96 1.07 77.2 16.5 6.3 subjects to teach if given the choice. 16 Science is as important as reading-writing 4.54 0.64 95.0 3.8 1.2 and mathematics *17 Teaching science takes too much effort. 2.39 1.10 17.7 24.1 58.2 *18 Teaching science takes too much time 2.46 1.10 19.0 20.2 60.8 19 I will enjoy helping pupils construct 4.15 0.81 83.6 10.1 6.3 science equipment. 20 Science is interesting 4.13 0.13 86.2 8.7 5.1 *scoring is reversed Scale mean score = 71.7, SD = 10.6 The mean scores ranged between 2.39 and 4.54 with the standard deviations ranging between 0.64 and 1.26. The overall item mean was 3.77 (SD = 1.15). Also, the scale means score was 71.7 with standard deviation of 10.61. The results indicated that the pre-service basic science teachers had very high positive attitude towards science teaching. This is also reflected in the percentage frequencies of the items of the attitude scale.

The percentage scores for the agree category ranged between 17.7 % and 95 % and those of the neutral category ranged between 3.8 % and 28.1 %, while those of the percentage scores for the disagree category ranged between 1.2 % and 70.8 %. Almost all the respondents (94.9 %) asserted to the fact that teaching of process science is important in the elementary school curriculum (Item 2). It is therefore not surprising that about 85 % of the respondents would enjoy laboratory/hands-on time when they teach science (Item 4). In the same vein 81 % of them would be interested in working on experimental science curriculum (Item 7). This is corroborated by 86.0 % of the respondents who would enjoy manipulating science equipment (Item 11). Again, about 84 % of the respondents would enjoy helping pupils to construct science equipment (Item 19). However, about 61 % of the respondents are afraid experiments would not work out well in class (12). These expressed attitudes should be enhanced through methodology courses and confidence of the pre-service teachers should be build to do away with their fear of failure in obtaining results from experiments.

Over four-fifths of the respondents indicated that science is interesting (Item 20). Also, 77.2 % of them indicated that science would be one of the preferred subjects to teach if given the chance (Item 15). This is supported by the assertion of about 76 % of the respondents that they feel comfortable with the science content in the elementary school curriculum (Item 6). This is not supported by their responses to some items. For instance, more than half (66 %) of the respondents indicated that they have a difficult time understanding science (Item 5) and a little over half of them fear that they would be unable to teach science (Item 3). Again 72.2 % indicated that they would feel uncomfortable teaching science (Item 1). A good number of respondents are afraid that they would not answer questions from their pupils (Item 10). These fears may be attributed to the pre-service teachers’ poor foundation in science content and poor practical skills. This could be explained by the fact that almost two-thirds the pre-service teachers (65 %) studied other subjects not related to science at the Senior High School (see Table 2). This is supported by

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Akyeampong’s (2001) assertion that most of the pre-service teachers entered colleges of education with poor grades in science. These fears may also be due to poor pedagogical content knowledge.

It is however heart-warming to report that about 42 % of the respondents dread teaching science (Item 8) and 70.8 % of them are looking forward to teaching science in elementary classroom (Item 9). Again, 91 % of respondents hope to excite their pupils about science. Over half of the respondents (58.2 %) asserted that teaching science takes less effort (Item 17) and about 61 % also indicated that teaching science takes little time (Item 18).

Though 95 % of the respondents see science as important as reading and writing and mathematics (Item 16), a little over half (53.5 %) plan to integrate science into other subjects (Item 14).

5. Discussion This section discussed the major findings of the study under themes derived from the research questions.

5.1 Pre-service basic science teachers’ Science teaching self-efficacy level Teacher efficacy implies the beliefs of teachers about their ability to teach science skills in such a way as to lead learners achieve their learning goals. It involves judgement of the individual teacher’s strengths in helping students to achieve relevant goals (Tschannen-moran & Woolfolk Hoy, 2001). The science teacher’s self-efficacy beliefs has a direct bearing on their performance, hence the many educational researches focused attention on it. A number of researches concluded that the teacher’s self-efficacy correlates with effective teaching and learning attitudes towards science (Anderson, Greene, & Loewen 1999; Ashton & Webb, 1986; Ross, 1992; Tschannen-Moran, Woolfolk Hoy, & Hoy, 1998).

This study has found very high self-efficacy levels among the pre-service science teachers. This implies that the pre-service teachers have quite a strong conviction of their ability to execute teaching skills effectively and will be able to lead their pupils to successfully achieve their learning goals. Most of the respondents acknowledged that students who scored high marks on students achievement tests in science is highly related or influenced by the efforts of the science teacher and those inadequacies in the student’s science background can be overcome when students are effectively engaged in constructive activities. The respondents generally agreed (95.2%) that an additional effort by the science teacher can transform a low achiever in class to high achiever. Due to the very strong correlation between science teaching efficacy beliefs and science teaching behaviours teacher preparation institutions should endeavour to increase the self-efficacy of their pre-service teachers. This when done will serve as the foundation for their attitudes and beliefs (Sarikaya, 2004) towards effective science teaching.

The findings of this study also revealed rather very strong science teaching self-efficacy beliefs of the pre-service teacher. This means that the pre-service teachers are very determined to take up the responsibility of their students’ learning achievements and goals. However, the relatively poor science

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 33 Online-ISSN 2411-2933, Print-ISSN 2411-3123 August 2016 background in science (see Table 1) poses the question of whether these pre-service teachers are adequately ready to take up the challenge of effective science teaching in the basic school classrooms. About 71.4% of the pre-service teachers indicated that they will welcome student’s questions and as high as 85.7% of the respondents claimed they have what it takes to answer student’s questions. This is contrary to the finding of Wenner (1993) where only 2% of respondents in a similar study were positive of being able to answer student’s questions. Even though the pre-service teachers overwhelmingly (97.6%) asserted that they would often adopt improved ways of teaching science, more than half of them (59.5%) (See Table 2) indicated they could teach other subjects better than science. Again, 61.9 % would not want their science lessons to be observed while 62 % were not confident of possessing the requisite skills for science teaching. These are low personal science teaching efficacy beliefs. These contradict some STEBI-B item percentages which indicate high science efficacy beliefs. This discrepancy between the STEBI-B items percentages agrees with the results of Bursal (2012) in a study involving pre-service elementary teachers. Bursal reported that while 94 % of his study subjects would welcome students’ questions, 55 % said they would be able to answer students questions.

The generally high science teaching self- efficacy levels found in this study, might be partly attributed to the many pedagogical courses they offered during their two years of study in the college (Czerniak & Chiarelott, 1990; Cantrell, Young & Moore, 2003). However the low background knowledge in science could be responsible for some of the pre-service science teachers’ assertion that they may not be able to answer students’ questions. To ameliorate this problem among pre-service teachers, adequate science content courses should be mounted to equip them adequately before they embark on their one year internship programme where real teaching is done. This is because various studies suggest that teachers’ efficacy may be significantly influenced by their teacher preparation programme (Flores, 2015) especially science method courses (Bayraktar, 2011; Bursal, 2010; Bleicher & Lindgen, 2009).

5.2 Attitude of Basic Science Pre-Service Teachers to Science and Science Teaching Attitude as a concept is concerned with an individual’s way of thinking, acting and behaviour. It has very serious implications for the learner, the teacher, the immediate social group with which the individual learner is associated and the entire school system. Attitudes are formed as a result of some learning experiences. They may also be learned by following the examples or opinion of teacher parent or a friend. This is mimicry or imitation which also has a part in the teaching and learning situation. In this respect the learner draws from his teacher’s disposition to form his own attitude, which may likely affect his learning outcome. Bandura (1981) indicated that behaviours are acquired by observing an actor. This could be a teacher. In the classroom students model the teacher by imitating whatever he or she does. Therefore the teacher’s attitude about the student’s learning can have a great influence on the student since the teacher’s attitude has direct influence on that of the student.

This Study has found both positive and negative attitudes among the pre-service science teachers who were just about to start their one year mandatory internship programme. About 95% of the respondents

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 34 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-4 No-8, 2016 asserted that teaching of science process is important in the basic school while 84.8% of them indicated that they will enjoy laboratory and hands-on activities when they teach science in their classes. These are positive attitudes and are very crucial as far as science teaching and learning is concerned. If the pre-service positive attitude towards laboratory and hands-on activities are extended into their future science lessons their pupils are likely to acquire essential process skills such as recording, communicating, predicting, inferring and interpretation of data. These skills are emphasised in the science syllabus across the basic school levels of education in Ghana (Curriculum Research Development Division, 2010, 2012). Essential process skills such as recording, communicating measuring together with higher order skills like predicting, inferring, hypothesizing etc. are acquired through activity –based lessons (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 1994). The pre-service teachers will also assist their pupils to conceptualise the science topics that will be taught. This is because increased conceptualisation of science topics among learners occurs through inquiry-based teaching that engages pupils in the investigative nature of science (Yara, 2009). In addition, pupils engaged in activity-based lessons develop increased creativity, better attitudes towards science, and have improved logic development, communication skills and reading-readiness (Haury & Rillero, 1994).

Ninety-five percent of the respondents in this study agreed that science teaching and learning is important as other subjects. The positive attitudes could be attributed to the science method courses the pre-service teachers offered during their course of study and the demonstration lessons organised for them my their tutors. This is supported by Ginns’ & Watters’ (1990) assertion that the way people were taught science during their earlier school days also influences the attitudes they develop towards science and science teaching. So science tutors are encouraged to serve as role models, make science teaching and learning fun and design enough demonstration lessons for pre-service teachers in order to leverage positive attitudes of the latter.

The findings of the study also revealed significant negative attitudes of the pre-service science teachers towards science teaching that suggest low levels of personal science teaching efficacy beliefs. For instance, a good number of the respondents (72%) asserted that they would feel uncomfortable teaching science while 51.9% indicated that they feared they would not be able to teach science adequately. Also, 65% of them affirmed that they do not find it easy understanding science while 70.8% said they fear they may not be able to answer pupils’ questions well enough and doubted their own ability to carry out successful science experiments. These negative attitudes could be attributed to their weak science background as found in this study in which 65 % of the respondents did not pursue elective science programme at the senior high school level. The findings confirm Stevens’ and Wenner’s (1996) assertion that high science content knowledge correlates positively with the desire of an individual to teach science while low or lack of adequate science content knowledge relates to low confidence and willingness to teach science. Also, research has shown that lack of adequate subject content knowledge in science results in decreased ability to guide pupils successfully through hands-on and laboratory activities in science lessons (Haury & Rillero, 1994). So these low levels of personal science teaching efficacy beliefs

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 35 Online-ISSN 2411-2933, Print-ISSN 2411-3123 August 2016 will negatively affect the hands-on activities and laboratory work in the future science lessons of the pre-service teachers (Tosun, 2000). It is therefore crucial to help the pre-service teachers to acquire adequate subject content knowledge in science in order to develop positive attitudes towards science and science teaching. This can be done if tutors become more enthusiastic and resourceful in updating their students’ science content knowledge (Ogunniyi, 1982).

6. Conclusions The study was to determine pre-service basic science teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs and their attitude towards science teaching. Two questionnaires, Self-efficacy Beliefs towards Science Teaching (STEBI-B) and Science Teaching Attitude Scale were administered to pre-service basic science teachers. Descriptive statistics were used to analyse the data. The results showed that the pre-service basic science teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs towards science teaching were generally very high for both PSTE and STOE. This implies that most of the pre-service teachers were upbeat about their abilities to teach science in basic school classes during the out-of campus teaching practice or internship component of their training programme. However, the pre-service teachers’ responses on some items of PSTE subscale suggested a low personal science teaching efficacy. In order to increase pre-service teachers’ personal science teaching efficacy beliefs, college science tutors should integrate science content in their method science courses to upgrade the pre-service teachers’ science content knowledge.

The results also found overall positive attitudes towards science teaching among the pre-service science teachers. Science teachers’ attitude towards teaching of science plays a significant role in shaping the attitude of students towards the learning of science. Therefore the pre-service basic science teachers are more likely to develop positive attitudes towards science in their pupils during the internship period. This will have a positive effect on pupils’ science achievement as well as their attitude towards science.

The findings of the study indicate a very high self-efficacy beliefs and positive attitudes of the pre-service teachers towards science teaching and learning. However, which component of the science education programme is more influential on the pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs and positive attitudes towards science teaching could not be made implicit. Investigating the specific effects of components of the programme such as science content course, science methods courses and on-campus teaching practice would be useful to reach a more specific conclusion. The research was also conducted in two out of fifteen science colleges of education. Similar researches may be conducted to obtain more general results, using samples from other science colleges of education across the regions of Ghana.

References Akyeampong, K (2001). “Initial teacher training in Ghana-Does it counts?-A country report” Muster Discussion Paper Sussex: Centre for International Education, University of Sussex, U. K.

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Curriculum Research Development Division (2012). Teaching syllabus for integrated science (Primary 4-6). Accra, Ghana: Author. Czerniak, C. M. (1990, April).A study of self-efficacy, anxiety, and science knowledge in pre-service elementary teachers. Paper presented at the meeting of the National Association for Research in Science Teaching, Atlanta, GA. Czerniak, C. M., & Chiarelott, L. (1990).Teacher education for effective science instruction-A social cognitive perspective. Journal of Teacher Education. 41 (1), 49-58. Enochs, L. G. & Riggs, I. M. (1990). Further development of an elementary science teacher efficacy belief instrument: A pre-service elementary scale. School Science and Mathematics, 90 (8), 695-706. Feistritzer, E.C., & Boyer, E.L. (1983).The conditions of teaching: A style by state analysis. The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, Princeton, New Jersey. Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, L. (1975).Belief, attitude, intention, and behaviour, reading. MA: Addison-Wesley. Flores, I. M. (2015) Developing preservice teachers’ self-efficacy through field-based science teaching practice with elementary students. Research in Higher Education Journal, 27, 1- 19. Garrison, K. C., & Magoon, R. A. (1972). Educational psychology: An integration of psychology and educational practices. Columbus, OH: Merrill. Gibson, S., & Dembo, M. H. (1984). Teacher efficacy: A construct validation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 76 (4), 569-582. Ginns, I.S., & Watters, J.J. (1990).A longitudinal study of pre-service teachers personal and science teaching efficacy.(ED 404127). Ginns, I. S., & Tulip, D.F. (1995).Changes in pre-service elementary teachers’ sense of efficacy in teaching science. School Science and Mathematics, 95(8). Government of Ghana (1987) White paper on the report of the Educational Reform Review Committee, Accra, Ghana: Ministry of Education. Government of Ghana (2001). National Science and Technology Policy Document. Accra, Ghana: Ministry of Environment, Science and Technology (MEST). Government of Ghana (2004) White paper on the report of the Educational Reform Review Committee, Accra, Ghana: Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports. Government of Ghana (2009). National Science and Technology Policy Document. Accra, Ghana: Ministry of Education, Science and Sports. Gunstone, R. F. & White, R. T. (1998). Teachers’ attitudes about physics classroom practice. Connecting Research in Physics Education with Teacher Education. International Commission on Physics Education. Retrieved June 18, 2006, from http://www.physics.ohio-state.edu/~jossem/ICPE/TOC.hml. Guskey, T. R. (1988). Teacher efficacy, self-concept, and attitudes toward the implementation of instructional innovation. Teaching and Teacher Education, 4 (1), 63-69. Haury, D. L. & Rillero, P. (1994) Perspectives on hands-on science teaching. Columbus, OH: ERIC Clearinghouse for science, mathematics and environmental science education. (ERIC Document

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Reproduction Science No. ED372926 Retrieved July 2015 from http:www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/content/cntareas/science/eric/eric-toc.htm. Hodson, D. (2008) Towards scientific literacy: A teachers’ guide to the history, philosophy and sociology of science. Rotterdam: Sense Publishers Hoy, W. A. (2000).Changes in teacher efficacy during the early years of teaching: Qualitative and quantitative approaches to examining efficacy in teaching and learning. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association. Huinker, D., & Madison, S. K. (1997).Preparing efficacious elementary teachers in science and mathematics: The influence of methods courses. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 8(2), 107-126. Institute of Education, University of Cape Coast, [IEUCC]. (2007). The Chief Examiner’s Report. Institute of Education , University of Cape Coast, Ghana [IEUCC]. Institute of Education, University of Cape Coast, Ghana [IEUCC]. (2008). The Chief Examiner’s Report. Institute of Education , University of Cape Coast, Ghana [IEUCC]. Institute of Education, University of Cape Coast, Ghana [IEUCC]. (2009). The Chief Examiner’s Report. Institute of Education, University of Cape Coast, Ghana [IEUCC]. Kahraman, S., Yilmaz, Z. A., Bayrak, R. & Gunes, K. (2014). Investigation of pre-service science teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs of science teaching,Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 136, 501-505. [Online] Available http://creativecommons.org/licences/by-nc-nd/3.0/ (April 10, 2015). Koballa, T. R., & Crawley, F. E. (1985). The influence of attitude on science teaching andlearning.School Science and Mathematics. 85 (3), 222-232. Koballa, T. R. & Crawley, F. E., (1994). The influence of attitude on science teaching and learning. School Science and Mathematics, 85 (3) 222-231. Lewandowski, K. H. (2005). A Study of the Relationship of Teachers’ Self-Efficacy and the Impact of Leadership and Professional Development. Doctoral Thesis, Indiana University of Pennsylvania. Lumpe, A. T., Haney, J. J., & Czerniak, C. M. (2000). Assessing teachers’ beliefs about their science teaching context. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 37,275–292. Manning, P.C., Esler, W.K., & Baird, J. R. (1982).How much elementary science is really being taught? Science and Children, 19 (8), 40-41. Mastropieri, M. A., & Scruggs, T. E. (1994). Text versus hands-on science curriculum: Implications for students with disabilities. Remedial and Special Education, 15(2), 72-85. Mcmillan, J.H. & Schumacher, S. (2004). Research in Education. New York: Longman. Mechling, D. R., Stedman, C. & Donnellon, J. (1982). Preparing and certifying science teachers: An NSTA Report. Science and Children. 20 (2), 9-14. Midgley, C., Feldlaufer, H., & Eccles, J. S. (1989). Change in teacher efficacy and student self-and task-related beliefs in mathematics during the transition to Junior high school. Journal of Educational Psychology, 81 (2), 247-258. Moore, R.W. & Foy, H. L. R. (1997). The scientific attitude inventory: A revision (SAI-II). Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 34, 327-336.

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Newman, E. (2013) The upgrading of teacher training institutions to colleges of education: Issues and prospects, African Journal of Teacher Education, 3(2) Retrieved https://journal.lib.uoguelph.ca/index/ajote/article/view/2728/3129 Nespor, J. (1997). Tangled up in school: Politics, space, bodies, and signs in the educational process. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Ngman-Wara, E. I. D. (2012). Pre-service secondary school science teachers’ science teaching efficacy beliefs. African Journal of Educational Studies Mathematics and Science, 10, 93-113. Ogunniyi, M. B. (1982). An analysis of prospective science teachers’ understanding of the nature of science. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 19, 25-32. Oppenheim, A.N. (1992). Questionnaire Design, Interviewing and Attitude Measurement. London: Printer Publisher Limited. Pajares, M.F. (1992). Teachers’ beliefs and educational research: Cleaning up a messy construct. Review of Educational Research. 62, 307-332. Pintrich, P. R., Marx, R. W., & Boyle, R. A. (1992). Beyond cold conceptual change: The role of motivational beliefs and classroom contextual factors in the process of conceptual change. Review of Educational Research, 63, 167-199. Ross, J.A. (1992). Teacher efficacy and the effect of coaching on student’s achievement. Canadian Journal of Education, 17 (1), 51-65. Rotter, J.B. (1966). Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement. Psychological Monographs, 80, 1-28. Sarikaya, H. (2004). Preservice elementary teachers’ science knowledge, attitude toward science teaching and their efficacy beliefs regarding science teaching (Unpublished master’s thesis). Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey. Schoeneberger, M., & Russell, T. (1986). Elementary science as a little added frill: A report of two case studies. Science Education, 70, 519-538 Schunk, D.H. (2003). Self-efficacy for reading and writing: Influence of modeling, goal setting, and self-evaluation. Reading & Writing Quarterly: Overcoming Learning Difficulties, 19, 159—172. Shamsid-Deen, I., & Smith, B. P. (2006) Integrating contextual teaching and learning practices into family and consumer sciences teachers’ curriculum. Journal of Family and Consumer Sciences Education, 24(1), 14-27. Simpson, R. D. & Oliver, J. S. (1990). A summary of the major influences on attitude toward and achievement in science among adolescent students. Science Education, 74, 1–18. Stepans, J., & McCormack, A. (1985). A study of scientific conceptions and attitudes towards science of Prospective elementary teachers: A research report. ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED226024. Stevens, C., & Wenner, G. J. (1996). Elementary pre-service teacher’s knowledge and beliefs regarding Science and Mathematics. School Science and Mathematics, 96(1), 2-9. Thompson, C. L., & Shrigley, R. L. (1986). What research says: Revising the science attitude scale. School Science and Mathematics, 86(4), 331-343.

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Tosun, T. (2002). The beliefs of pre-service elementary teachers toward science and science teaching School Science and Mathematics. 100 (7), 376-382. Tschannen-Moran, M., & Woolfolk Hoy, A. (2001). Teacher efficacy: Capturing an elusive construct. , Teaching and Teacher Education 17 (7), 783-805. Tschannen-Moran, M., Woolfolk Hoy, A., & Hoy, W. K. (1998). Teacher efficacy: Its meaning and measure. Review of Educational Research, 68(2), 202-248. Turkmen, H. (2008). Turkish primary students perceptions about scientist and what factors affecting the image of scientists. Euasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 4, 55-61. Turkmen, L., & Bonnstetter, R. (1999).A study of Turkish pre-service science teachers’ attitude toward science and science teaching. Paper presented at the annual convention of National Association of Research in science Teaching. Wallace, J., & Louden, W. (1992). Science teaching and teacher’s knowledge: Prospects for reform of primary classroom. Science Education, 76(5), 507-521. Watters, J. J. & Ginns, I. S. (1995). Origins and Changes in Pre-Service Teachers’ Science Teaching Self-Efficacy. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the National Association of Research in Science Teaching, San Francisco, April 1995. Wenner, G. (1993). Relationship between science knowledge levels and beliefs toward science Instruction held by pre-service elementary teachers. Journal of Science Education and Tchnology2 (3), 461-468 Woolfolk-Hoy, A. (2000). Changes in teacher efficacy during the early years of teaching. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New Orleans, LA. Session 43:22. Woolfolk, A. E., & Hoy, W.K. (1990).prospective teachers’ sense of efficacy and beliefs about control. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82(1), 81-91. Yara. P. O. (2009). Students’ attitude towards mathematics and academic achievement in some selected secondary schools in south-western Nigeria. European Journal of scientific research, 36(3), 336-341.

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Accelerated Bridge Construction (ABC), A Better Approach to Bridge Construction?

Mishal Alashari Dept. of Construction Management, University of Washington PO Box 351610, Seattle, WA 98195, USA

Abstract Accelerated Bridge Construction (ABC) is a common term given to the combination of different procedures that help reduce the construction period of a project. Utilizing these different procedures on bridge replacement/rehabilitation projects presents several benefits, including reduced traffic congestion and improved on-site safety. The purpose of this paper is to recognize the difference between Accelerated Bridge Construction and Conventional Bridge Construction, and the process of deciding which approach is more suitable for a particular project. Specifically, this paper explores the desirable condition in which utilizing ABC would be most beneficial for the owner, builder, community, and environment. The methodology used in this paper is the content analysis method, which includes a large amount of textual information. The analytical constructs may be obtained from existing practices, experience, knowledge of experts, and previous research studies. Throughout this research, data and information was collected from different scientific articles, research papers, books, and journals. The results conclude that when a project is located in a critical area, and time is a vital factor, the ABC approach can be much more beneficial compared to the conventional approach. However, this method cannot be applicable unless owners have financial capability, skilled and competent workers, and the required specialized equipment for the job. Thus, utilizing prefabrication elements is greatly advantageous, but only when owners have the sufficient recourses.

Key words: Prefabricated Bridge, modular structure, precast concrete

Introduction Bridges have always been an important part of our society, and they are essential and vital aspect for our day-to-day commuting. In transportation engineering, researchers and engineers have been developing different technologies and innovating different construction methods throughout the years in order to attain an economical, safe, and more convenient results in construction projects. There are many deficient bridges in the United States, and fixing them may cause many issues such as increasing the traffic congestion. Therefore, Accelerated Bridge Construction, or ABC, might be the best solution for bridge replacement/rehabilitation because it save time. The Accelerated Bridge Construction approach is one of the latest construction approaches that has been developed. In fact, prefabricating bridge elements

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 42 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-4 No-8, 2016 offers major time savings, cost savings, safety advantages, and convenience for travelers. The use of prefabricated bridge elements is also solving many construction challenges while enhancing bridge construction in the U.S. Further, over the past decade, the use of ABC has increasingly gained attention in the construction industry, especially in the United States. This unique bridge construction technique has brought many advantages in the construction industry because it can, if it is done properly, helps to reduce construction time, decrease accidents, and improve safety. On the other side of the coin, however, the Conventional Bridge Construction method, or CBC, could be more beneficial, regardless of all the benefits that comes with new innovative method. Both, ABC implementation and other alternatives, will be studied in this paper.

Literature Review

History The development of bridge technology can be divided broadly into two key eras. The first is the Arch Era, from 2 000 BC to the end of the 18th century, which was influenced by the Roman structures. During this period, stone arches were widely used in bridge construction and the historical reminisce of this method can still be seen around the world today. The second is the Steel Era, which began when steel became commercially obtainable as a construction material in the mid-19th century. All contemporary bridge types, including beam bridges, truss bridges, cantilever bridges, arch bridges, tied arch, suspension, and cable-styled bridges (especially those with longer life spans) have been feasible and possible due to the great strength of steel in tension and in compression. Around a century ago, engineers started utilizing concrete, and the entire construction industry began to change. A new method, called prestressing, helped stop concrete from cracking after being built. In today's world, the majority of bridges are made of steel and prestressed concrete, which has allowed these methods to stand the test of time and become the building blocks of the modern built environment.(Tang, n.d.)

Conventional Method The Conventional Bridge Construction method (CBC) is a process of construction that involves site activities which can be time consuming and weather dependent. Bridges, which can be categorized based upon how forces of tension, compression, shear, bending, and torsion are distributed through their structural elements,(“untitled - LivingBridge.pdf,” n.d.) come in many types - the most popular of which are briefly described below:

Beam Bridge Beam bridges are not only considered one of the oldest type of bridges, they also one of the simplest to design and build. Approximately half of the bridges in the United States are beam bridges. As shown in Figure 1, the beam bridge's strength depends on the strength of the roadway and can be increased by constructing further piers.(“National Building Museum,” n.d.) While it is easy to build a beam bridge,

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 43 Online-ISSN 2411-2933, Print-ISSN 2411-3123 August 2016 one major disadvantage is the fact that the distance between the piers is small, making it nearly impossible to build over water. This type of bridge can also be portrayed by its materials, such as concrete, metal, and stone, and may also have different types of spans, such as cantilever, continues, etc.3

Figure 1 Beam Bridge (infovisual.info) Truss Bridges Truss bridges are one of the most popular forms of bridge in the construction industry due to its numerous advantages. Early truss bridges, as far back as the sixteenth century, were made of wood, with the first metal truss bridge was built in the mid-nineteenth century. Truss bridges are considered strong and can even be used as a drawbridge, or even as an overpass for railway trains. However, while it is sophisticated to build a truss bridge, this method’s maintenance costs are extremely high (Figure 2). There are several types of truss bridges. The first is the thru truss, in which the road goes between the truss lines and is carried onto the deck. The second is a pony truss bridge, which is similar to the first type, although it does not have lateral bracing between the top chords. Finally, there is the deck truss bridge, which is different than the previews two forms because the road is situated above the trusses and its deck system is on top of the chords.4

Figure 2 Truss Bridge (infovisual.info) Arch Bridge

3 Aggeliki K.,(“Beam Bridge Construction & Design -Types of Beam Bridges,” n.d.) 4 (“truss.pdf,” n.d.) DOT.

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Arch bridges were primarily built by the Romans many centuries ago. This type of bridge can be built using different materials such as stone, concrete, and steel. The load on the bridge can be carried outward along the curve of the arch to the abutments, which is a structure built to support the lateral pressure at the ends of a bridge (Figure 3). Arches may be grouped upon the following parameters: . The materials of construction . The structural articulation . The shape of the arch Additionally, in terms of structural articulation, the arch can be fixed or hinged, with one, two, or even three hinges joined into the arch rib.(“Manual 11 Design Of Arch Bridges.pdf,” n.d.)

Figure 3 Arch Bridge (infovisual.info) Suspension Bridge When we think about suspension bridges, the first thing that comes to mind, compared to the other types of bridge structures, is the image of a strong bridge that has a much longer span, up to 7 000 ft. This unique structure is not only expensive, it takes a long time to build it and needs a large amount of materials. The main elements of this type of bridge are a pair of major cables stretching over a number of towers that are attached at the end to anchor, and smaller cables that are attached to the main cables to support the roadway. The load of the roadway is being carried by the cables, which transfers the force of compression to the towers of the bridge, while the tension force is acting on the cables (Figure 4). The main components of this kind of bridges are the stiffing girders/trusses, main cables, main towers, and anchorages.(“Chapter 18 - Suspension Bridges - Suspension-Bridge.pdf,” n.d.)

Figure 4 Suspension Bridge (infovisual.info)

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Cable-stayed Bridge This particular type of bridge is considered the newest form amongst the previous bridge types since it was first built in the mid-twentieth century in Sweden, and were created as an economical method to long-span bridges (500-2 800 ft). This type also contains one or more towers (Figure 5). The idea of the cable-stayed bridge is that the bridge carries largely vertical loads acting on a girder. The stay cables in the bridge gives an average supports for the girder in order to span a long distance. The basic structural shape of this type of bridge is a group of overlapping triangles involving the pylon, or the tower, the cables, and the girder. (“Chapter 19 - Cable-Stayed Bridges - ch19.pdf,” n.d.)

Figure 5 Cable-stayed Bridge (infovisual.info) Accelerated Bridge Construction At the beginning of the twenty-first century, it was noticeable that the use of the precast modular construction for ABC had started to gain popularity in the construction industry. Unlike the conventional construction method (Figure 6), this distinctive method seeks to reduce construction duration and the impacts on traffic by rapidly building bridges by building major bridge components close to their actual location and installing them speedily by utilizing heavy lifting equipment such as cranes or self-propelled transporters (Figure 7). ABC methods can greatly reduce the impact of construction work on both the environment and the community by working on the bridge’s components away from the roadway.

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Figure 6 Conventional Bride Construction (MnDOT)

Figure 7 Accelerated Bridge Construction (MnDOT) Problem Definition and Research Questions Time, cost, quality, and safety are the four factors that play a significant role in the planning, constructing, and controlling of construction projects. Accelerated bridge construction is recognized as an important method for bridge owners to accelerate the delivery of highway bridge projects. However, while the potential advantages of accelerated bridge construction are recognized, there are many occasions that conventional construction method can be more beneficial for the project. Thus, the specific question to address is, “What are the optimum and most suitable conditions for utilizing Accelerated Bridge Construction (ABC) method, and how is it implemented to be time efficient?”. Expanding upon this question, another question emerges, “What are the desirable cases for utilizing the Conventional Bridge Construction (CBC) Method over the Accelerated Bridge Construction (ABC) Method?”. This paper, however, will mainly focus on the superstructure replacement/rehabilitation projects.

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Methodology This research paper uses the “Content Analysis” method, which is a standard methodology in the social sciences for studying the content of communication. Earl Babbie, an American sociologist, defines communications as “the study of recorded human communications, such as books, websites, paintings and laws.”(Babbie, 2010) It is a highly flexible method that has been widely used in the library and information science studies. The research method is applied in quantitative, qualitative, and sometimes mixed modes of research framework and employs a wide range of analytical techniques to generate findings and put them into context. This method, however, will enable the study to include large amount of textual information and systematically identify its properties by detecting the more important structures of its communication content. The analytical constructs may be derived from existing practices, the experience or knowledge of experts, and previous researches. Throughout the research project, data and information will be collected from scientific articles, research papers, books, journals, and newspapers. Additionally, interviews with scholars and professional engineers who have a depth of experience in the transportation construction industry will be added as available.

Data Collection and Analysis

Decision Making The conventional bridge construction methods are still the most prominent process used by the construction industry, and it will take a long time for the ABC to be fully adopted by state departments of transportation across the nation. The first step in conducting such approach is to identify weather ABC is suitable for a particular project. There are two different approaches for ABC decision making were specified in this literature:(NCHRP, 2011)

Decision-Making Flowchart The first approach, which is a quick and simple procedure, is to answer the questions stated on the flowchart below (Figure 8), which was developed by The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA). A set of decision-making criteria are used to assist decision makers select the ideal method, whether ABC or CBC, and also choose whether using a prefabricated bridge is a more economical and effective choice or not. (“Framework for Decision-Making - ABC - Accelerated - Technologies and Innovations - Construction - Federal Highway Administration,” n.d.)

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Figure 8 Decision-Making Flowchart (The Federal Highway Administration)

The Table of Important Considerations These two unique tables (table 1 and 2) were developed by the author of Accelerated Bridge Construction, Best Practices and Techniques, Prof. Mohidduin Khan.(Khan, 2014) Each of the below items earn points and are eventually compared with the other construction methods. Table 1 Primary consideration for selection of suitable projects for ABC in terms of benefit Maximum Points Advantage Advantage Points Important Primary Considerations Based on Point (Traditional for Selecting ABC Project Features Using ABC Method) Estimated duration and importance of early completion 15 Complexity, river location, or seismic 15

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vulnerability Located on interstate/inter-country/local route 15 Feasibility of D-B management 15 Estimated cost of bridge & availability of funds 10 Bridge replacement or new bridge 10 Contractor's experience on similar projects 10 Span length, deck width, and number of traffic lanes 10 Total 100 The list of items in table 1: A+B+C+…+H (out of 100) for initial screening

Table 2 Secondary consideration for selection of suitable projects for ABC in terms of benefit Maximum Points Advantage Advantage Points Important Primary Based on Point (Traditional Considerations for Selecting ABC Project Features Using ABC Method) Shallow foundation/piles/drilled shaft from soil report 7.5 Impact of construction on environment 7.5 Type of deficiencies outlined in inspection reports for rehabilitation 7.5 Demolition easy/difficult 7.5 Deck geometry straight/skew/curved 5 Feasibility of detour/kkane closure/use of temporary bridge during construction 5 SPMT length of girders 5 Maximum crane capacity 5 Precast deck panel sizes 5 HPC concrete strength 5 HPC girder strength 5 Precast concrete substructure stregth 5 Mechanically stabilized earthwork (MSE) wing walls/precast retaining walls 5 Easy access to site 5 Site office/easy mobilization 5 Availability of labor 5 Present/projected average daily truck traffic (ADTT) 5 General/extreme weather conditions 5 Total The list of items in table 2: A+B+C+…+H (out of 200) for final screening

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The recommended points allocation are listed as follows: . Small advantages/impacts (30%) . Medium advantages/impacts (70%) . High advantages/impacts (100%) . Total Maximum points = 200

Seismic Considerations The majority of projects using ABC are in the U.S. regions of low-seismicity.(“ABC - Accelerated - Technologies and Innovations - Construction - Federal Highway Administration,” n.d.) In the presence of seismic forces, the connections between the bridge components should withstand the seismically-induced forces. This part provides information on the current standards for seismic details.(“nchrp20-68a_11-02.pdf,” n.d.)

General Standard All design and components details in ABC are generally similar to the details of the conventional bridge construction method that must be applied in any bridge, according to the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO).

Connection of Superstructure to Substructure There are several techniques to connect bridges to the substructure. Most often, those designs are made to transfer lateral seismic forces from the superstructure of the bridge to its substructure.

Pinned Connections In the majority of the ABC projects in the U.S., the connection between the superstructure and the substructure is detailed as a pinned connection. The most widespread type of pinned connection is over the bearing device (Figure 9) in which forces can be transferred from the superstructure over the bearing device then finally into the substructure of the bridge.

Figure 9 Bearing Device (http://www.archiexpo.com/)

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Moment Connection In order to provide further stability to the bridge in case of an earthquake, it is crucial to use moment connections between the superstructure and substructure of the bridge. These connections, however, can also minimize lateral movement of the structure and minimize forces in the foundation.

Columns In case of an earthquake, columns are considered the most heavily loaded components. Hence, exceptional care must be taken to fairly detail connections in precast column components. In high seismic zones, columns are designed to shape plastic hinges and help to remove the possible seismic forces (Figure 10). Further, it has been observed that due to the lack of seismic performance data for prefabricated element connections, ABC application is limited in high seismic regions.5

Figure 10 Columns reaction to Seismic Forces (https://www.researchgate.net)

Footings and Foundations Similar to the process of cast-in-place, the design of precast footings should go through the same regular procedures. In deep foundations, however, when precast piles are utilized, additional details might be required in order to provide pile uplift and moment capacity in the precast footings (Figure 11).

5 Mostafa Tazarv, M. Saiid Saiidi,(“UHPC-filled duct connections for accelerated bridge construction of RC columns in high seismic zones,” n.d.)

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Figure 11 Foundation6

Materials This section gives a general review of the various types of materials utilized in prefabrication and covers the effect of the materials on ABC procedures.

Concrete Concrete is the most used material for ABC projects. This material, in fact, is the first choice for designers due to the fact that its elements can be built off site in different shapes. Prevalent concrete elements include beams, deck slabs, and piers. Further, concrete can be utilized for making connections between the various bridge elements. These different type of connections, more likely, require high early strength concrete.

Structure Steel Steel elements, such as steel decks or steel beams, are very suitable for ABC projects. There is a great control over the tolerances of fabrication, hence, connections that are complex can be employed utilizing structural steel. Just like any other material, steel has advantages and disadvantages in ABC projects. One of its positive aspects is the fact that steel weighs less than an equal concrete element. On the other hand, steel has greater flexibility, and therefore, it is crucial, when steel components are being transported to the project site, to insure that internal stresses and deflection of the steel components are not exceeded.

Superstructure Systems Superstructures are designed based on the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) as “Structural parts of the bridge that provide the horizontal span.” In CBC, however, the superstructure is usually known as the part above the bridge bearings.

Prefabricated Deck Systems

6 Harbun Subekti (“Building Foundation Types for Construction Engineering,” 2015)

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Deck systems are probably one of the most important elements of ABC. In fact, it is very beneficial because in the conventional way of constructing a bridge, deck erection can be time-consuming. While, on the other hand, when ABC is implemented, the time that workers spend forming and placing concrete is no longer wasted. There are many types of prefab deck panels. A summary of these different types of decks are shown in Table 3(“Prefabricated/Precast Bridge Elements and Systems (PBES) for Off-System Bridges - BDK83_977-13_rpt[1].pdf,” n.d.-a), however, the two major types of precast deck panels are the partial-depth (Figure 12) and full-depth (Figure 13).(“Home | Federal Highway Administration,” n.d.)

Table 3 Deck Systems (The Federal Highway Administration) Time: System Days/Span Comments This includes longitudinal post-tensioning Full-depth Precast and closure pours. Deck Replacements have Concrete Deck Panels 2 been completed during a single weekend closure The lack of post-tensioning needs for Open Grid Decks 1 these systems can lead to very fast installations. Some of these systems are similar to full-depth precast decks. They require Concrete/Steel grouting in order to make the connection Hybrid Decks 2 to the beam framing. Adhesive connections and FRP Deck Panels 2 grouting are the major installation tasks. The panels install quickly (1 day); However, Partial Depth replacement of the top mat of reinforcement Precast Deck Panels 7 and concrete is needed to complete the deck. This system is simple and requires Timber Deck Panels 1 no grouting or post-tensioning. Summary of deck systems and their minimum installation times

Figure 12 Partial-depth Deck Panels (https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bridge/abc/prefab_def.cfm)

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Figure 13 Full-depth Deck Panels (https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bridge/abc/prefab_def.cfm)

Full-Depth Deck Panels In ABC, using the full depth panels can be greatly beneficial since it eliminates the need of formwork, reinforcing steel placement, concrete placement, and curing. This type of deck can be used in different sizes and shapes, and not only transversely, but also longitudinally. Most frequently, the components are built with transverse joints. Furthermore, these components can be simply prestressed and are usually post-tensioned longitudinally after placement since these components are being pre-casted elsewhere. A typical Full-depth precast deck system that usually consists of precast concrete panels is shown in (Figure 14)(Yamane, Tadros, & Baishya, 1998). These panels, however, are about eight inches thick that are placed close by each other on the bridge girders. There are various methods of connecting those panels to each other. The most popular one is what's called a “grouted shear key" connection (Figure 15)(“Design Guide for Precast UHPC Waffle Deck Panel System, including Connections | Federal Highway Administration,” n.d.)

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Figure 14 Typical full-depth precast concrete deck panel application on steel girders7

Figure 15 Grouted Shear Key (U.S. Department of Transportation)

Construction Sequence The typical procedure for constructing a full-depth precast panels on steel girder are listed as shown below: 1. First, girders are properly placed and difference in elevation are fixed with shims. 2. Carry the panels and put them onto the girders. 3. Difference in elevation of panels are corrected using shims. 4. Fill the joints between the panels with grout and allow the grout to gain the required compressive strength. 5. If longitudinal post-tensioning is involved in the design of the bridge, then, tendons are fed into ducts in the panels and stressed. (“Post Tensioning Manual - hif13026.pdf,” n.d.)

7 Missouri Transportation Institute (“or11005.pdf,” n.d.)

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6. Shear connectors, like shear studs for instance, are welded to the girders inside the shear pocket openings in the panels. Without them, the beam and slab will bend.(“Shear connection in composite bridge beams,” n.d.) 7. The shear pockets, which is the empty area between the panels, and the post positioning ducts are filled with grout and left to cure. 8. Place an overlay in order to have a smooth surface. It is crucial, however, to apply the longitudinal post-tensioning after the grouting of joints and before the group of panels are attached to girders in order to prevent any unwanted stress into the girders. Moreover, the same approach and steps explained earlier can be used for placing panels on prestressed concrete girders.

Partial-Depth Deck Panels This type of precast concrete panels, as shown in Figure 16 and 17, are thin prestressed concrete panels that spread between girders and act as stay-in-place forms for bridge construction. These panels are usually 3.5 inches thick and eight feet long.(“Prefabricated/Precast Bridge Elements and Systems (PBES) for Off-System Bridges - BDK83_977-13_rpt[1].pdf,” n.d.-b)

Figure 16 Typical precast/prestressed partial-depth deck panel (Sprinkel 1985)

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Figure 17 Typical partial-depth precast panel system (Tadros 1998)

Construction Sequence Typical procedure for constructing a partial-depth precast panels are listed as shown below: 1. Grout are placed on the top of the girders’ flange. 2. Use momentary supports to locate the panels until they are all grouted into place. 3. The panels are laid on top of girders (Figure 18). 4. A grout layer is placed between the bottom of the panels and the top of the girders’ flange. 5. All previous steps can be done simultaneously with the deck overhangs formwork. 6. On top of the panels, the upper layer of reinforcement for the composite deck is being positioned (Figure 19). 7. Place concrete for the deck and allow it to cure. 8. Remove the formwork after reaching the required strength.

Figure 18 Typical partial-depth precast panel installation (Sprinkel 1985)

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Figure 19 Top layer of reinforcing steel in place on top of partial-depth panels (WSDOT)

Substructure System

Precast Concrete Pier System The precast pier system uses the collection of precast columns and the precast cap beam elements to basically make piers, whether it is a single-column or multiple column type of piers. Pier systems, however, are suitable for different type of foundations. The single elements in the pier system are attached to the other with mild reinforcing steel. Figure 20 displays an example of a single-column pier. In ABC, prefabricated pier components are used since it can be extremely challenging to form and place concrete on site. As a result, great amount of both time and money will be saved, which is one of the important traits of utilizing ABC.(“SPR-687: Analysis of the State of the Art of Precast Concrete Bridge Substructure Systems - AZ687.pdf,” n.d.)

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Figure 20 Single-column pier composed of precast concrete components (Billington et al. 1999)

Open Frame Bents A precast pier caps and column is depicted in Figure 21. There are various types of connections used, however, components of open frame piers are usually joined utilizing grouted sleeve reinforcing bar couplers (Figure 22).(“Insecure Connection,” n.d.)

Figure 21 Precast Open Frame Bents (Federal Highway Administration)

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Figure 22 Grouted sleeve reinforcing bar couplers (IOWA DOT)

Building of precast concrete pier can be achieved fast. Utilizing precast concrete connection technology, a regular pier bent can be built within two days when the footings are in place.

Installation of Prefabricated Elements There are various methods used to assemble the prefabricated elements of a bridge, depending upon its location and structural system. However, the most common methods used for ABC are the "Lateral skidding/Sliding" and "Self-Propelled Modular Transporters (SPMTs)".(Mahmoud, 2011)

Lateral Skidding/Sliding When using this approach, a new superstructure is built on a temporary support alongside the old existing bridge. This technique allows the existing bridge to remain in service without causing any traffic jam in the area while the new one is being constructed. This method can be executed in two stages. The first stage includes building the substructure elements under the old existing bridge, as well as constructing the superstructure on the temporary support beside the old bridge (Figure 23)(“Garver - Engineering, Planning, and Environmental Services.,” n.d.)

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Figure 23 the First Stage of the Sliding Approach (GarverUSA)

The second stage requires closing the existing bridge in order to remove it, then pushing the new bridge onto the support structures, and finally implementing the needed pavement connections (Figure 24).(“An inside look at designing for Accelerated Bridge Construction (ABC) - YouTube,” n.d.)

Figure 24 the Second Stage of the Sliding Approach (GarverUSA)

Self-Propelled Modular Transporters (SPMTs) SPMT is a collection of multi-axle platforms that works through a computer controlled system that can rotate 360 degrees as needed that can be utilized to lift, transport, and install the prefabricated bridges from an adjacent or off-site location to its final location (Figure 25). In case of bridge replacement, SPMTs can be used to remove the existing bridge.

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Figure 25 Self-Propelled Modular Transporters (Federal Highway Administration)

SPMTs are motorized vehicles that move at walking speed. Using this unique technique can greatly reduce traffic disruption and improve work place overall safety. A typical SPMT unit has a total of four or six axle lines with four to eight number of tires per line. SPMTs can be pushed by an on-board hydraulic power pack, or as it is called, "Jack up System", that is connected to the hydraulic drive motors on several axes. Its capacity, however, is approximately 40 tones/ axle line. The most important requirement to use this distinctive method is not only having skilled workers, but also availability of location so it can be convenient to construct a bridge near location, it also requires a feasible route from the off-site location to its final location.(“Microsoft Word - Snabba brobyten och brobyggnationer_Final_II.docx - SBUF 12691 - Slutrapport Snabba brobyten och brobyggnationer.pdf,” n.d.) Table 4 shows the traffic impact comparison between Conventional Bridge Construction and SPMT.

Table 4 The difference between CBC and SPMT (“AASHTO - AASHTO Innovation Initiative - Self Propelled Modular Transporters,” n.d.) Conventional Bridge Construction Work Operation Duration Traffic Control Method Bridge Demolition 2-3 days per span Detour Beam Placement 25-90 minutes per beam Rolling Roadblocks or detour Form Placement Varies Lane shifts/closure Deck Concrete Placement 1-2 days per span Lane shifts/closure SPMT Complete Span 25 minutes to Detour or single Removal or Placement a few hours rolling roadblock Traffic impact comparison between CBC and SPMT

Case Study: Accelerated Bridge Construction in Saudi Arabia The construction industry in Saudi Arabia is one of the largest, if not the largest, markets in the Middle East. In fact, the Kingdom’s construction sector contributes about 8% of the country’s total GDP.(“Top

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10 Saudi Arabian infrastructure projects,” n.d.) The Saudi Government has invested billions of dollars throughout the years in upgrading its transport infrastructure.

Figure 26 the Location of Jeddah on the Map (http://global.yamaha-motor.com)

Jeddah is the second largest city in Saudi Arabia that is located on the West Coast of the country (Figure 26). People living in Jeddah are constantly burdened by traffic jams every day, especially during rush hours, as Jeddah's streets become gridlocked during heavy traffic times. These traffic jams, reflect not only on population growth, but also poor urban and transportation planning.(Saudi, n.d.) Therefore, Jeddah Municipality has been undergoing a series of bridge and tunnel projects all around the city in order to mitigate the suffocating traffic jams.(Nadim, 2014) Furthermore, and according to the Jeddah Municipality websites, there over ten bridges around the city that either need rehabilitation or replacement. Unfortunately, since the municipality has been using the conventional bridge construction in a crowded city like Jeddah, it can take months or even years to complete such projects. In fact, some bridge projects tend to be delayed for months due to various reasons. Consequently, utilizing the Accelerated Bridge Construction approach in this case is extremely vital. As a result, the municipality will be able to speed up the construction of bridges and greatly reduce traffic delays. One such case is Briman Bridge (Figure 27), which is considered to be one of the most important bridges in Jeddah since it is located on the road that connects Jeddah to the nearby city of Makkah, while additionally connecting the east and west sides of the City. This Jeddah-Makkah road is basically the artery road to thousands of commuters every day.

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Figure 27 Briman Bridge in City of Jeddah (Google Map)

CBC vs. ABC of Briman Bridge As the municipality of Jeddah traditionally prefers to work on the project, using the conventional bridge construction, the company responsible for the Briman Bridge replacement (which is about 131 feet long), will have to make a three-lane detour around the bridge. This is a very ineffective technique for that particular road since the main road is a four-lane road that becomes extremely congested during the rush hours.

Decision-making Methods Implementing the decision-making flowchart procedures shown in Figure 8 to see whether prefabricated bridge approach is more economical and effective choice for the Briman Bridge in comparison to CBC. Note that the “Red” lines are the positive answered questions.

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Figure 29 Decision-Making Flowchart for Briman Bridge Applying the second method, as seen on the following table is important to consider (Table 1 and 2).

Table 5 Primary consideration for selection ABC for Briman Bridge Maximum Points Advantage Advantage Points Important Primary Based Point (Traditional Considerations for Selecting ABC on Project Features Using ABC Method) Estimated duration and importance of early completion 15 15 5 Complexity, river location, or seismic vulnerability 15 8 8 Located on interstate/inter-country/local route 15 10 4 Feasibility of D-B management 15 14 14

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Estimated cost of bridge & availability of funds 10 10 10 Bridge replacement or new bridge 10 10 4 Contractor's experience on similar projects 10 5 10 Span length, deck width, and number of traffic lanes 10 10 9 Total 100 82 64 Based upon the location, conditions, and criteria of the project, the ABC wins with a total of 82 points

Table 6 Secondary considerations for selection ABC for Briman Bridge Maximum Points Advantage Advantage Points Important Primary Based Point (Traditional Considerations for Selecting ABC on Project Features Using ABC Method) Shallow foundation/piles/drilled shaft from soil report 7.5 7.5 7 Impact of construction on environment 7.5 7.5 2 Type of deficiencies outlined in inspection reports for rehabilitation 7.5 7 7 Demolition easy/difficult 7.5 7 4 Deck geometry straight/skew/curved 5 5 5 Feasibility of detour/kkane closure/use of temporary bridge during construction 5 4 3 SPMT length of girders 5 4 7 Maximum crane capacity 5 5 5 Precast deck panel sizes 5 4 3 HPC concrete strength 5 5 5 HPC girder strength 5 5 5 Precast concrete substructure stregth 5 5 3 Mechanically stabilized earthwork (MSE) wing walls/precast retaining walls 5 4 3 Easy access to site 5 3 3 Site office/easy mobilization 5 3 3 Availability of labor 5 2 5 Present/projected average daily truck traffic (ADTT) 5 5 4 General/extreme weather conditions 5 4 4 Total 87 78 Based upon the location, conditions, and criteria of the project, the ABC wins with a total of 87 points

Results Thomas Kuhn, a prominent American physicist and philosopher of science, says “shifting one's paradigm requires personal change, and personal change requires hard work”8. Many people in the industry are just accustomed to the Conventional Bridge Construction (CBC) approach. In many cases, CBC could

8 Thomas S. Kuhn (“The Structure of Scientific Revolutions,” n.d.)

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 67 Online-ISSN 2411-2933, Print-ISSN 2411-3123 August 2016 be much more preferable depending upon the site conditions. However, applying the Accelerated Bridge Construction (ABC) method can be beneficial for owner, builder, users, and the environment, especially in cases where the location of the project cannot stand long months of obstruction. The following points are the results found:  Cost: In terms of cost, the CBC method is the preferable approach. In many cases, owners do not have adequate capital to finance a project utilizing the ABC approach. In this case, the CBC would be the only reasonable choice.  Speed: With regards to speed, ABC is considerably faster than CBC. In this case, if owners are capable of funding a bridge project utilizing ABC just to finish it fast, then this would be the perfect choice. For instance, the Briman Bridge in the City of Jeddah, which is located in a very critical area in the City. Jeddah municipality has the financial liquidity to fund this type of project. Therefore, selecting this approach would be ideal to avoid the impacts on people and the environment that will undoubtedly occur when utilizing the conventional approach.  Safety: When working on transportation projects, it is crucial to have a comprehensive strategic highway safety plan in order to reduce potential accidents. Hence, it is very clear that when shortening the construction time we would greatly protect workers and will greatly help to reduce work-zone accidents. Therefore, ABC would be the best choice for the project.  On top of prefabrication, ABC requires skilled labor who have experience in ABC projects and are able to get the job done from the start to end, as well as having the specialized equipment, without them, it is impossible to select ABC as an option for a project. In the example given above on the Briman Bridge project, Jeddah municipality may have not considered ABC in their projects due to lack of skilled labor and specialized equipment. However, this problem can be solved if they had reached out for international specialized corporations.

Conclusion People involved in the transportation construction industry frequently seek safe, economical, and durable construction methods. Being stuck in traffic, losing time, gas, and money are all issues experienced daily by travelers during bridge rehabilitation projects that cause disturbance. These issues, however, have become some of the CBC method’s traits. The majority of bridge replacement projects are located in heavy traffic areas, which often make it necessary to create detours or close bridges, which could negatively impact the flow of vehicles, and effect the community and the environment. Therefore, one of the most common methods to accelerate bridge construction projects is by utilizing prefabricated bridge components. These components can be constructed off-site or close by the site before placing it to the final bridge location. As a result, the traffic congestion will be greatly reduced, as well as saving time and money. Time, cost, quality, and safety are four significant factors in the planning, constructing, and controlling of any bridge project. Ultimately, when owners have the financial capability as well as skilled workers to conduct bridge replacement/rehabilitation projects in heavy traffic prone areas, using ABC would be the best option. On the other hand, when owners do not have the financial capability to pay extra cost for ABC, do not have skilled workers who are capable and highly competent of doing the

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 68 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-4 No-8, 2016 work, or when the location closure will not affect the traffic flow, then using the CBC method would be the ideal approach to use for optimal project success.

Acknowledgement I would like to express my deepest gratitude and appreciation to Prof. Kamran Nemati for his support and encouragement throughout my study and research. Without his guidance, this paper would never have been completed.

Dedication To my parents, Prof. Ahmad Alashari and Amnah Bakhraiba, to whom I owe everything in life. There are no words that can truly express the level of gratitude and appreciation I have for you. I hope I always make you proud.

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Home | Federal Highway Administration. (n.d.). Retrieved May 1, 2016, from https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ Insecure Connection. (n.d.). Retrieved May 21, 2016, from https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bridge/prefab/if09010/report.pdf Khan, M. A. (2014). Accelerated Bridge Construction: Best Practices and Techniques. Elsevier. Mahmoud, K. (2011). Modern Techniques in Bridge Engineering: Proceedings of 6th New York City Bridge Conference, 25-26 July 2011. CRC Press. Manual 11 Design Of Arch Bridges.pdf. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://ebooks.narotama.ac.id/files/ICE%20Manual%20of%20Bridge%20Engineering%20(2th%20 Edition)/Manual%2011%20%20Design%20Of%20Arch%20Bridges.pdf Microsoft Word - Snabba brobyten och brobyggnationer_Final_II.docx - SBUF 12691 - Slutrapport Snabba brobyten och brobyggnationer.pdf. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://vpp.sbuf.se/Public/Documents/ProjectDocuments/67DF1791-66C1-426B-8B17-371F12231 6E7/FinalReport/SBUF%2012691%20-%20Slutrapport%20Snabba%20brobyten%20och%20brob yggnationer.pdf Nadim, A.-H. (2014, May 28). Jeddah will become a “city of bridges and tunnels.” Retrieved May 26, 2016, from http://www.arabnews.com/news/577956 National Building Museum. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.nbm.org/ NCHRP. (2011). Application of Accelerated Bridge Construction Connections in Moderate-to-High Seismic Regions. Transportation Research Board. nchrp20-68a_11-02.pdf. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/nchrp/docs/nchrp20-68a_11-02.pdf or11005.pdf. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://library.modot.mo.gov/RDT/reports/TRyy0912/or11005.pdf Post Tensioning Manual - hif13026.pdf. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bridge/construction/pubs/hif13026.pdf Prefabricated/Precast Bridge Elements and Systems (PBES) for Off-System Bridges - BDK83_977-13_rpt[1].pdf. (n.d.-a). Retrieved from http://www.dot.state.fl.us/structures/structuresresearchcenter/Final%20Reports/BDK83_977-13_r pt[1].pdf Prefabricated/Precast Bridge Elements and Systems (PBES) for Off-System Bridges - BDK83_977-13_rpt[1].pdf. (n.d.-b). Retrieved from http://www.dot.state.fl.us/structures/structuresresearchcenter/Final%20Reports/BDK83_977-13_r pt[1].pdf Saudi, G. (n.d.). Traffic in Jeddah is nightmarish to say the least. Retrieved May 26, 2016, from http://ara.tv/gvcsb Shear connection in composite bridge beams. (n.d.). Retrieved May 2, 2016, from http://www.steelconstruction.info/Shear_connection_in_composite_bridge_beams SPR-687: Analysis of the State of the Art of Precast Concrete Bridge Substructure Systems - AZ687.pdf. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://apps.azdot.gov/ADOTLibrary/publications/project_reports/PDF/AZ687.pdf

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Two Armenian Bibles with Arabic Influences of miniature painting

(Gregor Tatevatsi 1346-1410)

Mahmoud Ahmed Darwish Professor of Islamic archaeology, department of archaeology Faculty of Arts - Minia University Egypt

Abstract About a century ago, Armenian illuminated manuscripts attracted the attention of scholars and lovers of art. Since that time intensive studies of medieval Armenian art had been conducted a unique historical panorama of the art of illumination, embracing more than thirteen centuries has been given. The heritage of a number of miniature schools and their outstanding representatives has been studied; the significance of medieval Armenian painting in the history of world art has been revealed. Although, most of them illuminated, many have not yet been published. Among the best examples of medieval Armenian illumination are those of the following two manuscripts, where the researcher published (28 miniatures) from the Gospel of folios paper in Matenadaran of Mashtots, for the first time: 13th, dated (1297) and (1378), the miniatures were executed by Grigor Tatevatsi and his pupil in (1378), and15th, dated in the end of 14th century and beginning of 15th century, the scribe is Grigor Tatevatsi and the anonymous painter of Syuniq. The research deals two Armenian bibles with Arab Influences by Grigor Tatevatsi (1346–1410), it begins with an introduction for Armenia with a focus on Syuniq which produced the two manuscripts, and includes three sections: 1st. Study of Armenian miniatures with a focus on Grigor Tatevatsi school, where the proportion of miniature paintings, his pupil or anonymous painter of Syuniq. 2nd. Analytical study. 3ed. The influences of the Arabic miniature painting.

Key words:Armenian; illumination; manuscripts; miniature; painting; Grigor Tatevatsi; Syuniq.

I. Introduction Around (600 BC), the Kingdom of Armenia was established under the Orontid Dynasty. The kingdom reached its height between (95-66 BC) under Tigranes the Great, becoming one of the most powerful kingdoms of its time within the region. Throughout its history, the kingdom of Armenia enjoyed periods of independence intermitted with periods of autonomy subject to contemporary empires. Armenia's strategic location between two continents has subjected it to invasions by many peoples, including the Assyrians,

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Greeks, Romans, Byzantines, Arabs, Mongols, Persians, Ottoman Turks and Russians. The native Armenian name for the country is Hayk who ruled around (900 BC). The name in the middle Ages was extended to Hayastan, by addition of the Iranian suffix-stan (land). The name has traditionally been derived from Hayk, the legendary patriarch of the Armenians defeated the Babylonian king Bae'l in (2492 BC), and established his nation in the Ararat region. the further origin of the name is uncertain. (See: Grousset, 1984. Garsoïan, 1997. Panossian, 2006. Ibn Khordazaba, 1889. Al-Maqdisi Al-Bishari, 1906. Al-Istakhri, 1927. Al-Hamawi, 1936. Al-Buladhuri, 1978. Ibn Hawkal, 1979. Incyclopedia of Islamic knowledge, 1, Panossian, 2006). Armenian relations with Iraq were extended since the time of the Babylonian and Assyrian (Ibn Katheer, 13. Ibn Taghry Bardy, 6. Ibn Abi Jaradah,1988. Al-Zahabi, 1948. Al-Maqdisi, 1997), continued in the Selokian and Roman covenant. (Creswell, 1960. Howard, 1970), Armenia to be the first Christian state in (66 AC) but in (301), became the first country to adopt Christianity as its official state religion, while a number of Christian communities have been established. (Chamich, 1827). The first Christian Kingdom in Armenia was founded in the city of Edissa, and brought up the Syriac language soon prevailed and swept all the eastern churches, In (386 AC), Sasanid Ardeshir invaded Armenia, it was divided into Persian in east and Byzantine in west of Armenia, the Armenians had been subjected to injustice of the Persians and have upheaval against them, (Narssessian, 1972. Hussein, 1978). The principality was ruled by the Prince of Armenia, recognized by the Caliph and the Byzantine Emperor, (Burkitt, 1981).

Armenia

1.Aragatsotn 2.Ararat 3.Armavir 4.Gegharkunik 5.Kotajk 6.Lori 7.Schirak 8.Syuniq 9.Tawusch 10.Vajots Dzor 11.Eriwa

Administrative divisions of Armenia

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Armenia remained under Arab rule, (Kurkjian, 1958. Kurdoghlian, 1996), for approximately (200) years, formally starting (645). Through the Umayyad and Abbasid rule, the Armenian Christians benefited from political autonomy and religious freedom, (Herzig, K. & Edmund, 2005), It was created by the Arabs, (Mahmoud, 1972), which also included parts of Georgia and Caucasian Albania, and had its center in the Armenian city Dvin (21/642), (Herzig & Edmund, 2005), Muslims were taken Dvin to base the rule of Armenia, (Ardzrouni, 1864-1876. Grousset, 1947), were Abdul Aziz Al-Bahili built and established by the magistrate appointed of the Caliph Al-Walid bin Abdul Malik. By the 9th century, there was a well-established class of Arab emirs. In (885), the Bagratid Kingdom of Armenia was established, conflict are continued until the Muslims entered Dvin, as advances of the cities of Armenia continued in Tbilisi fell to (23/645), (Al-Buladhuri, 1978. Ya’coubi, 1883. Al-Tabari, 1967. Ibn Al-Atheer, 1873. Qalqashandi, 1919-1922), Between (886-1046), the Kingdom of the Armenian national self-governing, But the Seljuk Turks defeated the Byzantines in Manzykart (1071), and attacked by Mongols in the 11th century. In (1080), an Armenian named Roupen went with some of his countrymen into the gorges of the Taurus Mountains and then into Tarsus of Cilicia, (Cilicia extends inland from the southeastern coast of Asia Minor, due north and northeast of the island of Cyprus and comprises about a third of the land area of modern Anatolia Ayas in 1271), (Poghosyan, & others, 1979. Abulafia, 1999. Bournoutian, 2006), where the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia was eventually established, (Kirakosian, 1972), and had even attacked by the Mamluks in (1375). Then attacked by Mongol Timor lank in (1386). (It Merged with the Soviet Union and boarded in 1991), (Auf. Encyclopedia), It should be noted that the Armenians were victims of torture during the rule of the Abbasids, prompting large numbers of them to flee in the form of mass migrations out of Armenian, (Al-Massoudi, 1861-1877. Grousset, 1947), the Arabs are settled and occupied Instead of the Armenians, (Narssessian (1972), which the Abbasids transferred large numbers of Arabs, (Ya’coubi, 1883. Laurent). That, some Armenian cities had two thirds of the population of Muslims and the rest are Christians, (De Tarazi, 1910. Bjorklund, 1981), and a huge number of Armenians are used in the Abbasid army. Armenian cities and were affected by Arabic tradition, and had been somewhat mixed of the population to adopt Arabic customs and traditions, even non-Muslims, (Grousset, R. 402), as was the site of the city of Edissa important. (Ganzuri, 1975), The Arabs had made one state in the region of Armenia, Azerbaijan, Mosul and Al-Jazeara, (Mahmoud, 1968), and the Armenians were continued on direct links with Baghdad and some Armenian cities provided it by agricultural products like wheat. (Al-Tabari, 1967). Then, the architectural and artistic Arabic influences moved by Muslims, who settled in Armenia and start of rebuilding some of the Armenian cities. (Minorsky, 1964. Al-Istakhri, 1926. Ibn Hawkal, 1979. Qalqashandi, 1919-1922. Iskandar, 1982). There were reciprocal influences between Seljuk art and the Armenian arts which the Seljuks had brought architects from Armenia. The Armenian also managed to defeat the Byzantine army in (413/1022), (Aslan Aba, 1987). The cooperation between Armenia and the Fatimid era in the ruling of Al-Hakim was not sustained (Al-Antaki, 1905. Canard, 1936), owing to the Byzantine role in preventing death of Al-Hakim, since (5/11), there is no Arabic presence, (Al-Antaki, 1905), and Crusaders founded the Kingdom in Edessa (491/1098) which was dropped by Imad Eddin Zinced (539/1144).

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When Bader Al-Gamali was, (see: El hawary, 1935. Becker. Özaydın. Ibn al-Gawzi. Al-Hamawi, 1936. Ibn al-Atheer, 1873. Ibn Khilikan, 1977. Ibn Katheer. Ibn Taghry Bardy. Al-Maqrizi, 1998. Ibn Abi Jaradah, 1988. Ibn Hammad, 1981. Encyclopedia of Islamic knowledge), appointed a minister (468-487/1075-1094), (Al-Shaybani, 1995. Al-Zahabi, 1983. Ibn Taghry Brdy. Ibn Al-Zafir, 1972. Qalqashandi, 1985), and bringing thousands of Armenian families to live in Egypt. (Abul-Makarem, 1895), All of the Fatimid caliphates are followed pro-Armenian policy, supported the immigration and security installed in important administrative posts. (Al-Shaybani, 1995. Al-Zahabi, 1983. Ibn Khillikan, 1977. Ibn Katheer. Ibn Taghry Brdy. Ibn Al-Zafir, 1972. Abul-Makarem, 1895. Canard, 1936), The Fatimids was characterized by tolerance towards religious communities and other ethnic not seen another age, (Ibn Khillikan. 1977). The Armenians who lived in Egypt helped of impacts the movement and loading Iraqi and Egyptian influences that were deployed in the Tolunid and Fatimid ages. Kingdom of Syuniq was located in province of Syuniq in eastern part of Armenia and borders Iran (fig.3). It was founded by Grand Duke Smbat Syuni, who was proclaimed king in (970). The city of Kapan was the capital of the Kingdom of Syuniq and the Tatev monastery was the spiritual center. In (1045), the Byzantine Empire conquered Bagratid Armenia. Soon, the other Armenian states fell under Byzantine control as well. The Byzantine rule was short lived. In (1170) The Kingdom of Syuniq was conquered by the Seljuks, as in (1071) Seljuk Turks defeated the Byzantines and conquered Armenia at the Battle of Manzikert, establishing the Seljuk Empire, (Kirakosian, 1972). During (1230), Mongol Ilkhanide conquered Zakaryan Principality, as well as the rest of Armenia. In (1251).The Mongolian invasions were soon followed by those of other Central Asian tribes (Kara Koyunlu, Timurid and Ak Koyunlu), which continued from (1200) until (1400). After incessant invasions, each bringing destruction to the country, Armenia in time became weakened. During the (1500), Ottoman Empire and Safavid Persia divided Armenia among themselves. The Russian Empire later incorporated Eastern Armenia (consisting of the Erivan and Karabakh khanates within Persia) in (1813) and (1828), (Kirakosian, 1972).

2. Syuniq Style of Armenian miniature Armenian miniature See: Korkhmazian & Chookaszian (1987). art is one of the most beautiful and unique items in Medieval Christian art. The first samples of this artwork date to the 7th century. The large number of miniature-decorated manuscripts preserved from the 9th to the end of the 12th century from the basis upon which a number of miniature art schools may be distinguished , (See: Khachikian, 1955-1967. Krikorian, 1981). By the end of the 12th century, new schools of miniature art begin to take shape. The illuminated manuscripts of Echmiadzin are essentially of the later period, beginning in the 14th century. They may be considered the products not of given schools but those of certain areas with various influences. (Hovannisian, 1999. Hewsen, 2001). There are also manuscripts, such as the Kyutahia Bible, on which Byzantine influence is noticeable. It contains the pictures and name-sheets of the four evangelists. This may be considered a provincial variant of the Cilician school, (De Lafayette). In comparison with the other schools, Cilician miniature art is distinguished by the very deft representation

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 75 Online-ISSN 2411-2933, Print-ISSN 2411-3123 August 2016 of a large variety of movements of human forms and the uniqueness of colors where gold, blue, red, and green occupy a special status, (The oldest illuminated manuscript of Echmiadzin is the No.194 Bible written in Adana,1293). There is a group of illustrated manuscripts in the Echmiadzin collection whose miniatures reflect the influence of Gothic art. While the motives of the altars in these illuminations attest to their Cilician origins, the depictions of the evangelists and scenes of Christ's life betray a late Gothic influence. The Bible prepared by Grigor Tatevatsi which was one of the greatest figures of medieval Armenia, (Mirzoyan, See: Durnovo, 1961. Sanjian, 1976. Der Nersessian, 1978. Taronatsi, 1984. Tzerun, 1984. Grigor, 1986. Hagopian & Korkhmazian, 1987. Mathews & Sanjian. 1991. Karagueuzian, 1992. Der Nersessian & Agémian, 1993. Novello, 1995. Izmailova & Sandoughkavanetsi, 1986. Kouymjian & others, 2002. Nersessian, 2004). The mentioned manuscripts have been created in Syuniq. The significance of Syuniq in respect to the spiritual treasures created there during various periods was not always on the same level. As regards the variety and significance of cultural values whose origin depended upon the general political and socio-economic situation of the country, the most interesting is the post-Arabic period (10-11), which coincides with the rise and flourishing of the Syuniq kingdom, The manuscript was brought to the Etchmiadzin Matenadaran in (1924) from the Church of the Virgin in Alexandrapol (now Leninakan). The heritage of a number of miniature schools and their outstanding representatives has been studied; the significance of medieval Armenian painting in the history of world art has been revealed. Although, most of them illuminated, many have not yet been published. Among the best examples of medieval Armenian illumination are those of the following two manuscripts, where the researcher published them for the first time: The 1st Gospel: Conservation: Matenadaran of Mashtots, (The Matenadaran or Mashtots Institute of Ancient Manuscripts in Yerevan, Armenia). Registration number: cod. (7482) and (254). Date: (1297) and (1378). Folios: Paper. Measurements: (32x23sm). The text was copied, the canon tables and marginals were executed in (1297) by scribe Hovhannes in Eghegis while the portraits of the evangelists, title pages and thematic miniatures were executed by Grigor Tatevatsi and his pupil in (1378), In (1809) the manuscript was restored and put into a silver embossed cover. The manuscript was restored and as a result the order of thematic miniatures was disrupted: - Grigor Tatevatsi (1378): F.248r-the Annunciation (pl.1). F.249v-the Nativity (pl.2).

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pl. 1. The annunciation pl. 2. The Nativity - Pupil of Grigor Tatevatsi: F.251r-Entry into Jerusalem (pl.3). F.252r-the Crucifixion (pl.4). F.250r-Virgin and Child (pl.5). - Anonymous Painter of Syuniq: F.12r-Title page of gospel according to Matthew (pl.6). F.78r-Title page of gospel according to Mark (pl.7). F.120r-Title page of gospel according to Luke (pl.8). F.190r-Title page of gospel according to John (pl.9). F.11v-Matthew the Evangelist (pl.10). F.77v-Mark the Evangelist (pl.11). F.119v-Luke the Evangelist (pl.12). F.189r-John the Evangelist (pl.13).

pl. 3. Entry into Jerusalem pl. 4. The Crucifixion

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pl. 5. The Virgin and Child. pl. 6. Title page of gospel according to Matthew

pl. 7. Title page of gospel according to Mark pl. 8. Title page of gospel according to Luke

pl. 9. Title page of gospel according to John pl. 10. Portraits of Matthew the Evangelist

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pl. 11. Portraits Mark the Evangelist pl. 12. Portraits of Luke the Evangelists.

pl. 13. Portraits of John the Evangelist pl. 14. Portraits of Matthew the Evangelist. The 2nd Gospel: Conservation: Matenadarn of Mashtots. Registration number: (cod. 6305). Date: end of 14th century and beginning of 15th century. Folios: Paper. Measurements: (29x23cm). The scribe is Grigor and the painter is the Anonymous painter of Syuniq, The manuscript includes (37) miniatures-canon tables, portraits of the evangelists, title pages, thematic miniatures. The following is the probable sequence of miniatures: - Grigor Tatevatsi (1378): The manuscript was restored and as a result the order of thematic miniatures was disrupted; F.71v-Matthew the Evangelist (pl.14). F.s.v-Mark the Evangelist (pl.15). F.127v-Luke the Evangelist (pl.16). F.220v-John the Evangelist (pl.17). - Anonymous Painter of Syuniq: The creation of Eve (pl.18). Constantine and Helen (pl.19).

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pl. 15. Portraits of Mark the Evangelist pl. 16. Portraits of Luke the Evangelist

pl. 17. Portraits of John the Evangelist pl. 18. The creation of Eve

pl. 19. Constantine and Helen pl. 20. Diesis. F.16r-Deesis (pl.20). F.239v-The Revelation of John (pl.21). F.130v-the Annunciation (pl.22).

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F.2r-the Nativity (pl.23). F.109r-Entry into Jerusalem (pl.24). F.140r-The Rise of Lazarus (pl.25). F.141r-The Crucifixion (pl.26). F.67v-The Resurrection of Christ (pl.27). F.15r-the Harrowing of Hell (pl.28).

pl.21. The Revelation of St. John. pl. 22. The Annunciation.

pl. 23. The Nativity pl. 24. Entry into Jerusalem

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pl. 25. The rise of Lazarus pl. 26. The crucifixion Grigor Tatevatsi and Anonymous painter of Syuniq had participated in their creation. The monuments mentioned above reveal the creative ardor existing during the most flourishing post-Arabic period of the cultural life of Syuniq. At just that time, a school of arts was founded in Syuniq with Tatev as the center. The economic and cultural development of Syuniq was interrupted by Seljuk invasions.

pl. 27. The Resurrection (or the Holy Women). pl. 28. The harrowing of hell Neither its geographical position with inaccessible mountains and ravines, nor the courage of the people could halt the Seljuk hordes. With the capture of the Baghaberd fortress in (1170), which had been the center of Syuniq since (1103), the kingdom lost its independence. The spiritual treasures of Tatev and other Syuniq monasteries brought there, some ten thousand manuscripts, were barbarously destroyed. (Torosyan, 1985. Hacikyan & others, 2005). In the 40's of the 13th century, Armenia was subjected to other raids; this time the Mongols invaded the country, lasting more than a hundred years, caused tremendous damage to the prospering towns. During this widespread decline in Armenia, Syuniq was one of those regions enjoying relatively favorable conditions. During the 13-14th centuries, the creative activities of many skilled architects, sculptors, talented poets and painters, new schools were opened, among them the University of Gladzor, this became the outstanding center of higher education for all Armenia. A considerable number of illuminated manuscripts were created there in 14-15th centuries and quite probably; Tatev had its own school of miniature painting. Unfortunately, it is impossible, at present, to give a complete picture of that school, as only very few of those manuscripts have survived. It may safely be said that the creative work at Tatev in 14-15th centuries was not free from the Gladzor influence, and furthermore, specific features of the art of Grigor Tatevatsi, headmaster of the University, were characteristic of most of the manuscripts illuminated at Tatev. Such qualities as monumentalism, expressive images, thickly satiated use of reds, blues, violets, profusion of ornaments, continued to exist till 16-17th centuries in those miniature painting centers connected with Tatev, (Gzoyan, 2003).

3. Analytical study

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The most significant of Grigor Tatevatsi's activities were those in Tatev, he worked there for fifteen years; those years being the most flourishing. He conducted extensive pedagogical work and enjoyed great repute, , (Gzoyan, 2003), and began his work as a scribe. Numerous manuscripts have survived will colophons written by him. His works, encyclopedic in nature, also contain valuable thoughts on aesthetics, which help in understanding certain aspects of his art and that of medieval art generally. Grigor Tatevatsi's aesthetic views do not, of course, give a complete doctrine. It refers to separate thoughts and remarks scattered in different works in which he tried to explain his concepts of beauty, reveal the meaning of art and the role of art in society as well as problems on Christian symbolism of iconography and questions directly concerning to the practical work of the artist. (Gzoyan, 2003. Mirzoyan). However, his name as an illuminator is mentioned only once, in the Gospel illustrated at the Tatev Monastery in the year (1378). The Gospel was copied in (1297) in Eghegis, the "glorified capital" of Syuniq. In the same year the scribe of the Gospel, Hovhan, executed khorans (canon tables) The khoran (Canon Table) is a composition resembling the arch used in architecture, which contains Eusebius' Letter and canon tables of the Gospels, the so-called tables of concordance. and marginal illustrations. Simple plant and geometric designs prevail in the canon tables. In (1378), some one hundred years after its creation, the priest Sargis, sent the manuscript to the Tatev Monastery to be restored and illuminated by illuminator Grigor, (Gzoyan, 2003). The Annunciation (pl.1) is known in two basic iconographic types: near the spring and in the temple. The former arose on epigraphically literature. In order to justify these two different types, these contradictions were explained thus: at the spring the Annunciation was considered as pre-Annunciation while in the temple it is the Annunciation itself. The miniature of the Anonymous painter of Syuniq (pl.22) is an example of the former, while Grigor Tatevatsi's Annunciation (pl.1) is more complex, in its development. The water jug in the center of the composition refers, at the same time, to the pre-Annunciation. The main written source used by medieval painters for this composition was the Gospel. As time went on, this scene acquired great variety of interpretations due to some motifs from folk-traditions and apocryphal sources. The Nativity (pl.2) is iconographical simple. It is a story told by the Evangelist Luke, connected with the subject of the adoration of the Magi from apocryphal sources. The miniature (pl.23) by the Anonymous painter of Syuniq is based on a more complex iconography; it shows women bathing Christ. In the Anonymous painter's miniature, there is a red apple in Mary's hand, the symbolic meaning of which was explained by means of local traditions in the foreword of this album. The miniature (pl.3) depicts an event from the Gospel. Christ and his disciples are met by the people of Jerusalem, greeting them with palm leaves. Christ, sitting on a white ass occupies the center of the composition. His large figure emphasizes his being the center of the scene. Such breach of balance in the parts of the composition is not unique in Christian art: the size of figures and objects in the miniature are constructed not according to their position but by their importance in the scene. The miniature (pl.24) by the Anonymous painter of Syuniq gives an enlarged version of the composition, the original quality of which comes from folk-traditions. The Crucifixion (pl.4) is a theme known in Christian art from the 5th century. The Armenians did not have

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 83 Online-ISSN 2411-2933, Print-ISSN 2411-3123 August 2016 an iconographic version of this theme. Up to the 7th century, the cross was usually depicted without Christ. Beginning from the 11th century, several iconographic versions were introduced: a simple variant without robbers and an enlarged one with robbers (pl.26). Iconographical the miniature of Virgin and Child (pl.5) is connected with the analogous work of (1317) by Toros Taronatsi, which the painter based on his iconographic version called the "Milk-feeder". Later this iconographic version was changed and finally the version by Grigor Tatevatsi's pupil appeared. The identity of the painter of these miniatures becomes clear from the colophon around the bay (pl.1). The colophon clearly states that the painter is Grigor, a pupil of Hovhan Vorotnetsi. The colophons surviving, as well as general features of the miniatures created in (1379) served as the basis for art historians to make the statement that all the miniatures made that year had been done by one and the same master, Grigor Tatevatsi. There are, however, certain stylistic differences, which suggest that yet another master, probably a pupil of Grigor Tatevatsi, also took part in the illumination of the manuscripts. In those miniatures Grigor Tatevatsi's influence is so strong that at first glance, all Christological miniature paintings are taken as the work of one artist. Taking the miniature (pl.1) created by Grigor Tatevatsi as a basis, we come to the conclusion that the portraits of the evangelists, the title pages and the miniatures (pls.1-2), have been created by Grigor Tatevatsi; the other three miniatures (pls.3-4-5) by the pupil. Essential differences which permit speaking of two painters and dividing the miniatures of the manuscript into two groups are expressed, by differences in ways of thinking, concepts and interpretation of form. In Grigor Tatevatsi's works, the figures, especially (pl.1), are monumental and to a certain extent, dimensional. The compositional structure of the page itself is also expressed by the differences in these two groups of miniatures. In the first group the portraits of the evangelists, (pls.1-2), the composition is encircled by homogeneous ornamental frames. In the second group (pls.3-4-5), there is no frame. One or two sides of the composition have no ornamental frame decorations. It seems as if the painter, by means of this device, wants to free the picture of limiting borders, thus increasing the dimensional possibilities of the miniature. The miniatures also differ in their color-range. Grigor Tatevatsi preferred dark shades of blue, brown, red and ochre; while the second painter preferred lighter shades. It must be said that the latter is professionally inferior to Grigor Tatevatsi. The above-stated differences do not refute the presence of features common to both groups of miniatures, which were apparently conditioned by the common aim placed before the painters. They tried to give the manuscript a complete effect, and so the pupil, in fulfilling this task, endeavored to imitate his talented master arid sometimes even meticulously copied his interpretation of images, harmony of color and ornaments. The more beautiful miniature of the manuscript is the Annunciation, where Grigor Tatevatsi's talent, his great imaginative powers and originality are brilliantly expressed. (It is not at all incidentals that he placed his signature on this miniature). The Annunciation is depicted within a closed ornamental frame, the composition is well-balanced, and its

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 84 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-4 No-8, 2016 focal point is the small bay in which there is a jug of water, there are decorative arches to the left and the rights of the bays, the figures are placed against an ornamental background, which gives the composition balance. The background, entirely covered by geometric and plant designs (pl.1-2), deprives the miniature of depth, this lack is the reason why it seems as though the figures do not have sufficient space, this device stresses the monumentalism of the figures, the image of Mary is quite expressive, her features, face, eyes and especially thick eyebrows uniting over her nose, form an unusual arch, emphasizing the Armenian woman's ethnic type. The angel and Mary are bound by the same action but they represent different emotional states, revealed also by means of the coloring of the miniature, warm red and yellow prevail in the clothing of the angel bearing happy tidings; while in Mary's garment, the combination of cold blue and deep violet shows her contradictory feelings, that of joy and deep concern. Great skill is displayed in depicting the figures, their gestures, and their movements, somewhat elongated figures are remarkable for their shapeliness and proportions, both the Virgin and the Archangel are distinguished by their grandeur and beauty. There are certain similarities with the Anonymous Painter of Syuniq in characters and separate elements of decorative ornamentation. Kirakos Davrizhetsi's influence is felt in plant and geometric decorative motifs in the Anonymous Painter's work. Such motifs are typical of Eastern, especially Persian art. A comparison of both manuscripts shows that the Anonymous painter developed some artistic features typical of Grigor Tatevatsi, as well as the evident similarities of miniatures of the Anonymous painter of Syuniq, especially in the portraits of the evangelists with those of Grigor Tatevatsi. The Anonymous painter of Syuniq chose such subjects from the old Testament, which is immediately connected with the main tenets of the New Testament. The painter's rich imagination is revealed especially in the title pages (pls.6-7-8-9). Their composition is thoroughly thought out a constructed according to a plan, so that each element of the composition has an independent function. The headpiece presents a kind of decorative unity consisting of plant, bird-like and geometric elements. As a rule it occupies half of the composition and is arranged as a rectangle stretching slightly along the horizontal lines. In the middle of the lower part of the rectangle, there is a small trefoil. Three illustrated lines from the Gospel text occupy the other half of the composition. The initial, being a kind of support for the headpiece, stretches along the three lines of the text, arranging the left part of the page, while the splendid, interlaced marginals on the right half of the miniature balances the entire composition. Each decorative-element of the title page (headpiece, text, initial, marginal) has its own independent artistic value, being, at the same time, an inseparable component of the integral composition. At first the painter arouses admiration for the beauty of the headpieces. In one case (pl.6), this is a green area consisting of different kinds of flowers, the ornamental frame of intricate rosettes with crowned sirens facing each other divides it into two parts; these sirens blend with the ornaments and become part of them. In another case (pl.7), it is a composition consisting of four semicircles executed with a subtle appreciation of line and color. In the third case (pl.9), it is an interlacing

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 85 Online-ISSN 2411-2933, Print-ISSN 2411-3123 August 2016 of small decorative elements; and in the forth (pl.8), it is a correlation of cross-shaped and star shaped geometric forms. The absence of intervals between the headpiece, the text and the marginal ornaments, the calm rhythm of the composition and graphical drawings give the miniature the impression of an ornamental carpet. Here the originality of the artist in forming the illustrated page, his new attitude towards the interrelation of the whole and its parts is demonstrated. The iconographic types of neither the evangelists nor the architectural compositions are exact copies of Grigor Tatevatsi's works. There are cases when Armenian painters copied compositions of well-known works, imitating the originals as much as possible, more often using characteristic elements of other manuscripts, subjecting them to their own artistic style, to the preferences of society and the demands of the time. The painters thus gave them new expressiveness and new effect. In this respect, the art of the Anonymous painter is not an exception. Though his illustrations are fundamentally based on Grigor Tatevatsi's art in monumentalism, the balanced composition, exceptionally rich and varied decorative elements, the miniatures reveal the artist's individual approach. They manifest, in particular, their joyous, sonorous coloring and a new kind of ornamentation. Grigor Tatevatsi, for example, preferred broad, frieze-like zones consisting of different acanthus and grape weavings organically connected with architectural planes and producing an impression of bas-relief. The ornaments of the Anonymous Painter, on the other hand, are small, four-petalled flowers, bouquets, star-shaped motifs, variations of geometric (oval and round) forms. They cover the background, the clothing of the characters. The walls of architectural structures and it seem as if in their abundance, they would, blend with the real shapes. The two-storied building with an open veranda depicted in the architectural setting of Grigor Tatevatsi's composition in the portrait of the evangelist Luke presents a type of building prevalent at that time. Buildings with pointed arched windows and domes with ribs. While the painter of being inclined to turn realistic forms into ornaments in the miniature with similar content (pl.12), and presented the veranda without its functional meaning but simply as a decor encircling the building. The curtain-like hanging parts of the clothes. In (1387), the final flyleaf of the manuscript presents considerable interest from the point of view of its dating. It is known that the manuscript underwent restoration, as a result of which the order of the miniatures in the manuscript was not retained. (We have made an attempt to determine the original order of miniatures in this album). Probably the restorer threw out those pages, which had become decrepit and, together with them, the page with the information concerning its date. To preserve that information, he made a short entry (1387) on the new flyleaf. Some of the miniatures of manuscript are incomplete (canon tables, scenes from the Bible). Unfortunately the history of the manuscript is unknown and it is difficult to understand why the illuminator had not completed his work. These unfinished miniatures make it possible to have an idea of the painter's technical methods. He started to compose with a slight but definite drawing. Then he proceeded with bright water-colors to color the background, define general relations of colors and

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 86 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-4 No-8, 2016 only after that did he start coloring different details. Pure colors were applied in wide strokes of the brush equally distributed. Then with a thin, sometimes very fine brush, details were colored, giving the outlines of figures and objects. Such an application of color resulted in the flattening of figures. The faces have a certain three-dimensional quality as a result of color-and-shade treatment. Faces were usually pained at the end. Great importance was attached to the presentation of the face, for in medieval art (as is well-known) it was only through the face (especially the eyes) that profound faith could be expressed. From the very first glance, the art of manuscript is most attractive in its harmony of bright colors and its joyfulness. One can sense the hand of an experienced painter whose art has its sources in folk-art. These are qualities that lend sincere poetical character and spontaneity to the illustrations. Numerous ornamental motifs, which the painter blends into his compositions, render a peculiar completion to the scenes. As a rule they cover the background of the miniature, each time expressing it in new combinations. The ornament could be considered as a sound accompaniment to the action being, at the same time, helpful in comprehending the nuances of the scene. There are many elements from reality in the miniatures, which reveal the Anonymous painter of Syuniq's way of thinking. The painter depicted national types, clothes, and daily objects with great care. They are full of life; yet do not contradict the strict canons of Christian iconography, lending original charm to the miniatures. The miniatures of the manuscript present a kind of creative unity of national traditions and individual creative force, being outstanding for their monumentalism and decorative quality inherent in folk-art. A specific type of iconography of the evangelists was adopted in Syuniq of the 14th-15th centuries, especially in Gladzor and later in Tatev as well as in a group of manuscripts related to those centers. Of the above-mentioned centers, this type appeared in Gladzor manuscripts of the end of the 13th and beginning of the 14th centuries. Similar evangelists may be found in the miniatures of Grigor Tatevatsi (pls.14-15-16-17), and later in the works of the Anonymous painter of Syuniq, the portraits of the four evangelists (pls.10-11-12-13) create a firm unity with the title pages. Grigor Tatevatsi and the Anonymous painter of Syuniq were persons of bright individuality, thus each of their works is not simply a copy of the other, but an artistic embodiment of the model. Scenes from the Bible and apocryphal books (pls.18-19-20) which beginning from the 14th century were widespread in Armenia in illustrated Gospels, occupy a considerable place in the manuscript. Byzantine emperor Constantine and his mother Helene (pl.19) are placed around a tree known as “Tree of Wisdom” or “Tree of Knowledge” instead of the Holy Cross as both of them used to appear in all the other miniatures. There is an avant-garde theory that explains the replacing of the Holy Cross by the “Tree of Knowledge”. Supporters of this theory claim that the artist of this painting intentionally replaced the cross with the tree, simply because Constantine and Helene were not Saints, Disciples or Apostles. Only those who were directly blessed by Jesus Christ and of course much later, Armenian martyrs and bishops were worthy and or deserved to be placed around the Holy Cross or surround it. The artist of this painting did not complete it. The miniature presents (pl.21) an episode from the Revelation of St. John, with a sickle in his hand, and John are standing face to face. Between them, there is a group of stars, symbolizing churches (the stars

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 87 Online-ISSN 2411-2933, Print-ISSN 2411-3123 August 2016 being crowned with crosses). The Revelation of St. John says that Christ appeared either with a sickle in his hand or a sword in his mouth, and in another case, a bunch of stars or even a seal in his hand, etc. From all these succeeding actions, the painter has chosen only two: a revelation with a sickle and one with a bunch of stars. To avoid repetition, he presents Christ only once; however, in the miniature, he gives place to an essential detail connected with the following revelation, stars symbolizing churches. In this way, the painter expresses actions succeeding each other. The above-mentioned manuscript is rare in its original iconography of certain scenes as, for instance, the Annunciation (pl.22) is treated as genre scene; the peasant woman in a flowered dress with a jug on her shoulder is standing near the spring ready to get some water when she suddenly hears a voice and turns towards the voice in amazement. Her reaction is so natural, her clothing, her jug and the double stream so true-to-life that the painter must have been guided by life around him. Although the background of the miniature presents a kind of unreal, abstract scene, the figures soar in that space; yet the painter introducing everyday realities into his compositions, managed to create an impression of the real life in his environment. Mary is slightly agitated and her image is endowed with soft lyricism. The blue of her clothing is repeated in the blue of the sky, thus connecting the upper and lower parts of the miniature; while the ornamented pink background creates the entire painted surface, lending a festive mood. It is known in two basic iconographic types: near the spring and in the temple. The former arose on apocryphal literature. In order to justify these two different types, these contradictions were explained thus: at the spring the Annunciation was considered as pre-Annunciation while in the temple it is the Annunciation itself. The miniature of the Anonymous painter of Syuniq (pl.22) is an example of the former, while Grigor Tatevatsi's Annunciation (pl.1) is more complex, in its development. The water jug in the center of the composition refers, at the same time, to the pre-Annunciation. The painter's contacts with life and folk traditions are revealed in the miniature Nativity (pl.23). The miniature has an iconographic detail - an apple in Mary's hand. This is a detail, which as a rule does not exist in other works of Armenian miniature on the same subject, while other peoples, especially those in the West, often present the Virgin with an apple, a pomegranate or some other fruit in her hand. Thus each fruit has some symbolic significance: the pomegranate, for example, presents the blood, which Christ shed for mankind; the apple in this miniature probably symbolizes the Virgin's purity. This reflects a very ancient Armenian custom, according to which the groom's parents, being convinced of their daughter-in-law's innocence, present her with a red apple. The painter probably had a similar basis in depicting Mary with a red apple in her hand as a symbol of her virginity. The main written source used by medieval painters for this composition was the Gospel. As time went on, this scene acquired great variety of interpretations due to some motifs from folk-traditions and apocryphal sources. The Nativity by Grigor Tatevatsi (pl.2) is Iconographical simple. It is a story told by the Evangelist Luke, connected with the subject of the adoration of the Magi from apocryphal sources. The miniature (pl.23) by the Anonymous painter of Syuniq is based on a more complex iconography; it shows women bathing

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Christ. In the Anonymous Painter's miniature, there is a red apple in Mary's hand, the symbolic meaning of which was explained by means of local traditions in the foreword of this album. A unique quality of the miniature "Entry into Jerusalem" (pl.24) may also be explained by the obvious influence of folk rites. The miniature, with its iconography and principal features of the composition is well known in Armenia, while the sounding of bells most worthy of attention s unknown elsewhere. Neither the Bible nor apocryphal literature offer any ground for its introduction into the scene. It may be explained only by church rituals; there being a widely spread flower festival in Armenia. At midnight on the day of the festival, the youth bring brandies of willow into the church. The priest makes his appearance, the bells ring and people gather. After the priest had given his blessings, the brandies were planted in their yards. In order to add freshness to religious iconographic forms of the scene, the painter of the miniature made use of elements taken from folk rites. The miniature depicts an event from the Gospel. Christ and his disciples are met by the people of Jerusalem, greeting them with palm leaves. Christ, sitting on a white ass occupies the center of the composition. His large figure emphasizes his being the center of the scene. Such breach of balance in the parts of the composition is not unique in Christian art: the size of figures and objects in the miniature are constructed not according to their position but by their importance in the scene. The miniature (pl.24) by the Anonymous painter of Syuniq gives an enlarged version of the composition, the original quality of which comes from folk-traditions.The original creative attitude of the painter can also be seen in the iconography "The Rise of Lazarus" (pl.25) the painter avoided the widespread Byzantine composition, according to which Lazarus was presented entombed not in a cave but in an ordinary earth grave. Lazarus' sisters are likewise depicted in an untraditional way. They are not kneeling before Christ but are among the people gathered to watch the miracle. One of tile miracles performed by Christ is presented in this composition: the rise of Lazarus, the dead brother of Martha and Mary, whom Christ brings back to life. This story is told only in the Gospel according to St. John. The iconographic type used in this miniature is seldom found in Armenia; the Byzantine iconography was more often used, in which Lazarus was shown at a cave grave entrance in an upright position. The miniature is balanced in its composition. In the center is the grave from which the shrouded Lazarus comes out. There are apostles to the right of him and a group of people on the left watching the miracle. Lazarus' sisters are in the foreground. The painter skillfully showed the two pivotal points: Lazarus by his place in the composition and Christ, by the expressive gestures of the hands of the people about him. Miniature (pl.25) is one of those essential forms of medieval thinking in art, for which canons were elaborated for many centuries, which had absolute, universal value. The ability to express his own thoughts through this absolute value raises the medieval master to the level of individuality. There were such individualities in Armenian miniature painting. Among them may be mentioned Grigor Tatevatsi and the Anonymous painter of Syuniq, whose sincere, talented art arouses admiration up to the present. This is a theme known in Christian art from the 5th century. The Armenians did not have an iconographic version of this theme. Up to the 12th century, the cross was usually depicted without Christ.

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Beginning from the 11th century, several iconographic versions were introduced: a simple variant without robbers (pl.4) and an enlarged one with robbers (pl.26). This composition (pl.27) is based on the space-and-time canon accepted in medieval art and expresses scenes logically following each other, within one miniature. The development of the action takes place from the bottom upwards. In the lower part of the composition, Christ is shown in the grave wrapped in shrouds; above him are the sleeping soldier-guards. In the upper part of the miniature, the next scene presented at the same grave (in which only the shrouds of Christ can be seen) are the holy women who have come lo anoint the body of the dead and the angels telling them what had happened. This scene (pl.28) expresses the concept of the sins of mankind being redeemed by Christ. According to Christian doctrine, Christ, by sacrificing himself, bestows mankind with immortality by opening the doors of Paradise before him. In the miniature Christ is presented standing on the ruins of Hell Satan is at his feet, chained by the will of God. In this same scene, Adam and Eve, the kings Solomon and David, and John the Baptist may lie seen, striving towards Christ and pleading for salvation. The miniature is unfinished. Christ's face was drawn in later.

4. Arabic influences Miniature paintings of Arabian school is as follows: (Frimmel, 1885. Martin, 1912. Schulz, 1914. Grohmann. & Arnold, 1920. Sakisian, 1929. Kühnel, 1922. Arnold, 1928. Blochet, 1929. Binyon & others, 1933. Stchoukine, 1936. De Villard, 1950. Hassan, 1958. Al-Basha, 1959. Rice, 1971. Al-Basha, 1973. Farghali, 1991), Figural paintings of the black-bearded, eastern clothing set loose shirt and a dress, which covers almost descent to the feet clothing with sleeves decorated with large embroidered flowers and plant with geometric designs in units or repeated, headscarf is a multi-turban folds, care to highlight the main character in the picture as a center of the image and the subject at the expense of those secondary as well as other elements of the environment in the picture. Photographer stayed away to express the depth, stay away from some technical rules that lead to anthropomorphism and depth in the image of shadow and light, such as the one illuminated as if every picture was filmed in broad daylight. And did not use the shades of bright color did not reflect the shadow and light, neglect of the third dimension and perspective as required by way of realistic representation in fees came flat fees do not have the depth, dumping in the decorative, resorted to coloring the color backgrounds and one gold in all school transcripts and red images in Iran. Details of the garment folds: the use of geometric lines or pictures of flowers, the tendency to draw close to reality tumbling folds clothes lines radiate from one center, architectural design backgrounds, a rock hills and a simplified planning terminology tends to sometimes the decorative, a land line, (Hassan, 1936. Al-Basha, 1959. Farghali, 1991). The folds of the garments are treated by means of color, emphasizing the harmony and proportions of the body, the faces are drawn with a sure, precise hand, earth is a line similar to a cue capitals from the Coptic form of basketball, the trappings of geometric form of semi-hexagonal (doqmak) are interconnected characters (Y) repeated, the jug of water with elliptical handle his neck, mouth and wide from the top and a conical shape, the body is divided into frames and covered with geometric and plant designs.

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As for the second painter, his drawings are somewhat weaker and that is especially seen in tile figure of the Virgin in the Virgin and Child and Crucifixion, the execution of the other figures is also not successful; they are rather stocky and not so proportional, flatness is stressed and is especially expressed in the folds of the garments; they are stiff and not at all flexible. There was a significant transition in the functional effects of Arab and imagery school, which seemed to flourish since the Abbasid era at the neighborly relations between Armenia, Iran and cultural relations that had prevailed since the Abbasid era, sources have confirmed that these effects have moved either directly to Armenia during the rule of the Abbasids, or through Iran as the neighborhood and control of the Seljuks and Mongols, or indirectly influences and moved to Egypt during Tolunids then moved to the Fatimid era and sentenced to Sicily during the Fatimid age. The sources pointed out that the painter Grigor Tatevatsi had traveled to Jerusalem and Iran, which has had the greatest impact on the characteristics of his school of manuscripts. The influences which had moved to the Armenian manuscripts are:

1. 4. Figural motifs Forms of long persons and narrow shoulders spread of Arabic manuscripts affected and find in images of the four Annunciations (576/1180) from the Arab school in Egypt. (Dimand, 1982. Farghali, 1991. Blochet. Musulman painting, pl.5. People tend to the length was a Chinese influence as in the Gami' el-Tawarikh of Bayrouni (707/1306). (Farghali, 1991). The painted faces of people with oval shape, eyes in the corner, a bit deviant neck and that affected alternative of Muzaffarian school manuscripts in Iran, (Al-Basha, 1959. Farghali, 1991). The images marked interest in the main person who paints in the center often surrounded by other persons (pls.20-24-25-26-28), and the people resist wearing a wide-open front with long sleeves and wide, weared by an open entire robe without holes. (Ettinghausen, 1974. Farghali, 1991). Images of people were varied between the facing situation (pls.19-20) and the third dimension situation in other paintings, we find that the facing situation from the Byzantine influences that the third dimension situation from the Arab influences. There are Figural motifs that people take on a St. Holy heading to the left and taking his feet on a small carpet and Carrying Bible the on thighs (pls.10-11-12-13-14-15-16), this oriental Sasanid session took on the way in meeting the king photographed from the previous manuscript in the four Annunciation (576/1180). And an image in the whole book of Gami' el-Tawarikh of Bayrouni (8/14), (Farghali, 1991. Hassan, 1937). We find clothes with folds like clothing from the arab school, there are minerals of Sasanian and post-Sasanian metal works as a silver dish containing a sketch of the Persian kings. Grabar (1956). 161 pl.p.164.A naked drawing rights (pl.25) in an image of the book of Al-Athaar Al-Baqia of Bayrouni (707/1307). Farghali, 1991).

2. 4. Backgrounds with plants Formed elements of plant designs (pl.1-2-10-11-12-19-21-22-25) This was reflected in Al-Teriaq of

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Galenous (595/1199), and Khawas el-A’Qaqear of Disagurides, (Hassan, 1958. Farghali, 1991). as a result of transition the effects of Moazfarian and Galaeirian schools on the Armenian manuscript, as characterized by distribution of forms without taking into account the perspective as the bird's eye view style which shows the bird appointed all of the forms are higher, (Al-Basha, 1959. Farghali, 1991).plans and flowers decorations like a rug was set on a regular basis to suggest romantic, beautiful, (Farghali, 1991). and spread forms of rosettes and trees as cypress (pl.16) Which appeared in the Persian poetry and manuscripts (801/1398). Gray. pl.68. Trees that mediates the picture painted an abstract way and ending leaves and flowers and trees with bending legs which expires flowers manner with modification (pls.18-19-22) as copies of the four Annunciations (576/1180), a copy of Khawas el-A’Qaqear of Disagurides (595/1199), Samki E'yar of Shirazi (6/12) (6/12), bayadh and Riyadh, and the Shahnama (696/1393), benefits of animal of Bin Bakhtaishu' (699/1299), Khamsa Nezami (8/14), kalila and Dinma (8/14) and five Jawakhuy Kermani (898/1396). (Hassan, 1946. Farghali, 1991. Buchthal, 1942. Ettinghausen, 1974. Binyon & others, 1933. Robinson). which are similar to the charges of Iranian ceramics from Al-Rai (7/13). (Farghali, 1991). The spread of trees on the two sides (pl.3) As in Al-Teriaq of Galenous (595/1199), The forms of flowers, leaves, branches in the form of plant in geometric design (pl.6-7-8-9) as a copy of Khawas el-A’Qaqear of Disagurides (621/1224), a copy of kalila and Dinma (622/1225), and a copy of Maqamat Al-Hariri (734/1334). (Farghali, 1991. Buchthal, 1942).

3. 4. Backgrounds with Architectural elements Architectural backgrounds marked by arches and multi-storey (pls.10-11-12-13-14-15-16-24), It showed in Khawas el-A’Qaqear of Disagurides (621/1224), a copy of kalila and Dinma (8/14) and copy of Bayadh and Riyadh (8/14), Ettinghausen. Painting. Gray, B. pl.p.39). that was a feature of the Mozafarian, (Al-Basha, 1959). and Galaerian school, as a copy of five Bwakhuy Kermani (76/799), the image of five Khusro Dahlaoi (903/1498) and a copy of Khusro and Shirin (9/15). (Hassan, 1937. Farghali, 1991). The domes with ribs (pls.5-11-12) in the Arab school as Khawas el-A’Qaqear of Disagurides (621/1224). (Ettinghausen. Painting).

4. 4. Curtains The curtains were divided into two parts hanging to the bottom of the bow and zippy trailing like a handkerchief (pls.10-11-12-14), we find that the clothing worn by hanging body including one handkerchief (pls.10-11-12-13-14-15-16-18-21-25-26-27-28). The curtains had been signs of four Annunciations (576/1180), also emerged from Iran as the form of Samki E'yar of Shirazi (6/12) and a copy of Khawas el-A’Qaqear of Disagurides (621/1224), (Binyon & others, 1933. Gray. pl.22B. and in Maqamat Al-Hariri (6/13). (Pope, 1945. Rice. 1971. Ettinghausen, 1979. Hassan. Madrasat Baghdad).

5. 4. Headscarf of three-plant foils In Armenian Manuscripts, Some people wearing a cap of three plant foils (pls.6-19-20-27), this form of headscarves is one of the Sasanian artistic influences were characteristic features of the rulers of Iran,

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(Ettinghausen, 1974). has appeared in Kapella Platina fresco in Sicily which had been subjected to Islamic rule (287/901) to (452/1061) and spread by the Fatimid art of painting, where are the Arabic kufic words by the Fatimid style also includes drawing pictures on the tiles, dancers, daily life, duties of birds and animals and all of the decorations filled contemporary Fatimid art. Among the most prominent topics man put a crown three segments on his head. Kapella Platina was built by Normandian King Roger II (538/1144) by Muslim builders and artists. (See: Ettinghausen, 1974. Rice, 1971). The Triple foils Crown has emerged on the bust plaster of King Shahpur II (310-379) in Chicago Museum of Natural History, is probably that this method moved to Egypt during the Tolunid era continued appearance in the Fatimid era, which culminates on the top of a ceramic plate with a metallic luster (5/11) (Farghali, 1991). and manuscripts, are similar with charges of Iranian ceramics of Al-Rai (7/13). A copy of kalila and Dinma (622/1225), an images of the four Annunciations (576/1180), two of Samki E'yar of Shirazi (6/12), charges of similar fees in Khawas el-A’Qaqear of Disagurides (7/13), a copy of Gami' el-Tawarikh (707/1306-), a copy of Al Shahnama (8/11), two of Gami' el-Tawarikh (8/14) and (714/1314), the of Shahnama (730/1330) And the Crown's foils in Shahnama (1066/1656). Blouchet, 1926. Binyon & others, 1933. Hassan, 1936. Hassan, 1937. Hassan, 1946. Hassan, 1958. Farghali, 1991).

6. 4. Geometric designs Emerged in Armenian miniatures included scheduled for tires (pls.1-2-15-17), which appeared in manuscript from the Fatimid miniature (5-22). From a Bible in Coptic Museum of Cairo (734/1334), a copy of the four Annunciations (576/1180), a copy of Kalila and Dimna Manuscript (622/1225) and (8/14) also appeared on some of the ceramic with metallic luster from the Fatimid era, a porcelain dish with Fatimid metallic luster, pieces of porcelain from the Mamluk (8-9/14-15), Mamluk iron scheduled mirror (8-9/14-15) and drawing scheduled paper (5-6/11-12). (Buchthal, 1926. Sajisian, 1929. Hassan, 1937. Hassan, 1946. Hassan, 1937. Konouz. Blouchet, 1929. Hassan, 1958. Mehrez, 1962). Geometric designs appeared accurate, regular and close relatives of the letter (Y) in Armenian manuscripts (pl.1-3-4-16-22-23) Scheduled tires were emerged, consists of (Y) shaped and repeated forms and found in a blunt (622/1225). (Buchthal, 1942).A crooked line (pl.1-4-5-15) which found on a jug of ceramic from Al-Rai (7/13). (Hassan, 1958). The decorations appeared similar to the letter (Z) (pl.16). We find it on a box of bronze (7/13), and on a vessel (7/13), (Hassan, 1946. Hassan, 1958), it showed brackets incurved Swastika decoration "Mafrooka" (pl.5) on a wooden door of Abu Maqqar Monastery in Nitrite (3/10). (Shafi, 1954). Land in the Virgin and Child (pl.5) was monolithic forms of horseshoe and pointed arches, in the back of brackets, there are some buildings with pointed arches in the Annunciation, Nativity and the Virgin and Child (pls.1-2-5), are based on the two sides, two buildings with pointed windows and domes with ribs.

7. 4. Animal and bird motifs There are two animals with opposite heads and confront bodies (pl.l9) as a jug (7/13). The birds, we find vase involved by two Peacocks (pl.l8), the forms of Peacocks sometimes in opposite sides of the high tail in the form of semicircle and spread in the Fatimid era, (Farghali, 1991). There are two confronting birds and

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8. 4. Rocks Winding rocks charges are found in Armenian miniatures (pl.4-26), the influences of Arab manuscripts in the formulation of the rock, which Christ stands in the crucifixion, and that was a feature of Arab school where evidence of Maqamat Al-Hariri (619/1223). (Blouchet, 1926. Farghali, 1991).

9. 4. The using of Arabic characters The headscarf in the miniatures (pl.6-7-8-9) is composed of three petals leaf, round-grind and component plant which is the Leaf three petals. Central line surrounded by birds, letters using elements derived from birds. Spread the use of graphic literature to metal works in Iran (Darwish, 2000), which is the literature that it ends the tune of humans or animals or take some of the characters, (Ramadan, 1998. Ettinghausen, 1956). The onset of this type of literature on the Iranian ceramics from Nishapur (4/10), photographed by writing muffler parts of the alphabet in the form of birds or parts thereof had emerged this type of literature on Boberniski bowl (559/1163). (Hassan 1937. Hassan, 1946). This type of literature on the evolution of metal objects in the eastern province of Khurasan in Iran and moved with the makers to Iran, Mesopotamia, the most important centers of Mosel, Syria as in the production of Damascus, Aleppo and Cairo. (Ramadan, 1998). The literature has shown that most of the parties, which expires alphabet subhuman warheads with some elements of the animals and birds, and literature was the photographer at the base, which is the characters, and then rise to take the letters people have heads. Forms of birds, animals or take some letters the same way as well the picture taken on some writing utensils figural and animal forms to shape the fee depending on the tape as in the letter carved on a pot, (Darwish, 2000). We find that some characters may end as in the order of the heads on a Group of pots, Darwish. pl.5-6. ends the upper part of the body knight pointed bow or with knight clutching a spear and shield On a vessel (Ghulam, 1982). with characters that can be read, (Ramadan, 1998. Rice, 1957), without that ends in the pictures, while the vessel is the publication fees and not a base for writing. This tape is in writing and confirmed by the statement the pitcher and writing fees as well as a ceramic bowl, and glass vase, (Darwish, 2000).

5. Conclusion and results Armenian illuminations are those of the following two manuscripts, from the Gospel of folios paper in Matenadaran of Mashtots, where the researcher published them for the first time: 1. Thirteen miniatures dated (1297) and (1378). The miniatures were executed by Grigor Tatevatsi and his pupil in (1378). 2. Fifteen miniatures dated in the end of 14th century and beginning of 15th century, the scribe is Grigor Tatevatsi and the painter is the Anonymous painter of Syuniq.

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There was a significant transition in the functional effects of Arab and imagery school, which seemed to flourish since the Abbasid age at the neighborly relations between Armenia, Iran and cultural relations that had prevailed since the Abbasid age, sources have confirmed that these effects have moved either directly to Armenia During the rule of the Abbasids, or through Iran as the neighborhood and control of the Seljuks and Mongols, or indirectly influences and moved to Egypt during Tolunids then moved to the Fatimid age. The sources pointed out that Grigor Tatevatsi had traveled to Jerusalem and Iran, which has had the greatest impact on the characteristics of manuscripts. The technical effects of Islamic art that have moved to the Armenian manuscripts are: Figural forms with long and narrow shoulders. The images marked interest in the main person who paints a picture in the center often surrounded by other persons. Images of people varied between the situation facing and the situation of a third dimension in other paintings and find that the situation is the opposite of the Byzantine influences that the situation in the third dimension of the Arab influences. We find that clothes with folds like clothing from the Arab school, and there are minerals on the Sasanian and post-Sasanian. Backgrounds formed elements of plant designs, as characterized by distribution fees without taking into account the perspective of style, which shows the bird appointed all of the fees are higher as plant flowers and decorations like a rug was set on a regular basis. Trees that mediates the picture painted an abstract way and ending leaves and flowers and trees with bending legs which expires flowers manner with Modification. Flowers, leaves, branches in the form of plant in geometric design. Backgrounds with architectural elements marked by charges of arches and multi-storey. The curtains are divided into two parts hanging to the bottom of the bow and zippy trailing like a handkerchief, we find that the clothing worn by hanging body including of one handkerchief. Headscarf of three foils plant In Armenian Manuscripts, some people wearing cap a three plant foils, this form of headscarves is one of the Sasanian artistic influences were characteristic features of the rulers of Iran, has appeared in Kapella Platina fresco which have been subjected to Islamic rule and spread by the Fatimid art of painting, where are the Arabic kufic words by the Fatimid style also includes drawing pictures on the tiles, dancers, daily life and duties of birds and animals and all of the decorations filled contemporary Fatimid Egypt. Among the most prominent topics man put a crown on his head three plant foils. Geometric designs included scheduled for tires, which appeared in manuscript from the Fatimid miniature, Geometric designs appeared accurate and regular and close relatives of the letter (Y) in Armenian manuscripts Scheduled tires were emerged, consists of (Y) shaped and repeated forms, which found the container of ceramic from Al-Rai, the decorations appeared similar to the letter (Z), It showed brackets incurved swastika decoration "Mafrooka", there are some buildings with pointed arches, on the two sides, there were two buildings of pointed windows and domes with ribs. Animal and bird motifs, there are two animals with opposite heads and confront bodies, the forms of Peacocks sometimes in opposite sides of the high tail in the form of semicircle and spread in the Fatimid age, from Sasanian effects of widespread in Islamic arts.

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Winding rocks charges are found in Armenian miniatures as the influences of Arab manuscripts. Central line surrounded by birds, letters using elements derived from birds. Spread the use of graphic literature to metal works in Iran which is the literature.

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Herzig, K. & Edmund, M. (2005). The Armenians: Past and Present in the Making of National Identity, Routledge, pp.42-43. Hewsen, R. H. (2001). Armenia: a historical atlas. The University of Chicago Press, p.126. Hovannisian, Richard G. (1999). Armenian Van/Vaspurakan. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda Publishers. Howard, G. (1981). The Teaching of Addai, society of Biblical, Chico - Scholars. ------tr. Segal, J. B. (1970). Edessa, the Blessed City, Oxford – Claredon, p.15. Izmailova, T. & Sandoughkavanetsi, H. (1986). Miniature Armenienne, Hovhannes Sandoughkavanetsi, Sovetakan Grogh - Yerevan. Karagueuzian, H. W. (1992). Armenian Miniatures, Ornate Initials Anahit Publishers - Yerevan. Khachikian, L. S. (1955-1967). XV Dari Hayeren Tseragreri Hishadakaranner, A, 1401–1450. Yerevan. ------(1972). Hayastane michazkayin divanakitut'yan ew sovetakan artakin kaghakakanut'yan pastateghterum, (Armenia in the documents of international diplomacy and Soviet foreign policy, 1828-1923), (in Armenian). Yerevan, pp.149-358. Korkhmazian, E. M. and Chookaszian B. L. (1987). Grigor Tatevatsi and Anonymous Painter of Syuniq, Sovetakan Grogh - Yerevan. Kouymjian, D. & Lehmann, H. & Stone, M. E. (2002). Album of Armenian Paleography, AARHUS University Press – Denmark. Krikorian, M. K. (1981). Grigory of Tatiev: A Great Scholastic Theologian and Philosopher, In Hygazian Hyagitagan Hantes, 9, Beirut, 71-79. Kühnel, E. (1922). La Miniature en Orient. Paris. Kurdoghlian, M. (1996). Hayots Badmoutioun (Armenian History), II. Athens – Greece, pp.3-7. Kurkjian, V. M. (1958). A History of Armenia hosted by the University of Chicago. New York, pp.173-185. Laurent, J. Genealogie des Bagratides, Paris, p.326. Laurent, J. Larmenie Entre Byzance et L’Islam, Depius La Conquete Arab Jusun en 886, Paris, pp.193-194. Martin, F. (1912). The Miniature painting and Painters of Persia, India and Turkey, London. Mathews, T. F. & Sanjian, A. K. (1991). Armenian Gospel Iconography, the Tradition of the Glajor Gospel, Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection - Washington, D.C. Maximillien de Lafayette. History of the Civilization and Arts of Armenia, pp.44. Mesrop, J. Armenian Miniature Paintings, Mkhitarian Publishing Venice. Minorsky (1964). Le Nom de Dvin en Armenie, Iranica Twenty Articles, Tahran, pp.1-11. Mirzoyan, A. Armenian Miniature, pp.30-32. Novello, A. A. (1995). The Armenians, Two Thousand Years of Art and Architecture, Paris. Özaydın, A. Bedr el-Cemâlî, Diyanet İşleri Başkanlığı İslam Ans., V, p.330. Panossian, R. (2006). The Armenians, from Kings and Priests to Merchants and Commissars, Columbia University Press, p.106. Poghosyan, S. & others (1979). Cilician Armenia. Soviet Armenian Encyclopedia. V. Yerevan, Armenian SSR: Armenian Academy of Sciences, pp.406-428. Pope, A. U. (1945). Masterpieces of Persian Art, New York, pl.31C-D. Rice, D. T. (1957). The Wade Cup in the Cleveland Museum of Art, Its origin and Decoration, Ars

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Orientalis, vol.2, Univ. of Michigan, fig.20. ------(1971). Islamic painting, A Survey, Edinburgh, pp.45-47-51. pl.11B. Robinson, B. Islamic painting, London, pp.136-138 pls.16-20. Sakisian, A. (1929). La Miniature Persane de XII au XVIIIs siecle, Paris – Bressels, pl.6. Sanjian A. K. (1976). A Catalogue of Medieval Armenian Manuscripts in the United States, Literary Collections. Schulz, P. (1914). Die Persisch Islamiche Miniatuer malerei, Leipzig. Stchoukine, I. (1936). La Peinture iranienne suos les derniers abbasides et les Il-Khans. Taronatsi, T. (1984). Armenian Miniature, Editions Erebouni. Torosyan, K. (1985). Stepanos Orbelian. Soviet Armenian Encyclopedia. Yerevan, Armenian SSR: Armenian Academy of Sciences, XI, pp.139-140. Tzerun (1984). Armenian Miniature, Editions Erebouni.

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Impactful Academic Advising: What Students Recall Years Later

Rene Couture Assistant Professor, College Student Personnel Arkansas Tech University

Abstract Twenty-one graduate students were asked to reflect on what they remember most from their undergraduate academic advising experiences. Impactful advising is defined here as academic advising that leaves a positive, long-lasting effect on students. In this study, three themes emerged, which depict impactful advising. These advisors were inspiring, had a positive attitude, and were intrusive. Academic advisors do not often realize the long term impact they might leave on students. Students may always pay close attention, but they do feel judgment. It is captivating what students recall several years or decades later, such as encouraging words to a struggling student or belittling the student for going to the wrong office. As students themselves, academic advisors were likely self-motivated and were interested in finding solutions to their academic and personal problems. Frustration can set in when students arrive at advising appointments with no preparation, questions, or ideas related to how they can maximize their total college experience. Assumptions can easily be made about these students, which can be unfair to the student.

Connecting Leadership theory to Advising In leadership studies, many employees prefer supervisors who operate under McGregor’s Theory Y, which states that employees want to do their best and strive to find value and meaning in their work rather than Theory X, which states employees only work for a wage and are only motivated by fear of punishment (Bolman & Deal, 2008). Similarly, students prefer Theory Y advisors who help students make meaning of their curricular and co-curricular work in college. The vast majority of students do not wish to be left alone.

Students sometimes need permission Students likely have much on their minds but may not be sure how to articulate their thoughts, or maybe they do not wish to burden their advisors with their dilemmas. Students, like many individuals on campus, may misunderstand the role of academic advising, and must therefore be informed that advisors’ roles go far beyond next semester’s course schedule. Hearing examples of the most positive advising experiences as told by students can provide insight into becoming more impactful for students. Impactful advising is defined here as academic advising that leaves a positive, long-lasting effect on students. This study identifies three main characteristics of impactful advisors. These advisors were inspiring, had a positive

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Method In this article we discuss what graduate students recalled as they reflected on their undergraduate academic advising experiences. Twenty-one students in an Academic Advising graduate course were asked to reflect on their advising experiences as undergraduates. All names have been assigned pseudonyms. Institutional Review Board (IRB) procedures were followed and students consented to their participation in the study. Guiding questions were: Question 1: Tell a story about the most impactful advisor you had. Question 2: Specifically, what was it about that advisor that was so unique?

Results In addition to the expected traits of the “five C’s” of competence, confidence-building, cordial, credible, and creative (Fox, 2008), three themes emerged of a) inspiring; b) positive attitude; and c) intrusive. Several students also mentioned how their advising expectations were shaped by previous advisors.

Student expectations The student’s first advising session can lay the point of reference that will create expectations for future advisors, for better or worse. If distrust develops with one advisor, students are unlikely to fully trust a new advisor. Unless the advising experience is especially horrendous, students tend to generalize that other advisors operate in similar ways. Kyla reflected on her advisor: He had absolutely no idea what he was doing. He didn’t know which classes I needed to take or which classes I had already taken. I was terrified because of my previous experience in signing up for the wrong class, and the fact that it almost put me a semester behind. Jennifer, a first-generation community college transfer student said, I expected the same type of advisement I obtained at the previous college. My [new] advisor did not spend extra time getting to know me or attempting to get a feel for my interests. I was never given advice or information. I was simply handed a schedule and sent on my way. I was under the impression this is how college worked.

Theme 1: Inspiring Students did not care whether their advisor was entry level or a seasoned veteran; what mattered was the advisor’s desire to help. This is confirmed by Fox’s (2008) counsel of “people do not care how much you know until they know how much you care” (p. 350). The best advisors inspired and motivated their students by believing in them. Though many students may have unrealistic self-appraisals of their academic ability, many simultaneously experience self-doubt, or quickly realize they can no longer depend on the academic reputation they may have had in high school. Anything advisors say can carry a lot of weight, even if said

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Listening to students is a critical component of the inspiring theme. Imagine how nervous a student might be to a) meet a new advisor, b) open up about all her thoughts, and c) change majors. Upon meeting a new advisor to explore majors, Lacie said, “She listened intently and asked questions occasionally about why or how I did something and after I was finished speaking she assured me that we, together, would find the perfect major for me. How refreshing! Someone who enjoys advising!” When the advisor shows genuine concern, trust can be quickly established. Lacie continued talking about her renewed trust in advising: In the one hour I spent with this new advisor, I felt like everything changed for me. I learned more about myself then than in all the years before. The most interesting part was that it was just me talking and her actively listening. She showed a genuine compassion for my situation and a desire for guiding me in the right direction. I could tell she wanted to create a positive relationship with me through the questions she asked and her eagerness to listen to my stories. Inspiring advisors also showed genuine interest in their students, and as a result, these students do not feel like a burden or a number. Jessica said: [My advisor] took an interest in me and what I wanted to do with my life, and I felt like I was more than just a problem she had to deal with. To this day I still go and visit her from time to time. She took the time to talk to me and got to know me and my ambitions. Similarly, Kyla reflected: I can remember going into my advisor’s office with tears in my eyes to tell him I had finally passed [the praxis exam]. I gave him a huge hug and thanked him for believing in me, because honestly I had lost faith in myself. I truly believe that his faith and confidence in me enabled me to push through my doubts and fears, and he is a big part of the reason I graduated. Jessica succinctly captured the essence of this theme: “I believe that the best thing that my advisor did for me was believe that I was worth taking time to get to know.” James, an older student, discussed how his advisor helped him feel part of the campus community: “Being a non-traditional student, as well as living off campus made me very detached from the university setting. She was my connection. I will always be grateful for her dedication to my success and happiness.”

Some advisors may feel that if their students are in majors with limited course flexibility, that they may not have an option to have meaningful discussions with students. However, Jessica explained how her advisor made this work: There was not a lot of need to discuss what classes I needed to take, because the classes were already arranged for us. Still, my advisor took the time to let me know about the classes I was signed up for and how they would help me in the future. Students appreciate, and are increasingly expecting, individualized attention. Laura explained how her advisor did this: This advisor asked me questions about what I was interested in and gave me pointers about

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graduate school options and career options. He helped me figure out a map to graduate on time with a degree that would set me up for success in the future. The main thing that made this meeting one of the best experiences with an advisor was probably his focus on me as a student that made me feel that he truly had my best interest in mind.

Theme 2: Positive attitude In this study, great advisors loved their work and were happy to see the student, which is consistent with Fox’s (2008) work, who said advisors must be fully present in the advising appointment, to the point that it seems they have been looking forward to the appointment all day. Lacie described how advisors first greet their students sets the tone: “I was greeted with a smiling face and an enthusiastic, ‘Hi Lacie! How are you doing?’ She acted like she had known me forever and I immediately felt comfortable.” Noticing the seemingly simple and mundane things can help students feel recognized (Fox, 2008). To further illustrate this concept, a supervisor once said this about his advising department: “When students come to our office to see us, we want it to be the highlight of their day” (P. Thayer, personal communication, December 2005).

Professional academic advisors enter the profession because of their dedication and passion for helping students through advising. Faculty do not enter their varied disciplines with the goal of advising, but dedicated and caring instructors share many characteristics with great advisors. Several students mentioned positive experiences with faculty. Katie said, I had one instructor who I looked up to and often sought counsel or advice from on major course selection. She always had positive remarks about my academic progress and encouraged me to further my education in whatever subject area I saw fit. While our meetings were usually brief, following a lecture, these small encounters of positive reinforcement ended up being my best faculty-based academic advising experiences. Ashley, who transitioned from a professional advisor to a faculty advisor, spoke of her faculty advisor’s positive excitement: My new advisor was very excited to have a new student in the program, and she laid out the different career specialties available under the [profession]. She later became my favorite professor, and I always felt like she was available should I need anything. From that point on, I remember very few specifics about my advising experiences; they became a seamless part of student life. Crystal discussed how her advisor’s availability and interest in Crystal as a person beyond academics left an impression: I remember her asking me each semester how classes were going, and letting me know that if I ever needed anything she was always there to help. I very much appreciated the connection she had with her students to go above and beyond to make sure they were succeeding not only academically, but also personally. This seems like such a normal thing for good advisors to do, but it really makes a difference for students!

Theme 3: Intrusive

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Many students believed their advisors far exceeded their obligations. Most of these advisors employed intrusive advising (Cannon, 2013) techniques. Students frequently credited these individuals with “saving them” and being the reason they persisted through to graduation. The implications from these results on retention are immense. Laura’s faculty advisor was new to campus yet he was honest about his lack of knowledge, but at the same time confident in his ability to complete his job and keep me going in the right direction. This could have easily turned into a mess, but this professor did an excellent job of asking the right people the right questions in order to help me correctly register for my classes and complete my degree audit.

Investing in students’ lives A paradigmatic shift occurs when advisors’ mindset changes from advising students to investing in students’ lives. This level of investment requires more energy and courage. Beth’s advisor noted a change in Beth’s behavior and did not avoid the issue: My advisor took note not only of my life academically, but professionally, personally, and emotionally. This was really important to a person like me, because I struggle with asking for help or admitting defeat. For example, when my advisor found out I was having a hard time my freshman and sophomore year, she adapted and assisted me quickly. During this time my parents’ messy divorce was being finalized, I suffered from sepsis, my kidneys began to deteriorate, and I was sexually assaulted by a football player on campus. My advisor took notice of the changes in my behavior, asked what was wrong without intruding or judgment, and managed to help me through this time with ease. My advisor made an investment in my life. Beth continued by talking about her advisor would follow up with her: It should be said that my advisor’s advising style was fitted to me and my own personality, needs, and desires. My advisor also made sure to check in periodically via email to see how my classes were going, check on my health, my progress in counseling, and my overall well-being besides just the times of registration for classes. Crystal, a distance student, credits her advisor with encouraging her to complete her degree: Even though I never met her face-to-face, I knew that she genuinely cared about each of her advisees. During this time I had faced several life events that could have given me reason to quit school and not finish, but my advisor was always there pushing me to succeed. She will never know how grateful I am for not allowing me the chance to give up when the world seemed to be crashing around me. To this day we are still good friends.

A second chance Sherri was a GED recipient, and later became a first-generation college student as a mother of three. She credits so much to her advisor: As [my advisor] spoke she said something that would stick with me for years to come. She told me

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to take a deep breath and that everything was going to be great. She told me ‘Anything is possible’ and that I need to remember to believe in myself. She explained how it does not matter how old or when a student starts college but that getting involved is far more important for students to learn more about their campus and build leadership. Sherri would later transfer from her first college to the next one after receiving failing grades. Upon enrolling at her next college, Sherri said: Realizing that I left [my last school] abruptly and not taking the right steps I was unable to receive financial aid and I would have to pay for my education. I was devastated and sat outside the building crying and was so upset. Not knowing what I was going to do or how I was going to tell my husband that I had failed to achieve something so important and I would now not be able to achieve my dreams. As I sat there with my face in my hands and upset, I felt someone’s hand on my back saying, ‘It’s not that bad, it is going to be okay. Remember, anything is possible!’ This was the same person who had helped Sherri at the previous institution. She continued: I wanted to give her a hug as she explained that she did not do anything; that I actually had done everything and this was just a situation that I would learn from only to make me stronger. To have someone take the time out of her lunch and then to sit and work with me to help me realize I had a chance to work at reaching my goals again [was exhilarating]. I felt a connection even though she let me make the decisions of how I would achieve those goals; she was there for guidance only.

Implications These themes are manifestations of advisors’ advocacy and desire to help students. Advisors who seek resources and continually challenge themselves are likely not the bad advisors mentioned above. Yet, college staff must encourage students to seek the advice of trusted faculty and staff if they are belittled. Hiring committees should ask candidates to provide examples of times when they helped students through difficult periods, challenged students to overcome obstacles, or far exceeded students’ expectations. Students’ advising needs change as they progress and mature (Brown, 2008), and thus advisors must adjust their approach to match student needs. The best advisors can do this and reject the notion that students dread advising and simply prefer prescriptive advising (Appleby, 2001). Having students explain what constitutes quality advising reinforces our commitment to students. Advisors need to ask more probing questions. They need to try harder to read students’ minds while suspending assumptions. If a student looks distracted, stressed, elated, or down, advisors should have the freedom to ask the student about it. Advisors can ask students the seemingly mundane things. Some examples include: “Wow, you’re carrying a lot of things in your backpack today. You seem busy. Tell me about it.” “Describe ‘back home’ for me. “What are the best and worst things that happened this week?” “What are you looking forward to in the next week?” “What are you good at?” “What do you want to learn about?” “Where do you think you can improve?”

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Advisors should take some extra time with the students who need additional support, or refer as appropriate. For most students, their academic advisors may be the only individuals on campus who have the one-on-one opportunity and courage to ask these questions. In doing so, students will feel heard, understood, and worthy; and their advisor’s impact will not be soon forgotten. An interesting discussion question for an advising staff to consider is: “What will your students say about you 10 years from now?”

References Appleby, D. (2001, March 19). The teaching-advising connection. The Mentor. Retrieved from http://dus.psu.edu/mentor/old/articles/appleby3.htm Bolman, L. G., & Deal, T. E. (2008). Reframing organizations: Artistry, choice and leadership. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Cannon, J. (2013, March). Intrusive advising 101: How to be intrusive without intruding. Academic Advising Today, 36 (1). Retrieved from http://www.nacada.ksu.edu/Resources/Academic-Advising-Today/View-Articles/Intrusive-Advisi ng-101-How-to-be-Intrusive-Without-Intruding.aspx Fox, R. (2008). Delivering one-to-one advising: Skills and competencies. In V. N. Gordon, W. R. Habley, T. J. Grites, & Associates (Eds.), Academic advising: A comprehensive handbook (2nd ed.) (pp. 342-355). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

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Architectural Planning Of Minia Mosques

Mahmoud Ahmed Darwish Professor of Islamic archaeology, department of archaeology Faculty of Arts - Minia University Egypt

Abstract Minia maintains twenty-four archaeological mosques adopt several models follows: the local architectural planning between the courtyard and open riwaqs, and planning with naves without courtyard. There are four mosques take planning component of the courtyard and riwaqs ranging in date from the Fatimid age, and twenty mosques planning to take the naves and overdraft without a courtyard ranging in date from the Fatimid and Muhammad Ali ages includes one mosque with five naves, eleven mosques with four naves, five mosques of three naves and three Mosques of two naves. The objective of this study to highlight the evolution of the architectural planning of the mosques in Minia governorate, which was one of the most important provinces in Upper Egypt, in the architectural heritage, The variables of comparison where mosques have been established since the Arab conquest of Egypt has maintained were noted in the planning and architectural elements, while in the mosques of the renovation and reconstruction in many periods, it retained Architectural assets, which was mostly to the Fatimid age, also found that the mosque has seen the upswing in the Mamluk and Ottoman ages. Whether the planning with open Riwaqs around the courtyard or naves without courtyard, and the development of the architectural elements which include facades and entrances, minarets and arches. The research, in the methodology followed, based on the identification of the architectural planning stages of the development of the mosques on: 1. The descriptive approach through the study of architectural planning and follows this through different ages. 2. The analytical and comparative approach by the various characteristics of the models and patterns of architectural planning and comparative study with a number of mosques.

Kea wards: Minia; mosques; courtyard; riwaqs; Fatimid age.

1. Introduction Minia is the capital of Minia Governorate in Upper Egypt, It is located approximately 245 km (152 Mile) south of Cairo on the western bank of the Nile River, which flows north through the city. The name of the city is derived from its Ancient Egyptian name Men'at Khufu, meaning the nursing city of Khufu, linking it to the Pharaoh Khufu or Cheops, builder of the Great Pyramid at Giza.

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The name Minia may also have originated from the city's name in Sahidic Coptic Tmoone and in Bohairic Thmonē, meaning "the residence", in reference to an early monastery formerly in the area. It is the city where the Codex Tchacos was discovered. Minia is dubbed by the locals "Bride of Upper Egypt", in reference to its strategic location in Middle Egypt as a vital link between the north and the south of Egypt. During the rule of the Abbasids, Minia's name became attached to Ibn Khasib, the appointed benevolent and almost legendary ruler of Egypt in the early 9th century. Ibn Khasib loved Minia so much that when was asked by the Caliph to name a reward for his good deeds, he chose Minia where he would retire and die few years later. Ibn Khasib is credited for expanding Minia and transferring it from a large village to a robust Medieval city. Since Ibn Khasib years, Minia has been referred to as Munyat ibn Khasib (Ibn Khasib's Minia). During the rule of the Fatimid Caliphate in the 10th and 11th centuries, Minia continued to expand and it included large mosques, schools, a bazar, and public baths. It was during this period that two landmarks of Minia, the EL-Lamaty and EL-Amrawy mosques, Ibn Battuta, the famous medieval travellar, visited Minia and was impressed by what he saw there. Minia was noted and regarded with high praise in Ibn Battuta's account of his travels called the Rihla because of the school it used to have when he visited the city. Ibn Battuta's described Minia as a town that "excels all the other towns of Upper Egypt, (Robert, & other, 1996. Grimal, 1997. Kathryn & other, 1999. Meinardus, 1999. Abu Salih, 2001. Gawdat, ed. 2001. Capuani, 2002. Ibn Battuta, 2009. Shiha, .(Butler, 1993. Ramzi, 1994. Al-bakhshawangi, 1995. Qadus, 2000. ِ Samuel, 2002. Darwish, 2005 .1988

2. Architectural planning for Minia Mosques

1. 2 The mosques with riwaqs and courtyard Represents the first schematic designed on the basis of the mosques in Islamic architecture, consisting of a square or rectangular area is divided into the riwaqs by number of arcades consisting of rows of columns or pillars topped by arches. There are four mosques take planning component of the courtyard and riwaqs: Amrawi (Successive for renovation work since the Fatimid age, in the Mamluk age, there is an marble decree of the Sultan Jaqmaq dated (843/1439) above the northern entrance, and in the Ottoman age by Prince Mustafa Kashif, his text of a constitutional dated (1149/1736) on the western entrance), (fig.1-2) in Minia, Al-Hassan bin Saleh, (fig.3) in Bahnasa, Established in the Abbasid age and attributed to Al-Hassan Bin Saleh bin Zayn El Abidine who died in (323/935), (conservation de L'Art Arabe, 1896. Maher, 1966). It was built in the Fatimid age (6/12), and demolished in (1264/1874), where reconstruction has been in (1267/1877). A recent study attributed it to Al-Hassan bin Saleh Ali Zayn al-Abidine Ben Al Hussein, and based on some of the sources pointed out that had submitted to the mosque, said Ali Zayn El Abidine died in (94/712), among the written text to Al-Hassan died in (323/935), (Abdul Qawi). That is not logical, as it is not unreasonable to be the difference between the father's death and the death of the son 229 years only, and the truth that Al-Hassan bin Saleh is not Al-Hassan bin Zayn El Abidine

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 109 Online-ISSN 2411-2933, Print-ISSN 2411-3123 August 2016 certainly the mosque was built by Ali bin Zayn El Abidine when he was submitted to the Bahnasa with his brothers in the wake of the defeat suffered by Marwan bin Mohammed last Umayyad caliph and the state of the Abbasid state in 132 (749). And unlikely to be planning the mosque unrepresentative of the current planning due to the Fatimid era, especially after the 500 (1106) has been working minber as the Fatimid minber of Khalif Al-Amir in the mosque of Sinai, (conservation de L'Art Arabe, 1896. Abdel-Wahab, 1957. Maher, 1966. Mubarak, 1994). Yousufi (fig.4) in Mallawi, Due to the Fatimid age and had been reconstructed in (1025/1615), attributed to Yousuf bey Al-Qaytas according to the text was based upon the history of the mosque, and had been renovated in (1286/1869). Yousuf bey Alqaytas was a Mamluk ruler who govern Gerga (1027-1037/1627-1617), and the text of the Minber dated (1027 H/1617), (Abdul Rauf, 1994). The text for the reconstruction and not for construction above the north-eastern entrance there is a lintel dated in (1286/ 1869), (Mubarak, 1994. Maher, 1966). Lamati, Due to the Fatimid age (549/1154), it is built by Al Salih Tale'e bin Ruzayk the Armenian before his Ministry, the renovation work in the age of Sultan Jaqmaq in (578/1182), In the age of Sultan Jaqmaq where supreme decree of marble on the northern entrance, although it is undated, it can be dated the same date of El-Amrawi decree (843/1439), and had been renovated in the Ottoman age, (Garçin, 1977). A text of the mass of carved stone was brought from a building due to the Roman age used as another lintel, the text read: "Manufacture Murtafe’ bin Mejalli bin Sultan the Egyptian, God ruthless the reader, his parents called him and mercy", (Bullitin, 1899. 1900. 1940. Mayer, 1963), (fig.5-6).

Fig. 1. Amrawi mosque Fig. 2. Amrawi mosque (fatimid)

Fig. 3. Hassan bin Saleh mosque Fig. 4. Yousufi mosque

Fig. 5. Lamati mosque (From Garçin) Fig. 6. Lamati mosque (fatimid)

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2. 2 The mosques with riwaqs without courtyard There are twenty mosques planning to take the naves and overdraft without a courtyard ranging in date from the Fatimid age and Muhammad Ali (13/19) include: 1.2.2 A mosque with five naves: Odha Basha (fig.7), Was established in Mamluk age and been renovated in (1162/1749) by Alhaji Obois Oda Bashi, Above the door, a wooden board in four rounds and dated in (1162/1749).

Fig. 7. OdhaBasha mosque Fig. 8. Habaita mosque

2. 2. 2 Eleven mosques with four naves are: - Habaita in Berdanoha, Was established in the Fatimid age (509/1115) and the founding text of the highest on behalf of the north-eastern entrance by Yousuf Bin Saroukh Al-Afdhali, (Bullitin, 27. Mohamed, 1978), (fig.8), Prince Ziyad, (fig.9-10), Attributed to Ziyad bin Al Mugheera Al Atki died in (191/807), was established in the Fatimid age (517/1123) and rebuilt by the Mamluk Sultan Qaytbay (872-901/1467-1496). Now, elements of the mosque lost except the northern part of the wall built of stone with tie beams and the brick dome, (Al-maqrizi, 1998. Maher, 1966. Mohamed, 1978). There are pillars of the writings dated (517 H/1123). The Hanging (fig.11) in Bahnasa (Relics), Due to the Mamluk age and attributed to Mustafa Horeab, who has built (1092/1708), as well as reconstruction was again in the (1194/1780). The latest over the mihrab, dated the same year. The text of another column in the Qibla riwaq read "this new mosque by Al-Ganab higher Alhaji Mustapha.", (Bullitin, 1896), Zine El-Abidine (fig.12) in Bahnasa (Relics), Attributed to Abdul Hai Zayn El Abidine who died in (1181/1766), the mosque had been renovated in (1181/1766). Asaqalani (fig.13-14) in Mallawi, (Al-jabarti, 1880. Abdel Moneim, 1978), Qayati (fig.15) in Qayat, Was established in Mamluk age, been renovated in (1258/1842) and attributed to Abdul Latif Al-Qayati, (Mubarak, 1994. Ramzi, 1994), Sholqami (fig.16-17) in Aba, Established in the Mamluk and later attributed to Ibrahim bin Abdullah Al-Shulqami imam of mysticism and the deceased in Minia (1233/1817). It was renovated in (1262/1845) by Ahmad bin Hajji Hussein Agha. And turned into a mosque with two wings in the north-east and south-west consists of two naves with a row of columns and two arches (Mubarak, 1994). Jamal Al-Din Akosh (Damarisi) (fig.18), Was established in Mamluk age (687/1288), and the text above the north-eastern entrance of the mosque had been built by Jamal al-Din Akosh, who was assuming the war in Ashmonin and Tahawia, reportedly, he died in 702 (1303), which indicates that given the mandate of the Bahnasa a later date on the mosque, (Al-mqrizi, 1998). Renovated in (1286/1869) by Khedive Ismail, A

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 111 Online-ISSN 2411-2933, Print-ISSN 2411-3123 August 2016 text of the marble above the south-western entrance, due to the Khedive Ismail (1286/1869). A mistake attributed to Sheikh Mohammed Damarisi imam of the mosque which belongs to the village of Damaris north of Minia, (Ramzi, 1994). Omar Effendi (fig.19), Established in Mamluk age and been renovated in (1292/1875), there is the text of 1292 (1875) called the Khedive Ismail on the north-eastern entrance; the mosque has been attributed to Omar Effendi, a senior staff during his time. Sultan Pasha in marine (fig.20) of angle Sultan, established in Mamluk been renovated by Sultan Pasha Director of the directorate of Minia (1278-1287/1861-1870), (Yusuf, 1995). and Shady (fig.21) in Minia, Established in (1319/1900) by Mohamed Ahmed Shady the director of the directorate of Minia has been named the text above the door of minber.

Fig. 9. Prince Ziyad mosque Fig. 10. Prince Ziyad mosque (fatimid)

Fig. 11. The Hanging mosque (Relics Fig. 12. Zine El Abidine mosque (Relics)

Fig. 13. Asqalani mosque Fig. 14. Asqalani mosque (fatimid)

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Fig. 15. Qayati mosque Fig. 16. Sholqami mosque

Fig. 17. Sholqami mosque (fatimid) Fig. 18. Jamal Al-Din Akosh mosque (Damarisi)

Fig. 19. Omar Effendi mosque Fig. 20. Sultan Pasha the marine mosque

3. 2. 2 Five mosques of three naves are: Sultan Pasha (fig.22) in Minia (1278-1287/1861-1870), Sheikh Abada, Established in the Mamluk age and attributed to Abada bin Al Samit, and was renovated in (1277/1860), there is an inscription on marble panel above the south western entrance, due to Khedive Ismail, (fig.23-24), Sultan Pasha the tribal (fig.25) in angle Sultan (1278-1287/1861-1870), Hassan Hussein Attia (fig.26) in Minia (1298/1881) and Kashif (fig.27) in Minia (13/19). There is an inscription on marble panel refers to "set up by Hassan Kashif".

Fig. 21. Shady mosque Fig. 22. Sultan Pasha mosque

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Fig. 23. Sheikh Abada mosque Fig. 24. Sheikh Abada mosque (fatimid)

Fig. 25. Sultan Pasha the tribal mosque Fig. 26. Hassan Hussein Attia mosque

4. 2. 2 Three Mosques of two naves are: Ready (fig.28) in Minia, Established in Mamluk age and been renovated in (1249/1833) suggest inscription on marble panel higher the northern entrance to the mosque founder, Sheikh Ahmed Hamid al Ready. Qushiri (fig.29) in Minia, Established in Mamluk age, and had been reported that Mohamed Ahmed Al Qushiri established in (1321/1902), one of the descendants of Sheikh Mohammed bin Ahmed bin Sadruddin Al Qushiri who died in (708/1208).and Sit Numaila (fig.30) in Minia. Established in Mamluk age and was built in (1317/1899), There is inscription on marble panel refers to the name of Mohamed Ragheb, (Abdel Salam, 1997).

Fig. 27. Kashif mosque Fig. 28. Ready mosque

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Fig. 29. Qushiri mosque Fig. 30. Sit Numaila mosque

3. The architectural planning stages:

1. 3 Planning component of the middle courtyard surrounded by four riwaqs, the largest riwaq of Qibla each composed of arcades from vaulted arches contracts on columns of the portable limestone, granite, marble and moving parallel to the southern wall in Amrawi, Al-Hassan bin Saleh and Lamati, and the south-eastern wall in Yousufi. The main riwaq was composed of four naves separated by four arcades in Amrawi, four aisles of six arches in Al-Hassan bin Saleh, four aisles of nine arches in Yousufi and three of aisles of seven arches in Lamati, the middle arch is the most widely and vast in Al-Hassan bin Saleh and Lamati. The planning of Lamati mosque (Al-Hamawi, 1906. Garçin, 1977), was Like in the vanguard Salih Talaee mosque in Cairo (519/1125), (Abdel-Wahab, 1946. Kreswell, 2004), which established by Al- Salih Talae'e the Armenian, (Ibn Khilikan, 1977. Ibn Al-Ghawzi, 1939. 16. Al-Hamawi, 1906. Al-Zahabi, 1948. Ibn Kathir. Ibn Taghri Bardy. Al-Maqrizi, 1998. Al-Damashqi, 1988. Ibn Hammad, 1981. Al- Zahabi, 1983. Shibani, 1995. Abu Salih the Armenian, 2001. El hawary, 1935. Creswell, 1952), and Al Emary mosque in Qus,(Creswell, 1952. Garçan, 1970), where two rooms on both sides and two windows on the vestibule and the two parties overlapped in two rooms of foreign affairs to determine highlight vestibule on both sides, and Qibla riwaq of three aisles most widely the Qibla nave, and takes courtyard four arcades of five arches in the Qibla riwaq and the northern west and six in the south-western and north-eastern riwaqs, (Abdel-Wahab, 1946). We find each of the mihrabs in Amrawi, Al-Hassan bin Saleh and Lamati set in the south-eastern corner, where this mosque were not built on the direction of Mecca, and above the mihrab, the dome bound to assist the four squenches and four rectangular windows have been deployed in the Fatimid and Ayyubid ages, emerged in Yousufi, and there are three penthouse and dome in the south nave of the Qibla riwaq, (Appeared in the French fees, it was currently replaced by ciborio), (Al-Shayeb, 1991). in Amrawi like Lamati and the dome set above four squenches to assist is the case of Yousufi. The north-western riwaq consisted of one aisle of four arches and oversees of the courtyard by two arches in Amrawi, or three aisles separated by two arcades each consisting of five columns with six arches in Al- Hassan Bin Saleh, or two aisles and two arcades of nine arches and two parties, two rooms the east words from a minaret in Yousufi, the north-western riwaq in Lamati was composed of one arcade and six rooms each vestibule of entrance and the last room is highlight on both sides of the interface to determine with

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 115 Online-ISSN 2411-2933, Print-ISSN 2411-3123 August 2016 portico on one arcade of five pointed arches. The two side riwaqs consist of one aisle, each oversees to the courtyard by three arches in Amrawi and four arches in Al-Hassan Bin Saleh and Lamati, or four aisles parallel to the Qibla wall in Yousufi, riwaqs has been overseeing the courtyard by four arcades two of them with two arches of the Qibla riwaq and the north-western riwaq and three of the two side riwaqs in Amrawi, or four arcades supervised of the courtyard by four arches on each sides of Al-Hassan Bin Saleh, or four arcades with five pointed arches in the Qibla riwaq and the north-western riwaq and four of the two side riwaqs in Yousufi and Lamati. Above the capitals there are carved decorations on wood floral designs includes triple foils like other examples of contemporary Al-Hassan Bin Saleh mosque, as Al-Salih Talae'e and Qos mosques, (Bullitin. VII, 1890. XVI, 1897. XVI, 1899. XVII, 1900. XXXIII, 1922. XXXVI, 1933. XXXVII, 1934. Wiet, 1936. Garçan, 1970, 1977). There are four arcades around the courtyard of Lamati; its arches are five in the side Riwaqs and four in the south-east and north-west. And above the capitals there are carved decorations on wood floral designs includes triple foils like other examples of contemporary Al-Hassan Bin Saleh. A wooden screen with vaulted door is separated from the courtyard toward the Qibla Riwaq and the side Riwaqs. In the Mamluk age Amrawi witnessed the expansion, where a main entrance, which is mediating the western facade with lime stone, the western entrance of Amrawi and the eastern entrance of Al-Hassan bin Saleh and the north-east of Yousufi, northern and western exit of Lamati that both of them is a prominent of held recess and convening of trefoiled arch above the door, was retained heading the other consisting of recess contract with pointed arch, has followed the entrances of mosques Mamluk style as in the Qaytbay district (877/1472) and his school in Mamluk graveyard (879/1474), and spread in the Ottoman mosques as Mahmudiya (979/1568) and Osman Katkhoda (1147/1724) was also Yousufi, Asaqalani, Qayati and Shulqami. There was an amendment in Amrawi, with increase the area to the side riwaqs to three aisles, in addition Maqsurah in the south-eastern side of the Qibla riwaq to maintain uniformity arcade consisted of two arches above a marble column. The mosque, similar in terms of Iwan planning consists of one Iwan and a rectangular area, led and include eastern, western and northern riwaqs and courtyard, the Iwan overlooking with arcade from four arches, and the northern riwaq is one aisle and parallel to the wall and Qibla riwaq of seven semi-circular arches and overlooking the courtyard by arcade composed of two arches, and there are similarities between Yousufi, Tunbogha Al-Mardini (740/1340) and Ashraf Bersbai (841/1437). In Minia mosques, wooden fence with arched door separate Qibla riwaq, side riwaqs and the courtyard as is the case of Tunbogha Al-Mardini (740/1340) is the oldest fence inside Egyptian mosques or second fence before Malak Jawkendar and Qaytbay fence in Azhar, and had a wooden fence in Aqmar separating the Qibla riwaq and courtyard. We find that the planning of Minia mosques has found in Bersbai mosque (841/1437), Zainuddin Yahya mosque from the age of Sultan Jaqmaq (853/1449), Osman Katkhoda (1147/1734) closest to the mosque in Minia, and there are similarities between Yousefi and Tunboga Al- Mardani (740/1340), and we find that the minaret is to the right of the northern entrance as in the western in Al-Hassan Bin Saleh, Yousufi and Lamati, there are three entrances in eastern, western and northern

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 116 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-4 No-8, 2016 riwaqs and recess of the entrance leading heading trefoiled arch and a straight lintel above the door, there are recesses with stalactites preoccupied with windows, (Abdel-Wahab, 1946). In the Ottoman age, renewed Amrawi (1149/1439), and Al-Hassan bin Saleh (1267/1877), Yousufi (1025/1615) and (1286/1869), as well as Lamati without a change in architectural planning, building facades have been restored according to the Mamluk assets of the and retain with elements of the Fatimid entrances with pointed arches and Mamluk entrances with trefoiled arches and the elements of the facades, and the amendment to the windows of a mosques, which is marked with the front and do not in recess as in the case of pre-Ottoman architecture, this phenomenon has spread in Minia mosques of restoration work in the Ottoman age, and is also of Malika Safia, (Najeab, 1970). The windows have been crowned in recess with rows of stalactites, and we find that in Qayati. The eastern riwaq of the Amrawi mosque was extended to east into three aisles parallel to the Qibla wall each consisting an arcade from three arches in the western riwaq has been arcades composed of aisles, added room in the confined space between the riwaq and the Maqsurah. Adjustments have been made in the northern side as Lamati was demolished rooms and vestibule, the northern riwaq into two aisles with arcade of seven pointed arches, the middle of them is most widely and oversees the courtyard to five arches, has been modified the portico, where two side rooms were destroyed into portico than seven arches, and it seems that when the portico is destroyed were rebuilt the mosque without taking into account the evidence that the battlements culminating in the northern front had been established without into account the existence of the portico roof over the assumed level the roof of the mosque. Minaret in Lamati mosque has been adjacent to the western wall of the portico, such as the Ottoman-style mosques, (Abdel Salam, 1997), in Sareya (953/1529), Yousuf Agha Al-Heen (1035/1625) and Osman Katkhoda (1147/1734).

2. 3 Planning of the mosques with riwaqs without courtyard This planning is the second schematic system designed on the basis of the mosques in Islamic architecture and other types of buildings of other religious and non-religious, (Al-Haddad, 2006), since the early side by side with traditional embroidery. Such planning stems from the planning of mosques known to the riwaqs of planning without courtyard, which is known in the mosque of Amr bin Al-Aas (21/641), there are examples due to the late centuries (1-2/7-8) including the mosque in Khan Al-Zabeeb and Umm Al-Walead in Jordan, (Creswell, 1952). It is used in the tank in Ramla (172/788), Ribat Sousa mosque (206/821), and there are two models of mosques in Toledo, the first of Mardoum mosque (390/999), which was built according to the oriental influences from Syria during the Umayyad period, and the second is the Mudéjar mosque (6/12). The oldest examples of such planning in Egypt Al Tabataba scene in Cairo, (334/945), seventy seven scenes in Aswan (extinct), (Al-Haddad, 2006, 2004, 2006). In the Fatimid mosque has emerged in St. Catherine Monastery, (Rabino, 1936. Fikri, 1965. Silitotti, 1994), the elephant's mosque in Antar Stable (extinct) in ancient Cairo (478/1085), (Al-Haddad, 2006). Such planning has spread considerably in the planning of churches in the Fatimid age. The existence of

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 117 Online-ISSN 2411-2933, Print-ISSN 2411-3123 August 2016 this new planning since the early period reveals an important point to the fact that traditional planning was not the only planning through the centuries has become the first private planning mosques without a courtyard (5/11), the mosque of St. Catherine Monastery is the oldest model for this planning and the widespread planning in the Mamluk and Ottoman mosques. These mosques consist of four types: 1. 2. 3 Planning of five naves and four arcades in Oda Pasha (1162/1749). The planning with five naves and four arcades and seven arches appeared in Abul Makarim in Fowa, five arches in Chinese mosque in Jerja, (Al-Haddad, 1997), and Friday in Breegy, four arches in Hassan Nasrullah in Fowa (1115/1701) three arches in Ibrahim Terbana (1097/1685) and Abdul Baqi Gorbajy in Alexandria (1171/1758), Sheikh Ibrahim Pasha (1240/1824) and Nazear Agha (1272/1855), and three arches in Aladdin in Nishid, (Hillinbrand, 1994). 2. 2. 3 Planning consisting of four naves and three arcades of five arches in Damarisi (687/1288) and Asaqalani, which was amended planning consisting of three naves, including two arcades than five arches, and it showed in Qasr of Al-Waleed mosque known as the palace of Minia consists of the area divided into rectangular of four naves by three arcades parallel to the Qibla wall, the Grand Mosque in Bursa and the Grand Mosque in Bitlis, (Hillinbrand, 1994), or four arches in the Hanging mosque in Bahnas, (Abdul Qawi), (1092/1708), and (1194/1780), and Qayati, Omar Effendi, and Shulqami was planning to add its amendment consists of two wings with two riwaqs and arcade with two arches, or three arches in Sultan Pasha marine, Habaita (509/1115), Prince Ziyad (517/1123) and Shady. the Hanging mosque in Bahnasa, one of the studies Reached to the scenario plan of the mosque records of the Commission for the Conservation of Arab antiquities that the mosque consists of (16) in arcades; and assumed that the word arcade mean distance between any two columns vertical slab on the wall of Qibla, and concluded that "the Qibla riwaq consisted of Four aisles above three arcades of five pillars each containing of six distances and ideals of the north-western aisle, which brings the total (12) distance", and assumed the existence of two distances in the east and west each for a total (16) arcades. Although it was a plan consists of four riwaqs and the Qibla riwaq and the north western riwaq of three arcades based on six arches, the south western and north eastern riwaqs of one aisle from four arches, around the courtyard than four arches of each side, and assumed that the distance between columns (2m.) to conclude that the total area of the mosque was (20×12m) the equivalent of (10×6 distances ×2m), although it omitted columns and the size of columns makes the distance between the columns did not exceed (1.60m), said based on the image of an old photograph as the entrance was flanked by three windows, although the windows have drawn away from the entrance. Such planning has spread in the mosque of Al-Waleed bin Abdullah Palace (Minia palace), (86-96/705- 715), (Creswell,1984), Tamour in Yemen (430/1038), (Al-Haddad, 2006). Muharram Effendi mosque known as the Kurdish (1136/1723), Sheikh Irian in sea door (1171-1173/1757-1759), Sonqur bey in Anatolia, the Grand Mosque in Devregi, (Hillinbrand, 1994). It is from five arches in Eryan in Cairo (1173/1759), Orabi in Rasheed (994/1585), and four arches in Ahmed Abi Attuqa in Rashid (1139- 1143/1726-1730) and Sae'di (1133/1720), Abdel Aziz Abu Issa (1176/1763) and Numairi in Fowa, and three arches in Abu Sha'ra in Fowa and Ali bey Gonaina in Alexandria (1270/1853), (Al-Haddad, 1997). 3. 2. 3 Planning of the three naves and two arcades with three arches in Zayn El Abidine in Bahnasa,

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Sultan Pasha in Minia, Sheikh Ababa, Hussein Hassan Attia, Sultan Pasha tribal angle Sultan, Kashif. This planning in Qasr El-Hallabat mosque in Jordan (96-105/715-723), (Creswell, 1984). Bab Almrdom mosque in Toledo, Bu Fatata in Sosa (223-226/838-841), Mohammed bin Khiron Almaefiri known mosque of three gates in Kairawan in Tunisia (252/866) (Hillinbrand, 1994), and Sayeda in manestair, Balkh (3/9), (Al-Haddad, 1997). Sultan in Tarfodh in central Asia, Alhaji Piada in Balkh in central Asia, the Ulu Mosque in Aski in Turkey, Teitd in Yemen (early 7/13) Barsima in Sivas (974/1566), Sari Ali in Qaysaria in Anatolia, Mahmudiya in Cairo (975/1567), Murad Pasha in Cairo (976-979/1568-1571), Maseah Pasha (973/1577), Abdul Rahman Katkhoda known as Sheikh Motahar (1158/1745), Abdel- Rahman Katkhoda known as strange (1168/1754), Abdul Rahman Katkhoda known as Sheikh Ramadan (1175/1761), Joseph Gorbajy (1177/1763), Bayoumi (1180/1766), Araby (before 1183/1769), Mahmoud Muharram (1207/1792), Junbolatt (1212/1797), Abu Dir'e (1218/1803), Hassan Taher Pasha (1224/1809), Gawhar Almueini (1229/1814), Gawhary (1261-1265/1845-1848), Alty Bermaq before (1033/1623), Domaqsis (1114/1702), Al-Samitt before (1147/1734), Abbasy (12/18), Abu Mandour in Rasheed, seven Sadat (1144/1731), Sheikh Sha'ban before (1149/1736), Da'y Addar before (1149/1736), Beheiry Before (1149/1736), Mousa in Fowa before (1150/1737) and Ali Al-Masry in Alexandria (1275/1858), (Al- Haddad (1997, 2006, 2000). 4. 2. 3 Planning of two naves and one arcade of five arches in Reedy, Qushiri and Sit Numaila. This was planned mosque near the palace of Mount Cisse in Damascus (86-96/705-715), and found in the mosque of St. Catherine Monastery (5/11) which is the oldest models for the planning, as evidenced in the Ottoman age in Oqba bin Amer mosque (1066/1755) and Zolfaqqar Bay (1079/1680), Abd al- Rahman Katkhoda known Shawazlia (1168/1754), and Abu Ali in Alexandria, (Al-Haddad, 2000). Despite the diversity in trends between the arcades parallel contract to Qibla wall with the wooden flat ceiling or vertical and cross-bearing roof primarily with domes, we find that Minia mosques takes one model where arcades go toward along the wall or the south wall. The mosque with naves without courtyard in Fatimid mosques as Habaita (509/1115) and Prince Ziyad (517/1123), and the planning both arcades all four of them three arches on six pillars, its income is the mihrab, middle of the north-western front entrance to the center of the mihrab, cladding and mediate the north-western and south-eastern central entries, and make each open arena. In the Mamluk age, mosque has been reconstructed as Habaita and Amir Ziyad shrine during the Mamluk Sultan Qaytbay (872-901/1467-1496) The entrance is unique vestibule consists of a corridor leading to the door in the north-eastern wall. This is the entrance into the age of Qaytbay which is similar in its relation to the entrance of two Qaytbay castles in Rasheed and Alexandria. Planning of mosques was divided into five naves in Oda Bashi mosque, including four arcades go along with the mihrab, cross with axes of the mosque and the first arcade consists of four arches, the second and third consists of five arches and fourth consists of two arches, that architect has resorted to a architectural solution against the irregular arches with the widening holes resorted to the use of pointed and a half- circular arches. The planning with four naves, including five arches on four pillars of Damarisi and Asqalani, four arches in the Hanging Mosque, Shulqami, Omar Effendi, Sultan marine and Qayati, two arcades including three

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 119 Online-ISSN 2411-2933, Print-ISSN 2411-3123 August 2016 naves each of the four columns carrying five arches in Asqalani, two arcades with five arches in Qushiri, three arches in Reedy and Sit Numaila. Four naves and three arcades with three arches in Shady, three naves and two arcades with four arches in Sultan Pasha, three naves and two arcades with three arches in Sultan Pasha tribal mosque, which is similar to slaves of Mahmudiyah, Sheikh Abada, Hussein Hassan Attiya and Kashif. The planning of mosques, as was the case in the Fatimid age, without amendments, the Hanging mosque in Bahnasa consists of a rectangular aria with four naves of three arcades than four arches and three columns and wooden tie beams, confirmed by the presence of three arcades to the right entrance was mediating the north-eastern front, the advantage of the mosque is the existence of two mihrabs, this phenomenon have emerged in the Fatimid era, there is a scene of Sayida Roqaya and the mosque of St. Catherine Monastery. Two wings has been added to the north-east and south-west of Shulqami mosque, where each took a square mediating the interface and divided from the inside two arcades to their column and two arches. This is an extension of the central arcade, stone entrance have been implemented in the south-eastern of the north-eastern increase, building wings in this way due to a minaret on the northeast corner and the ablution place. In the western corner and the shrine is located in the south eastern corner. Therefore, we can not call this plan as the planning of Iwans but planning of wings or central planning or cross (cross-axial mosque), a derivative of the planning of madrasas and belongs to the planning of Iwans and represents one on the mihrab and another in return. Dome was built in the middle of the nave rather than the central dome, there is no Durqa'a also in planning of Iwans where the sanctuary is deeper and more extensive and is not required to be Iwan was vaulted and overlooking the Durqa'a by one arch and not more. There is important note, how to set the two columns of the central arcade of wings and extended to the south-west and the north-east, that the two wings are due the Mamluk age. This planning was spread in three Iwans in Orkhan mosque in Aznik (725/1325), Orkhan bay in Borsa (740/1339), Green mosque in Borsa (828/1424), Yakhsha bay in Teara (850/1446) and Hamza in Borsa (9/15), Ishak Pasha in Aina Cole (887/1482), the Blue Mosque in Tabriz (870/1470), was also in Saria in Cairo (935/1528) and Darghuth in Tripoli, Libya (971/1563) (Al-Haddad, 2006). Mediating the ceiling a square ciborio in Asqalani, Qayati. There is penthouse in the ceiling of the Qibla riwaq. The hole appeared in the roof of Oda Bashi mosque and above the mihrab aisle such as Amrawi, Asqalani, Qayati and Shulqami. The ciborio appeared in courtyard of judge Yahya Zainal Abidin madrasa in Azhar (848/1444) and the courtyard of Qaytbay madrasa in Mamluk necropolis. Some mosques are involved in raising additional areas for prayer or for the establishment of some facilities that serve the mosque, and these areas were added outside the walls of the mosque surrounded by fences and is attached to an external courtyards, and open these increases were placed in the account when planning to use the mosque for prayers in terms of non-coverage and non-needed as in Habaita mosque and Amir Ziyad, where the north-eastern facade make space arena, and the areas covered by each used as ciborio have emerged above an arcade of five arches in Sultan Pasha marine, three arches in

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Sultan Pasha tribal, the ciborio in Shady and Sit Numaila back injury slab in the north of the northern aisle and the following ciborio front south eastern facade of Asqalani and the roof on a column. No such increases have been established for the transformation of the noise of the markets outside the mosques, and the arrival Into mosques in the prayer time in accordance with Islamic law, (Osman , 1988).

4. Architectural elements

4.1 Facades and entrances: In the Fatimid age, there were three entrances to all prominent mosques, mediating each of recess with pointed arch above the door, which blamed a straight lintel and two windows, the main entrance leading to the north-western riwaq, the other two entrances leading to the southern square of the south-western and north-eastern riwaqs. Battlements crowned surfaces of Amrawi like those of Al-Hassan bin Saleh, Lamati, Yousufi and Asaqalani. Lamati mosque was characterized by the existence of a portico consisting of five pointed arches, faced by advancing North-West, as is the case of the portico of Al-Salih Talae'e Mosque advancing front of the mosque in the north western side, has been associated with the presence of the portico in all cases, elements and units that fall behind and it was noted that it includes major and involved main iwans and rooms located on each side or other elements of planning and imposed recess and corridors or other, which reveals the essential link between the units as the iwan and the portico advancing it, and that the portico has been associated with the architectural planning of unit, which it involved the main iwans which overlooks the courtyard, which was often surrounded by two units It is a trefoil plan corresponding the triple arched facade of the arches overlooking the courtyard, and reflected on the planning front the triple arched facade on other overlooking facades. The Portico with a pattern of three-division front has found in the homes, which were revealed in Askar and due to Tolunid age, as well as a similar examples in Samarra as in the general section Jawsaq Al- khaqani palace and the verses also found in South-east and west at home to Ukhaydir palace, which reveals that the planning of its assets in the Abbasid architecture and Iraq and it often received from Iraq to Egypt in the Tolunid age, (Osman, 1988. Darwish, 2008). The facade of the portico consists of five keel arches mounted on four pillars of the marble with high rules; there are wooden tie beams above its capitals related links with two pilasters of construction prominent on both sides of the portico. There is significant room all part of the facade on both sides of the portico and shallow recess with window, the front of the portico is decorated with pointed arched recesses by the sector lower, (Hautecoeur et Wiet, 1932). There are two pilasters both on east and west walls were a contact extension of the rooms with them, the portico is based on four columns and two rooms on each side. The frequency of the triple arched facade which overlooking the courtyard and the wider arch held two sides in the Fatimid buildings, in the front of the sanctuary in Joyoushi scene(Fikri, 1965. Osman, 1988), Aqmar, Ruqaya scene, (Al-mqrizi, 1998. Fikri, 1965), and Yahya Al-Shabeeh scene, also found in

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Fatimid churches in Fakhouri monastery, Kabbania, the martyrs monastery, St. Simeon Monastery, Church of the Virgin in Harat Zuwaila, Syrian monastery, Anba Beshoy in Nitrie, the Virgin in Baramous and the monastery of the short. The middle arch is that the wider arch and higher, as found in some towers of monasteries in Muharraq (Built by Al-Hafiz, (Abu Salih, 2001). and the church located on the top floor of the tower in St. Anthony Monastery (Osman, 1988), and Abrim palace. Planning of the two sides of the portico, (Al-mqrizi, 1998. Fikri, 1965, Osman, 1988), that the majority of the porticos was bounded by two walls on both sides and the evolution of the form to the recess on each side or opening the door leading to the room, we find that a number of Coptic churches characterized by the existence of the western facade to portico in the Virgin church, (Bullitin, 1897. Shiha, 1988). (Mu'allaqa) in Old Cairo (10 BM), (Meinardus, 2002). These examples reveal the prevalence of the architectural composition of the triple arched facades in the Fatimid buildings. The front of Al-Salih Talae'e mosque as another front south of Fakhouri, (Abu Salih, 2001. Shiha, 1988. Meinardus, 2002), which we find five-deep recesses crowned by keel arches built of hollow bricks, and the similarity of the two cladding manifestation of the deployment of the architectural composition in each of the Fatimid Muslim and Christian buildings, which was established in this age. Based on the foregoing, the portico which stood on the outside on five keel arches, there are three rooms on each side to define the north-east and south-west had been along the portico (15m) and supply (6m), The first two rooms were area each (4.50×2.60m) wide, including the entrance (2.30m) lead to rectangular vestibule (5×3m). The rooms are terminals in each side with an area of overlapping (4.50×3.85m). We can make some comments on the plan of Garçan, (Were found four columns on the north side of the mosque were demolished in the 1974(, in his assumption of the form of the portico; however, has moved from the truth at several points: 1. Making a door in the eastern section of the ground floor of the minaret, which does not exist, as the door is in the first floor level, where the door of the minaret, is to enter from the roof of the mosque, and the ground floor is a solid base. 2. Making three columns and three arches of the portico based on the image before the demolition of it (1974). The fee contrary to the reality in terms of its arches equivalent of the arches within the mosque, as the arch is assumed that the middle east equivalent of the central arches to the central southern and northern riwaqs, as well as the two column of the arch - which corresponds to the main entrance is supposed to be the focus of similar columns in northern and southern riwaqs and the third column of portico is supposed to be the focus of the northern and southern riwaqs. 3. The portico was one of seven arches despite the presence of remnants of walls in the north western angle beside the minaret, which was part of the western room of the portico. Trefoiled arch, One of the studies have confused the contract between the trefoiled arch with triangular segments (Madaini) and the triple arched entrance, which stated that the Taq Kisra in Madain and the door of the General in Jawsaq Al-khaqani in Samara (221/836) by triple arched entrance, and this is contrary to reality, (Abdel Salam, 1997). The entrance with trefoiled arch with triangular segments is

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 122 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-4 No-8, 2016 different from the triple arched entrance. The trefoiled arch with triangular lobes is commonly used in the coronation recesses of entrances especially in the Circassian Mamluk and Ottoman ages consists of three cloves of which is the upper crown and the top and the capital of the arch, a hat with pointed arch often the two lower lobes collateral underlying the upper lobe, (Nageab, 1974), is appeared Lamati, Yousufi, Amrawi, Oda Pasha, Asqalani, Qayati, Shulqami, Al-Hassan bin Salih, Already, Hussein Atiya, Sit Numaila, Shady and Qushiri. Trefoiled arches were appeared in the entrance of Hakim mosque, (Fikri,1965. Lame’I, 1984. Center for the Study. 1990), the Qaytbay district (877/1472), Qaytbay in Mamluk graveyard (879/1474), Mahmudiya (979/1568) and Osman Katkhoda (1147/1724). There are four windows on both sides of the western entrance in Amrawi mounted by two pointed arched windows with column and skylight, in southern entrance to the Qibla riwaq and three on the western riwaq, and on both sides of the eastern entrance in Al-Hassan Bin Saleh three recesses in each side, and on both sides of the north-eastern entrance in Yousufi with four windows on each side topped with two pointed arched windows with column and skylight, And on both sides of the south-western entrance in Lamati two windows are mounted by recesses with two pointed arched windows with column and skylight, and find it from the inside of the recesses with three trefoiled arches topped with two pointed arched windows with column and skylight, a row of stalactites above recess. There are recesses in the southern façade, contains five windows in Amrawi mosque to two in Maqsurah and three in sanctuary, and two windows in Al-Hassan bin Saleh, four in Yousufi and five in Lamati, all windows were topped with two pointed arched windows with column and skylight. The minaret of Amrawi mosque, Was believed to be a multi-heads, (Abdel-Wahab, 1946), which were adjacent by the stone beside the western entrance is similar to the minaret of Mohammed bin Nasser Qalawun mosque (735/1335), Sultan Hassan (757/1355), hospice of Faraj bin Barquq (803-811/1400- 1411) and Bersbai mosque (841/1437), (Abdel-Wahab, 1946). Which is based on a square base topped with stalactites and balcony with four windows of keel arches. The minaret of Al-Hassan Bin Saleh in the north-eastern corner is like a number of Mamluk minarets as Al-Mardani, Aqbugha (740/1339), Sarghatmach (757/1355), the minaret of Yousufi in the north Eastern facade, and set up adjacent to the western wall of the portico of Lamati mosque, and found in another minarets in Bahnasa as the hanging mosque, (Bullitin, 1896), and Zayn Al-Abidin, (Abdul Qawi) A variety of entrances of the mosques with riwaqs without a courtyard between the entrance superjacent with wooden lintel in Habaita, the rectangular entrance with lintel and segmental arch in Kashif, and a reagent, the entrance with a mass held and half circular in the northern entrance in Prince Ziyad and Sultan Pasha, Or significant mass of trefoiled and arched recess in Damarisi, Omar Effendi, and eastern in Sultan Pasha marine, Sultan Pasha in Minia, Sheikh Abada, Hussein Hassan Attiya, Ready and Sit Numaila, or recess crowned by trefoiled arches with ribs in Oda Basha, Asqalani and Shady, or rectangular recess in the north western facade in Shulqami, or prominent mass with trefoiled arched recesses based on a stalactites in Shulqami, and Sultan Pasha tribal, even though trefoiled arched mass dispersed crowned by five rows of stalactites topped with radiation with ribs in Qayati, or entrance which is leading the mass with trefoiled arch based on two rows of ribbed stalactites in Qushiri. Above the door in Shulqami, there is a lintel with joggled vousoirs based on two rows of stalactites and

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 123 Online-ISSN 2411-2933, Print-ISSN 2411-3123 August 2016 discharging arch above and prominent cornice and stalactites crowned the facades. There are recesses of windows with joggled vousoirs and discharging arch in the facades of Qayati and Qushiri, and topped by two pointed arched windows with column and skylight, the recess crowned by three rows of stalactites, and a window with stalactites above the lintel of Reedy. Eminent trefoiled outstanding entrances appeared in Egypt in the Fatimid age in Hakim, (Fikri, 1965), the trefoiled arch appeared in Al-Amrawi and Lamati, Al-Hassan bin Salih, Yousufi, Asqalani, Shulqami, Qayati, Hussein Atiya, Qushiri, Reedy and Sit Numaila, and trefoiled arches crowned the recesses in Amrawi. And a lintel of joggled vousoirs above the entrance of Qayati, and above the entrance of Shulqami discharging arch of joggled vousoirs, is the oldest models of joggled vousoirs in Al-Heir Palace and Cairo Fatimid fortifications from the era of Badr Al-Gamali, (Fikri, 1965 Shaf’I, 1994). The lintel of the entrance of Shulqami, Shady, Qayati and northern entrance of Qushiri and Sit Numaila above a stone bracket (Abdel-Wahab, 1956), above two rows of stalactites. The discharging arch and tympanum above the entrance of Shulqami, Qayati, Shady, and Sit Numaila. The entrance with pointed and trefoiled arches in the entrance of Amrawi, Hassan bin Saleh, Oda, Shulqami, Qayati, Shady and Qushiri, or semicircle sector in Lamati, Yousufi, Sit Numaila, Hussein Attiya and Reedy. The trefoiled arches entrance appeared in south-western entrance Al-Hakim, Qaytbay district (877/1472), Qaytbay Madrasa in Mamluk cemetery (879/1474), Mahmudiya (979/1568) and Osman Ktkhadda (1147/1724)..

4.2 Minarets: Mamluk minarets characterized by the highest bases at the roof of the mosque, multi-floors and the summit as a water jug, (Lame’I, 1984), in Amrawi and Al-Hassan bin Salih, Yousufi, Asqalani and Qushiri, minarets square bases in Amrawi, Hassan bin Saleh and Al-Asqalani, rectangular in Qushiri, standard interfaces in Yousufi, Asqalani or higher in Amrawi, Al-Hassan bin Saleh and Qushiri, And recesses in of the minarets with flat or trefoiled arches in Amrawi or inverted triangles in Al-Hassan bin Saleh, Yousufi, Asqalani and Qushiri. Or level square in corners, one floor of a square and another of an octagon in Sultan Pasha marine, Omar Effendi, Reedy and Sit Numaila. Amrawi minaret like the minarets of Al-Nasser Mohammed bin Qalawun in the citadel (735/1335), Sultan Hassan Madrasa (757/1355) and Faraj bin Barqouq hospice (803-811/1400-1411) and Al-Ashraf Bersbai (841/1437), which is based on square with stalactites and balcony with four arched windows. The minaret of Al-Hassan bin Saleh likes a number of Mamluk minarets as Mardani, Aqbugha (740/1339) and Sarghatmash (757/1355), other minarets in Bahnasa as the Hanging Mosque and Zayn El Abidine, the minaret of Yousufi have been built in the northern of the north-eastern facade, next of the western wall of Lamati portico. behind the mihrab of Kashef, Oda Bashi, Shady, Sheikh Abada, Qayati, consisting of square floor with level corners for transfer to octagon, the first floor is octagon and all involved recess tapered rectangular with pointed arch with two windows and the octagonal balcony of the first floor based on wooden blocks.

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The first floor directly above the base in Lamati, which is octagon with eight recesses, Kashif, Oda Bashi, Sheikh Abada, Qayati worship, Reedy and Sit Numaila, the cylinder in Shulqami, Qushiri and Shady, with a rectangular recesses in Amrawi, Al-Hassan bin Saleh and Yousufi, and straight lintels in Lamati, and culminating in a semi-circular arches in Ready, and the stone bay windows on the first floor in Shulqami standing above two rows of stalactites, the stone bay windows has emerged at Mardani (1339-1340), Qaytbay in the desert (Lame’I, 1984), (1472-1474). The first floor ends with conically in Lamati, and the emergence bear a parapet in Ready and Sit Numaila, ends by five tiers of stalactites bear the parapet in Shulqami and three in Shady, ends of wood blocks bear the parapet in Yousufi. The second floor is cylinder in Al-Hassan bin Saleh, Qushiri, Shulqami, Reedy and Sit Numaila and Shady. Octagon in Asqalani. or monolithic arches topped by small recesses in Shulqami, and the rest of minarets takes the form of octagon as the second floor in Yousufi and Qushiri, with recesses of the small rectangular doors and trefoiled arches windows of the top in Al-Amrawi, the second floor ends of the obelisk in Ready and Sit Numaila, or by four heads in Amrawi which was emerged with four water jars above the heads, (Al-Shayeb, 1991). The minarets with heads emerged in the Circassian Mamluk age, (Maher,1966), as the minaret in Al-Ghoury mosque. The third floor as a pavilion from eight columns and a shallow dome and in Yousufi and Qushiri, and cylinder in Al-Hassan bin Saleh, and ends at the tip by water jar in Yousufi and Qushiri, and shallow done in Lamati, Al-Hassan bin Saleh, Shady. The Ottoman minarets are cylindrical as the pencil in Lamati, Shulqami, Reedy, Sit Numaila and Shady, and solid cylinder end by conical dome in Shulqami. The minaret in Zein El Abidine which was located northern corner of the mosque is square solid floor was supported by wooden blocks and beveled angles, the Octagon has eight recesses with pointed arches of above on the tripartite columns and four windows and four bay windows, and the balcony above stalactites and circular cylindrical body above it, and the pavilion from eight columns based the top as incense burner. This minaret witch is built in the Ottoman age tradition goes on in terms of the Mamluk pavilion with small dome and drawn up like Qaytbay minaret, It will be recalled that the minaret had two external flights, (Abdel-Wahab, 1056. Abdel-Qawi).

4 Arches: Had appeared in Lamati and based on wooden socles with decorations of floral designs, tie beams between them in Amrawi and Al-Hassan bin Salih, Yousufi, Asaqalani, Shulqami, Qayati Reedy, Atiya and Shady. The half circled arch in Lamati, the northern entrance from joggled with windows, the second floor in Yousufi, the recesses of mihrabs in Qayati, Reedy, Amrawi and Hussein Atiya, and half circular arches in Qayati and Qushiri, the horse shoe arches with stalactites had appeared in Oda Bashi. The segmental arches had appeared above the main entrance and windows of Shulqami, Qayati, above the entrance of the mosque to the arena in Hussein Atiya, above the main entrance of Sit Numaila and Shady. The flat arch in the western entrance of Yousufi, the recess of the minaret in Amrawi, Hassan bin Salih, one recess in the northern façade of Qushiri. The segmental arch in the first level windows of Shulqami, Shady, the entrance from joggled vousoirs in Hussein Atiya, the side entrance of Sit Numaila.

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4 Windows: Emerged in rectangular recesses in Amrawi, Al-Hassan bin Saleh, Yousufi, Oda Bashi, Shulqami, Qayati, Shady and Qushiri. Without recesses in the Eastern façade of Lamati and south eastern of Asqalani. The window is crowned by a stone or wooden lintel, or segmental arches with joggled vousoirs in Shulqami, Shady and Qushiri. And two pointed arched windows with column and skylight in the second level in Lamati, Hassan bin Saleh, Yousufi, Oda Bashi, Shulqami, Qayati, Shady, Hussein Atiya, and Qushiri. The arches of the two pointed arched windows with column and skylight based on pilasters in the center and the sides with the exception of Al-Hassan bin Saleh, Shulqami, Qayati witch based on cylindrical columns with rules and square capitals, some windows crowned by semi-circular arches in Lamati and pointed in Amrawi. The windows in vertical recesses in Amrawi, Al-Hassan bin Saleh, Yousufi, and western in Oda Bashi, Qayati, Shulqami, and eastern in Shady, Qushiri. The vertical recesses had appeared in the Fatimid and Ayyubid and Mamluk ages as Qalawun complex, (Emara, 1988. Lam’I, 1984), and ending with tiers of stalactites in Qayati, Shulqami and Qushiri as Aqmar, Emara, T. (1988). And crowned by semi-circular arches in the north facade and two half-columns in Oda Bashi and trefoiled arches in Al-Hassan bin Saleh.

Conclusion The research limited twenty-four archaeological mosques adopt several models follow the local architectural planning between local planning component of the courtyard and open riwaqs, and planning with naves without courtyard. The research was based on the identification of the architectural planning stages of the development of the mosques on the descriptive approach through the study of architectural planning and follows this through different ages. The analytical and comparative approach by drawing the various characteristics of the models and patterns of architectural planning and comparative study with a number of mosques. The planning of Al-Hassan bin Saleh mosque in Bahnasa due to the Abbasid age and was built in the Fatimid age, the planning of Amrawi, Yousufi, Lamati due to the Fatimid age, and was followed by the renovation work and the Ottoman Mamluk era and Muhammad Ali. The planning of the Hanging mosque in Bahnasa to Mamluk age, and the reconstruction in Ottoman age. Because of the Habaita and Prince Ziyad due to the Fatimid age, the mosques of Oda Bashi, Zayn El Abidine in Bahnasa, Asqalani, Qayati, Shulqami, Jamal al-Din Akosh (Damarisi), Omar Effendi, Sultan Pasha marine in angle Sultan, Sheikh Abada, Reedy, Qushiri and Sit Numaila due to the Mamluk age, while the Sultan Pasha mosque in Minia, Sultan Pasha tribal in angle Sultan, Kashif, Hassan Hussein Atiya and Shady due to the age of Mohamed Ali, the latter mosque was established in (1319/1900) most recently. In the Fatimid age, there were three entrances in each mosque, every entrance mediating block, with a prominent pointed arched recess and straight lintel and two windows above the door, the main entrance leads to the north western riwaq, the other two doors leads to the southern square of the north eastern and

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 126 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-4 No-8, 2016 south western riwaqs, The central windows topped by two pointed arched windows with column and skylight. Lamati mosque was planning similar the planning of Salih Talaee mosque in Cairo, where two rooms on both sides of vestibule with two windows on the portico and the two parties overlapped in two rooms of foreign Affairs to determine highlight portico on both sides, and Qibla riwaq of three aisles, the mihrab aisle is the most widely, and takes four arcades from five arches In the Qibla riwaq and six in the north eastern and south western riwaqs. Lamati mosque was characterized by the existence portico advance and the north western faced consists of five arches, as is the case of Salih Talaee mosque, and the facade of the portico from five keel arches mounted on four columns of marble and wooden tie beams above the capitals related construction on both sides of the portico, and there were two rooms in every section of the front sections of the portico, There is significant room in each of the front sections with shallow recess, including the basement window, The interface of the portico is decorated by keel arched recesses. There are two pilasters on both eastern and western walls; they are an extension of the rooms contact with them. Planning of the two sides of the portico reveals that the majority of the porticos was bounded on both sides by two walls and the evolution to the work of recess on each side or opening the door leading to the room, and we find that a number of Coptic churches characterized by the existence of the portico to the western facade. These examples reveal the prevalence of the architectural composition of the triple arched facades in the Fatimid buildings. The portico was overlooking with five arches abroad as there are six rooms which highlight on both sides of the portico to define the eastern and western walls, the length of the portico is (15m) and supply (6m.), The first four rooms were each area (4.50×2.60m), Including the entrance of large (2.30m) lead to rectangular vestibule (5×3m). The rooms are terminals in each bedroom each with an area of overlapping (4.50×3.85m). In Mamluk age, the expansion of the Amrawi, the main entrance of stone in the western facade, it is the leading bloc with trefoiled arched recess thought opening the door, and the establishment of the eastern entrance of Al-Hassan bin Saleh and the north-east of Yousufi, which is held in recess, with a trefoiled arch opening the door, the entrance of the western facade in Lamati a significant bloc with recess dispersed thought of a trefoiled arch, the other consisting of recess with tapered hole section headed, has followed the entrances of mosques was retained heading Mamluk and Ottoman style, and also spread in Yousufi, Asqalani, Qayati and Shulqami. In the Ottoman age, Amrawi, Al-Hassan bin Saleh, Yousufi and Lamati were renovated without a change in architectural planning, where building facades have been restored according the Mamluk assets and retain elements of the entrances of Fatimid and Mamluk with trefoiled arches and the elements of the facades, the amendment of the windows which is marked with the front and do not in recesses as in the case of pre-Ottoman architecture. This phenomenon has spread in the mosques that took place in Minia restoration work in the Ottoman

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 127 Online-ISSN 2411-2933, Print-ISSN 2411-3123 August 2016 age, has been expanded the eastern of Amrawi, now composed of three isles parallel to the Qibla wall each consisting of three arches, and in the western riwaq composed of two aisles, added room in the area confined between this riwaq and the Maqsura. On the north side of Lamati, adjustments have been made since been demolished rooms and Durqa'a, the northern riwaq consists of two aisles of with seven pointed arches, the middle most widely and oversees the courtyard with five arches, the portico had been modified, where two rooms, was expanded for consisting of seven arches, and it seems that when the portico is demolished, they rebuilt the mosque without taking into account the evidence that battlements witch culminating in the northern facade had been established without into account the existence of the portico which over the assumed level of the roof of the mosque. Habaita and Prince Ziyad from the Fatimid era, are two of the mosques with riwaqs without courtyard, but in the Mamluk age mosque has been rebuilt, Prince Ziyad shrine during the Mamluk Sultan Qaytbay, this mosque advantage of unique entrance with vestibule consists of a corridor leading to the door end refracted the mosque in the north-eastern wall. The wings are added in the north-east and south-west in Shulqami, where each took a square mediating the interface and divided from the inside two naves to their column and two arcades. This arcade is an extension of the central in the mosque; they built an entrance of stone in the south-eastern wall of the increase. Therefore, we can not call about this plan the name of Iwan planning, but the planning with wing or central planning or a cross derivative of the planning of madrasas and belongs to the Iwani represents one towards the Qibla Iwan in return, instead of covering the middle area were dome in the center. There is vestibule also in the Iwan planning where the Qibla riwaq is deeper and more extensive and is not required to be vaulted and overlooking the Durqa'a with one arch, and there is important note is how to mark the end of the two columns witch ends the Central arcade in the Durqa'a and extended to south- western and north-eastern, the two riwaqs are added in the Mamluk age.

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4-13-15-22-79-80-85-101-111-116-119-120-128-139-140-222-247-239-281-311. Lame’i, S. (1984). Al-turath al-me’mari al-islami i misr, Biryt, pp. 31-32-41-46-156-159, pl.80-86. Maher, S. (1966). Athar el-jomhoria al-arabia al-motahida, Cairo, pp.20-21-62-64-172. Mohamed, M. A. (1978). Al-Minia fil-asr el-islami, Master, Faculty of Arts - University of Minia, pp.163-254. Mubarak, A. (1994). Al-khetat el-tawfeaqia, Cairo, 10, pp.1-6-70-298. Najeab, M. M. (1970). Al-emara el-othmania, Cairo - its history, - arts and monuments, Cairo, 263. ------(1974). Madarsat el-amir Kerkumas, PhD - Faculty of Archeology - University of Cairo, the documentary. p.199. Osman, M. A. (1988). Al-madeana el-Islamia, (Muslim city), world of knowledge, Kuwait, 128, p.112-318-319-320-323-399-477-482. .Qadus, I. Z. (2000). ِ Athar misr fil-asrayn el-younani wal roumani, Alexandria Rabino (1936). Masjed dair St. Catherine fi Sinai, tr. Wahbi, M., the extract 89, 4. p.405-408. Ramzi, M. (1994). Al-qamous el-goghraphy, Cairo, p. 199-245. Samuel, A. (2002). Qamous el-kanayes wal-adyura, Cairo. Shafe’I, F. (1994). Al-emara al-arabia, cairo, p.209. Shiha, M. A. (1988). Derasat fil-emara wal-fonoun al-qibtia, Cairo, pp. .45-166-239 fig.49. Yusuf, S. A. (1995). Hoda Sha’rawi fil-mojtamae’ el-masri, Master, Faculty of Arts - Minia Univ., pp.20-29.

Foreign references Bullitin du comité de conservation de L'Art Arabe, 1890, p.132. 1896, p.71-119- 120. 1897, p.33-99-100. 1899, pp.28-68. 1900, p.111 pl.III-VIV-V. 1900, p.12, report 415, pp.37-38, report 424, p.120. 1922, 179. 1933, 258. 1934, pp.364-385-386-391. Capuani, M. (2002). Christian Egypt, Coptic Art and Monuments through two millennia, the American Univ. in Cairo Press. Creswell (1952). Muslem Architecture of Egypt, 1-II, Clarendon Press, Oxford, I, 236-238, Fig.134, pl.85. II, pl.IIIa, figs.112-115. El-hawary, H. (1935). Trois Minarets fatimides a la frontiere nubienne, Bullitin du L'Institute d'Egypte, XVII. pp.141-145, pls.III-V. Garçin, J. C. (1970). Remarques sur un topographique de la mosque de Qus, Annales Islamogiques, T. XV, IFAO, pp.7-108, pl.V-VII. ------(1977). La Mosquee Al - Lamati a Minia, Annales Islamogloiques, T.XIII, L'Institute Français d'Archeologie du Caire, pp.101-109-110-111, pl.VB-VI-VII. Gawdat, G. (editor 2001). Be Thou There, the Holy Family's Journey in Egypt, the American Univ. in Cairo Press. Grimal, N. (1997). A History of Ancient Egypt. New York: Barnes & Noble Books, pp.144-191. Hautecoeur et Wiet (1932). Les Mosquees du Caire, Paris, p.249, II, pl.44. Hillinbrand, R. (1994). Islamic Architecture,

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MINTS The Next Economic Frontier for Investment – A Financial Analysis of the Pharmaceutical Industry

Joseph H. Jurkowski, Ph.D, MBA, CPA, CGMA, CRA Assistant Professor Business (Academic Department), Certified Graduate Member D’Youville College 320 Porter Ave. Buffalo, New York 14201 USA

Dion D. Daly, Ph.D, MS, MBA Assistant Professor Business (Academic Department), Certified Graduate Member D’Youville College 320 Porter Ave. Buffalo, New York 14201 USA

Abstract We have heard a great deal recently of the BRIC countries (Brazil, Russia, India, China), and the PIGS (Portugal, Italy, Greece, Spain) but now the focus seems to be on the MINT countries, (Malaysia, Indonesia, Nigeria, and Turkey) as the leading emerging economies in the world. Rising labor and other costs now have companies looking for new opportunities in rapid growth markets. But not without specific risks that companies must be willing to take. Corruption, rampant communicable disease, drug abuse and criminal activity, religious issues and disagreements are a few of the challenges companies must face in the new frontier. This paper will attempt to look at four pharmaceutical companies in each of the MINT countries to determine their potential profitability as an investment opportunity. This industry is especially unique since these countries have a growing population which will increase the labor force and also create a need for pharmaceutical products. Each of these countries is located in an advantageous geographical location which will provide an advantage in growing their economies. Mexico is next to the U.S. and the rest of Latin America. Indonesia is located in the heart of Southeast Asia with strong ties to China. Turkey has positioned itself to have both Eastern and Western influences. Nigeria is in a prime spot as it ls located in the prime economic powerhouse of a continent, Africa. If they get their acts together, solve their problems of corruption, energy, and infrastructure, these four countries could potentially overtake China as a leading economy of the world.

Keywords: Investment; Pharmaceutical; Foreign; Profit; Ratio; Debt; Equity; Asset; Liability; Risk; Mexico; Indonesia; Nigeria; Turkey

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MEXICO - Genomma Lab Internacional Latin America is a relatively small but rapidly growing region for both pharmaceutical production and research and development. As of 2012 the region’s share of global production was 3.3% and Mexico is second only to Brazil with production valued at $10.8 billion. Consumption of Pharmaceuticals for the country is $13.7 billion. At this point Mexico is a net importer of goods with $5 billion in imports and exports valued at $1.9 billion. But this could change in the future as production is expected to grow at an annual rate of 9% until 2020 while consumption is expected to grow at a slightly less 8.8%.

Since entering NAFTA and strengthening laws regarding intellectual property, Mexico has become a popular destination for investment as well as cultivated their own small, but rapidly growing, pharmaceutical industry. At this point, the country is currently the 12th largest pharmaceutical market in the world. One of the main reasons for this increase in investment has been the low cost of production in Mexico. It currently offers savings of 18.4% over the cost in the U.S. with only China and India offering less expensive alternatives. However, Mexico has many more production facilities that have been approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration and the country has actually become a destination for Chinese and Indian firms looking to enter the U.S. market. Foreign direct investment was $2.9 billion from 2005 to 2012 with the main investors coming from the U.S., Luxembourg, and Ireland. Over 50% of FDI went to Mexico City while 25.6% went to the state of Morelos. At this point the industry is still dominated by foreign companies, the main suppliers to Mexico are the U.S. at 23.4%, Germany at 15.9%, France at 9.4%, and Puerto Rico (listed separately from the U.S. by the Mexican government) at 8.6%. Only one of the ten largest companies operating in the country, Genomma Labs, is of Mexican origin, the rest are the usual multinational pharmaceutical companies including Merck, Pfizer, Roche, and Bristol Myers Squibb, all of which have sales of over $500 million.

Genomma Lab Internacional was founded in 1996 by Rodrigo Alonso Herrera Aspra primarily as a direct marketer of over the counter health care products. The company was a relatively minor player in Mexico until they commissioned a study in 1999 to determine the effectiveness of television advertising. They found that they could deliver the same message in less than half of the time of their current television commercials. They began to use an advertising approach of short commercials effectively spread out that made consumers constantly aware of their products. Using this approach they quickly became one of the most popular brands in the country and currently spend more on advertising than any other company in Mexico. Genomma first expanded beyond Mexico in 2005 when they entered Peru and soon entered various Latin American markets. The company went public in 2008 and used the proceeds to buy up other small pharmaceutical companies in North and South America. This expansion by acquisition has positioned them in 15 different countries and strengthened their core Mexican operations. The company is currently targeting the U.S. and has entered a partnership with Walgreens to market their products to American Hispanics.

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Genomma is currently traded on the Mexican stock exchange under the ticker symbol LABB. The stock price is 17.52 MXN as of April 17, 2015 and has traded in a 52 week range from 8.75 to 37.15 MXN, showing substantial volatility. Their current P/E is 12.76, EPS is 1.37 MXN, market capitalization is 18.3 billion MXN, and there are 1.05 billion shares outstanding. Price/book is 1.86, and price/sales is 1.59.

For the past several of years the company has continued to increase revenue and profitability until 2014 when there was a large increase in selling general & administrative expenses from $326.1 million to $362.1 million. The increase of $36 million is actually lower than the previous year increase of $50.2 million but for 2014 the company did not have an increase in sales to justify such a large increase in running the company. This increase could also be due to the company gearing up to enter new markets, namely, the U.S. and as a pharmaceutical company their administrative costs of entering the U.S. are likely high. The company has mainly grown through acquisition and this shows up in their interest expense of $23 million which alone is 14% of operating income. In 2011 the company had interest expense of only $4.7 million and has nearly doubled that number ever since. Interest and investment income for the company is a relatively minor $.7 million and has shrunk substantially since 2012 when they generated $2 million.

Genomma has been in a state of aggressive growth through acquisition of the past several years and as such has not maintained a massive amount of cash on their balance sheet. In 2014 they had $76.9 million in cash and equivalents on their books, actually down from 2011 when they had $100 million. In that same period receivables have increased from $229.8 million to $270.8 million and inventory has increased from $71.6 million to $103.7 million. Other current assets have increased fourfold, from $16.3 million to $71.5 million. Total current assets have grown from $431 million to $607.8 million for the year ended 2014. Property, plant, and equipment have grown from $34.9 to $52.3 million but depreciation has also increased substantially. Net PPE has grown from $24.1 million to $29.7 million. Long term investments are a relatively minor $1.2 million for 2014 and the company carries a deferred tax asset of $5.2 million. Intangible assets have grown to $433.4 million from $135 million in 2011 and other long-term assets have grown dramatically, from $.7 million to $550.2 million.

Accounts payable have remained relatively stable for the past several years and from 2013 to 2014 dropped from $106.9 million to $101.1 million. Current liabilities have grown to $493.9 million from $142.1 million in 2011, with the largest increase seen in the “other liabilities” category. The company’s growth shows in their dramatic increase in long-term debt, from $63.1 million in 2011 to $423 million in 2014. Total liabilities have grown from $233.3 million to $970.4 million. Total common equity has also increased, from $357.8 million to $643.4 million.

Although the company is rapidly expanding throughout North and South America their primary market is still Mexico. Within the country they have the 3rd highest amount of sales with $649 million as of 2011. This amount puts them in direct competition with some of the largest pharmaceutical companies in the world. Only Merck and Pfizer have a greater amount of sales than Genomma, more impressive considering

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 134 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-4 No-8, 2016 that the company mostly offers over the counter medication which does not sell at nearly the profit of patented products.

As of now, it seems that Genomma has been able to grow without the major players paying them much attention. That will likely change as the company expands into North America and eventually Europe. On top of expansion into new markets, they also plan to begin developing more patented drugs in-house.

The company does not disclose how they manage foreign exchange risk but their attempts at dealing with it have been hit or miss. In 2011 the company’s exchange rate adjustment was a positive $4.8 million but was negative for 2012, 2013, and 2014; -$3.9 million, -$4.3 million, and -$1.1 million, respectively. However, revenue increased by 17.7% from 2012 to 2014 and the company operates in countries with some of the most volatile currencies in the world.

INDONESIA - P T Kalbe Farma PT Kalbe Farma (Kalbe) is an Indonesian pharmaceutical company engaged in the production and distribution of pharmaceutical products for human and animal care. Kalbe Farma was founded in 1966 by Dr. Boenyamin Setiawan as a family pharmacy business. The company started out in a garage workshop in Tanjung Priok, a subdistrict of North Jakarta, Indonesia, making anthelmintic which are drugsthat expel parasitic worms from the body. Kalbe expanded its business through multiple acquisitions between 1977 and 1993, including PT Dankos Laboratories, PT Bintang Toedjoe, PT Hexpharm Jaya, and PT Sanghiang Perkasa. In 1991, the company went public by listing on the Jakarta Stock Exchange and Surabaya Stock Exchange, which is now merged as the Indonesian Stock Exchange. In 1994, Kalbe entered into the energy drink market with the launch of its Extra Joss brand. Between 1995 and 1997, Kalbe divested ownership in PT Helios Amott' s Indonesia, a food business, and divested their glass packaging division, and acquired WOODS brand and 80% ownership in PT Saka Farma. Kalbe consolidated the Kalbe Group in 2005. In 2012, the company acquired a 100% stake in PT Hale International, an Indonesian-based health beverage company. Today, Kalbe Farma is grouped into four business divisions; the prescription pharmaceuticals division, consumer health, nutritionals, and distribution and logistics. In Indonesia, Kalbe maintains coverage to over 70% of general practitioners, 90% of specialists, 100% of hospitals, and 100% of pharmacies for the prescription pharmaceuticals market. Kalbe has expanded its business to Southeast Asia and Africa. Kalbe is a leading provider of "comprehensive healthcare solutions," including pharmaceuticals, nutrition, health foods and beverages, and medical devices.

Kalbe is the largest publicly-listed pharmaceutical company in Southeast Asia, with a market share of 16% and market capitalization of Rp53.8 trillion and Rp13.6 trillion sales turnover by end of 2012. Kalbe's top competitors for Indonesia, Southeast Asia and Africa are PT Pyridam Farma Tbk, PT Merck Tbk, and Donwha Phann Ind Co., Ltd. PT Pyridam Farma is a publicly traded Indonesian pharmaceutical manufacturing company, recording revenues of Rp176,730 million in 2012. Pyridam Farma operates in two segments, Pharmaceutical Products and Toll Manufacturing Services, and

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Medical Equipment. PT Merck is a publically traded Indonesian pharmaceutical company that manufactures and markets prescription drugs, over the counter drugs, and chemical reagents, recording revenues of Rp929, 876 million in the 2012 fiscal year. Donwha Pharma Ind Co., Ltd. is a publically traded South Korean pharmaceutical manufacturer, recording revenues of W223, 372 million. Donwha Pharma offers products in the areas of gastrointestinal, cardiovascular, respiratory, neuropsychologic, as well as others.

Additionally, the company develops Milican Injection, a radiopharmaceutical drug for liver cancer. Kalbe Farma operates in four divisions, prescription pharmaceuticals, consumer health, nutritionals, and distribution and logistics. The prescription pharmaceuticals division provides generic drugs, branded generics, and licensed drugs including brainact, cefspan, mycoral, cemevit, neurotam, and DPG. Additionally, this division engages in stem cell research for various diseases and molecular diagnostic services for cancer treatment. The consumer health division offers over-the-counter drugs and supplements as well as energy drinks and health ready-to-drink products such as promag, komix, entrostop, woods, extrajoss, and hydro coco. The nutritionals division provides products including morinaga chil kid, prenagen, milna zee, and fitbar. This division also provides products for consumers with special medical needs. The distribution and logistics division distributed third party pharmaceuticals products and operates an integrated chain of clinics that provide physician's general practice, pharmacies, laboratory, and health mart services. In the worldwide pharmaceutical industry, Kalbe Farma is far below the top industry companies including Pfizer INC, Novartis AG, Merck & Co., Sanofi, and GlaxoSmithKline PLC.

NIGERIA - Neimeth International Pharmaceuticals Nigeria has a population of over 140 million people and a per capital of $988 USD. The country is even though it has over 37 major cities and a large rural area but 60% of the population is deprived of essential amenities. Nigeria’s pharmaceutical market is “underdeveloped by Western standards as poor infrastructure, a weak regulatory system and lack of specialized facilities weaken growth potential”. The Nigerian Government realizes their healthcare system is very poor and has gotten involved in making it better. The Federal Ministry of Health (FMOH) was created to help insure a better healthcare system. The leading cause of death in Nigeria is infectious diseases. The “National Health Policy identified target area for government intervention to include HIV/Aids, malaria, diarrhoea, immunization coverage, onchocerciasis (river blindness), tuberculosis and reproductive health”. The major problem with these diseases is that “treatment is unaffordable for the majority of the population” that has these illnesses.

Malaria makes up for about 300,000 deaths yearly. Tuberculosis (TB) ranks 4th among high TB countries. HIV/AIDS accounted for 2, 8020,000 deaths in 2010 with a continually increase throughout the years. The Nigerian government created an National Drug Policy (NDP) to show the “Government’s commitment, specific incentives have been approved and implemented, including banning the importation of essential medicines which are produced in adequate volume locally in a move designed to stimulate local

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 136 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-4 No-8, 2016 production”. The Nigerian Investment Promotion Commission (NIPC) was created in 1995 to “encourage, promote and coordinate investments in Nigeria.

Because the government is committed to achieving national self-sufficiency as defined by the NDP and to implement measures to curb the influx of counterfeit drugs, there encouraging local production. Companies such as Neimeth International Pharmaceuticals PLC have great opportunities ahead. They are a private limited company that is 100% Nigerian and have 279 employees that have made 1.75 billion Naira which is equal to $8,794,132.27 USD in 2009 alone. According to the company site it says “the company had pirated in Nigeria for 40 years, manufacturing, marketing, and distributing Pfizer brands of pharmaceutical and veterinary products.

While the company has great corporate shared values such as teamwork, leadership, innovation, customer focus, integrity, community, responsiveness and God consciousness that makes them a company with great potentials. However their finances are not looking to great mainly due waiting for approval for medication in meeting their standards. The company is working towards increasing equipment and upgrades to meet their standards. And I believe they can meet the 18 month deadline to get certified based on WHO standards, which would make them a leader in their industry. Some of their consumer products are Antimal, NimARTEM, Neimelyn cough syrup, urah, hemafolin, and Pancemol. They have over 43 products and are still developing more hoping to have two new products every quarter. On their site they have proclaimed they are doing that and plans to continue their efforts on staying on that track.

The company does operate in two major cities Nigeria and Ghana. The company makes a bulk of their money in Nigeria. About 80% of the company’s profits come from Nigeria and the other 20% remaining comes from Ghana. The foreign currency exchange affect this company because they purchase some of their raw materials from oversees. And while currently $1.00 USD is equal to $299 Naira. That can hurt their economy. Especially since it’s a poor economy to start, and paying and paying a portion of the taxes due to the tariffs prices in the country does affect them some. Not as much as others since their producing their products in Nigeria. But since they do have an entity in Ghana the currency rate will affect them there too.

TURKEY - Deva Holding A.S. Founded in Istanbul, Turkey in 1958, Deva Holding has deep roots in the development of Turkish pharmaceuticals. Deva’s main focus covers manufacturing and marketing of medicines for humans as well as animals. In its early years Deva began constructing plants throughout Turkey as well as acquiring plants from smaller companies. In 1986 Deva went public and listed its stock on the Istanbul Stock Exchange and by 2004 Deva was ranked among the top 10 pharmaceutical companies in Turkey. Growing rapidly, ownership was transferred to EastPharma, Ltd in 2006 with Phillip Haas being elected President and CEO. The following year Deva Holding opened additional offices in Georgia, Russia, Azerbaijan, and Uzbektistan.

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Having merged with DEVA Ilac Sanayi ve Tacaret A.S. in 2010 they were able to achieve a more efficient business model and take advantage of greater economies of scale. By 2011 Deva’s capital increased to 200 million TRY (Turkish Lira). By 2012 Deva was listed at 4th place in the 14.4 billion TRY pharmaceutical industry and maintains approximately a 5.1% market share. The largest portion of Deva Holding’s pharmaceutical sales is composed of anti-infection drugs, followed by nutrition and metabolism drugs, and cardiovascular drugs.

MN Pharma is a large, privately held company with multiple production units, focusing mainly on injectable products such as penicillin and other antibiotics. MN does not release any financial information (MN Pharma, 2014). Bilim Ilac is another privately held company that also focuses in anti-infectives, as well as cardiovascular drugs, respiratory drugs, and non-steroid anti-inflammatories. Bilim ranks third in the Turkish pharmaceutical industry with a 5 % market share, and prides itself on its environmentally friendly research, development and production practices. Abdi Ibrahim is as the leader of the pharmaceutical industry in Turkey focusing on oral tablets, syrups, lotions, creams, and sprays. Abdi has the largest research facility in Turkey and also boasts its environmentally friendly practices.

Within the worldwide pharmaceutical industry, Deva Holding is a small fish in a very large pond. Although maintaining subsidiaries and offices in several foreign countries, Deva Holding is nowhere near becoming an international pharmaceutical giant such as Novartis, Merck, or AstraZeneca. While Deva Holding’s revenue and profit financials are reported in millions of dollars, the above companies report in billions.

Theoretical Framework And Methodology The methodology for this study is derived from positivist theories of financial planning analysis that suggest a measurable relationship exists between financial and accounting ratios and company performance. Such ratios can represent the relative effectiveness of a company as it attempts to operate in an efficient manner while also maximizing profits (Jahankhani & Sohrabi, 2010). Although financial and accounting ratios are just one set of tools to assist in the measurement of a company’s performance they remain as a traditionally accepted and important element to any practical financial analysis approach

The collection of financial accounting data can be used as a measure of the fundamental characteristics of a company and may be employed to help predict future outcomes (Grimsley, 2014). For the purpose of this study, the following financial accounting data variables were utilized: Return on Assets (ROA); Debt to Equity (DTE), Current Ratio (CR), and Quick Ratio (QR). These variables were derived (or calculated where appropriate) from publicly available data (2009 to 2015) for the companies of Genomma Lab Internacional, P T Kalbe Farma, Neimeth International Pharmaceuticals, and Deva Holding A.S. Data were collected from individual sources for each company and then compiled into an ancillary data set in Microsoft Excel. This ancillary data set was then imported into SPSS (version 23) and used as the source of input for all statistical testing.

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This study employed an evaluation design and involved a descriptive ex post facto analysis that attempted to derive conclusions from quantitative data. It followed a deductive research process and involved the collection of financial and accounting data from mixed sources in order to identify possible statistical relationships between the variables. The data utilized for this study was secondary data because it had been compiled and collected in databases of publicly available information. All data was coded into the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 23. SPSS was then utilized to investigate any potential correlations between or among the variables. There are varied methods available to measure correlation with the most prevalent being linear correlation, or, as it is more widely labeled, “Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient” (PPMCC). The PPMCC measures the strength (magnitude) and direction of a linear relationship between variables.

Results Genomma Lab Internacional - A PPMCC was completed with the variables of Quick Ratio and Current

Ratio to determine if a statistically significant relationship existed (H0(QR/CR); p = 0: H1(QR/CR); p ≠ 0). This procedure showed a weak almost perfect positive correlation (r = .998).

A PPMCC was completed with the variables of Return on Assets and Current Ratio to determine if a statistically significant relationship existed (H0(ROA/CR); p = 0: H1(ROA/CR); p ≠ 0). This procedure showed a moderately positive correlation (r = .593).

A PPMCC was completed with the variables of Return on Assets and Quick Ratio to determine if a statistically significant relationship existed (H0(ROA/QR); p = 0: H1(ROA/QR); p ≠ 0). This procedure showed a moderately positive correlation (r = .640).

A PPMCC was completed with the variables of Debt to Equity and Current Ratio to determine if a statistically significant relationship existed (H0(DTECR); p = 0: H1(DTE/CR); p ≠ 0). This procedure showed a moderately positive correlation (r = .574).

A PPMCC was completed with the variables of Debt to Equity and Quick Ratio to determine if a statistically significant relationship existed (H0(DTE/QCR); p = 0: H1(DTE/QR); p ≠ 0). This procedure showed a moderately positive correlation (r = .623). A PPMCC was completed with the variables of Debt to Equity and Return on Assets to determine if a statistically significant relationship existed (H0(DTE/ROA); p = 0: H1(DTE/ROA); p ≠ 0). This procedure showed an almost perfect positive correlation (r = .997).

P T Kalbe Farma - A PPMCC was completed with the variables of Quick Ratio and Current Ratio to determine if a statistically significant relationship existed (H0(QR/CR); p = 0: H1(QR/CR); p ≠ 0). This procedure showed a weak almost perfect positive correlation (r = .965).

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A PPMCC was completed with the variables of Return on Assets and Current Ratio to determine if a statistically significant relationship existed (H0(ROA/CR); p = 0: H1(ROA/CR); p ≠ 0). This procedure showed a very strong positive correlation (r = .829).

A PPMCC was completed with the variables of Return on Assets and Quick Ratio to determine if a statistically significant relationship existed (H0(ROA/QR); p = 0: H1(ROA/QR); p ≠ 0). This procedure showed a very strong positive correlation (r = .859).

A PPMCC was completed with the variables of Debt to Equity and Current Ratio to determine if a statistically significant relationship existed (H0(DTECR); p = 0: H1(DTE/CR); p ≠ 0). This procedure showed a weak negative correlation (r = -.150).

A PPMCC was completed with the variables of Debt to Equity and Quick Ratio to determine if a statistically significant relationship existed (H0(DTE/QCR); p = 0: H1(DTE/QR); p ≠ 0). This procedure showed a very weak positive correlation (r = .062).

A PPMCC was completed with the variables of Debt to Equity and Return on Assets to determine if a statistically significant relationship existed (H0(DTE/ROA); p = 0: H1(DTE/ROA); p ≠ 0). This procedure showed a moderate positive correlation (r = .353).

Neimeth International Pharmaceuticals A PPMCC was completed with the variables of Quick

Ratio and Current Ratio to determine if a statistically significant relationship existed (H0(QR/CR); p = 0:

H1(QR/CR); p ≠ 0). This procedure showed a moderate negative correlation (r = -.373).

A PPMCC was completed with the variables of Return on Assets and Current Ratio to determine if a statistically significant relationship existed (H0(ROA/CR); p = 0: H1(ROA/CR); p ≠ 0). This procedure showed a strong negative correlation (r = .634).

A PPMCC was completed with the variables of Return on Assets and Quick Ratio to determine if a statistically significant relationship existed (H0(ROA/QR); p = 0: H1(ROA/QR); p ≠ 0). This procedure showed a very strong negative correlation (r = .482).

A PPMCC was completed with the variables of Debt to Equity and Current Ratio to determine if a statistically significant relationship existed (H0(DTECR); p = 0: H1(DTE/CR); p ≠ 0). This procedure showed a weak negative correlation (r = -.112).

A PPMCC was completed with the variables of Debt to Equity and Quick Ratio to determine if a statistically significant relationship existed (H0(DTE/QCR); p = 0: H1(DTE/QR); p ≠ 0). This procedure showed a very strong negative correlation (r = .880).

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A PPMCC was completed with the variables of Debt to Equity and Return on Assets to determine if a statistically significant relationship existed (H0(DTE/ROA); p = 0: H1(DTE/ROA); p ≠ 0). This procedure showed a very strong positive correlation (r = .840).

Deva Holding A.S.- A PPMCC was completed with the variables of Quick Ratio and Current Ratio to determine if a statistically significant relationship existed (H0(QR/CR); p = 0: H1(QR/CR); p ≠ 0). This procedure showed a very strong positive correlation (r = .818).

A PPMCC was completed with the variables of Return on Assets and Current Ratio to determine if a statistically significant relationship existed (H0(ROA/CR); p = 0: H1(ROA/CR); p ≠ 0). This procedure showed a weak positive correlation (r = .142).

A PPMCC was completed with the variables of Return on Assets and Quick Ratio to determine if a statistically significant relationship existed (H0(ROA/QR); p = 0: H1(ROA/QR); p ≠ 0). This procedure showed a moderate positive correlation (r = .395).

A PPMCC was completed with the variables of Debt to Equity and Current Ratio to determine if a statistically significant relationship existed (H0(DTECR); p = 0: H1(DTE/CR); p ≠ 0). This procedure showed a very strong positive correlation (r = -.803).

A PPMCC was completed with the variables of Debt to Equity and Quick Ratio to determine if a statistically significant relationship existed (H0(DTE/QCR); p = 0: H1(DTE/QR); p ≠ 0). This procedure showed a very strong positive correlation (r = .867).

A PPMCC was completed with the variables of Debt to Equity and Return on Assets to determine if a statistically significant relationship existed (H0(DTE/ROA); p = 0: H1(DTE/ROA); p ≠ 0). This procedure showed a moderate positive correlation (r = .343).

Discussion The goal of this study was to investigate possible relationships between and among the variables to better inform the investment decision. The results of the data analysis indicate that Deva Holding A.S. and Neimeth International Pharmaceuticals are investing a high amount of capital into the production/research and development of new products while, at the same time, taking in little income. It appears that the negative ROAs are not associated with high levels of debt which could be a positive indicator, at least this fact does not serve as a magnifier of the potential effect of negative ROA.

It is unclear from the data if the results of the analysis in general, and with regard to the negative correlations in specific, for Deva Holding A.S. and Neimeth Inernational Pharmaceiticals if there is a cause and effect relationship between poor management strategy and company performance. At minimum, the

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 141 Online-ISSN 2411-2933, Print-ISSN 2411-3123 August 2016 results indicate a risk strategy. Potential investors interested in these companies would need to obtain additional clarification from upper management related to the long-term ROA growth strategy.

Too often, measures of statistical significance can be used as a poor substitute for careful thought and a common sense. Although an attempt was made to control for intervening variable (company size), there are, in fact numerous potential unaccounted for variable that may or may not be affecting an individual company at any given time.

Conclusion Based on the Balance Sheet ratios all four companies are relatively stable with minor differences. But as for profitability Neimeth stands out from the rest with solid and growing Earnings Per Share. However Kolbe’s ROE and ROA stand out among the others as well as a consistent dividend payment and history. Our current choice ultimately would be a split between Neimeth and Kalbe to mitigate the greatest amount of risk. Table 1 Mexico Indonesia Nigeria Turkey

Amounts in $ Genomma BT Neimeth Deva 2013 2012 Kalbe 2011 Pharm 2013 Holding 2012 2012 2014 A.S. 2013 Current Ratio 3.17 3.12 3.41 3.67 2.91 2.52 1.8 1.3 Quick Ratio 2.71 2.73 2.24 2.58 1.11 1.04 1.1 0.83 Return on Assets 10.6 16.4 18.41 17.91 -0.04 0.16 0.03 0.05 Return on Equity 20.1 22.5 23.52 23.85 -0.6 2.66 0.06 0.09 Debt to Equity 49.1 85.1 2.77 2.7 0.92 5.62 1.05 0.91 Earnings per 1.37 1.49 0.0032 0.0136 9.98 -14.56 0.0010 0.0017 Share Book Value per 0.33 0.38 0.0123 0.05 0.99 0.97 0.02 0.02 Share Dividends Yield N/A n/a 2% 14% n/a n/a 0.00 0 Price Earnings 12.76 17.81 40.81 4.3 11 -0.07 1483 1236 Ratio Price to Book 1.86 1.95 10.4 1.06 0.58 0.67 88.33 110.93 Value Ratio 5 yr stock price 5.44 -2.13 0.04 - .09 1.83 - .89 .80 – 1.16 range

References

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Abdi Ibrahim. Retrieved from www.abdiibraim.com/en April 14, 2014 Bilim Parmaaceuticals. Retrieved from http://bilimilac.com.tr/en/ April, 2014 Bloomberg Business. (2015, April 26). Genomma Lab Internacional-B. Retrieved April 26, 2015, from Bloomberg Business: http://www.bloomberg.com/research/stocks/financials/financials.asp?ticker=LABB:MM&dataset =balanceSheet&period=A¤cy=US%20Dollar Cacheaux, Chavez, & Newton. (2010). Comparative Advantages of Mexico's Automotive Industry | Mexican Automotive. Retrieved December 3, 2015, from http://mexicanautomotive.com/en/home/86-december-2012/373--comparative-advantages-of-mex icos-automotive-industry Deva, Retrieved from www.deva.com.tr/en/ April 2014 Deva Holding A.S. IST:Deva Quotes & News – Google Finance. April, 2014 http://www.goodle.com/finance?q=IST%3ADEVA%ei-yixUU8jYLtON6AHH8QE>. Deva Pharma Annual Report. Retrieved from http://deva.com.tr/assets Deva Pharma Financial Statement http://deva.com.tr/assets Economy of Indonesia. (n.d.). Retrieved November 26, 2015, from http://www.indonesia-investments.com/culture/economy/item177 Embassy of the United States Mexico City, Mexico. (2014). Retrieved December 3, 2015, from http://mexico.usembassy.gov/eng/ataglance/foreign-direct-investment-fdi.html Export.gov - doing business in turkey. Retrieved from http://www.export.gov/turkey/doingbusinessinturkey/index.asp FDI in turkey - invest in turkey. Retrieved from http://www.invest.gov.tr/en-US/investmentguide/investorsguide/Pages/FDIinTurkey.aspx Genomma Lab. (2013). Annual Report 2012. Mexico City: Genomma Lab Investor Relations. Indonesia Investments. (n.d.). Retrieved December 2, 2015, from http://www.indonesia-investments.com/news/todays-headlines/budget-deficit-of-indonesia-safe-on-non-o ptimal-government-spending/item6252 Indonesia Overview. (n.d.). Retrieved November 7, 2015, from http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/indonesia/overview#1 Indonesia | Economic Indicators. (n.d.). Retrieved December 1, 2015, from http://www.tradingeconomics.com/indonesia/indicators Doing Business in Indonesia - Work and employment resources for expatriates and multinational companies. (n.d.). Retrieved December 3, 2015, from http://www.expat.or.id/business/business.html Kayam, S. S., & Hisarciklilar, M. (2009). Determinants of turkish FDI abroad Loyola University. Retrieved from http://www.econis.eu/PPNSET?PPN=620644435 KPMG. (2012). The new investment incentives in turkey. Retrieved from https://www.kpmg.com/TR/en/IssuesAndInsights/ArticlesPublications/Documents/The-New-Invest ment-Incentives-in-Turkey.pdf

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Mexico Country Profile | Country Profile of Mexico | Striving for Sustainable Growth. (2015). Retrieved December 3, 2015, from http://www.thomaswhite.com/world-markets/mexico-striving-for-sustainable-growth MN Pharmaceuticals, Retrieved from http://www.mn.com.tr/default_en_aspx Neimeth Pharmaceuticals. http://www.neimethplc.com.ng. Nigeria 2014: Retrieved from www.africaeconomicoutlook.org Economy of Nigeria-Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia: Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy-of-Nigeria African Center for Economic Transformation I Nigeria Transformation Profile: Retrieved from http:africantransformation.org/2014/02/07/Nigeria OECD economic outlook no 97, june 2015 - knoema.com. Retrieved from http://knoema.com/OECDEO97Jun/oecd-economic-outlook-no-97-june-2015 Pharmaceutical-Technology. (2013, March 26). Mexico: growing South America's pharmaceutical industry. Retrieved April 26, 2015, from pharmaceutical-technology.com: http://www.pharmaceutical-technology.com/features/featuremexico-drugs-pharmaceutical-brazil- south-america/ Televisa Consumer Products. (2013, January 18). Walgreens Engages Hispanic Customers with Health and Wellness Products from Televisa Consumer Products. Retrieved April 26, 2015, from PR Newswire: http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/walgreens-engages-hispanic-customers-with-health-an d-wellness-products-from-televisa-consumer-products-187435801.html Trading Economies. 2015. Mexico Exports | 1980-2015 | Data | Chart | Calendar | Forecast | News. (2015, December 1). Retrieved December 3, 2015, from http://www.tradingeconomics.com/mexico/exports / from http://www.tradingeconomics.com/mexico/imports / from http://www.tradingeconomics.com/mexico/foreign-direct-investment Turkey. investment country profile : Investment country profiles;2012 IIS 4050-S48.13;UNCTAD/WEB/DIAE/IA/2012/6 (2012). Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/statisticalinsight/result/pqpresultpage.previewtitle?docType=PQSI&titleUri=/ content/2012/4050-S48.13.xml Turkey’s Pharmaceutical Sector. Retrieved from http://www.turkishreview.org/tr/news Unido. http://www.unido.org World Development Indicators| World DataBank. (2015). Retrieved December 3, 2015, from http://databank.worldbank.org/data/reports.aspx?source=2&country=MEX&series=&period The world factbook. Retrieved from https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/tu.html Zazueta, G. P. (2013). The Pharmaceutical Industry. Mexico City: ProMexico

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Exploration on the Management Concept of University Teachers under the New Background of Endowment Insurance

Lv xiang China West Normal University personnel division, Nanchong City, Sichuan province, 637002

This paper is a basic research project of China West Normal University, the item number is 15D014.

Abstract Since the implementation of regulations on personnel management in public institutions on July 2014, the decision on the reform of endowment insurance system for staff in organ and institution was released by the State Council on Jan 2015, the reform in organ and institution developed rapidly. As an important member of public institutions, university is the first to be included in reform. Although one of the core essence of the new deal is to break the institutional barriers, promote the rational flow and effective allocation of talents, it also brings new challenges to management of university teachers. Under the new situation, in order to adapt to the new deal and stable teachers work, the author will explore the concept of teacher management in university from the perspective of justice and equality, people oriented and rule by law.

Keywords: the new deal of endowment insurance; management of university teachers; conceptual exploration

Before the new deal, because of unreasonable talent disputing, frequent flow of talents brings about many problems on university teachers management. The implementation of the new deal brings severe challenges both in external factors and internal factors. Exploring new management concepts, introducing talents and stabling teachers troop has become a core topic in front of university administrators. I. the Concept of Justice and Equality The decision on the Third Plenary Session of the 18th Central Committee of the CPC pointed out: “set up more complete and sustainable social security system”, “intensity institutional reform of endowment insurance in organ and institution”. Fairness and justice is the lofty realm of human society and an important part of the socialist core values. It is not a simple slogan, it must be reflected in the specific systems.

1. The Right to Know in Policy Implement The endowment insurance system reform affects the vital interests of the whole teachers.Teachers need

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 145 Online-ISSN 2411-2933, Print-ISSN 2411-3123 August 2016 to take part in,as well as offer advice and suggestions. Whether it is No 2 Document of State Council or No 18 Document or No 28 Document of Department of Human Resources and Social Security, they are all from the national level and from the macroscopic angle, the policy specific to the provinces, cities and countries. As a member of the institutions,university has different situation from other institutions, even between universities, the specific situations are not the same. Thus when the policy makes, teachers should participate. In order to change the condition that endowment insurance is made by competent authorities, the majority accepts passively, decision making must be open and transparent in procedures, seeking advice from teachers, so that specific policies are more feasible and better reflect the willingness of teachers, all the teachers enjoy the right to know the policy.

2. Wage Distribution System According to No 28 Document of Department of Human Resources and Social Security, institution staff individual capture expends wage base includes: basic wage in the last year, subsides and allowances received under the state uniform provisions (allowances for poverty-stricken and outlying regions, high altitude area conversion service subsidies, 93 workers retain subsidies and other national provisions), performance pay. In the item of the salary, basic wage and allowance subsidies for national unity belongs to the wage set by the State, which embodies fairness and justice. However, performance pay is a very vague item and in university it takes most part of teachers salary. Because performance pay allocation scheme is vary, even the same level and same work experience, the wage is different and makes a great difference. The wage income determines endowment insurance premium, which defines teacher’s retirement income. University teachers clearly realized that the current income level not only affects now,but also the future, so the income level will be the core of their choice criteria. If the performance pay distribution is different, the same type of teachers in different department has a huge gap in income, which will seriously affect the teacher’s emotion,increase the instability factors of teachers. Therefore, developing a more fairness distribution scheme is one of the essential problem facing by administrators. The original intention of the endowment insurance is to reflect the contribution of staff careers, emphasizing the more to pay, the more to receive.If the distribution system cannot be considered fairness, it will not only influence advancing policy, but also affect the stability and development of teachers in university.

3. Performance Appraisal System According to expectancy theory, the strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of an expectation that act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual.In practical terms, it says that an employee will be motivated to exert a high level of effort when he or she believes that effort will lead to a good performance appraisal; which will lead to organizational rewards, and that reward will satisfy the employee’s personal goals. Based on the theory, compared with purely fixed compensation systems, performance pay can motivate employees that is because employees behavior and performance have a direct and clear connection about salary, encourage

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 146 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-4 No-8, 2016 employees to perform as the organizational needs. Therefore, not only performance pay distribution schemes should reflect the fairness and justice, university teachers management and performance appraisal system are as well. Many universities pay more attention to form on performance appraisal system, fail to reflect the priority of efficiency, fairness. Teachers have a sense of injustice and drain their enthusiasm. Hence, it is necessary to work out a reasonable operational staff appraisal system, have a scientific evaluation about teacher’s ability and value.

II. the Concept of People Oriented People oriented is the core of the scientific outlook on development. Generally speaking, it safeguard human rights and dignity, respect human value. In university, people-oriented shows respect and care about teachers. First of all, pay attention to the psychological needs of people. Western psychologist Maslow suggests that man has five needs that is physiological, safety, love and belonging, esteem and self-actualization. He also believes that man has three natures: work, make contributions and be recognized. So as administrators, we should observe the needs of teachers, combine reasonable needs with management goals. As teachers, physiological and safety needs are basically satisfied, they seek to achieve spiritual goals: respected, recognized, realized self-value. Then as administrators, on the one hand, they need to uphold such a thinking in specific work that is to let the teachers feel respected and treasured about their value. On the other hand, create necessary conditions and facilities when teachers teach and research, helping them to achieve their social value. Secondly, implement the concept of humanism. For teachers, school is their home and spirit lodge. How to build a centripetal force and closely united them around the house is one of the most critical and difficult problem in front of managers. Over the years, teacher mobility is mostly dominated by young and middle-aged teachers. The reason is that they are at golden age, their career are in the state of upwardly mobile, they have great potential no matter in teaching and researching, which brings long-term and inestimable value. So young and middle-aged talents become critical in competition. But on the other hand, young teachers are facing many practical problems in their daily life, such as marriage, housing, supporting their parents, so that they are under enormous pressure. In addition, many enterprises have a competitive offer, for the sake of more opportunities and better prospects, young teachers are compelled to leave school. As the major power and fresh troops for school construction and sustainable development, the growth and stability of young teachers become pretty important, which directly determines teacher’s comprehensive quality, structure optimization, school’s future development. So under the new situation of endowment insurance, with the increasing number of teacher’s frequent flow, administrators must act as a role of parent, pay more attention to young teachers, solve practical difficulties in their own lives, lift their worries in teaching and researching, consider more about their compensation. People are emotional animals and being grateful for what they have. If teachers can feel warm in school, they are able to find their final home of affection, so they are willing to pay and create for their home.

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III. Rule by law 4th Plenary session of 18th CPC Central Committee ensure the leadership of CPC in the socialist rule of law with Chinese characteristics, the major tasks are to improve a socialist system of laws with Chinese characteristics, in which the Constitution is taken as the core, to strengthen the implementation of the Constitution, to enhance the building of a law-based society, to sharpen the CPC’s leadership in pushing forward rule of law. Under the background of promoting the rule of law, universities are also adhering to the spirit of the rule of law, carrying out law school, so as to improve management ability and the quality of teaching. Under the current circumstances, if flexible management is well combine with rigid management, it will surely reach a higher level. First, improve the relevant system. At present, the university has established a basic management system, but sometimes policy makers, executives and interpreters are the same group, it lead to a problem that some do not meet the actual and lack of operational. General Secretary Xi Jinping pointed out: “ no matter what kind of institution is established, it should has the characteristic of systematic,scientific and authoritative. So in order to ensure the effective implementation of these policies, university must be in accordance with legal, procedural, real-time, seek truth from facts, to keep stability combines with to repeal, reform and establish the law timely. Besides, university enacting administrative is based on education law and rule, regulation and other documents, guarantee the institution reasonable, justice and legitimate. There must be laws to go by, the laws must be observed and strictly enforced, and law-breakers must be prosecuted. Second, make the institution authoritative. Once the system is finally formed, it must be normative and operational, which is beyond the will of minority and has binding force on all the objects. Everyone is equal under the policy, whatever group or individual should abide by the system. As Commons said, “I can interpret the system as ‘collective action control individual action’, it inhibits, liberates and expands individual action. The key issue is to strengthen the regulations,laws and systems and make them scientific and authoritative. Only then can teachers feel comfortable. In the end, respect and protect teachers lawful rights and interests. The most significant for rule by law in university is respect and protect teachers rights and interests. The administrator should adhere to the principle of legality, impartiality and openness while conducting an examination and bringing talents. Have education and corresponding train, improve the professional level of teachers; establish and perfect the ability to discover actions of breaking law and regulation, punish the illegal actions, improve the consciousness of their behavior; respect and protect the rights and dignity of teachers, perfect hearings and arbitration system, safeguard the rights of complains. As an important part of the social insurance system, the reform of social endowment insurance system in public institutions has become the focus of most concern. As a group of senior intellectuals, teachers can completely and deeply understand the policy compared with other groups, especially related to the vital interests of their own. For the sake of stabling talents under the new situation, the administrator needs innovate management concept, explore new supervisor mode. Only that can stabilize teachers and stand in an invincible position in competitions, so as to promote long-term and rapid development of schools.

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References [1] Decision of the Central Committee of Communist Party of China on Some Major Issues Concerning Comprehensively Deepening the Reform, Xinhua Net,Nov 15,2013 [2] the Decision on the Reform of Endowment Insurance System for Staff in Organ and Institution by the State Council, No 8 Document of Department of Human Resources and Social Security, 2015 [3] Vroom V H．Work and motivation［M］． San Francisco，CA: John Wiley＆Sons，Inc．1964:79－ 86． [4] Performance Pay,a double-edged sword［J］． Nankai Management Review，2009，12(3):117－124， 134． [5] Xi Jinping’s strategic of ruling by law，People’s Forum，38th phase,2014． [6] Commons: New institutional economic，the Commercial Press，on 87,91 page,1962． [7] the Decision on the Reform of Endowment Insurance System for Staff in Organ and Institution by the State Council, No 2 Document of State Council, 2015 [8] Personnel management regulations of public institutions,Order of the State Council No 652 ． [9] Orientation of the equal value of endowment insurance reform on public institutions, Gao Herong, Hanyan,Nanjing Normal University，2nd phase of 2015． [10] Problems and Countermeasures in the reform of the endowment insurance system of public institutions,Chai Xiaoxia，2nd phase of 2015．

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The Potential Disparate Impact CAEP Standard 3.2 on the Protected Classes of Alaska Native, American Indian, African American, and Latino Members of Descent

Roy Roehl Secondary Education Department Chair University of Alaska Fairbanks United States

Abstract CAEP Standard 3.2 has a demonstrated disparate impact on several protected classes of individuals, including African Americans, Alaska Natives, American Indians, and Latinos. The data from this study clearly shows a national policy that will have an unequal impact for future genrations of minority teacher candidates.

Introduction A fundamental aspect of good educational practices is built upon a solid framework of rigorous, useful, and appropriate standards. The Council for the Accreditation of Educator Preparation (CAEP), was created by the merger of the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE) and the Teacher Education Accreditation Council (TEAC). As the sole accreditor of teacher education programs CAEP standards exert a large influence across the educational landscape. These standards are useful and guide many institutions across America. This influence is a great responsibility and when CAEP standards create a negative or Disparate Impact on Protected Classes then CAEP has a professional responsibility to reassess the standards they have created and implemented.

CAEP Standard 3.2 is such a standard that must be revisited as aspects of CAEP Standard 3.2 will have a Disparate Impact on the Protected Classes of Alaska Native, American Indian, African American, and Latino teacher candidates. Here is the CAEP Standard 3.2 as currently written 3.2. The provider sets admissions requirements, including CAEP minimum criteria or the state’s minimum criteria, whichever are higher, and gathers data to monitor applicants and the selected pool of candidates. The provider ensures that the average grade point average of its accepted cohort of candidates meets or exceeds the CAEP minimum of 3.0, and the group average performance on nationally normed ability/achievement assessments such as ACT, SAT, or GRE:  is in the top 50 percent from 2016-2017;  is in the top 40 percent of the distribution from 2018-2019; and  is in the top 33 percent of the distribution by 2020.[i]

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If any state can meet the CAEP standards, as specified above, by demonstrating a correspondence in scores between the state-normed assessments and nationally normed ability/achievement assessments, then educator preparation providers from that state will be able to utilize their state assessments until 2020. CAEP will work with states through this transition.

Over time, a program may develop a reliable, valid model that uses admissions criteria other than those stated in this standard. In this case, the admitted cohort group mean on these criteria must meet or exceed the standard that has been shown to positively correlate with measures of P-12 student learning and development.

The provider demonstrates that the standard for high academic achievement and ability is met through multiple evaluations and sources of evidence. The provider reports the mean and standard deviation for the group. (CAEP Accreditation Standards, 2013, pg. 8) This discussion will focus on the performance requirement of “the group average performance on nationally normed ability/achievement assessments such as ACT, SAT, or GRE: is in the top 33 percent of the distribution by 2020.[i]” as this is where the Disparate Impact on the Protected Classes of Alaska Native, American Indian, African American, and Latino teacher candidates will be felt the greatest.

This discussion will be grounded in data gathered from multiple sources, including but not limited to:  CollegeBoard 2012 College-Bound Seniors Total Group Profile Report.  U.S. Department of Education Office for Civil Rights: CIVIL RIGHTS DATA COLLECTION, Data Snapshot: College and Career Readiness, March 2014.  Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups. NCES 2010-015. National Center for Education. These data sources were selected as they provide large data sets from the test vendors referenced in CAEP Standard 3.2, and/or specifically address the Protected Classes that CAEP Standard 3.2 will have a Disparate Impact on.

Current State of Protected Classes in American Education: In the 2012 College Bound Seniors Report Total Group Report Table 8 shows the current means on the SAT by Ethnicity. As we can plainly see that the Protected Classes of Alaska Native, American Indian, African American, and Latino test takers perform below the mean for all test takers especially when compared to White and Asian test takers. Even at the 50th percentile the protected classes are showing an emerging disparate impact.

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SOURCE: CollegeBoard 2012 College-Bound Seniors Total Group Profile Report.pg. 3 Does this mean the protected classes are inherently less qualified under CAEP Standard 3.2? This is where we need to uncover the story behind the story.

SAT Mathematics: One of the three major areas tested by the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) is Mathematics, as previously noted this is where the Protected Classes appear to be falling far below the established cutoffs proposed by CAEP. The area of mathematics is of particular interest as the access to rigorous mathematical courses to properly prepare students for success on the nationally normed tests is crucial. The following chart shows 26 percent of all SAT test takers had at least one year of Calculus and another 29 percent took Pre-calculus as part of their high school curriculum.

SOURCE: CollegeBoard 2012 College-Bound Seniors Total Group Profile Report.pg. 6

SAT math scores show a strong connection to level of math taken in high school and SAT performance. Success on the SAT certainly requires that students who will be taking the SAT to have taken a rigorous set of mathematics courses. However, what happens when this opportunity to take rigorous math courses does not exist in equal opportunity for all students, especially when the students not being afforded equal

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 152 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-4 No-8, 2016 opportunity to prepare for the exam are the same individuals that CAEP Standard 3.2 will have a Disparate Impact on. This is the exact situation as the Protected Classes of Alaska Native, American Indian, African American, and Latino teacher candidates are being placed in a position to meet CAEP requirements that they are not afforded equal opportunity to prepare for.

A quarter of high schools with the highest percentage of black and Latino students do not offer Algebra II; a third of these schools do not offer chemistry. Fewer than half of American Indian and Native-Alaskan high school students have access to the full range of math and science courses in their high school. (CRCD College and Career Readiness Snapshot, 2014) pg. 1

If students do not have equal access to the courses that would prepare for them for success on the nationally normed exams, an unequal requirement is being placed on a group of individuals. Furthermore, when such an inequality can be shown to exist upon racial lines then such an issue becomes a civil rights concern. This issue is further exacerbated but the fact that of those teaching math courses in many schools that are predominantly attended by students of color are not as qualified as one would expect.

In 2007–08, about 25 percent of secondary mathematics teachers who taught in schools with at least half Black enrollment had neither a certification nor a college major in mathematics, compared to 8 percent of secondary mathematics teachers who taught in schools with at least half White enrollment. (Indicator 9.1) Aud, S., Fox, M., KewalRamani, A., & National Center for Education Statistics, (2010), pg. 6. This unequal access is further quantified in the following two tables.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, Office for Civil Rights, Civil Rights Data Collection, 2011-12.pg. 8

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SOURCE: Aud, S., Fox, M., KewalRamani, A., & National Center for Education Statistics, (2010), pg. 48. This is a connection that cannot be dismissed, two separate data sets show that the Protected Classes of Alaska Native, American Indian, African American, and Latino are being held to standard that they are not Being afforded an equal opportunity to prepare for in either courses offered or quality of instruction.

Income and Test Performance: Another aspect of the SAT that puts the protected classes of Alaska Native, American Indian, African American, and Latino in the category of Disparate Impact is the connection to family income and SAT test performance. The chart below shows a direct connection to test performance in relation to income as a whole, this is important because CAEP requires EPP’s to meet Standard 3.2 as a group mean therefore an average score of all of your applicants.

SOURCE: CollegeBoard 2012 College-Bound Seniors Total Group Profile Report.pg. 4

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If your teacher education program is receiving a majority of it’s applicants from populations of low income students then meeting the standard is basically unattainable, and once again it is the protected classes of Alaska Native, American Indian, African American, and Latino that will have to endure a disparate impact. The connection to race and poverty levels is also evidenced by the following pieces of data.

Forty-eight percent of public school 4th-graders were eligible for free or reduced price lunches in 2009, including 77 percent of Hispanic, 74 percent of Black, 68 percent of American Indian/Alaska Native, 34 Percent of Asian/Pacific Islander, and 29 percent of White 4th-graders. (Indicator 7.5) Aud, S., Fox, M., KewalRamani, A., & National Center for Education Statistics, (2010), pg. 6.

This connection to poverty shows that groups that exceed the national average of 48 percent of 4th graders that are eligible for free or reduced lunch are of Alaska Native, American Indian, African American, and Latino descent and are the same groups that will perform below average on the nationally normed test requirement.

Here is a graphic that more clearly quantifies the connected aspects of race and poverty.

SOURCE: Aud, S., Fox, M., KewalRamani, A., & National Center for Education Statistics, (2010), pg. 38

Further Evidence: To further demonstrate the connections discussed to this point another data set was located to show the long term connections on nationally normed tests to Alaska Native, American Indian, African American, and Latino descent and that there is a disparate impact of using such test scores. Here are NAEP scores by race and by various grade level and the trends are similar to trends demonstrated to this point on SAT scores.

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SOURCE: Aud, S., Fox, M., KewalRamani, A., & National Center for Education Statistics, (2010), pg. 60 CAEP top 33 percent of the distribution requirement: Based on the evidence as currently reported, Minority Serving Institution’s (MSI’s), specifically MSI’s that serve predominantly Alaska Native, American Indian, African American, and Latino teacher candidates are going to suffer a disparate impact as a result of CAEP Standard 3.2. While CAEP is willing to work with institutions during the transition to the 2020 requirement. The data clearly shows that this issue has a much longer historical perspective in regards to performance on nationally normed exams. The following table shows SAT math scores by ethnicity over an extended period of time starting in 1986 through 2012.

SOURCE: Last retrieved from http://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/display.asp?id=171 on October 11, 2014

The long term scores reported above show the trends among race and ethnicity are well established and show no reason for CAEP to expect the sudden increase required by the components of CAEP Standard

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3.2, especially when the connections to achievement on nationally normed tests is mitigated by larger social issues such as poverty and equality of opportunity. An interesting fact is education is one of the fields that these protected classes have made substantial in-roads and success.

The success of the Protected Classes of Alaska Native, American Indian, African American, and Latino in the field of education is shown to be at a much greater rate than other fields of study when achieving advanced degrees.

SOURCE: Aud, S., Fox, M., KewalRamani, A., & National Center for Education Statistics, (2010), pg. 138 This success in advanced degrees is even more prevalent when looking at Doctoral Level achievement for Alaska Native, American Indian, African American, and Latino members of descent.

SOURCE: Aud, S., Fox, M., KewalRamani, A., & National Center for Education Statistics, (2010), pg. 138

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As noted in the above charts the single greatest area of doctoral degrees awarded for Alaska Native, American Indian, African American, and Latino descent is in the field of education. These doctoral candidates had to start with entrance into the educational field, CAEP Standard 3.2 would likely have terminated many of these same advanced degree achievements before they even started.

Using an estimate of 8% of all SAT test takers from the Protected Classes achieving a score 600 on SAT math (National Science Foundation. (n.d.)), and 5% of all SAT test takers intending to go into the field of education (CollegeBoard, College-Bound Seniors Total Group Profile Report.pg. 13) means a coarse calculation and potential loss of 99.6 % of all current members of the Protected Classes of for Alaska Native, American Indian, African American, and Latino descent being eliminated from MSI’s depending on the cohort average. While this projected number may seem high, the fact is the data from multiple point sources demonstrate a clear and Disparate Impact on the Protected Classes of Alaska Native, American Indian, African American, and Latino descent by CAEP Standard 3.2.

Summary: CAEP serves a great and influential aspect in the field of education, more specifically teacher education preparation. CAEP national standards create a benchmark for many Education Preparation Programs to aspire to and such standards are needed as their impact serves the greater good of the profession. The CAEP Standards are in general useful and serve to elevate the educational profession. However, CAEP Standard 3.2 deserves further review and should be suspended as currently worded, as it has been shown to have a Disparate Impact on several protected classes, specifically: Alaska Native, American Indian, African American, and Latino members of descent. This Disparate Impact cannot and should not be allowed to continue as it appears to be in a direct violation of Title VII of the Civil Rights Act., specifically the Supreme Court decision, in Griggs v. Duke Power Co., 401 U.S. 424, 91 S.Ct. 849, 28 L.Ed.2d 158 (1971), as there is compelling evidence that there is a disproportionate impact on several protected classes. Aud, S., Fox, M., KewalRamani, A., & National Center for Education Statistics, (2010). Status and trends in the education of racial and ethnic groups. NCES 2010-015. National Center for Education CollegeBoard. (2012). Total group profile report 2012 college-bound seniors. In. (Ed.): ETS. Council for the Accreditation of Educator Preparation. (August, 2013). In CAEP Accreditation Standards. Retrieved October 13, 2014 National Science Foundation. (n.d.). In Scores by race/ethnicity. Retrieved October 13, 2014 The Supreme Court, in Griggs v. Duke Power Co., 401 U.S. 424, 91 S.Ct. 849, 28 L.Ed.2d 158 (1971) US Department of Education Office of Civil Rights. (2014). Civil rights data collection: Data snapshot college and career readiness (3rd ed.). In . (Ed.).

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Simulated Impacts of Climate Change on Surface Water Yields over the Sondu Basin in Kenya

Stephen K. Rwigi* Department of Meteorology, University of Nairobi P. O. Box 30197, Nairobi, Kenya

Jeremiah N. Muthama Department of Meteorology, University of Nairobi P. O. Box 30197, Nairobi, Kenya

Alfred O. Opere Department of Meteorology, University of Nairobi P. O. Box 30197, Nairobi, Kenya

Franklin J. Opijah Department of Meteorology, University of Nairobi P. O. Box 30197, Nairobi, Kenya

Francis N. Gichuki School of Environmental and Biosystems Engineering, University of Nairobi P. O. Box 30197, Nairobi, Kenya

Abstract Potential impacts of climate change on surface water yields over the Sondu River basin in the western region of Kenya were analysed using the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model with climate input data obtained from the fourth generation coupled Ocean-Atmosphere European Community Hamburg Model (ECHAM4) using the Providing Regional Climates for Impacts Studies (PRECIS) model. Daily time step regional climate scenarios at a spatial grid resolution of 0.44˚ over the Eastern Africa region were matched to the Sondu river basin and used to calibrate and validate the SWAT model. Analysis of historical and projected rainfall over the basin strongly indicated that the climate of the area will significantly change with wetter climates being experienced by 2030 and beyond. Projected monthly rainfall distribution shows increasing trends in the relatively dry DJF and SON seasons while showing decreasing trends in the relatively wet MAM and JJA seasons. Potential changes in water yields resulting from climate change were computed by comparing simulated yields under climate change scenarios with those simulated under baseline conditions. There was evidence of substantial increases in water yields ranging between 88% and 110% of the

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 159 Online-ISSN 2411-2933, Print-ISSN 2411-3123 August 2016 baseline yields by 2030 and 2050 respectively. Although simulated water yields are subject to further verification from observed values, this study has provided useful information about potential changes in water yields as a result of climate change over the Sondu River basin and in similar basins in this region

Keywords: Simulated Impacts; Climate Change; Water Yields; Sondu Basin; Kenya

1. Introduction During the twentieth century, freshwater became increasingly limited because of the ever-increasing demand resulting from the rapid growth in population, unsustainable use, and increasing incidences of pollution due to emissions from anthropogenic activities. It is expected that climate change will have an impact on surface water yields over the Sondu River basin but the extent is not well understood. Climate change has created problems to water supply, human health and loss of biodiversity (IPCC, 2007). Most studies have concluded that besides being the most vulnerable, Africa is the continent least equipped to handle the impacts of climate change (Lubini and Adamowsky, 2013). The importance of water in agriculture, domestic use, power generation and industry calls for effective and sustainable water resources management. To achieve this, it is important to assess the potential impacts of climate change on the hydrological processes at the watershed level using hydrological models. The goal of this study was to evaluate the impacts of climate change on surface water yields from the Sondu River basin in the western region of Kenya using the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) hydrological model with climate data observed from the basin and those derived from the fourth generation coupled Ocean-Atmosphere European Community Hamburg Model (ECHAM4) using the Providing Regional Climates for Impacts Studies (PRECIS) regional climate modelling system.

2. Literature review

2.1 Previous Studies on Climate Change In their review on the studies of climate change done on the African watersheds, Lubini and Adamowski (2013) have demonstrated that apart from Tyson’s (1991) early research, relatively littlework has emerged on future climate change scenarios focused on the African continent. Tyson (1991) constructed climate change scenarios for Southern Africa using results from the first generation of General Circulation Model (GCM) equilibrium experiments. Hulme (1994) later presented a method for creating regional climate change scenarios combining GCM results with the IPCC emission scenarios and demonstrated the application of the method in the African continent. Hulme et al. (1996) went further and took a more focused approach to the use of GCM experiments in describing the 2050 consequences of three future climate change scenarios for the Southern African Development Community (SADC). They selected three different GCM experiments spanning the range of precipitation changes predicted by the GCM for the SADC region, allowing for the assessment of potential impacts and implications of climate change on agriculture, hydrology and health among others.

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However, considerable uncertainty remains regarding the large scale precipitation changes simulated by GCMs for Africa. Based on such models, Joubert and Hewitson (1997) came to the conclusion that precipitation would generally increase over much of the African continent by the year 2050 by as much as 15% over 1961-1990 means in the Sahel region (Lubini and Adamowski, 2013). It is clear from the foregoing that very little work on the impacts of climate change on hydrology has been done for the eastern part of the continent of Africa. This study simulates the impacts of climate change on surface water yields at the watershed level over the Sondu River Basin in Kenya.

2.2 The Soil and Water Assessment Tool The Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) (Arnold et al. 1998) is a public domain physically-based continuous watershed scale hydrologic model that operates on a daily time-step designed to predict the impacts of changes of input variables, such as climate and land use/cover on water quantity and quality, inter alia, in a catchment area. The model simulates a watershed by first delineating and dividing it into multiple sub-basins which are further subdivided into homogenous Hydrological Response Units (HRUs). The HRUs are the smallest homogeneous units of the watershed created by overlaying unique digitised land use, soil properties and slope characteristics maps of the watershed. SWAT model performs hydrological computations at the HRU level from daily rainfall using the modified United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Soil Conservation Service (SCS) Runoff Number (CN) or the Green-Ampt infiltration method and then sums it up to the sub basin level before routing it to the watershed outlet (Golmohammadi et al. 2014; Khanal and Parajuli, 2013). Model calibration (bettering the parameterisation to reduce the model prediction uncertainty) and validation (demonstrating the capability of a given site specific model to replicate observations) is normally done following three key steps: The selection of a portion of observed data; running the model at different values of known input parameters and comparing the results with observed data until fit to observation is good; and applying the model with calibrated parameters to the remaining portion of the observed data. The model input parameters are adjusted through relaxation techniques during the second step (Arnold et al, 2012; Krause et al, 2005). A number of researchers have demonstrated the ability of the SWAT model to replicate hydrologic loads at a variety of spatial scales on an annual and monthly basis (Gassman et al, 2007; Schuol et al, 2008). The model has been applied successfully in at least five river basins in Kenya that include Sondu (Jayakrishnan et al, 2005), Tana (Jacobs et al, 2007), Nzoia (Githui, et al, 2009) and Mara (Mango et al, 2011).

3. Methodology

3.1 The study area – Sondu River Basin Sondu River basin was selected for this study in view of its economic, social, and environmental importance in the western part of Kenya. Agriculture is the mainstay of the people in this basin while the Sondu-Miriu Hydropower station derives its flow from Sondu River; the main river that drains the basin.

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The dominant land use activities in the basin include agriculture and forestry accounting for about 64% and 27% respectively of the total basin area. The landform of the basin consists of low plains near the lakeshore rising eastwards to volcanic plateaus with dissected margins in the middle parts and rugged terrain with deep gorges and V-shaped valleys in the upper eastern parts (JICA, 2013). Land elevation in the basin varies from about 1134 m at the lakeshore to 2900 m above sea level at the summit of Londiani Mountains with an average elevation of 2039 m. The slope of the watershed also varies highly with steeper slopes in the mountains and relatively flatter slopes near the lake. Elevation and slope play significant roles in watershed hydrology. The slope of the land affects the volume and timing of runoff. The average slope of each individual HRU was calculated by the ArcSWAT interface during the SWAT model setup process (Neitsch et al. 2011). Rainfall in the basin follows a trimodal pattern with the main rainfall season coming in the months of March-April-May (MAM) followed by June-July-August (JJA), and the short rains in September-October-November (SON). The mean monthly rainfall ranges from about 60 mm in January to about 284 mm in May while the mean annual rainfall exceeds 1500 mm, the threshold for a tropical wet type of climate (Ahrens, 2009).

Figure 1: Sondu River basin; its location in Kenya and the river, rainfall and temperature gauging stations networks Figure 1 shows the basin is located within latitudes 00˚23'S and 01˚10'S and longitudes 34˚46'E and 35˚45'E and covers an area of about 3500 km2. Sondu River is approximately 173 km long and drains into Lake Victoria at a mean annual rate of about 1.37 BCM/yr (WRMA, 2009).

3.2 Regional Climate Scenario Modelling Downscaled GCM outputs have been used in hydrological studies to translate projected climate scenarios into hydrological responses (Akhtar et al, 2009). In this study, PRECIS regional climate modelling system was used to downscale the coarse global climate scenarios from ECHAM4, following the IPCC

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(2000) special report on emissions scenarios (SRES) A2, to 0.5˚grid resolution for eastern Africa where the model domain was set up with a horizontal resolution of 50 km spanning latitudes 12˚S to 18˚N and longitudes 22˚E to 52˚E (Wilson et al, 2009: Jones et al, 2004). The study focussed on climate change based on the future global climate scenarios simulated using the A2 emissions scenario which assumes that efforts to reduce global emissions this century will be relatively ineffective (Lumsden et al, 2009). Regional scenarios of daily time series of rainfall and temperature for the periods 1961-1990 (baseline), 1991-2020 (present and immediate future), and 2021-2050 (intermediate future) were developed. Changes between the projected rainfall and temperature (1991-2020 and 2021-2050) and the baseline values (1961-1990) were evaluated to determine the possible climate change in the region. In order to represent the regional climate scenarios at the watershed scale, three 0.5˚ grid squares that cover most of the Sondu basin were used to extract time series of daily rainfall and temperature using the coordinates of at least one existing rain gauge station within the grid square.

3.3 SWAT Data Preparation The input data requirements for the SWAT model fall into three main categories: spatial datasets that include the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission Digital Elevation Model (SRTM-DEM), land use/land cover (LULC) and soil properties digital maps; climate data that include long term mean monthly precipitation, probabilities of a wet day following a dry day (PR_W1) and a wet day following a wet day (PR_W2) in a month and the average number of days of precipitation in a month; and weather data that include time series of daily precipitation, maximum and minimum temperature, wind speed, solar radiation and relative humidity (Winchel et al, 2010). The SRTM-DEM used in this study was a 3 arc-second (approximately 90 m) medium resolution elevation data resampled using cubic convolution interpolation and was used to automatically delineate the watershed boundary, define stream networks, identify gage outlets, and to generate percent slope values over the watershed (Khanal and Parajuli, 2013; Neitsch et al. 2011). The LULC maps of the Sondu Basin were generated from a series of four LANDSAT imageries from Multispectral Scanner System (MSS), Thematic Mapper (TM), Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM), and Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+) sensors aboard the National Aeronautical and Space Administration (NASA) LANDSAT satellites. The four processed LANDSAT imageries were obtained from the Department of Resource Survey and Remote Sensing (DRSRS) in Kenya. Soil data, obtained in digital map format from the Kenya Soil and Terrain (KENSOTER) database compiled by the Kenya Soil Survey (KSS) in conjunction with the International Soil Reference and Information Centre (ISRIC) according to the Soil and Terrain (SOTER) methodology, were used to generate the requisite soil layers for the model. Climate data were used in the weather generator stations to fill in gaps in the daily time series weather data that were used to simulate flows from the basin. Figure 1 shows the weather stations located inside and outside the Sondu basin that were used in this study. These stations had daily and monthly rainfall and temperature (minimum and maximum) data. Climate change data were extracted from the PRECIS regional climate modelling system. Using these input data, SWAT model was used to simulate the terrestrial phase of the hydrologic cycle

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 163 Online-ISSN 2411-2933, Print-ISSN 2411-3123 August 2016 based on the water balance equation (Equation 1).

t SWt = SWo  day surf a seep QWEQR+gw  (1) =i1

Where SWt is the final soil water content, SWo is the initial soil water content on day i, t is the time

in days, Rday is the amount of rainfall on day i, Qsu rf is the amount of surface runoff on day i, Ea is

the amount of evapotranspiration on day i, Wseep is the amount of water entering the vadoze zone from

the soil profile on day i, and Qgw is the amount of groundwater flow on day i.

3.4 Model Skill Assessment (Model Calibration and Validation) The SWAT model was calibrated and validated against observed monthly water yields obtained from Kiptiget gauging station for the periods 1982-1987 and 1988- 1990 respectively. The fit-to-observations calibration criterion was adopted in this study on account of its objectivity and affordability (Moriasi et al, 2007). The model performance was evaluated by comparing the model-simulated and observed surface water yields using four commonly used test statistics in hydrological studies: Coefficient of Determination (R2), Nash–Sutcliffe Efficiency (NSE) index, Percentage Bias (PBIAS), and the Ratio of Root-Mean-Square Error to the Standard Deviation of Observations (RSR) (Moriasi et al, 2007). Calibration process was performed manually by continuously adjusting seven of the most sensitive model input parameters obtained from model sensitivity analyses (Winchel et al, 2010), until simulation results of R2 ≥ 0.5 and NSE ≥ 0.5, both of which indicate good model performance, were obtained (Parajuli et al, 2009). The R2 (Equation 2) is a value that indicates the consistency with which model-simulated versus observed values follow a best fit line (Parajuli et al, 2009; Muthama et al, 2008) and ranges from 0 to 1. Values of R2 close to zero indicate poor model performance while a value of 1 indicates a perfect fit between model-simulated and observed values. Parajuli et al, (2009) have recommended that values of R2 of at least 0.5 indicate good model performance. The main limitation of R2 is that it only describes how much of the observed variance is explained by the model simulation and it can therefore not be used alone to evaluate model performance. SS R 2 1 E (2) SST

In Equation (2), SSE is the sum of squared errors of estimates and SST is the total sum of squares of the original values. The NSE (Equation 3) is a normalised index whose values range between -∞ (poor model performance) and 1 (perfect model performance) and measures how well the plot of the observed versus model-simulated values fit the 1:1 line. Values of NSE between 0 and 1 are considered acceptable while those less than 0 are considered unacceptable (Moriasi et al, 2007). Accordingly, 0.5≤ NSE ≤ 0.74

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 164 International Journal for Innovation Education and Research www.ijier.net Vol:-4 No-8, 2016 signifies good model performance, 0.75 ≤ NSE ≤0.89 signifies very good model performance, and 0.9 ≤ NSE ≤ 1.0 signifies excellent model performance (Parajuli et al, 2009).

n 2    POii NSE 1i1 (3) 2   i  OO

In Equation (3) Oi is the observed discharge series, Pi is the predicted discharge series, O is the mean of the observed discharge series, and n is the total number of observations. The PBIAS (Equation 4) is the percentage deviation of simulated from observed values. It measures the average tendency of the model-simulated values to be larger or smaller than the corresponding observed values (Moriasi et al, 2007). The optimal value of PBIAS is 0, indicating perfect model performance. Positive and negative values of PBIAS indicate model bias towards underestimation and overestimation respectively.  n     PO ii  PBIAS   i1 100 (4)  n   Oi   i1 

In Equation (4), Oi is the observed discharge series and Pi is the simulated discharge series. Values of

PBIAS falling within ±16% ≤ PBIAS ≤ ±25% denote good model performance, those within ±11% ≤ PBIAS ≤ ±15% denote very good model performance, and those within PBIAS < ±10% denote excellent model performance (Parajuli et al, 2009). The RSR (Equation 5) was used to evaluate the accuracy of the model simulation. RSR values range from the optimal value of 0 (for a perfect model simulation) to large positive values.

n 2   POii RSR  i1 (5) 2  i  OO

In Equation 5, Oi is the observed discharge series, Pi is the simulated discharge series, and O is the mean observed discharge series. Values of RSR falling within 0.6 ≤ RSR ≤ 0.7denote satisfactory model performance, those within 0.5 ≤ RSR ≤ 0.6 denote good model performance those within 0.3 ≤ RSR ≤ 0.5 denote very good model performance while those within 0.0 ≤ RSR ≤ 0.25 denote excellent model performance (Moriasi et al, 2007).

3.5 Impacts of Climate Change on Surface Water Yields The impacts of climate change on surface water yields from the Sondu River basin were assessed by simulating water yields under different climate scenarios keeping the LULC unchanged. Surface water

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 165 Online-ISSN 2411-2933, Print-ISSN 2411-3123 August 2016 yields were simulated under the 1970s baseline climate and projected climates in 2010s and 2030s. The impacts of climate change on surface water yields were then evaluated as the percentage difference between the projected and the baseline water yields (Equation 6). Any changes in the simulated water yields were attributed to climate change.

 WWBC I    100 (6)  WB 

In Equation 6, Wc is the surface water yields under changed climate scenarios, WB is the water yields under the baseline climate scenario.

4.0 Results and Discussions The results of the analyses of projected rainfall, model calibration and validation, and model simulation and projections are presented and discussed in this section.

4.1 Projected Rainfall in 2010s and 2030s

(a) (b) Figure 2: Projected (a) Mean monthly rainfall scenarios (PCPMM), and (b) Percentage change in PCPMM from the baseline values at Kericho Meteorological Station

Figure 2 shows the baseline and projected monthly rainfall scenarios together with projected changes in 2010s and 2030s. It was noted that there will be increases in monthly rainfall ranging between 9% and 489% over the baseline values between September and May inclusive. Between June and August inclusive rainfall values are projected to fall by between 14% and 24% of the baseline values. The unusually high projected rainfall in the otherwise relatively dry seasons (DJF and SON) is expected to improve water yields from the basin but is also likely to cause an increase in flooding incidents if not well managed. These results agree with those of Githui et al, (2009) for Nzoia basin which is also within the larger Lake Vitoria basin.

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4.2 SWAT Model Calibration and Validation

(a) (b) Figure 3: Hydrographs of observed and SWAT model-simulated mean monthly water yields (MCM) during (a) calibration and (b) validation at Kiptiget RGS

(a) (b) Figure 4: Regression of mean monthly SWAT model-simulated on observed water yields (MCM) during (a) calibration and (b) validation periods at Kiptiget RGS Figure 3 shows a comparison of hydrographs of simulated and observed mean monthly water yields while Figure 4 shows regression of simulated mean monthly water yields on corresponding observed values averaged over the calibration (1982-1987) and validation (1988-1990) periods respectively, at Kiptiget RGS. During calibration (Figure 3a) the model captures the monthly distribution of water yields from the catchment quite well but overestimates between April and July. During validation (Figure 3b) the monthly distribution of water yields is fairly well captured but the model generally overestimates the water yields in all the months except August. Monthly simulated water yields were found to be consistent with the corresponding observed values during calibration and validation periods. The R2 value of 0.66 during validation period indicates good model performance in the basin. Based on these results the model is recommended for use in predicting monthly water yields in the basin.

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Table 1: SWAT Model performance statistics for the average monthly water yields during calibration and validation periods Observed Simulated Evaluation Statistics Period (MCM/yr) (MCM/yr) Mean Stdev Mean Stdev R2 PBIAS NSE RSR Calibration (1982-1987) 11.9 7.4 13.0 9.4 0.95 -9 0.6 0.6 Validation (1988-1990) 9.4 7.0 10.0 6.9 0.7 -7 0.5 0.7

Table 1 shows a summary of results of the model performance statistics. Columns 2 and 3 show observed and simulated mean values and standard deviations respectively, of annual water yields during calibration and validation periods. Column 4 shows the model performance statistics for mean monthly water yields during calibration and validation periods. These results indicate that: there was good correlation between model-simulated and observed mean monthly water yields as shown by the values of R2 (0.7) and NSE (0.5) during validation; there was excellent match between the model-simulated and observed water yields as shown by the PBIAS value (-7%) during validation, and the model-simulated water yields were fairly accurate as shown by the RSR value (0.7) during validation. The PBIAS value of -7% indicates that the model tends to slightly over estimate monthly water yields from the watershed but this is within the limits of very good model performance as recommended by Moriasi et al, (2007) and Parajuli et al, (2009). According to the classification of Parajuli et al, (2009), this study has shown that SWAT model performed with good to very good correlation and agreement when model simulations are compared with observed values. This was shown by the high values of R2 and NSE (≥ 0.5) and the low values of PBIAS (≤ ± 10%) and RSR (≤ 0.7) which show that the model was able to simulate monthly water yields with minimum error and limited bias.

4.2.1 SWAT Model Simulations and Projections

(a) (b) Figure 5: Baseline and SRES A2 scenario projected mean monthly (a) and annual water yields (b) at Kiptiget RGS

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Figure 5 shows a comparison of the baseline (1961-1990) and projected (1991-2030, 2021-2050) values for 30-year average monthly and annual water yields at Kiptiget RGS. Figure 5a shows increasing trends in mean monthly water yields between October and June but decreasing trends between July and September. The months currently experiencing relatively low water yields (December-March) are expected to experience relatively higher water yields while those currently experiencing relatively high water yields (August and September) are expected to experience relatively lower water yields under this scenario. On the other hand, from the 1970s through 2010s to 2030s, the mean annual water yields averaged over the thirty-year periods are expected to increase at a rate of about 105 MCM every 30 years under this scenario (Figure 5b).

5. Conclusion The study has demonstrated a changing climate in the Sondu basin and the surrounding areas between 1961 and 2050, with some seasons becoming wetter and others drier than the baseline conditions. Monthly rainfall patterns are projected to shift with the relatively drier seasons becoming relatively wetter and the relatively wetter seasons becoming relatively drier. This is expected to bring about a redistribution of seasonal water yields with the currently relatively dry seasons yielding more and the currently wet seasons yielding less water compared to the baseline period. An increase in water yields with climate change was observed which is in tandem with the results of an earlier study in Nzoia basin (Githui et al, 2009). Even though the model-simulated water yields under the baseline and climate change scenarios are subject to further verification using observed data, this study has provided useful information about the potential patterns of water yields from Sondu and other similar watersheds that may result from climate change. This study will therefore contribute to the scientific community’s understanding of the impacts of climate change on water resources over Lake Victoria basin in general and Sondu River basin in particular. Further, as a result of this study, a great amount of Hydrometeorological data in and around the area of study spanning the period 1961-2050 has been acquired. This forms a significant contribution to researchers wishing to advance the science of Hydrometeorology and climate change. Results of this study could also be used to provide information to inform policy in the strategic planning and management of water resources in this area as set out in the Kenya National water Master Plan 2030 in various sectors such as agriculture, hydropower and water supply.

Acknowledgement This research is part of my PhD thesis financed by the University of Nairobi, Kenya, through the Deans committee. Data for this research was provided by various institutions from within and outside Kenya. I particularly wish to acknowledge the Department of Resource Survey and Remote Sensing (DRSRS) who made available land use data from LANDSAT images, Kenya Meteorological Department (KMD) who provided observed climate data, UK Met Office who provided boundary data to run PRECIS model, Ministry of Water and Irrigation through Water Resources Management Authority (WRMA) who

International Educative Research Foundation and Publisher © 2016 pg. 169 Online-ISSN 2411-2933, Print-ISSN 2411-3123 August 2016 provided observed stream flow data, Kenya Soil Survey (KSS) who provided soil data, and Kenya Forest Service (KFS) who offered use of their facilities during the field trip.

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