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False Dilemma Wikipedia Contents False dilemma Wikipedia Contents 1 False dilemma 1 1.1 Examples ............................................... 1 1.1.1 Morton's fork ......................................... 1 1.1.2 False choice .......................................... 2 1.1.3 Black-and-white thinking ................................... 2 1.2 See also ................................................ 2 1.3 References ............................................... 3 1.4 External links ............................................. 3 2 Affirmative action 4 2.1 Origins ................................................. 4 2.2 Women ................................................ 4 2.3 Quotas ................................................. 5 2.4 National approaches .......................................... 5 2.4.1 Africa ............................................ 5 2.4.2 Asia .............................................. 7 2.4.3 Europe ............................................ 8 2.4.4 North America ........................................ 10 2.4.5 Oceania ............................................ 11 2.4.6 South America ........................................ 11 2.5 International organizations ...................................... 11 2.5.1 United Nations ........................................ 12 2.6 Support ................................................ 12 2.6.1 Polls .............................................. 12 2.7 Criticism ............................................... 12 2.7.1 Mismatching ......................................... 13 2.8 See also ................................................ 13 2.9 Notes ................................................. 13 2.10 References ............................................... 17 2.11 Further reading ............................................ 17 2.12 External links ............................................. 18 3 Ambiguity 19 i ii CONTENTS 3.1 Linguistic forms ........................................... 19 3.2 Intentional application ......................................... 22 3.2.1 Psychology and management ................................. 23 3.3 Music ................................................. 23 3.4 Visual art ............................................... 23 3.5 Constructed language ......................................... 23 3.6 Computer science ........................................... 24 3.7 Mathematical notation ......................................... 24 3.7.1 Names of functions ...................................... 24 3.7.2 Expressions .......................................... 25 3.7.3 Examples of potentially confusing ambiguous mathematical expressions .......... 25 3.7.4 Notations in quantum optics and quantum mechanics .................... 25 3.7.5 Ambiguous terms in physics and mathematics ........................ 26 3.8 Mathematical interpretation of ambiguity ............................... 26 3.9 Pedagogic use of ambiguous expressions ............................... 26 3.10 See also ................................................ 27 3.11 References ............................................... 27 3.12 External links ............................................. 28 4 Apodicticity 29 4.1 Notes ................................................. 29 4.2 References ............................................... 29 4.3 External links ............................................. 29 5 Argument to moderation 30 5.1 Examples ............................................... 30 5.2 See also ................................................ 31 5.3 References ............................................... 31 5.4 External links ............................................. 31 6 Begging the question 32 6.1 History ................................................ 32 6.2 Definition ............................................... 34 6.3 Related fallacies ............................................ 35 6.4 Modern usage ............................................. 35 6.5 See also ................................................ 35 6.6 Notes ................................................. 36 6.7 References .............................................. 37 7 Binary opposition 39 7.1 Theory of binaries in Western thought ................................ 39 7.2 Deconstruction of Western binaries .................................. 40 7.3 In Relation to Logocentrism ...................................... 40 CONTENTS iii 7.4 Binary Opposition in Literature .................................... 40 7.5 See also ................................................ 41 7.6 Notes ................................................. 41 7.7 References ............................................... 42 8 Black-and-white dualism 43 8.1 See also ................................................ 44 8.2 References ............................................... 45 9 Catch-22 (logic) 46 9.1 Origin and meaning .......................................... 46 9.1.1 Other appearances in the novel ................................ 47 9.1.2 Significance of the number 22 ................................ 47 9.2 Usage ................................................. 47 9.3 Logic ................................................. 48 9.4 See also ................................................ 48 9.4.1 Related stories and logic problems .............................. 49 9.5 References .............................................. 49 10 Circular definition 50 10.1 Approaches to characterizing circular definitions ........................... 51 10.2 Circular lexicographic (dictionary) definitions ............................. 51 10.3 Examples of narrowly circular definitions in dictionaries ....................... 52 10.4 See also ................................................ 53 10.5 References ............................................... 53 11 Circular reasoning 54 11.1 The problem of induction ....................................... 54 11.2 See also ................................................ 54 11.3 References ............................................... 55 12 Collectively exhaustive events 56 12.1 History ................................................ 56 12.2 See also ................................................ 57 12.3 References ............................................... 57 13 Complex question 58 13.1 Implication by question ........................................ 58 13.2 Complex question fallacy ....................................... 58 13.2.1 Similar questions and fallacies ................................ 59 13.3 Notes ................................................. 59 14 Conditional sentence 61 14.1 Types of conditional sentence ..................................... 61 iv CONTENTS 14.1.1 Implicative and predictive ................................... 61 14.1.2 Counterfactual ........................................ 62 14.2 Grammar of conditional sentences .................................. 62 14.2.1 English ............................................ 63 14.2.2 Latin ............................................. 64 14.2.3 French ............................................. 64 14.2.4 Italian ............................................. 65 14.2.5 Slavic languages ........................................ 65 14.3 Logic ................................................. 65 14.4 See also ................................................ 65 14.5 References ............................................... 65 14.6 External links ............................................. 66 15 Consequentia mirabilis 67 15.1 See also ................................................ 67 15.2 References ............................................... 67 16 Critical discourse analysis 68 16.1 Background .............................................. 68 16.2 Methodology ............................................. 68 16.3 Notable academics ........................................... 69 16.4 See also ................................................ 69 16.5 Bibliography .............................................. 69 16.5.1 Notes ............................................. 69 16.5.2 References .......................................... 70 16.5.3 Further reading ........................................ 70 16.6 External links ............................................. 71 16.6.1 Research groups associated with CDA ............................ 71 16.6.2 Journals associated with CDA ................................ 71 17 Critical theory 72 17.1 Definitions ............................................... 72 17.2 In social theory ............................................ 73 17.2.1 Postmodern critical theory .................................. 74 17.3 Language and construction ...................................... 74 17.3.1 Language and communication ................................ 74 17.3.2 Construction ......................................... 74 17.4 21st Century .............................................. 75 17.5 See also ................................................ 75 17.5.1 Lists .............................................. 75 17.5.2 Related subjects ........................................ 75 17.5.3 Journals related and/or dedicated to critical theory or critical sociology ........... 76 CONTENTS v 17.6 Footnotes ............................................... 76 17.7 References ............................................... 77 17.8 External links ............................................. 78 17.8.1 Archival collections ...................................... 78 17.8.2 Other ............................................
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