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A Critical Policy Analysis of the Northern Territory Compulsory Teaching in English for the First Four Hours of Each School Day

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A Critical Policy Analysis of the Northern Territory Compulsory Teaching in English for the First Four Hours of Each School Day Anangu Muru Wunka - Talking Black Fella: A Critical Policy Analysis of the Northern Territory Compulsory Teaching in English for the First Four Hours of Each School Day ✾ Janine Gai Oldfield 0000-0001-6759-3179 Submitted in total fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. December 2016 Department of Language and Literacy Education Graduate School of Education The University of Melbourne Abstract This research investigated the effects on two remote Indigenous communities of a Northern Territory (NT) of Australia education language policy, Compulsory Teaching in English for the First Four Hours of each School Day (FFHP). Although the policy was introduced in 2008, it continues to have profound effects on the policy landscape of the NT which has never re- established the bilingual policy platform. The investigation involved a critical analysis of the FFHP and an ethnographic study of its effects. The research reported here follows two qualitative lines of study – the policy text (the process and content of the policy) and policy discourse (the discourse around the policy) in addition to its effects on those it was targeting. The data gathering methods entailed collecting key texts from critical moments of the FFHP implementation - the policy itself and operational guidelines in addition to media texts and a Hansard record. The field data collection comprised interviews with both Indigenous and non- Indigenous language education experts, two community case studies (one of which retained its bilingual program at the school and one which did not as a result of the FFHP) and critical ethnographical research. The latter used purposively selected adult and child participants for group and individual interviews (a total of 53). Given the Indigenous context of the field research and the desire to accurately depict remote Indigenous perspectives, Indigenous methodologies and participatory research approaches were employed. This entailed culturally appropriate consultation with participants, checking the accuracy and interpretation of interview data and Indigenous led participant selection. The analysis of the policy and key community interviews was achieved with critical discourse analysis (CDA). The particular approach to CDA employed was that developed by Reisigl and Wodak (2001) called Historical Discourse Approach (HDA) which emphasises the historical situatedness of discourse and the political dimensions and contexts at work in political texts. CDA is also frequently paired with ethnographic data collection. All community interviews were subjected to content analysis (CA) in order to deduce the major patterns and themes that arose in relation to the effects of the FFHP. This study revealed a language and cultural hierarchy operating with the adoption of the FFHP that entails a postcolonial construction of Indigenous people as ‘invisible’ and deficient. Although not as blatant as the texts associated with the separately occurring Northern Territory Emergency Response (NTER), there are distinctly covert negative representations that similarly allude to Indigenous abnormality and failure and imply criminality. In addition, the ideologies, presuppositions and assumptions of neo-liberalism and symbolism of the nation-state operating in the policy, construe, if only covertly, Indigenous languages (ILs), culture and people as in need of mainstreaming to achieve higher socio-economic status, well-being and national ‘belonging’. This is despite evidence that categorically demonstrates attachment to language and culture enhances well-being and socio-economic status. The effects of the policy on the two communities were surprisingly similar. Both communities complained of erosion in community participation and employment at the local schools that undermined the economic independence, self-determination and governance of the local population. Community participants were critical of the erratic policy creation and implementation and marginalisation of community members. The community with suspended bilingual programs complained of greater negative academic, well-being, behaviour and cognitive effects on children and a deterioration in resilience, all of which were difficult, if not impossible, to address given the oppressive political climate ‘out bush’. Such policy failure is common throughout the Indigenous policy landscape in Australia. As a consequence of the lack of legislative protection offered to Indigenous people and abuse of international human rights entailed in the FFHP, this study highlights the need for future policy creation and evaluation to be conducted from an Indigenous perspective and governance. ii Declaration This is to certify that i. the thesis comprises only my original work except where indicated in the preface, ii. due acknowledgement has been made in the text to all material used, iii. the thesis is less than 100,000 words in length, exclusive of tables, maps, bibliographies and appendices. Signed_____________________________________________ iii Dedication and Acknowledgements To the two communities involved in this study – the parents, children, grandparents, the facilitators and others who because of confidentially I cannot name - I extend a very large thankyou and am deeply indebted to you for your wonderful stories and your open hearts. This research is yours and for you and will be retold to open the eyes and ears of others. To my principal supervisor, Joseph Lo Bianco, I am so indebted to you for your guidance, intellectualism, incision, strong and heartfelt support and cajoling to extend this thesis way beyond the limits I could render myself, to tidy messy intellectual edges, to create a lineal structure and to maintain a strong rational voice but one tempered by compassion and understanding. To my co-supervisor, Paul Molyneux, who paid not only extensive attention and time to this research but scrupulous attention to the lyrics, cadence, tone and structure of this piece, ensuring there were no wayward phrases or noise and all done with a kindly caring heart. To Lesley Farrell who joined as co-supervisor in my second year, I extend a heartfelt thank you for providing focused feedback and an overarching structural guide that led the thesis to its completion. I am also deeply grateful to the many experts, such as Veronica Dobson, Robin Ober, Christine Nicholls and Brian Devlin, who I approached for this thesis and my supervisory panel (with a special thankyou to Marilyn Woolley) all of whom willingly provided such clear but nuanced direction. I am also greatly indebted to some of the research students such as Sophie Rudolph, Rebecca Hetherington and Marra Nielson who not only accompanied me on my journey at Melbourne University but offered their time, support and readings to clarify that journey. A special thankyou also to Batchelor Institute for assisting me to accomplish my research at remote communities with a research fellowship. A thankyou also to the staff and students at Batchelor who greatly helped me on my journey, including but not limited to Lisa Hall, Margaret Carew and Barbara Martin. iv Last but not least, to my meta Vincent Forrester who cajoled and guided me through this thesis and who provided a strong Indigenous perspective and loud voice throughout. This thesis would not have the same depth or meaning without any of you. Palya. v Table of Contents Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... i Declaration ................................................................................................................................... iii Dedication and Acknowledgements ............................................................................................ iv List of Tables ................................................................................................................................ xiii List of Figures .............................................................................................................................. xiv List of Abbreviations .................................................................................................................... xvi Glossary of Terms ...................................................................................................................... xviii Chapter 1 – Introduction ............................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Statement of Problem ......................................................................................................... 3 1.2 Reducing Bilingualism – the historical context of bilingual education in the NT ................ 4 1.3 Research Questions ........................................................................................................... 12 1.4 Justification for the Research Method .............................................................................. 14 1.5 Justification for the Study ................................................................................................. 15 1.6 Why Now? Further Contextualisation of the Study .......................................................... 17 1.7 Justification for the Research Sites ................................................................................... 19 1.8 Personal Interest in the Study ........................................................................................... 19 1.9 Thesis
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