Organizing and Outlining Your Speech Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning

Organizing 8 and Outlining Your Speech

Read it • The Parts of a Speech 146 • Putting Your Ideas Together: • Organizing the Body of Your Speech 146 The Complete-Sentence Outline 160 • Connecting Your Ideas with Transitions 158 • Sample Complete-Sentence Outline for Review and Analysis 165

Watch it • Reviewing Patterns of Organization 157

• Linking Effectively: Transitions 161

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Use it • Everything in Its Place 157 • Polite to Point 161

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Review it • Directory of Study and Review Resources 168

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

Ch008.indd 144 07/10/10 6:53 PM hen you organize a speech well, audience members follow Wyour ideas more easily and better understand what you have to say. In addition, good organization helps you stay on track, keeping your purpose and thesis in mind. With a thoughtful plan for the order in which you want to present your points, you’ll feel more conﬁ dent. Organizing your speech is like planning a trip: Reaching your destination is much less stressful when you know how to get there. In addition, when your speech is well organized, audience members don’t need to worry about where you are in your speech, where you’ve been, or where you’re going. Carefully organizing your speech increases the chances that you’ll achieve your speciﬁ c purpose and that your audience will respond as you’d planned.

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Ch008.indd 145 07/10/10 6:53 PM Figure 8.1 The parts of a speech

Introduction Body Conclusion get audience’s transition from first main point transition from body review main points attention introduction to body and last main point and first main point subpoint to conclusion reinforce purpose indicate purpose subpoint and thesis provide closure transition to second establish credibility main point preview main points second main point subpoint subpoint transition to third main point third main point subpoint subpoint

The Parts of a Speech

Every speech has four main parts: introduction, body, transitions, and conclusion (Figure 8.1). In the fi rst part of the speech, the introduction, the speaker must get the audience’s attention, indicate the purpose and thesis, establish credibility, and preview the speech’s main points. Th e body of a speech includes all the speaker’s main points and subordinate points. Speakers use transitions, words, phrases, sentences, or paragraphs to move from the introduction to the body, from one point to the next, and from the body to the conclusion. Th e conclusion ends the speech, with the speaker reviewing the main points, restating the thesis, and providing closure. When you present a speech, you proceed from the introduction through the body to the conclusion. But when you put together a speech you typically develop the body and transitions fi rst, the introduction second, and the conclusion last. Figure 8.1 shows the logic underlying this seemingly illogical order. You need to know what you’re going to say in the body before you develop the introduction and the conclusion. You may fi nd, however, that as you work on the body of your speech you’ll think of something you want to say in the introduction or get an idea for a great way to end your speech. Organizing your speech, like speechmaking in general, doesn’t always follow a linear path. Th is chapter focuses on developing the body of your speech and connecting your points together, as those are the starting points for most speakers. Chapter 9 discusses how to begin and end your speech.

Organizing the Body of Your Speech

Th e body is where the action of your speech takes place—where you inform, persuade, The middle and main part of a speech; or entertain your audience. Th is section identifi es and describes the main elements of includes main and subordinate points. this part of your speech (Figure 8.2).

Developing Your Main Points Your working outline provides a useful guide for developing your main points (Chapter 4). Th e working outline includes your topic, general purpose, specifi c purpose, thesis, and keywords for the main ideas and subpoints. As you review your working outline, applying the principles of clarity, relevance, and balance will help you identify what points to include and what points to leave out of your speech. 146

PART 2 DEVELOPING AND RESEARCHING YOUR SPEECH Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

Ch008.indd 146 07/10/10 6:54 PM Clarity Your main points should identify for your audience what your speech Figure 8.2 Elements of the body is about and the response you seek. Th ey must also clearly support your specifi c purpose and be consistent with your thesis. In the following example, notice how the main points elaborate on the ideas expressed in the thesis, providing clarity on Body the topic of happiness. Th ey also support the specifi c purpose, allowing the speaker to reach the goal of informing the audience. first main point Topic: A Scientifi c Approach to Happiness General purpose: To inform subpoint sub-subpoint Specifi c purpose: To inform my audience about the science of happiness. sub-subpoint subpoint Th esis: According to scientists, people achieve happiness sub-subpoint through involvement with daily activities and other sub-subpoint people, contributing in meaningful ways to larger goals, and fi nding pleasure in everyday life. transition to second main point Main points: I. The first component of happiness is being engaged in activities and interacting with others. second main point II. The second component of happiness is feeling like what you do contributes in meaningful ways to some larger goal or objective. subpoint sub-subpoint sub-subpoint III. The third component of happiness is simply finding pleasure in the subpoint everyday things you do. sub-subpoint sub-subpoint Even slightly altering what you want to say about a topic changes the specifi c purpose and thesis. In turn, the main points must also change to clearly refl ect transition to third diff erent focus. For example: main point Topic: Th e Myths of Happiness

General purpose: To inform third main point Specifi c purpose: To make my audience aware of myths about happiness. subpoint Th esis: Scientists have dispelled three common myths about sub-subpoint sub-subpoint happiness: Money makes you happy, intelligence subpoint sub-subpoint makes you happy, and being young makes you happy. sub-subpoint Main points: I. “Wealth makes you happy” is one myth scientists have proven false. II. “Greater intelligence makes you happier” is a second myth scientists have proven false. III. “Youth as the key to happiness” is a third myth scientists have dispelled. These examples of two approaches to the same topic, happiness, demonstrate the importance of the early steps you take in topic development: clearly refining your topic, phrasing your specific purpose, and writing your thesis statement (Chapter 4).

Relevance Th e main points of your speech must pertain directly to your topic. As you research your topic, you’ll gather more information than you’ll use in your speech. Continually review your specifi c purpose and thesis, and identify the points that are truly relevant to your specifi c purpose. You’ll always know more about your topic than what you include in your speech—you’re the expert—but avoid including information that would detract from your goal. Main points must be relevant to one another as well as to the topic. Consider the main points for this informative speech about U.S. science fi ction writer Octavia E. Butler: Topic: Th e Achievements of Octavia E. Butler General purpose: To inform 147

Chapter 8 Organizing and Outlining Your Speech Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

Ch008.indd 147 07/10/10 6:54 PM Specifi c purpose: To increase my audience’s awareness of some of Octavia E. Butler’s important achievements. Th esis: Octavia E. Butler’s many achievements include winning two Hugo and two Nebula awards, a MacArthur genius grant, and a lifetime achievement award from the PEN American Center. Main points: I. Butler won two Hugo and two Nebula awards for her science fiction stories. II. In 1995, Butler became the first, and so far only, science fiction writer to win a “genius grant” from the MacArthur Foundation. III. Butler won the PEN American Center Lifetime Achievement Award in writing © Matthew Jordan Smith/Corbis © Matthew Jordan in 1999. An informative speech about Octavia E. Butler might focus Each main point focuses on an important award that brought Butler recognition. on the major writing awards She also achieved success in other ways, such as writing a science fi ction movie at she won rather than everything age 12 and selling 250,000 copies of her novel Kindred. Although these are important she accomplished in her entire accomplishments, they’re not directly relevant to a discussion of the awards she won. career. Balance Also consider how balanced your main points are. Each point should be about equal in importance relative both to your topic and to the other points. All your points may not be completely equal in importance, but one point shouldn’t be much more or much less important than the others. Let’s consider an example for an informative speech about an event. Topic: Th e Ann Arbor Street Art Fair General purpose: To inform Specifi c purpose: To teach my audience about the many interesting facets of Ann Arbor’s annual Street Art Fair. Th esis: Th e people, the place, and the art make the annual Ann Arbor Street Art Fair an exciting event to attend.

Main points: I. Performers, artists, volunteers, and fairgoers make the Ann Arbor Street Art Fair lively. II. Home to the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor is no stranger to making people feel welcomed. III. The nearly twenty different types of art—from pottery to fine jewelry—provide a feast for the senses. In this example, the three aspects of the Ann Arbor Street Art Fair contribute about equally to the event. You’d likely plan to talk about each of them for about the same amount of time. If the main points you want to discuss are of unequal importance, you can still achieve a rough balance by spending less time on less important points. Consider a speech about the people who come together for the Ann Arbor Street Art Fair: Topic: Th e People of the Ann Arbor Street Art Fair General purpose: To inform Specifi c purpose: To inform my audience about the people of Ann Arbor’s annual Street Art Fair. Th esis: Th e people of the Ann Arbor Street Art Fair include the organizers, volunteers, artists, performers, and fairgoers. Main points: I. The organizers work all year planning the event. II. Volunteers do everything from giving tours of the fair to reuniting lost parents and children. 148

Ch008.indd 148 07/10/10 6:54 PM III. The nearly 200 artists display their creative work. IV. Performers keep everyone in good cheer. V. Thousands and thousands of fairgoers from around the world attend the event every year. You’d probably spend more time talking about the artists and performers because they’re the reason people attend the fair. Or you could emphasize the behind-the-scenes work of the organizers and volunteers. Whatever your emphasis, maintain balance by spending a similar amount of time on each point. For example, you could spend two minutes each on the artists and performers, and one minute each on the organizers, volunteers, and fairgoers. Evaluating the balance of your main points also requires that you identify the appropriate number of points to include in your speech. To help you determine the right number of main points, consider (1) what information you must cover to achieve your specifi c purpose and (2) how much time you have to present your speech. Say you have fi ve minutes to present the informative speech about the people of the Ann Arbor Street Art Fair. Can you adequately talk about each main point and give suffi cient attention to the introduction and conclusion in that amount of time? No. You’d have less than one minute for each main point, giving you little time to provide the audience with any in-depth information. You need either more time or fewer points. If you can’t change the amount of time allotted, you must reduce the number of main points. You could, for instance, focus just on the creative people associated with the fair—the artists and the performers. Or you could talk about the unnoticed people—the organizers and the volunteers. Or you could concentrate on the two groups that interact with each other— the artists and the fairgoers.

Patterns for Organizing Your Main Points Once you’ve selected the main points for your speech, organize them in a clear and logical pattern. Patterns of organization are structures for ordering the main points of your speech that help audience members understand the relationships among your ideas. A structure for ordering the Choosing an eff ective pattern of organization requires careful consideration of your main points of a speech. speech topic, general purpose, specifi c purpose, and thesis. Speakers commonly rely on seven patterns of organization. Table 8.1 provides an overview of the organizational patterns discussed in this chapter.

Table 8.1 Patterns of Organization

Brief Provides your Examples from student deﬁ nition Useful for . . . audience with . . . speeches

Chronological The way Recounting A sense of how a Topic: The Job Search in which the history of topic unfolds over Thesis: Finding a job requires something a subject, a time four steps: self analysis, résumé develops sequence of development, application, and or occurs events, or a follow-up. in a time step-by-step sequence procedure

Spatial The Describing A visual Topic: Badlands National Park physical or an object, a understanding of Thesis: The terrain in the geographical place, or how the relationship Badlands National Park ranges relationship something is between the parts from soaring pinnacles and between designed of the topic spires to ﬂ atland prairies. objects or places

(Continued) 149

Ch008.indd 149 07/10/10 6:54 PM Table 8.1 Continued

Brief Provides your Examples from student deﬁ nition Useful for . . . audience with . . . speeches

Topical Arranged by Explaining the An image of the Topic: Local Public subtopics elements that subpoints within Transportation Can Work for You. of equal make up a the topic Thesis: The primary modes of importance topic public transit in our area are light rail, trolley, and bus.

Narrative Dramatic Encouraging A basis for Topic: Kayaking Adventure retelling of audience sharing the Thesis: Kayaking the Menominee events as involvement speaker’s point of River on the Wisconsin–Michigan a story or and view border was ﬁ lled with whitewater, a series of participation white knuckles, and fun. short stories

Cause-and- Shows how Demonstrating A view of the Topic: Diabetes and Dieting effect an action a causal link relationships Thesis: Eating too much sugar produces between two between has caused the recent increase a particular or more events conditions or in the number of people with outcome events diabetes in the United States.

Problem– Describes Convincing A rationale for Topic: Telecommuting solution a problem audience considering a Thesis: Because too many and provides members to particular solution people commute long distances possible agree with to a problem to work, more companies solutions a course of should promote telecommuting. action

Monroe’s Each step Gaining Reasons to listen Topic: Recycling Old Motivated designed audience and take action Computers Sequence to facilitate interest or Thesis: Recycling old audience agreement computers prevents landﬁ lls and involvement groundwater from contamination and interest caused by chemical toxins in computer components.

Chronological When you use a chronological pattern of organization, you arrange A pattern that organizes a speech by your ideas in a time sequence. For example, in a speech on how to build a birdhouse, how something develops or occurs in a you’d start with what listeners need to do fi rst, then explain what they need to do second, time sequence. and so on, covering each step in order of completion. You can also use the chronological pattern to trace the history of a topic. For example, a speech on the history of the Internet might focus on major events such as the development of ARPANET—the precursor to the Internet—in 1969 and Tim Berners- Lee’s idea for the web twenty years later.1 Th ese events or turning points would provide main points for the speech: Topic: History of the Internet General purpose: To inform Specifi c purpose: To teach my audience about important events in the history of the Internet. Th esis: Th ere are four key turning points in the history of the Inter- net: the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPANET) connects four major U.S. universities, emoticons are fi rst used, Tim Berners-Lee develops the idea for hypertext, and Napster is launched. 150

Ch008.indd 150 07/10/10 6:54 PM Main points: I. In 1969 the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPANET) Speaking of . . . connects four major U.S. universities. II. In 1979 members of a science fiction email list use the first emoticons as a way to express emotions online. Time Machine III. In 1989 Tim Berners-Lee develops the idea for hypertext, A chronological pattern of organization allows which becomes the basis for the World Wide Web. you to move backward as well as forward IV. In 1999 Shawn Fanning invents Napster, the peer-to-peer file- through time. Filmmakers sometimes use this strategy, essentially revealing the movie’s sharing program. end and then going back to the beginning, as with Steven Spielberg’s fi lm Munich, about Spatial Speeches that rely on a spatial pattern of organization link the terrorist attacks on the Israeli Olympic points together based on their physical or geographical relationships, team at the 1972 Games. Presenting events such as their locations. Th is pattern works particularly well for out of chronological sequence works only if informative and entertaining speeches about places and objects. For your audience members don’t know the fi rst example, when you describe a room you identify the objects in it and step, stage, or event. You need an element of their place in terms of each other: “As you walk in the room, the bright suspense to hold your audience’s attention so they’ll listen with anticipation to fi nd out what orange couch is on the far wall, facing the television and the aquarium.” led up to the end—an ending they already An informative speech on the solar system might discuss each planet in know. For example, most people are familiar order of increasing distance from the sun: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, with today’s Internet, but few know about Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. Similarly, a speech to entertain yesterday’s (or yesteryear’s) Internet, so it’s about intriguing places you’ve visited could start with the location one topic that could fi t this pattern. farthest from where you’re speaking and progress to the closest one: Topic: Intriguing Places I’ve Visited General purpose: To entertain A pattern that organizes a speech by the physical or directional relationship Specifi c purpose: To amuse my audience with the features of some intriguing between objects or places. places I’ve visited. Th esis: Maine’s haunted Hitchborn Inn, Tennessee’s Salt and Pep- per Shaker Museum, the Mice Graves of Montana’s Boot Hill Cemetery, and Seattle’s Underground City are four intriguing places I’ve visited.

Main points: I. Maine’s haunted Hitchborn Inn, near Penobscot Bay, may be the greatest distance from us, but sometimes I still feel the ghosts are right here. II. As we travel west and south, we come to the Salt and Pepper Shaker Museum in Gatlinburg, Tennessee. III. Heading west and north, we reach Virginia City, Montana, and the graves of three rogue mice buried in Boot Hill Cemetery. IV. Finally, as we continue west, we reach the intriguing place closest to us, the Underground City of Seattle.

Topical A topical pattern of organization divides a topic into subtopics that address its components, elements, or aspects. For example, in a speech on what you learn about A pattern that organizes a speech people when they play golf, one of our students discussed these three points: by arranging subtopics of equal importance. Topic: Learning about People on the Golf Course General purpose: To inform Specifi c purpose: To inform my audience about what they can learn about people when they’re playing golf. Th esis: When people play golf, they reveal how they handle the unexpected, their level of patience, and their concern for others. 151

Ch008.indd 151 07/10/10 6:54 PM Main points: I. Observing people as they play golf gives you insight into how they handle unexpected events. II. Observing people as they play golf gives you a good indication of how patient they are. III. Observing people as they play golf lets you know how—or if—they show concern for other people. Th ese points are clearly relevant to the main topic, what you learn about people by observing them playing golf. However, points also related to golf, such as “Golf is a great game to play” or “You can play golf at any age,” would not be appropriate for this speech because they are not subtopics of the topic the speaker is focusing on.

Narrative With a narrative pattern of organization, you structure your main points A pattern that organizes a speech by a in story form. Speeches of tribute and introduction oft en follow a narrative format. dramatic retelling of events as a story or Listeners fi nd stories compelling and memorable, which makes the narrative pattern an a series of short stories. engaging organizational option.2 Many stories follow this sequence: setting the scene, describing an initial confl ict, increasing action, escalating confl ict, taking confl ict to its peak, and arriving at the nalfi outcome.3 Consider an informative speech on the history of the Fabergé eggs: Topic: Th e History of the Fabergé Eggs General purpose: To inform Specifi c purpose: To inform my audience about the history of Fabergé eggs. Th esis: Th e history of Fabergé eggs involves royalty, wealth, theft , legal battles, and a happy ending.

Main points: I. The first Fabergé egg was produced for Russia’s Czar Alexander III in 1885 as an Imperial Easter egg.4 (setting the scene) II. In 1918 Russia’s imperial family was murdered. (initial conflict) III. When their homes were ransacked, eight eggs were lost. (increasing action) Stan Honda/AFP/Getty Images IV. Nearly 100 years later a Russian billionaire purchased the missing eggs. The history of the Fabergé (escalating conflict) eggs provides intriguing points that work well with a narrative V. A legal battle ensued. (peak conflict) pattern of organization for an VI. Finally, just a few years ago, the eight once-missing eggs were returned to informative speech. Russia. (final outcome)

Cause-and-Effect Th e cause-and-eff ect pattern of organization relies on the idea A pattern that organizes a speech by of one action leading to or bringing about another. When using this pattern you must showing how an action produces a clearly and carefully link the cause with the eff ect, providing appropriate and eff ective particular outcome. supporting materials. Although most oft en used for persuasive speeches, the cause-and- eff ect pattern can also be applied to informative speeches. For example, an informative speech on the positive eff ects of meditation works well with a cause-and-eff ect pattern of organization. Topic: Positive Eff ects of Meditation General purpose: To inform Specifi c purpose: To inform my audience about the positive eff ects of meditation. Th esis: By using less oxygen, lowering your heart rate, and altering your brain waves, meditation helps you relax, feel more content, and think more creatively. 152

Ch008.indd 152 07/10/10 6:54 PM Main points: I. Meditation causes three changes in your body. A. When you meditate, you use less oxygen. B. When you meditate, you lower your heart rate. C. When you meditate, your theta brain waves—those associated with daydreaming—increase in frequency. II. These three changes in your body as you meditate have three main effects. A. You feel more relaxed. B. You feel more content. C. You think more creatively. When you use the cause-and-eff ect pattern for a persuasive speech, your audience must come to agree with you about what causes a particular circumstance or event. Consider the topic of homelessness in the United States. Topic: Homelessness in the United States General purpose: To persuade Specifi c purpose: To convince my audience that lack of education and aff ordable health care cause homelessness. Th esis: People in the United States become homeless because they lack educational opportunities and do not have access to aff ordable health care. Main points: I. There are two primary causes of homelessness in the United States. A. Serious inequities in the American educational system mean some people have limited educational opportunities. B. Many Americans are uninsured and cannot aff ord regular health care. II. These two conditions result in two effects that contribute to homelessness in the United States. A. Without a good education, individuals can’t get the jobs they need to pay for a place to live. B. Without aff ordable health care, individuals oft en must choose between getting treatment and paying rent. If your listeners agree with the initial causes—inequities in the U.S. educational system and lack of aff ordable health care—they will be more inclined to agree that the eff ects contribute to homelessness. In contrast, if listeners disagree with the causes you cite, or identify diff erent causes, your speech will be less persuasive.

Problem–Solution When speakers use a problem–solution pattern of organization, they’re attempting to convince audience members that a specifi c dilemma or problem A pattern that organizes a speech by requires a particular course of action or solution. Clearly establishing that a problem describing a problem and providing exists provides the foundation for persuading the audience that the solution should be possible solutions. implemented. Imagine that the football team at your school perpetually loses money, using more funds than it produces. A persuasive speech that proposes to terminate the football program would be appropriate. If listeners don’t think there’s a problem, however, they’re unlikely to support your solution. Topic: Ending the Football Program on Our Campus General purpose: To persuade Specifi c purpose: To convince my audience that we should no longer have a football program at our school. 153

Ch008.indd 153 07/10/10 6:54 PM Th esis: Th e football program at our school drains resources from our campus, so it should be eliminated. Main points: I. The football program at our school loses money each year. II. The football program drains money from the school’s budget that could be used for other programs. III. Our school’s football program should be eliminated. In addition, speakers must demonstrate that the proposed solution will adequately address the issue described and can be reasonably implemented. For example, let’s say you identify air pollution as a problem and suggest limiting every household in the United States to one vehicle as a remedy. Audience members, especially in the United States, likely would view your solution as too extreme and diffi cult to implement. So rather than ask audience members to give up their cars, you could ask them to take a smaller step: giving up driving one day each week. Th is solution provides a balanced response to the problem and also presents a behavioral change that listeners might consider reasonable.

Monroe’s Motivated Sequence Monroe’s motivated sequence encourages speakers to A ﬁ ve-step pattern of organization focus on audience outcomes when organizing ideas. Composed of fi ve steps, this pattern that requires speakers to identify of organization requires that speakers identify and respond to what will motivate the and respond to what will motivate an 5 audience to pay attention. audience to pay attention: ■ In the fi rst step, gaining the audience’s attention, the speaker relates the topic to listeners, linking it to their lives and providing them with a reason to listen.

■ To complete the second step, establishing the need for something or the existence of a problem, the speaker shows listeners that they lack important information or that there’s an issue requiring their attention.

■ In the third step, satisfying the problem, the speaker provides audience members with the information they lack or the solution to the problem.

■ In the fourth step, the speaker helps audience members visualize an outcome by describing for them what will happen if they apply or don’t apply the solution.

■ To complete the fi nal step, moving an audience to action, the speaker details how audience members can implement the solution. For the motivated sequence to work, each step must build on the previous one. If earlier steps don’t elicit the desired audience response, then the later steps will fall short as well. Th e motivated sequence can be used for both informative and persuasive speeches (Table 8.2). Th e fi rst three steps—attention, need, and satisfaction—give you the basic structure for an informative speech (Chapter 13). Adding the fourth step, visualization, provides an organizational pattern for a persuasive speech that focuses on changing listeners’ beliefs, attitudes, or opinions. A persuasive speech that involves altering audience members’ behaviors requires the addition of the last step, the call to action (Chapter 14). Th e motivated sequence can prove especially eff ective with an informative speech topic that may not instantly resonate with your audience. By focusing on gaining the audience’s attention at the start, the motivated sequence helps you encourage your audience to listen. Giving a speech on opera to an audience unfamiliar with it provides a good example. First, get your audience’s attention by playing a very short audio clip from a contemporary opera. In the next step, show the audience why they need to know more about opera by highlighting its popularity around the world, the drama and mystery of each opera’s storyline, and the timeless topics of courage, love, betrayal, and deceit. Finally, in the satisfaction step, explain one of the more popular operas, such as La Bohème, and demonstrate how its themes resonate with people today, giving your audience the information they need to appreciate opera. Adding the visualization step to a speech represents a key move from an informative 154 to a persuasive speech. In asking listeners to visualize the benefi ts or costs associated

Ch008.indd 154 07/10/10 6:54 PM Table 8.2 Monroe’s Motivated Sequence for Informative and Persuasive Speeches

Step Speaker’s action Audience’s response Speech purpose

Attention Relate topic to audience to gain I will listen because this is and attention. relevant to me.

Need Show that there’s information There is important information the audience needs to know I’m lacking (informative speech). (informative speech). or or There’s a problem that needs my Establish the problem or current attention (persuasive speech). Informative harm (persuasive speech).

Satisfaction Present information that Here is the information I need to audience members lack know (informative speech). (informative speech). or or Here’s the solution to the Describe the solution to the problem (persuasive speech). problem (persuasive speech).

Visualization Show audience the beneﬁ ts of I can visualize the beneﬁ ts of this Persuasive the proposed solution and/or the solution and/or the costs of not (infl uence attitudes, costs of not implementing the implementing this solution. beliefs, values) solution.

Action Explain how the audience can I will do this. Persuasive implement the proposed solution. (infl uence actions)

with a particular solution, the speaker seeks to modify how the audience thinks about something. Say you wanted to persuade your audience that video games should promote more cooperation and less competition. In the attention step, you might pique your audience’s interest by countering video game stereotypes, providing information such as “Did you know that women account for over 40 percent of interactive game players and that the average age of a player is twenty-eight?” You could also provide a new view on the problem by telling your audience about the importance of learning to work with others and about the lack of games that foster cooperation rather than violent competition. Th e satisfaction step then becomes obvious—create and promote video games based on cooperation rather than competition. For the visualization step, you could suggest that facilitating the ability to cooperate with others contributes more to society. In this step, you could imagine for your audience situations in which individuals cooperate more to accomplish tasks, rather than competing in unproductive ways. For a speech in which you want to infl uence the audience’s action, you add the action step. Th is step may seem similar to the satisfaction step, but the action step includes much greater detail—you want your audience to implement your suggestions. Let’s consider a speech about simplifying your life. You’d begin your speech with the attention step, possibly presenting statistics on how much Americans work and consume in relation to the rest of the world. In the need step, you might draw attention to the ways in which audience members needlessly complicate their lives, and the resulting harms. Th is leads to the satisfaction step, where you’d discuss in general the idea of simplifying our lives. Th e topic lends itself to visualizing both the benefi ts of simplifi cation and the costs of a life grounded in consumerism. Th e action step then details exactly how audience members might simplify their lives, such as gardening, changing spending habits, reducing clutter, and consuming responsibly. You’ve learned about seven patterns for organizing your speech: chronological, spatial, topical, narrative, cause-and-eff ect, problem–solution, and Monroe’s motivated sequence. Table 8.3 on page 156 demonstrates how the discussion of one topic, voting, changes based on which organizational pattern you apply. 155

Ch008.indd 155 07/10/10 6:54 PM Table 8.3 Applying Patterns of Organization to a Single Topic: Voting

General Speciﬁ c Pattern purpose purpose Thesis Main points

Chronological To inform To teach my Three I. The 15th Amendment to the audience amendments to U. S. Constitution granted about key the Constitution all U.S. citizens the right amendments changed voting to vote regardless of race, to the U.S. in the United color, or previous condition Constitution in States: the 15th, of servitude. the history of 19th, and 24th II. The 19th Amendment gave voting in the amendments. women the right to vote. United States III. The 24th Amendment ended the practice of poll taxing, or forcing people to pay a tax to vote.

Spatial To inform To help my The layout of a I. The election’s title and audience ballot includes description are at the top of understand four main the ballot. the layout of a sections: the II. How to complete the ballot is typical ballot election’s title and explained next. description, the III. Candidates, proposals, instructions, a list propositions, and initiatives of individuals and are listed in a speciﬁ ed items to vote on, order. and the space to record the vote. IV. Space to record your vote is usually to the right of each item.

Topical To inform To make my The Philippines, I. The Philippines’ voting audience South Africa, system aware of how and Australia II. South Africa’s voting system voting occurs provide examples III. Australia’s voting system in other of democratic democratic countries whose countries voting systems differ from ours.

Narrative To entertain To share with My adventures I. My campus’s student my audience in getting out the election day was more like the lighter vote for student doomsday for me. side of getting government II. Getting out the vote almost out the vote elections on my got me expelled from school. for student campus nearly III. My political science advisor elections on ended my college suggested I change my a college career but ﬁ nished major. campus on an unexpected note. IV. The ending of this story surprised even me.

Cause-and- To persuade To persuade The lack of I. Local and state governments effect my audience consistency are in charge of voting that the United in voting rules procedures. States needs and procedures II. Variation in voting standards standardized across states has led to ballot counting federal voting in our country problems at the national, regulations has led to voting state, and local levels. problems on election day.

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Ch008.indd 156 07/10/10 6:54 PM Table 8.3 Continued

General Speciﬁ c Pattern purpose purpose Thesis Main points

Problem– To persuade To encourage Giving people I. Many people don’t vote solution my audience greater ﬂ exibility in because they have difﬁ culty to consider how they vote will getting to their polling places alternative solve the problem on election day. voting of not being able II. Alternative voting methods, procedures to reach a polling such as mailed ballots, will in the United place on election solve the problem of not States day. being able to get to the polls.

Monroe’s To persuade To persuade One important I. Although voter participation motivated my audience part of exercising in the last election was up, sequence to vote your voice in only about 50% of eligible a democratic voters cast a vote. (attention) society is voting in II. A healthy democracy requires every election. voter participation. (need) III. You must vote. (satisfaction) IV. There are beneﬁ ts to voting and costs to not voting. (visualization) V. These are the steps you need to take to vote. (action)

Watch it Use it

Watch your and use Speech Buddy what you’ve video learned in your next speech. Cengage Learning Cengage Learning SPEECH BUDDY VIDEO 8.1 Reviewing Patterns of Organization ACTIVITY 8.1 Everything in Its Place Anthony helps you review the patterns of organization commonly used to organize the main points of a This two-part activity gives you a chance to speech. (1) correct an outline that is organized incorrectly and identify the patterns of organization used for the outline, and (2) determine patterns of organization used in a professional speech.

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Ch008.indd 157 07/10/10 6:54 PM Apply it Organizing Speeches About Service Learning

One key component of service learning is refl ecting on How might each pattern of organization discussed in what you’ve learned from your community experience this chapter lead to different ways to talk about your and telling others about it. Identify one aspect of your topic? Which pattern best fi ts with your topic, your service learning work that you’d like to share with specifi c purpose, and your audience? What have you others. For example, you may have gained insight into learned about patterns of organization that will help how your city makes policies or into teaching strategies you with your classroom speeches and other speaking to get third-graders interested in environmental issues. contexts?

Connecting Your Ideas with Transitions

Eff ective speaking demands more than researching your topic well and developing a logical way to organize your material. Your speech must also have coherence, an obvious An obvious and plausible connection and plausible connection among your ideas. Transitions play an important role in among ideas. creating coherence: Th ey help direct your audience from one idea or part of your speech to the next.6 Eff ective transitions allow you to A word, phrase, sentence, or paragraph used throughout a speech to mark ■ Move smoothly and clearly from the introduction to the body of the speech. locations in the organization and clearly link the parts of a speech together ■ Move from one main point to the next main point within the body of the speech.

■ Exit from the body of the speech to the conclusion. Table 8.4 provides examples of transition words and phrases.

Table 8.4 Types of Transitions

Type of transition Word or phrase Example

Ordering ﬁ rst, second, third; next, First I’ll review the then, ﬁ nally history of the missions in California.

Reinforcing similarly, also, likewise, in Also, you could addition, moreover, further volunteer as a tutor in a local elementary school.

Contrasting however, yet, in contrast, However, your best whereas, unless, although, strategy is to prepare even though, instead well in advance.

Chronology/time when, while, now, before, During this process you after, currently, recently, then, must keep a close watch during, later, meanwhile on your time.

Causality therefore, so, consequently, Therefore, learning to since, because, for this manage your money reason, with this in mind now will help you avoid problems in the future.

Summarizing/ in summary, let me Finally, good study concluding summarize, ﬁ nally, let’s habits require evaluating review, as I’ve discussed what works and what doesn’t.

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Ch008.indd 158 07/10/10 6:54 PM Use brief, clear transitions to make it as eff ortless as possible for listeners to navigate through the content of your speech. Th is section more closely examines how you can use transitions in three key places: introducing the fi rst main point, moving from one main point to the next, and fi nishing the last main point and going on to your conclusion.

Introducing the First Main Point After you’ve given your speech introduction, you’re ready to move on to the first main point in the body of your speech. To accomplish this task smoothly, include a brief transition to signpost the direction of your speech. Signposts, which include ordering transitions such as first, next, and finally, let audience members know A transition that indicates a key move in where you are in a speech, where you’re going, and how your points relate to one the speech, making its organization clear another. You might say, to the audience.

■ “Now, let me elaborate on that fi rst point I referred to in the introduction, (then refer to the fi rst point)….”

■ “As I mentioned, we’ll fi rst consider (fi rst point)….”

■ “To begin, I’ll describe (fi rst point)….” Aft er voicing the transition, begin discussing your fi rst main point.

Transitions between Main Points When you shift from one main point to the next within the body of the speech, use internal transitions that clearly signpost the direction in which you’re going. Here are some examples of what you might say as you move through the body of a speech on human biological cell cloning:

■ “Now that I’ve described what human biological cell cloning is, let’s turn to my second main point, the advantages human cloning off ers to medical research….”

■ “We’ve learned the basics of human biological cell cloning. Now let’s consider what it off ers to medical research….”

■ “As you can tell, human biological cell cloning is a complex and intriguing subject. Equally intriguing is the potential for medical research, which I want to elaborate on….” Internal summaries are longer transitions that also help listeners move from one main point to the next. Th ese transitions remind listeners of previously presented information A review of main points or subpoints, so that they have a solid grasp of those ideas before you move on to the next point. Th e given before going on to the following example, from an informative speech on the International Spy Museum in next point in a speech. Washington, D.C., uses chronological transitions. So you’ll start your tour of the museum by learning about the basics of espionage and choosing your own cover identity. Fully engaging in this fi rst part of the museum provides the essential framework for enjoying the remainder of your tour. Th e spy gadgets, weapons, and bugs you’ll fi nd in the next exhibit are all the more fascinating when you think about them in terms of your spy identity. Th en you’ll view those tricks of the trade in action in the third part of the museum, which focuses on the history of spying. Some of the secret spies will surprise you. Now let’s turn to more recent history presented in the International Spy Museum. With eight main exhibits, as well as special exhibits, listeners may well lose track of the information presented earlier. Refreshing their memories about the fi rst three exhibits discussed allows the speaker to move with confi dence to the next main point, the fourth exhibit. 159

Ch008.indd 159 07/10/10 6:54 PM In the next example, the speaker uses reinforcing and contrasting transitions in an internal summary during a persuasive speech on the need for greater security in radio frequency identifi cation tags. Before I move on, let’s briefl y review the basics of radio frequency identifi cation tags, or RFIDs. Th ese ID tags are becoming commonplace. We use them for our pets—the computer chips we implant that contain information in case our pets get lost. RFIDs are used in the new electronic passports issued by the U.S. government. Th ese tiny chips contain personal information such as your name, birthplace, and date of birth. Additionally, the electronic passports include a digital photograph designed for use with face-recognition soft ware. RFIDs can hold a great deal of information— your medical records, fi nancial history, and other personal data. Th ey’re cheap to produce and easy to manufacture. However, as we’ll see next, they’re also easy to infect with computer viruses. Th is internal summary provides an essential link between the explanation of what RFIDs are used for and the potential problems computer viruses could cause. Internal summaries perform two functions for the speaker: (1) Th ey remind the audience of the key points the speaker has talked about, and (2) they link previous points with the upcoming one. Th e more you reinforce your ideas by reminding your audience of what you said—without becoming repetitious and long winded—the greater the likelihood they’ll remember your points.

Transitions to the Conclusion Letting your audience know you’re moving from the fi nal main point to the end of your speech prepares them for the conclusion. Th e transition to the conclusion requires little more than a few words or a phrase. Link the transition from your last main point to the actual content of the conclusion as seamlessly as possible. Consider these examples that use summarizing, or concluding, phrases:

■ “In summary, I’ve covered key points about (transition and review main points) ….”

■ “Let’s review the main issues to keep in mind (transition and review main points) ….” When you use a transition to signal your audience that the end of your speech is near, they will expect you to fi nish shortly. For speeches of 10 minutes or less, that generally means no more than a minute for the conclusion.

Putting Your Ideas Together: The Complete-Sentence Outline

Recall that as you’re working on your speeches you’ll create three diff erent outlines: (1) the working outline, for initially identifying the main ideas you want to address (Chapter 4); (2) the complete-sentence outline, for elaborating on your points (covered in this chapter); and (3) the presentation outline, for giving your speech (Chapter 12). Table 8.5 on page 162 reviews these outlines.

A formal outline using full sentences for all points developed after researching Th e Purpose of the Complete-Sentence Outline the speech and identifying supporting materials; includes a speech’s topic, While your working outline gives you general directions for researching and organizing general purpose, speciﬁ c purpose, thesis, introduction, main points, your speeches and the presentation outline helps you practice and present your speech, subpoints, conclusion, transitions, the complete-sentence outline off ers a highly detailed description of your ideas and how and references. they’re related to one another. 160

Ch008.indd 160 07/10/10 6:54 PM Watch it Use it Cengage Learning Cengage Learning SPEECH BUDDY VIDEO 8.2 Linking Effectively: Transitions ACTIVITY 8.2 Polite to Point In this video, Erin describes different types of transitions. As you watch the video, keep in mind This activity gives you an opportunity to evaluate what you’ve learned in this chapter about the role transitions in sample speeches and suggest ways in and types of transitions, as well as what makes each which they could be improved. type effective.

Th e complete-sentence outline provides much greater depth than the other two types of outlines. In the complete-sentence outline, also referred to as a full-sentence or preparation outline, you’ll use complete sentences that clearly refl ect your thinking and research on your topic.7 Keep in mind, though, that the complete-sentence outline refl ects a plan of your speech, not every word you’ll say when you give your presentation.

Formatting the Complete-Sentence Outline Using symbols and indentation, outlines provide a visual representation of how you’ve put your speech together. Outlines show the priority of your ideas, from fi rst to last, and how they’re related. Typically, upper-case Roman numerals (I, II, III) indicate the main points of the speech, and these points sit at the left margin of the page. For the fi rst subpoints under a main point, indent one level and use a capital letter (A, B, C). For sub-subpoints, use Arabic numbers (1, 2, 3) and indent another level. For lengthy speeches, you might need to add sub-sub-subpoints, using lower-case letters (a, b, c) and indenting another level, and sub-sub-sub-subpoints, using lowercase Roman numerals (i, ii, iii,) and indenting once again. A period follows each number or letter, as shown in Figure 8.3 on page 162. Some basic rules provide the guidance you need for formatting your complete- sentence outline.

Preface the Outline with Identifying Information Listing your topic, general purpose, specifi c purpose, and thesis right at the top of your outline keeps you on track as you develop the outline. Clearly label each item, as in this example: Topic: Taking Good Photographs General purpose: To inform 161

Ch008.indd 161 07/10/10 6:54 PM Table 8.5 Types of Outlines

Type of outline Functions Key features Chapter

Working Assists in initial Includes main Chapter 4: topic development; points and possible Developing guides research subpoints; revised Your Purpose during research and Topic process You are here ▶ Complete- Clearly identiﬁ es Uses complete Chapter 8: sentence all the pieces of sentences; lists Organizing information for all sections of and Outlining the speech; puts speech and all Your Speech ideas in order; references; revised forms the basis during preparation for developing process the presentation outline

Presentation Assists you in Uses keywords; Chapter 12: practicing and revised as you Delivering giving your speech practice your Your Speech speech; often transferred to note cards for use during practice and the ﬁ nal presentation

Figure 8.3 Basic Outline Format Specifi c purpose: To demonstrate to my audience how to take good photographs. I. First main point Th esis: Key guidelines for taking good photographs are A. First subpoint to get close, avoid background clutter, go for the 1. First sub-subpoint action, and check your light source. 2. Second sub-subpoint State Points and Subpoints in Complete Sentences Writing a. First sub-sub-subpoint out your points and subpoints as complete sentences helps b. Second sub-sub-subpoint you elaborate on your thoughts. Your working outline, which i. First sub-sub-sub-subpoint includes just keywords or phrases, represents the rudiments of ii. Second sub-sub-sub-subpoint your speech—your ideas before you fully developed them. In the complete-sentence outline, you articulate your thoughts more clearly by writing out your points and subpoints in complete sentences. In addition, each main point or subpoint expresses only one idea, so use just one sentence for each point. Comparing the main points of the working and complete-sentence outlines for the speech on choosing a major, discussed in Chapter 4, demonstrates key diff erences between the two types of outlines (Table 8.6). Th e complete-sentence outline shows how each point is developed. For example, the sentence “Practical considerations in choosing a major include the department’s reputation, the time it will take to graduate, the job market, possible salary, and requirements for the major” suggests fi ve subpoints within that main point. In the working outline, the phrase “practical considerations” doesn’t give enough information about how the speaker might elaborate on that point.

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Ch008.indd 162 07/10/10 6:54 PM Table 8.6 Main Points for the Working and Complete-Sentence Outlines

Main points in the working outline Main points in the complete-sentence outline

I. Practical considerations I. Practical considerations in choosing a major include the department’s reputation, the time it will take to graduate, the job market, possible salary, and requirements for the major.

II. Academic resources II. Academic resources include openings in the program, the department’s instructors, curriculum, and support for students.

III. Personal orientations III. Personal orientations include career goals, personal goals, what you enjoy, what you don’t like, and what you’re good at.

List Your Main Points in Order List main points in the order you’ll present them. You’ll identify the main points of your speech like this: I. First main point II. Second main point III. Third main point

Maintain Levels of Importance All items at the same level on the outline should have the same level of importance. Th at is, all main points must be equally important in relation to your topic, all subpoints must be equally important in relation to a main point, and so on. For example, in a speech on business etiquette, the main points might be: I. Telephone etiquette is necessary for the four parts of a phone conversation. II. Face-to-face etiquette is necessary for the three parts of an in-person conversation. III. Online etiquette is necessary for the three parts of a message exchange. All three items are of equal importance because they discuss ways to communicate. A fourth main point about “etiquette with the boss” wouldn’t fi t because it refers to a specifi c person you might communicate with at work, an idea that is subordinate to the main points about ways in which people communicate.

Subordi nate Ideas That Support Your Main Points Th e term subordinate comes from the Latin sub, meaning “under,” and ordinare, meaning “to order.”8 So subordinate points are those that are “under” your main points, providing evidence and information that support your main ideas. In the speech on business etiquette, the fi rst main point and subpoints might look something like this: I. Telephone etiquette is necessary for the four parts of a phone conversation. A. Th ere are etiquette rules for answering the telephone. B. Th ere are etiquette rules for placing a call.

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Ch008.indd 163 07/10/10 6:54 PM C. Th ere are etiquette rules for fulfi lling your obligations during the phone conversation. D. Th ere are etiquette rules for ending a call. In this example each subpoint provides a piece of information that supports the main idea that etiquette rules apply to diff erent parts of a telephone conversation.

Check the Number of Subpoints If you can’t identify at least two pieces of information to support a point or subpoint, reexamine how you’re organizing your ideas, consider conducting additional research, or determine whether the point really requires additional explanation. An informative speech on media literacy might include the following main points and subpoints: I. Media literacy requires that an individual be an effective consumer and producer of mediated communication. A. Media literacy diff ers from information literacy. B. Media literacy diff ers from digital literacy. II. Media literacy has three components. A. Th e fi rst component is analyzing mediated communication. B. Th e second component is evaluating mediated communication. C. Th e third component is creating mediated communication. III. There are three ways to determine whether you’re media literate. A. Analyze media messages such as television news. B. Evaluate media messages such as magazine advertisements. C. Create media messages such as web pages. Notice that each main point has at least two subpoints. For example, if the third main point had been as follows, you’d have to question the strength of the main idea: III. There’s a test for media literacy. A. Take the test for media literacy. Should you just drop it from the speech? Search for more information? Audience members probably would be curious about their media literacy, so stating the main point more clearly and then elaborating on it would be the best choice.

Include and Label Your Introduction, Conclusion, and Transitions Because the preparation outline includes every detail of your speech, incorporate your introduction, conclusion, and transitions into your outline. Some instructors may ask you to write out your introduction and conclusion word for word in paragraph form. Others may ask you to outline those parts of your speech, as shown in the sample complete-sentence outline at the end of this chapter. In addition, label your transitions as shown in the sample outline. Th is will help you remember to use them when you give your speech. Use a Consistent System of Symbols and Indentation Generally, speakers use the following system of symbols and indentation: I. First main point A. First subpoint 1. First sub-subpoint a. First sub-sub-subpoint b. Second sub-sub-subpoint 2. Second sub-subpoint B. Second subpoint 164

Ch008.indd 164 07/10/10 6:54 PM List References for Your Speech At the end of your outline, list the references for your speech—the sources of all the supporting material you included. In the sample preparation outline in the next section of this chapter, the references are listed using the formatting rules of the American Psychological Association. Some instructors require students to use the Modern Language Association reference formatting rules.9 Check with your instructor to fi nd out how you should format your references.

Sample Complete-Sentence Outline for Review and Analysis

Th e Colors of the Filipino Flag

Introduction I. What’s red, blue, white, and brown, has three stars, and has a bright shining sun? (Pause.) A. Well, it’s me wearing this shirt with a Filipino fl ag. B. If you’re familiar with what I’m wearing (a shirt called barong Tagalog), you can probably infer that I’ll be talking about an artifact from the Philippines, my very own culture. II. In the early stages when I was thinking about this speech, I kept asking myself three questions. A. What’s something important in my culture? B. What do Filipinos value? C. What has a lot of meaning and history for Filipinos? III. I was raised with the motto, “Know history, know Favila AP Photo/Aaron self, because without history, there’s no self.” A. The Filipino fl ag helps me know my self—who I am. B. This fl ag tells a lot about Filipino history. C. The fl ag refl ects the Filipino culture. IV. Today I’ll talk about the most signifi cant parts of the fl ag for Filipino history and culture, its three major colors: red, blue, and white.

Transition: To begin, I’ll explain the importance of the color red in the ﬂ ag.

Body I. Red is the fi rst major color of the Filipino fl ag. A. The color red represents courage or, in the Tagalog language, ma tapang. B. Courage led the Filipinos toward freedom from Spanish tyranny. 1. The Spaniards ruled the Filipinos for more than 300 years. a. The Spaniards were fi rst attracted to the region by its gold and spices. b. King Philip II subsequently decided to expand his empire and took the land. c. Friars (Spanish priests) ruled the Filipinos. 2. Courage helped the Filipinos win their freedom from the Spaniards. a. In 1892, Andres Bonifacio formed a secret revolutionary society called Katipunan. b. In 1898, the Filipinos, with the help of the United States, won their freedom from Spain.

Transition: As you can see, red has great meaning for Filipinos. Blue has important meaning as well.

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Ch008.indd 165 07/10/10 6:54 PM II. Blue is the second major color of the Filipino ﬂ ag. A. The color blue represents justice or, in the Tagalog language, justicia. B. Filipinos consider justice very important in their way of life and in their government. 1. Filipinos value justice in their way of life. 2. Filipinos value justice in their government. a. The Filipinos stepped into the realm of self-government. b. The commonwealth elected Manuel Luis Quezon as their ﬁ rst president.

Transition: Finally, I’ll tell you about the last color in the ﬂ ag.

III. White is the third major color of the Filipino ﬂ ag. A. The color white represents equality or, in the Tagalog language, pan-tay pan-tay. B. Filipinos consider equality very important in their way of life. 1. Ethnic and religious diversity in the Philippines makes equality especially important. a. There is much ethnic diversity, including indigenous ethnic groups such as Bicolano and Sambal, and those who have immigrated to the country, such as Chinese and Latinos. b. There are several major religious groups represented: Christians, Muslims, and Pagans. 2. There is great equality in the household. a. Unlike men in many Asian countries, Filipino husbands treat their wives as equals. b. Filipino wives are usually in charge of the family’s money.

Transition: Let’s review those questions I was wondering about at the beginning of my speech.

Conclusion I. There were three questions I wanted to answer. A. What’s something important in my culture? B. What do Filipinos value? C. What has a lot of meaning and history? II. The Filipino fl ag tells us a lot about the country’s culture. A. We learned that Filipinos are individuals with great courage, represented as red on the Filipino fl ag. B. We learned that Filipinos are people of justice, represented as blue on the Filipino fl ag. C. And we learned that Filipinos value equality, represented as white on the Filipino fl ag. III. Well, with my motto, “Know history, know self, because without history, there’s no self,” I can honestly tell you right now that I do know more about myself and my identity than I ever did before from this very fl ag, and that as an individual I’m proud to be Filipino.

References Hemley, R. (2003). Invented Eden: The elusive, disputed history of the Tasaday. New York, NY: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. Kwiatowski, L. (2005). Introduction: Globalization, change, and diversity in the Philippines. Urban Anthropology and Studies of Cultural Systems and World Economic Development, 34, 305–316. National Statistics Offi ce, Republic of the Philippines. (2010). Census facts and fi gures. Retrieved from http://www.census.gov.ph Perez, M. E. (2006). Life challenges and coping: The construction of meaning within Filipino cultural context. Refl ections, 12(3), 48–53. 166

Ch008.indd 166 07/10/10 6:54 PM Pertierra, R. (2006). Culture, social science & the Philippine nation-state. Asian Journal of Social Science, 34, 86–102. Woods, D. L. (2005). The Philippines: A global studies handbook. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.

Questions for Analysis and Discussion

1. Identify the speaker’s general purpose, specifi c purpose, and thesis. 2. How clear is each main point? How relevant is each point to the speaker’s general purpose, specifi c purpose, and thesis? How balanced are the main points? 3. Which pattern of organization did the speaker use? How eff ective was that pattern in helping him achieve his specifi c purpose? How might he have applied a diff erent pattern of organization? 4. How eff ective were the speaker’s transitions? Were there places in the speech that were missing transitions? 5. If you were advising the speaker on how to improve the way he organized his ideas, what would you say? 6. What have you learned about organizing your ideas and outlining that you’ll apply in your own speeches?

Summary

rganizing your speech eff ectively helps you provide a clear message for your audience. Every speech includes four key parts: introduction, body, transitions, Oand conclusion. Th e body of the speech comprises most of what you’ll present: your main points and supporting materials. As you select and then develop your main points, apply the principles of clarity, relevance, and balance. Your main points must support your specifi c purpose and clearly indicate the response you want from your audience. In addition, main points must be relevant both to your topic and to one another, and they must be balanced in terms of their relative importance. Seven patterns of organization are commonly used to organize a speech: chronological, spatial, topical, narrative, cause-and-eff ect, problem–solution, and Monroe’s motivated sequence. An eff ective pattern of organization complements your topic, specifi c purpose, and audience. Transitions link together the elements of your speech. Types of transitions include ordering, reinforcing, contrasting, chronology, causality, and summarizing or concluding. Key places to use transitions are between the introduction and the fi rst main point, between main points, and between the last main point and the conclusion. Th e complete-sentence outline is where you record all the parts of your speech. Th e most detailed outline you’ll produce for your speech, the complete-sentence outline includes your topic, general purpose, specifi c purpose, thesis, introduction, main points, subpoints, conclusion, transitions, and references. You’ll revise and rework this outline as you research your speech and identify appropriate supporting materials. Developing this comprehensive outline clearly identifi es each bit of information you want to include in your speech and helps you visualize the order of your ideas.

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Ch008.indd 167 07/10/10 6:54 PM Review it Directory of Study and Review Resources

IN THE BOOK SPEECH BUILDER EXPRESS Summary Goal/purpose Key Terms Thesis statement Critical Challenges Organization Outline MORE STUDY RESOURCES Supporting material Quizzes Transitions WebLinks Introduction Peer-reviewed videos Conclusion Works cited Completing the speech outline STUDENT WORKBOOK 8.1: Subpoint Shufﬂ e INFOTRAC 8.2: State It; Explain It; Prove It; Conclude It Recommended search terms 8.3: Balance Check Organizing a speech 8.4: Organizational Change-Up Outlining a speech 8.5: Listening for an Outline Main points of a speech Subpoints of a speech SPEECH BUDDY VIDEOS Patterns of organization for speeches WATCH It Video Transitions in a speech 8.1: Reviewing Patterns of Organization Complete-sentence outline 8.2: Linking Effectively: Transitions Full-sentence outline USE It Activity Preparation outline 8.1: Everything in Its Place Formatting a speech outline 8.2: Polite to Point AUDIO STUDY TOOLS SAMPLE SPEECH VIDEOS “Educational Requirements to Become Ganiel, “Educational Requirements to Become a Pediatrician” by Ganiel a Pediatrician,” informative speech Critical thinking questions Cara, “Left on a Doorstep,” self-introduction Learning objectives speech Chapter summary

Guide to Your Online Resources

Your Speech Communication Challenge questions for this chapter, which you can CourseMate for Public Speaking: Th e respond to via email if your instructor so requests. Evolving Art gives you access to the Speech Buddy In addition, your CourseMate features live WebLinks video and activity featured in this chapter, additional relevant to this chapter, including sites where you sample speech videos, Speech Studio, Speech Builder can watch public speeches and evaluate how they are Express, InfoTrac College Edition, and study aids such organized, such as C-SPAN.org. Links are regularly as glossary fl ashcards, review quizzes, and the Critical maintained, and new ones are added periodically.

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Ch008.indd 168 07/10/10 6:54 PM Key Terms

body 146 internal summaries 159 problem–solution pattern 153 cause-and-effect pattern 152 Monroe’s motivated signpost 159 chronological pattern 150 sequence 154 spatial pattern 151 coherence 158 narrative pattern 152 topical pattern 151 complete-sentence outline 160 patterns of organization 149 transitions 158

Critical Challenges

Question s for Refl ect ion and Discussion 1. Although you probably think of narratives as unfolding in a linear fashion, starting with the beginning, then the middle, and fi nally the end, stories can be told in a variety of ways. Consider a topic you might organize using the narrative pattern of organization. What are the diff erent ways in which you might order the sequence of events? Which order do you think will work best for your audience? 2. Th e section on organizing the body of your speech includes an example of applying the six diff erent patterns of organization to a single topic. Choose a topic and do the same, identifying the main points you’d cover for each pattern. How does the topic change as you apply each pattern of organization? 3. In everyday conversations, communicators oft en don’t use transitions—they just skip from point to point and topic to topic. But in public speaking, audience members rely on speakers to use transitions to show how the diff erent parts of the speech fi t together. Choose a speech to view in person or online. How eff ective are the speaker’s transitions? How does the speaker’s use of transitions (or the absence of transitions) infl uence your evaluation of the speech? 4. Outlining helps you visualize all the elements of your speech and determine whether your ideas are organized in the most eff ective way. Critically examine one of your own outlines. For each section ask yourself, “Is this the best way to say this or present this idea? What are my alternatives?” 5. Return to the speech given by Ford Motor Company’s executives in USE it Activity 8.1. As you consider each of the following questions, think about how you could apply your conclusions to your own speeches. a. Identify the main points in the speech. How clear is each point? How relevant is each point to the speaker’s general purpose, specific purpose, and thesis? How balanced are the main points? b. Give examples of the transitions the speaker used. How effective were those transitions? Were there places in the speech that were missing transitions? c. Develop a complete-sentence outline of the speech. d. If you were advising the speaker on how to improve the way he organized his ideas, what would you say?

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Ch008.indd 169 07/10/10 6:54 PM Beginning and Ending 9 Your Speech

Read it

• Developing Your Introduction 172 • Speech for Review and Analysis 182 • Developing Your Conclusion 179

Watch it • Beginning Effectively: Introductions 179

• Ending Effectively: Conclusions 181

ge Learning ge

gag

Cengage Learning Cengage Cen Cen

Use it • Here We Go 179 • It’s a Wrap 181

e Learning

Cengage Learning

Review it • Directory of Study and Review Resources 184

CH009.indd 170 07/10/10 6:55 PM t a Technology, Entertainment, and Design (TED) conference, AJacqueline Novogratz, CEO of the nonprofi t Acumen Fund, began her talk1 about a new approach to helping the poor in developing countries this way: I want to start with a story from when I was twelve years old. My Uncle Ed gave me a beautiful blue sweater…It had fuzzy zebras walking across the stomach and Mount Kilimanjaro and Mount Meru right across the chest that were also fuzzy. And I wore it whenever I could, thinking it was the most fabulous thing I owned. Until one day in ninth grade when … a boy, who was undeniably my nemesis in high school, said in a booming voice that we no longer had to go far away on ski trips. We could all ski on Mount Novogratz. I was so humiliated and mortifi ed that I immediately ran home to my mother and chastised her for ever letting me wear the hideous sweater. We drove to the Goodwill and we threw the sweater away somewhat ceremoniously, my idea being that I would never have to think about this sweater nor see it ever again. Fast forward eleven years later. I’m a twenty-fi ve-year- old kid working in Kigali, Rwanda, jogging through the steep slopes when I see ten feet in front of me a little boy, eleven years old, running toward me wearing my sweater. I’m thinking, “No, this is not possible,” but so curious I run up to the child … grab him by the collar, turn it over, and there is my name written on the collar of this sweater. I tell that story because it has served and continues to serve as a metaphor to me about the Image not available due to copyright restrictions level of connectedness that we all have on this earth. We so often don’t realize what our action— and our inaction—does to people we think we will never see and never know. I also tell it because it tells a larger contextual story of what aid is and can be. That this [sweater] traveled into the

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CH009.indd 171 07/10/10 6:55 PM Goodwill in Virginia and moved its way into the larger industry, which at that point was giving millions of tons of secondhand clothing to Africa and Asia—which was a very good thing, providing low-cost clothing. And at the same time, certainly in Rwanda, it destroyed the local retailing industry. Although many audience members likely had little direct experience with her topic, Novogratz got their attention with a story they probably could relate to—a painful experience in high school that led to a positive action, contributing clothing to a charity organization. Then the speaker provided an update on the sweater’s life: She met a boy in Rwanda who was wearing her sweater. But then what appeared to be a happy ending was not, as Novogratz recounted the damage that clothing contributions did to the Rwandan economy. This brief narrative with its unexpected twist got the audience’s attention and prepared them to consider aid to the poor in developing countries in a new way. In the conclusion to her speech, Novogratz reminded the audience of people’s interconnectedness: There’s enormous opportunity to make poverty history. To do it right, we have to build business models that matter, that are scalable, and that work with Africans, Indians, people all over the developing world who ﬁ t in this category to do it themselves. Because at the end of the day it’s about engagement; it’s about understanding that people really don’t want handouts. They want to make their own decisions. They want to solve their own problems… So I urge all of you to think next time as to how to engage with this notion and this opportunity that we all have to make poverty history by really becoming part of the process and moving away from an us-and-them world and realizing that it’s about all of us and the kind of world we together want to live in and share. With her brief closing remarks, the speaker drew a clear link between the speech’s beginning and end, neatly tying together the parts of the speech and reinforcing the purpose of her talk. The beginning and ending of your speech are crucial moments for achieving your objectives. Chapter 8 focused on how to develop the central element of your speech—the body—and how to link together the parts of your speech with transitions. This chapter completes the discussion of the four parts of the speech, elaborating on the introduction and conclusion.

Novogratz, J. (2005, July). TEDTalks: Jacqueline Novogratz. Retrieved March 19, 2007, from ted.com/tedtalks. Used by permission.

Developing Your Introduction

The beginning of a speech, including In the introduction to your speech you gain your audience’s attention, explain what you an attention getter, a statement of the want to accomplish in your speech, establish yourself as an expert on the topic, and tell thesis and purpose, a reference to the speaker’s credibility, and a preview of your audience what you’re going to talk about (Figure 9.1). Th e introduction gets your the main points. audience ready to listen to the main ideas you’ll present in the body of your speech. 172

CH009.indd 172 07/10/10 6:55 PM Get Your Audience’s Attention Figure 9.1 Elements of the introduction You never get a second chance to make a fi rst impression. Th e infl uence of fi rst impressions on later perceptions is known as the primacy eff ect. Audiences Introduction tend to recall what the speaker says right at the start of the speech because this get audience attention is when they’re most attentive. In addition, oft en an audience decides whether or not to pay attention to a speaker within the fi rst moments of a speech.2 indicate purpose and thesis Th e introduction’s fi rst element is the attention getteretter, a device used to create interest in your speech. Eff ective attention gettersetters are relevant to establish credibility 3 your topic and encourage the audience to listen to you.u. PoPopularpular attentionattention preview main points getters include asking a question, describing an especiallyially poignantpoignant image,image, telling a brief story, or playing a brief clip from a song.g. To create an eff ective attention getter, consider your speech’s purpose, the amountmount of time yyouou have to present your introduction, creative strategies, common attention AnAn auaudiencedience iiss more liklikelyely to pay getters, and presentation media related to your topic. aattentionttention to anandd recarecallll wwhathat speaspeakerskers presentpresent at the beginning ooff a speechspeech tthanhan whatwhat ttheyhey present iinn tthehe Consider Your Purpose Th e nature of the attention gettergetter depends on the generalgeneral speecspeechh bbody.ody. purpose of your speech, the topic you choose, and thee specifi c purpose youyou have in mind. Any attention getter should make clear right away thath your topic merits your The ﬁ rst element of an introduction, listeners’ time and energy. But more than that, an eff ective attention getter designed mainly to create interest in a speech. ■ Focuses attention on the importance and relevance of the topic by showing how the topic relates to the audience.

■ Entices the audience to want to hear more about the topic by piquing their interest.

■ Connects you and your audience by demonstrating your competence in selecting an appropriate attention getter.

■ Reduces your nervousness by giving you a well-designed, well-practiced entry to your speech.

■ Introduces a theme that joins together the elements of your speech. In the following example, Oprah Winfrey presented an eff ective attention getter when she accepted the fi rst Bob Hope Humanitarian Award during the 2002 Emmy Awards: Th ank you, everybody. Th ank you, Tom [Hanks], and Bob and Dolores [Hope], who are home watching I hope, thank you so much, and to everyone who voted for me. Th ere really is nothing more important to me than striving to be a good human being. So, to be here tonight and be acknowledged as the fi rst to receive this honor is beyond expression in words for me. “I am a human being, nothing human is alien to me.” Terence said that in 154 b.c. and when I fi rst read it many years ago, I had no idea of the depth of that meaning.4 Winfrey’s initial “thank you” acknowledged some members of her audience, such as Tom Hanks, the Hopes, and those who had voted for her. Th en she established a bond with the larger audience—people who were present at the ceremony and watching on TV— and focused attention on the topic by saying, “Th ere really is nothing more important to me than striving to be a good human being.” Most people can relate to trying their best. Winfrey inserted some mystery for her audience when she said, “I had no idea of the depth of that meaning.” Th e simple, timeless quote provided a natural transition to the body of her speech. Creating a theme in the introduction helps join together the parts of your speech. As Winfrey continued her acceptance speech, she emphasized her theme of being human and sharing similar hopes and dreams. You can also use stories to provide a theme for your speech. For example, you might begin your speech with a short human-interest story that you purposefully leave unfi nished. Th en, as you conclude your speech several 173

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CH009.indd 173 07/10/10 6:55 PM minutes later, refer back to the story or characters you introduced in the attention getter. Starting with part of a story and fi nishing with the rest of it gives your speech coherence. As the audience understands how the elements of your speech tie together, they view you more positively because of your organizational skills. In the attention-getter for a speech to persuade (Chapter 14), you also want to

■ Establish the seriousness of your purpose.

■ Dramatize the controversial nature of your topic.

■ Initiate the process of persuasion by presenting a strong logical, cultural, or emotional appeal. Bill Cosby fulfi lled these objectives in the introduction of his “Pound Cake Speech,” delivered at the NAACP’s gala to commemorate the 50th anniversary of Brown v. Board of Education: Ladies and gentlemen, these people [the members of the U.S. Supreme Court] … opened the doors, they gave us the right, and today … in our cities and public schools we have 50 percent drop out. In our own neighborhoods, we have men in prison. No longer is a person embarrassed because they’re pregnant without a husband. No longer is a boy considered an embarrassment if he tries to run away from being the father of the … child. Ladies and gentlemen, the lower economic and lower-middle economic people are not holding their end in this deal. In the neighborhood that most of us grew up in, parenting is not going on. In the old days, you couldn’t hooky school because every drawn shade was an eye. And before your mother got off the bus and to the house, she knew exactly where you had gone, who had gone into the house, and where you got on whatever you had on and where you got it from. Parents don’t know that today.5 Using facts and examples, Cosby stressed the seriousness of the topic. He referred to his audience’s experiences in “the neighborhood that most of us grew up in” to dramatize diff erences between then and now. Finally, he appealed to the audience’s emotions—parents don’t know what their kids are up to—and grabbed their attention. Cosby’s hard-hitting introduction caught his audience by surprise and made them sit up and take notice. Consider Your Time Your attention getter shouldn’t last long. It should draw attention to the topic but not cut into the time you need for the body of the speech. Some attention getters last only fi ft een seconds. Others may take a minute, or even longer in some cases. Here’s how Fran Visco, president of the National Breast Cancer Coalition, began a speech at the organization’s Advocacy Training Conference: Th is past year, we lost too many women to breast cancer, and we lost too many breast cancer advocates. In addition to the women for whom we have a moment of silence at this conference and to Elva Fletcher, to whom we dedicate this conference, we lost Ann Marcou, one of the founders of Y-Me. And we lost Jan Platner, who died of multiple myeloma but who was on the staff of the National Breast Cancer Coalition, on the board of NBCC, and an Frank Micelotta/Getty Images Entertainment/Getty Images incredible activist on our behalf. It’s been a very diffi cult Talk show host and businessperson Oprah year, but it’s a reminder of how much more we need to do.6 Winfrey is well known as an engaging public speaker. She’s adept at using attention getters Visco quickly got her audience’s attention, personalizing the topic by to encourage her audience to listen to her. naming breast cancer advocates who had recently died. 174

CH009.indd 174 07/10/10 6:55 PM Use Your Creativity Creating and delivering an eff ective attention getter presents a special challenge for public speakers. It demands that you use your imagination well. Former Supreme Court Justice Sandra Day O’Connor demonstrated her creative side in a commencement address at Stanford University. In the introduction to her speech, she poked fun at lawyers and herself: A commencement speech is a particularly diffi cult assignment. Th e speaker is given no topic and is expected to be able to inspire all the graduates with a stirring speech about nothing at all. I suppose that’s why so many lawyers are asked to be commencement speakers; they’re in the habit of talking extensively even when they have nothing to say. And in this case President Hennessy asked not only a lawyer but an elderly judge to be the commencement speaker. I was born in Texas. In Texas they say an old judge is like an old shoe—everything is all worn out except the tongue. All in all, it seems we should have no trouble fi lling our time today.7 O’Connor’s gentle humor worked well because it was unexpected—most people think of Supreme Court justices as staid and serious. So O’Connor’s tactic charmed her audience and captured the audience’s attention.

Try Using Common Attention Getters So far, you’ve learned about general approaches and ideas for gaining your audience’s attention in the speech introduction. You have to decide what you think works best for your audience, your topic, and you. Here are some proven strategies you might want to try.

■ Cite a surprising fact or statistic to call attention to your topic. Say, for instance, “Do you realize that more than three-fourths of all college graduates don’t get jobs in the fi elds they prepare for?” Or, “According to the Centers for Disease Control, your chances of contracting anthrax are far less likely than your chances of being hit by lightning—twice!” Although this strategy suff ers from overuse, if your fact or statistic really surprises or alarms your audience, you may quickly gain their attention.

■ Tell an emotionally arousing but brief human-interest story. To begin persuading your audience about the perils of child abuse, for example, you could tell the story of a child who becomes ill and eventually dies as a result of health problems caused by parental neglect. You hope to appeal to the audience’s sense of basic human rights by pointing out children’s vulnerability to abuse. In relating the story, keep it brief and appropriate to the topic, setting, and occasion, as Jacqueline Novogratz did in the example at the beginning of the chapter.

■ Tell a joke to introduce the topic and get the audience interested. Laughing together helps audience members identify with you and with one another. An eff ective joke or humorous story related to your topic also puts your audience in a more positive frame of mind about your speech.8 In her commencement address at Harvard University, author J. K. Rowling began her speech

with, “Th e fi rst thing I would like Miguel Riopa/AFP/Getty Images to say is ‘thank you.’ Not only has Although she is best known for writing the Harry Potter series, J. K. Rowling’s own Harvard given me an extraordinary rags-to-riches story intrigues audiences. 175

CH009.indd 175 07/10/10 6:55 PM honor, but the weeks of fear and nausea I have endured at the thought of giving this commencement address have made me lose weight. A win–win situation!”9 She smiled and her audience responded with laughter. However, off ensive or demeaning jokes will alienate your audience, as discussed in this chapter’s Speaking Of . . . box.10

■ Use the information you have about your audience. Th e audience research you conduct may produce data your listeners will fi nd Speaking of . . . provocative or interesting. For instance, you could begin an informative speech about euthanasia of stray animals by saying, “According to the survey conducted in class, nearly three-fourths Laughing with You, Not at You of you don’t know the meaning of the term euthanasia.” But getting their attention in and of itself isn’t enough. Th e data must be Integrating humor into your speeches serves suffi ciently intriguing to motivate them to continue listening. many positive goals, such as gaining attention and helping the audience feel comfortable with ■ Ask a question that you want your audience to answer or consider. To you. But some humor can detract from your get an idea of how important a topic is for an audience, you might speech and hurt your credibility. For example, begin with a question such as, “How many of you couldn’t fi nd a humor that makes you look incompetent or unintelligent will make audience members parking place on campus this morning?” or, “Have you thought wonder why they should listen to you.11 And about saving for retirement? If you have, raise your hand.” Some too much humor gets the audience focusing on speakers ask rhetorical questions—ones listeners aren’t expected the jokes rather than on the points you’re trying to answer—to gain attention. Examples of rhetorical questions are to make—just like television commercials “How can we best prepare for the technology of the future?” and “Do whose comical scenes viewers recall rather we really know what’s in our drinking water?” Rhetorical questions than the product advertised. encourage listeners to think about the answer to the question, but they expect the speaker to provide the answer in the speech.

Integrate Presentation Media Starting your speech with a brief audio or visual clip, a photograph on a digital slide, or other presentation media off ers another way to capture the audience’s attention and inspire interest. For example, you might display a colorful and richly detailed image of muscle tissue to introduce a speech about MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) technology. Presentation media can be eff ective attention getters if they are well designed, well practiced, and clearly relevant to the topic. As with any attention getter, brevity is key. Th irty seconds seems like a brief time, yet in a fi ve-minute speech that’s one-tenth of your speaking time. Also consider what you’ll be doing as audience members listen to or watch the presentation media you’ve designed for your attention getter. Especially when you’re trying to gain your audience’s attention at the beginning of your speech, you don’t want to fi nd yourself staring off into space while your listeners watch thirty seconds of a fi lm clip. Chapter 11 discusses designing and using presentation media in detail.

Apply it Focusing Attention on Service Learning

Telling others about your service learning experiences you do that? Do you know of some startling fact or statistic promotes this important aspect of your college career and about service learning? Do you have a compelling story demonstrates how institutions of higher education serve to tell based on your project? Did something humorous their communities. You might give a formal speech in which happen related to your service learning experience? What you try to persuade classmates to get involved in service do you know about your audience in relationship to service learning, or you might talk informally with friends and family learning? Is there a question about service learning members about your experiences. Whatever the context, you want your audience to consider? Generate a list of you must fi rst get your audience’s attention. How might attention getters and the audiences they best match.

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CH009.indd 176 07/10/10 6:55 PM Indicate Your Purpose and Th esis Now that you’ve gotten your audience’s attention, shift smoothly to the next element of your introduction, a clear indication of your speech’s purpose and thesis. Recall that the specifi c purpose succinctly expresses the response you want from your audience (“To help my audience learn the basic steps of jazz dance” or “To teach my audience about how Arabic numerals replaced Roman numerals in mathematics”). When you deliver your speech, you might not state your purpose exactly in those terms. But your audience should know what the purpose of your speech is and what you expect from them. Consider the introduction to a speech by Mary Fisher, a former assistant to President Gerald Ford. Fisher gave this speech, “A Whisper of AIDS,” at the 1992 Republican Convention, at a time when many people believed only “bad” or reckless people could contract AIDS. In her introduction she said, In the context of an election year, I ask you, here in this great hall, or listening in the quiet of your home, to recognize that the AIDS virus is not a political creature. It does not care whether you are Democrat or Republican; it does not ask whether you are black or white, male or female, gay or straight, young or old. Tonight I represent an AIDS community whose members have been reluctantly draft ed from every segment of American society. Th ough I am white and a mother, I am one with a black infant struggling with tubes in a Philadelphia hospital.12 How do you know the purpose of her speech? She doesn’t declare outright “My purpose is to make you believe that anyone, including you, can get AIDS.” She’s more subtle, referring to how people oft en categorize, and sometimes demonize, others—black/white, female/male, gay/straight, young/old. So she establishes her purpose—her audience knows why she’s there and what she wants them to believe. She then states her thesis that AIDS aff ects “every segment of American society” and that people don’t choose to get AIDS. Indicating the speech’s purpose and thesis typically requires just a few sentences. As with the attention getter, you don’t want to go on and on. But you do want your audience members to know the response you expect from them and the basic idea you’re conveying.

Establish Your Credibility Your introduction gives you the fi rst opportunity to show you’ve thoroughly researched your topic. As with the other parts of the introduction, presenting yourself as a credible speaker takes only a few moments. But those moments play a key role in getting your audience to listen to you. For example, Nigel Atkin, speaking about Aboriginal communities at the University of Victoria in Canada, said in his speech introduction, I recently worked with the Victoria Foundation to help bridge communication between the foundation, four regional trust advisory committees, and many First Nations, independent Bands, Metis, and urban Aboriginal organizations to eff ect change towards what many Aboriginal leaders call for—the ability in law and capacity to administer services to their own children and families.13 Chris Bernacchi/AFP/Getty Images

Right away, the audience knew the speaker had some Audience members view professionals speaking about their industries knowledge of the topic through his own experience. as highly credible. For example, an airline safety expert talking about Similarly, if your speech topic is how to save people an assessment of a crash site is viewed as highly credible because of from drowning and you’ve worked as a lifeguard, his direct experience. 177

CH009.indd 177 07/10/10 6:55 PM you might say, “In my fi ve years as a lifeguard, I’ve successfully applied three basic techniques to save someone who’s drowning.” Th at brief mention of your experience tells the audience you have some expertise on the topic. You also let your audience know about your credibility when you refer to the research you’ve done on your topic. For a speech on staying safe and healthy at work, for instance, you might refer to information you’ve gathered on the topic, as with, “According to the U.S. Department of Labor, over 4 million people get hurt or become ill at work each year.” Preview Your Main Points Successful speakers keep audiences focused throughout the speech by describing the speech’s structure and repeating main points. Th us, the speaker

■ Previews in the introduction what will be said in the body of the speech.

■ Presents the main points and subpoints in the body.

■ Reviews the main points in the conclusion. A preview of main points concisely tells the audience what the main points of the speech The ﬁ nal element of the introduction, in will be, establishing an expectation of what the speech will address. Th e preview provides the which the main points to be presented in fi rst step in helping the audience follow your main ideas as you move from one main point the body of the speech are mentioned. to the next. Transitions help connect the various elements of the introduction together. For example, you might start an informative speech about herb gardens in this way: Growing a simple indoor herb garden is easy and enjoyable (indicate thesis). Today, you’ll learn how to set up your own garden (indicate purpose). To begin (transition), I will explain the basic equipment you’ll need that I’ve found in my many years of herb gardening (establish credibility). Next (transition), I will show you how to plant your indoor herb garden. Finally (transition), I’ll give you some tips on keeping your herbs happy and healthy (preview main points). Similarly, a persuasive speech about meditation could begin like this: Incorporating meditation into our daily lives reduces stress and can even increase our longevity (indicate thesis). I meditate regularly—and did so this morning as part of my preparation for this speech (establish credibility). As part of a balanced lifestyle, you should take the necessary steps to make meditation part of your daily routine (indicate purpose). Th ere are diff erent types of meditation that will improve the balance in your life and that you can easily incorporate into your day-to-day activities (reinforce thesis). To make clear how to start meditating, I will fi rst (transition) explain the positive eff ects meditation can give you. I will then (transition) describe several diff erent kinds of meditation. Aft er (transition) describing the types, I will explain how you can begin meditating on a daily basis (preview main points). Even entertaining speeches require a clear preview of main points, as in this example: Some people claim they learned everything they needed to know in kindergarten, but I learned everything I needed to know my fi rst year of high school (indicate thesis). I think you’ll appreciate all the lessons I learned in spite of what my teachers were trying to tell me (indicate purpose). I admit this may sound odd, but I was an unusual teenager, recording my fi rst year of high school like I was writing a documentary (establish credibility). Before I regale you with my many brilliant insights (transition), I will give you some background on my high school. Second, (transition) I’ll explain the three most important lessons I learned. Finally (transition), I’ll tell you how I’ve applied those lessons recently, even for this class (preview main points). 178

CH009.indd 178 07/10/10 6:55 PM Watch it Use it Cengage Learning Cengage Learning SPEECH BUDDY VIDEO 9.1 Beginning Effectively: Introductions ACTIVITY 9.1 Evan presents sample speech introductions and Here We Go highlights ways of evaluating each. As you watch the video, keep in mind what you’ve learned about the This activity provides an opportunity to evaluate role of speech introductions, as well as the elements the introductions of several sample speeches and and characteristics of an effective introduction. suggest ways they could be improved.

Developing Your Conclusion

You’ve presented your main points, and now you’re ready to wrap up your speech. But you’re not quite fi nished. Th e fl ip side of the primacy eff ect—the critical infl uence of your speech introduction on the audience’s attention and memory—is the recency eff ect. With the recency eff ect, audience members recall what the speaker presents last better than they recall the information contained in the body of the speech.14 Of course, An audience is more likely to remember listeners will remember more than only the beginning and ending of your presentation. what speakers present at the end of a speech than what they present in the However, the primacy and recency eff ects underscore the key role the introduction and speech body. conclusion play in achieving your purpose. Th e introduction gets your audience ready to listen to your ideas; the conclusion reinforces what you talked about. In the conclusion to your speech, you review the main points, reinforce the speech’s general and specifi c purposes, and provide closure so your audience knows The end of a speech, in which the your speech is over (Figure 9.2). In addition, integrating visual and auditory imagery speaker reviews the main points, 15 reinforces the purpose, and in the conclusion can make your topic more memorable and reinforce your purpose. provides closure. Judicious use of presentation media, such as a few video frames, a particularly poignant photograph, or a very short audio clip, can spark your audience’s imagination. Use the conclusion to continue building rapport with your Figure 9.2 Elements of the conclusion audience and emphasize your points, but do it effi ciently. Audiences perk up when they know your speech is coming to an end.16 Th ey are ready for you to Conclusion stop talking, but they are also willing to listen closely to your fi nal remarks. Your words, facial expression, and body movement should all indicate that review main points your presentation has purposefully concluded. By preparing, practicing, reinforce purpose and presenting an eff ective conclusion, you will reinforce your key points, strengthen a call to action or a persuasive argument, and give your audience a provide closure lasting impression of your message. 179

CH009.indd 179 07/10/10 6:55 PM Review Your Main Points Use the conclusion to remind your audience of the main points presented in the body of your speech. Th e review of main points normally follows a transition word or phrase that The portion of the conclusion of a speech indicates you’re moving from the body to the conclusion. Th at is, once you’ve made the in which the main points presented transition from the body of the speech to its conclusion, quickly summarize by restating in the body of the speech are brieﬂ y mentioned again. your speech’s main points. When you review your main points, you’re helping listeners recall where they’ve been, but without the specifi c details. Here are some examples:

■ In a speech to inform: In summary (transition), today you’ve learned how to get started windsurfi ng. I described the history of windsurfi ng, the equipment you’ll need, and where you can try out this fun sport (review main points).

■ In a speech to persuade: Let’s review (transition) what I covered in my speech. I told you about how you can improve your study habits and get better grades almost immediately. I’ve described the most common problems students create for themselves, how those mistakes lead to poor results in the classroom, and what to do about it to improve your grades (review main points).

■ In a speech to entertain: Now (transition) you know my secrets of backpacking in style: Treat your backpacking guide very, very well; bring the proper equipment; and make backup reservations at a nearby resort hotel (review main points). Reinforce Your Purpose Th e conclusion gives you a fi nal opportunity to reinforce your specifi c purpose by highlighting the reason your information is important (for a speech to inform), crystallizing your argument and making a fi nal appeal to the audience (for a speech to persuade), or getting that last laugh (for a speech to entertain). In reinforcing your specifi c purpose, you provide a memorable message to capture A sentence or group of sentences the audience’s attention in a way that makes the information or persuasive argument included in the conclusion of a speech, you’ve given impossible to ignore or refute. What you say must be brief, clear, strong, designed to make the speaker's thesis unforgettable. and striking, as in the following examples: ■ “We’ve fi nally got the evidence that proves what scientists had long suspected: Humans are evolved apes.” (informative speech reporting new DNA evidence)

■ “Th e three aspects of matching you to the right profession are identifying what you ideally want in a job or profession, what you must have, and what you absolutely don’t want.” (informative speech on how to choose a job or profession)

■ “Now’s the time to decide: Are you going to give up or shape up?” (persuasive speech promoting exercise program for college students)

■ “You will be the ones who will have to pay for that new football stadium!” (persuasive speech against constructing a new stadium) Provide Closure Sometimes speakers fi nd the very end of the speech the most diffi cult part. You’ve probably heard speakers say, “Th at’s about it,” “Okay, well, that’s all I have to say,” or “I guess I’m done.” Th e conclusion is the last chance you have to make an impression on your audience, and you want it to be a good one. Th ere are many strategies for providing closure. You must decide what will work best for your audience, your topic, and you. Here are some specifi c techniques you might want to try.

■ End with a quotation. “As author Rita Mae Brown once said, ‘Th e statistics on sanity are that one out of every four Americans is suff ering from some form of mental illness. Th ink of your three best friends. If they’re okay, then it’s you.’”17 (entertaining speech on staying sane in today’s world) 180

CH009.indd 180 07/10/10 6:55 PM ■ Use presentation media: In the sample speech conclusion at the beginning of this chapter, Jacqueline Novogratz showed a vivid digital slide of herself talking with a Rwandan man as she told the audience, “Because at the end of the day it’s about engagement; it’s about understanding that people really don’t want handouts. Th ey want to make their own decisions. Th ey want to solve their own problems.” Th e powerful visual image reinforced what she said, making audience members more likely to recall the action she wanted them to take. (persuasive speech on new ways to help the poor in developing countries) ■ Make a dramatic statement. “And in the ten minutes I’ve been talking, twenty people in Africa have died of malaria.” (informative speech on the impact of malaria around the world) ■ Refer to the introduction. “Now I’ll fi nish the story I started in the introduction. And this story has a happy ending. I found a great summer job that will pay for my two weeks in Mexico over winter break.” (informative speech on how to fi nd a good summer job) ■ Refer to subsequent events. “Later, in coordination with the U.S. Department of Justice, AMBER Alert plans were passed in all fi ft y states.” (informative speech on Americans Missing: Broadcast Emergency Response program) ■ Reinforce the speaker-audience connection. “Like many of you, I thought the idea of freedom was a pretty basic thing. But now that I’ve learned how people in other cultures view freedom and shared that information with you, we all realize that there are many diff erent ways to think of this common word.” (informative speech on defi ning freedom) ■ Th ank the audience. “Th ank you for considering my proposal to increase the number of elective courses and reduce the number of required courses for all students attending our school.” (persuasive speech on changing graduation requirements)

Watch it Use it Cengage Learning Cengage Learning SPEECH BUDDY VIDEO 9.2 Ending Effectively: Conclusions ACTIVITY 9.2 Evan introduces sample speech conclusions and It’s a Wrap highlights different ways of evaluating them. As you watch the video, keep in mind what you’ve learned This activity provides an opportunity to evaluate the about the role of speech conclusions, as well as the conclusions of several sample speeches and suggest elements and characteristics of an effective conclusion. ways they could be improved.

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CH009.indd 181 07/10/10 6:55 PM Speech for Review and Analysis

U.S. Supreme Court Judge Sonia Sotomayor is the fi rst Latina to serve on the court. What follows is her opening statement before the U.S. Senate Judiciary Committee during her confi rmation hearing on July 13, 2009.18

In recent weeks, I have had the privilege and pleasure of meeting eighty-nine senators, including all of the members of this committee. Each of you has been gracious to me, and I have so much enjoyed meeting you. Our meetings have given me an illuminating tour of the fi fty states and invaluable insights into the American people. There are countless family members and friends who have done so much over the years to make this day possible. I am deeply appreciative for their love and support. I want to make one special note of thanks to my mother. I am here, as many of you have noted, because of her aspirations and sacrifi ces for both my brother, Juan, and me. Mom, thank you. I am very grateful to the president and humbled to be here today as a nominee to the United States Supreme Court. The progression of my life has been uniquely American. My parents left Puerto Rico during World War II. I grew up in modest circumstances in a Bronx housing project. My father, a factory worker with a third-grade education, passed away when I was nine years old. AP Photo/Ron Edmonds On her own, my mother raised my brother and me. She taught us that the key to success in America is a good education. And she set the example, studying alongside my brother and me at our kitchen table so that she could become a registered nurse. We worked hard. I poured myself into my studies at Cardinal Spellman High School, earning scholarships to Princeton University and then Yale Law School, while my brother went on to medical school. Our achievements are due to the values that we learned as children, and they have continued to guide my life’s endeavors. I try to pass on this legacy by serving as a mentor and friend to my many godchildren and to students of all backgrounds. Over the past three decades, I have seen our judicial system from a number of different perspectives—as a big-city prosecutor, as a corporate litigator, as a trial judge, and as an appellate judge. My fi rst job after law school was as an assistant district attorney in New York. There I saw children exploited and abused. I felt the pain and suffering of families torn apart by the needless death of loved ones. I saw and learned the tough job law enforcement has in protecting the public. In my next legal job, I focused on commercial instead of criminal matters. I litigated issues on behalf of national and international businesses and advised them on matters ranging from contracts to trademarks. My career as an advocate ended, and my career as a judge began, when I was appointed by President George H. W. Bush to the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York. As a trial judge, I did decide over 450 cases and presided over dozens of trials, with perhaps my most famous case being the Major League Baseball strike in 1995. After six extraordinary years on the district court, I was appointed by President Clinton to the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit. On that court, I have enjoyed the benefi t of sharing ideas and perspectives with wonderful colleagues as we have worked together to resolve the issues before us. I have now served as an appellate judge for over a decade, deciding a wide range of constitutional, statutory, and other legal questions. Throughout my seventeen years on the bench, I have witnessed the human consequences of my decisions. Those decisions have not been made to serve the interests of any one litigant, but always to serve the larger interests of impartial justice. In the past month, many senators have asked me about my judicial philosophy.

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CH009.indd 182 07/10/10 6:55 PM Simple: fi delity to the law. The task of a judge is not to make law. It is to apply the law. And it is clear, I believe, that my record in two courts refl ects my rigorous commitment to interpreting the Constitution according to its terms, interpreting statutes according to their terms and Congress’s intent, and hewing faithfully to precedents established by the Supreme Court and by my circuit court. In each case I have heard, I have applied the law to the facts at hand. The process of judging is enhanced when the arguments and concerns of the parties to the litigation are understood and acknowledged. That is why I generally structure my opinions by setting out what the law requires and then explaining why a contrary position, sympathetic or not, is accepted or rejected. That is how I seek to strengthen both the rule of law and faith in the impartiality of our judicial system. My personal and professional experiences helped me to listen and understand, with the law always commanding the result in every case. Since President Obama announced my nomination in May, I have received letters from people all over this country. Many tell a unique story of hope in spite of struggle. Each letter has deeply touched me. Each refl ects a dream—a belief in the dream that led my parents to come to New York all those years ago. It is our Constitution that makes that dream possible, and I now seek the honor of upholding the Constitution as a justice on the Supreme Court. Senators, I look forward in the next few days to answering your questions, to having the American people learn more about me, and to being part of a process that refl ects the greatness of our Constitution and of our nation. Thank you.

Questions for Analysis and Discussion

1. What was the purpose of Sotomayor’s speech? How did she address it in the introduction? 2. How did she get her audience’s attention? 3. What did she do to relate her topic to her audience? 4. How did Sotomayor establish her credibility in the beginning of her speech? 5. What was the thesis of her speech? How did she weave it into the introduction? 6. What did Sotomayor say to summarize her main points? 7. How did she reinforce the purpose of her speech? 8. How did she provide closure? 9. If you were advising this speaker on how to improve the way she began and ended her speech, what would you suggest? 10. What have you learned about speech introductions and conclusions that you’ll apply in your own speeches?

Summary

n the speech introduction you get the audience’s attention, indicate your purpose and thesis, establish your credibility, and preview your speech’s main points. In creating Ithe attention getter, consider your specifi c purpose and how much time you have to give the speech. Also, use your creativity and imagination to fi nd a way to make your audience sit up, take notice, and want to listen to your speech. Present your thesis clearly, so the audience understands the response you expect. Let the audience know you’re an expert on your topic. Complete the introduction by previewing your main points. In your conclusion, review your main points, reinforce your specifi c purpose, and provide closure. Strategies for providing closure including ending with a quotation, making a dramatic statement, referring to the introduction, referring to subsequent

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CH009.indd 183 07/10/10 6:55 PM events, reinforcing the speaker–audience connection, and thanking the audience. Increase the likelihood you’ll achieve your specifi c purpose by leaving your audience with a lasting and positive impression.

Review it Directory of Study and Review Resources

IN THE BOOK SAMPLE SPEECH VIDEOS Summary Katy, “Why Pi?” informative speech Key Terms Mary Fisher, “A Whisper of AIDS,” Critical Challenges persuasive speech

MORE STUDY RESOURCES SPEECH BUILDER EXPRESS Quizzes Introduction WebLinks Conclusion Peer-reviewed videos INFOTRAC STUDENT WORKBOOK Recommended search terms 9.1: Solid Previews Speech introduction 9.2: Introductions and Conclusions Attention getter 9.3: Notable Quotables Humor in speeches 9.4: Imitable Introductions Establishing credibility in public speaking 9.5: Sounding Like You're Done Speech conclusion

SPEECH BUDDY VIDEOS AUDIO STUDY TOOLS WATCH It Video “Why Pi?” by Katy 9.1: Beginning Effectively: Introductions Critical thinking questions 9.2: Ending Effectively: Conclusions Learning objectives USE It Activity Chapter summary 9.1: Here We Go 9.2: It’s a Wrap

Guide to Your Online Resources

Your Speech Communication as glossary fl ashcards, review quizzes, and the Critical CourseMate for Public Speaking: Challenge questions for this chapter, which you can Th e Evolving Art gives you access to the Speech Buddy respond to via e-mail if your instructor so requests. video and activity featured in this chapter, additional In addition, your CourseMate features live WebLinks sample speech videos, Speech Studio, Speech Builder relevant to this chapter. Links are regularly maintained, Express, InfoTrac College Edition, and study aids such and new ones are added periodically.

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CH009.indd 184 07/10/10 6:55 PM Key Terms

attention getter 173 memorable message 180 recency effect 179 conclusion 179 preview of main points 178 review of main points 180 introduction 172 primacy effect 173

Critical Challenges

Questions for Refl ection and Discussion 1. Getting the audience’s attention is a primary function of the introduction to your speech. What must ethical speakers consider when getting the attention of the audience? (You might want to refer to the section on ethical communication principles in Chapter 3.) For example, how might a statistic or fact be too startling? How might a story mislead the audience? 2. Speakers oft en neglect the conclusion of a speech and lose the opportunity to take advantage of the recency eff ect. What will you do to make sure you develop eff ective conclusions for your speeches? 3. Check out Speech Studio to analyze the introductions and conclusions of other students’ speeches. Or record a speech you’re working on, upload it to Speech Studio, and ask your peers for their feedback. What feedback could you use to fi ne-tune your introduction and conclusion before you give your speech in class?

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CH009.indd 185 07/10/10 6:55 PM Using Language 10 Effectively

Read it • Language Basics 188 • Audience-Centered Language 197 • Language and Culture 192 • Guidelines for Using Language in Your • Language and Gender 194 Speech 205 • Spoken versus Written Language 195 • Speech for Review and Analysis 207

Watch it • Engaging Your Audience with Language 205

• Making Language Choices 207

ge Learning ge

gag

Cengage Learning Cengage Cen Cen

Use it • You’re Engaged! 205 • Wrong Word, Right Word 207

Cengage Learning

Review it • Directory of Study and Review Resources 210

CH010.indd 186 07/10/10 6:56 PM s keynote speaker at the 2004 Democratic National AConvention in Boston, Barack Obama electrifi ed his audience and launched himself into the national limelight. Without a single digital slide or video clip, Obama brought listeners to their feet and won accolades across the country through, as one newspaper noted, the “power of his words.”1 Effective language in public speaking invites audience members to listen, stirs their emotions, and touches their senses. Near the end of his speech, Obama said I’m talking about something more substantial. It’s the hope of slaves sitting around a fi re singing freedom songs. The hope of immigrants setting out for distant shores…. The hope of a skinny kid with a funny name who believes that America has a place for him, too. Hope in the face of diffi culty. Hopep in the face of uncertainty. The audacity of hope!2 You could summarize that quote with something like, “Hope is important to achieving our goals.” But those words wouldn’t adequately describe what Obama was able to achieve. Why not? That’s what you’ll fi nd out in this chapter.

STAN HONDA/AFP/Getty Images

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CH010.indd 187 07/10/10 6:56 PM Language Basics

Language refers to the system of words people use when communicating with others. The system of words people use to Th e power of language rests in its ability to create images in the minds of listeners. Th ose communicate with others. images inform, persuade, and entertain audience members. When you speak in public, your words also encourage your audience to think, reason, contemplate, feel, evaluate, and otherwise respond to what you have to say. How do words work? Words are symbols that stand for something else—material Something, such as a word, that stands things such as an object, person, place, or event. Symbols may also represent ideas that are for something else, such as a person, more abstract, such as freedom, justice, and happiness. Words don’t transfer information place, thing, or idea. or ideas from your mind to others’ minds. Instead, words trigger the meanings and thoughts people have for words in their minds. So when Barack Obama said, “It’s the hope of slaves sitting around a fi re singing freedom songs,” his words brought up an image for each person in the audience, but not everyone had the same image. Th is example underscores the arbitrary, ambiguous, abstract, and active nature of language. Language Is Arbitrary Researchers have identifi ed more than 6,800 languages spoken by people around the world.3 Th e vast number of languages suggests that the meanings of words are arbitrary. Because there’s no direct connection between a word and what it represents, diff erent groups of people have diff erent words that stand for the same things. Figure 10.1 demonstrates that when you have an idea or thought, there’s a clear association between the object that led to your thought and the words you choose to express that thought. But there’s no direct link between the object itself and the words you choose. Consider the word tree. In Dutch, the word is boom. In Greek, it’s dentro. In Japanese, tree is . And in Spanish, you’d say árbol. Each language has a diff erent way of representing what is called “tree” in English. Th at’s why language is considered arbitrary. Communicators use words to stand for their thoughts and ideas. Th e link between a word and what it stands for always goes through your mind.4 As the example in An individual’s internal process of Figure 10.2 shows, the person views some palm trees, triggering the memory of a assigning meaning to words. vacation in Florida, and then says, “Palm trees remind me of the Florida Keys.” Th e meanings others assign to the Figure 10.1 The arbitrary relationship among words, thoughts, and objects words you use—their interpretations— may not be what you intend. Former Education Secretary Ron Paige found my idea or thought this out when he referred to the National Education Association (NEA) as a “terrorist organization” in a conversation about education reform with some of the nation’s governors.5 Paige argued that the teachers’ union stood in the way of change

direct link and misrepresented its members’ wishes. But even those who agreed with him noted that the negative feelings associated with direct link the word terrorist obscured Paige’s main point. Aft er educators and politicians criticized his characterization of the NEA, he apologized for his word choice. words that objects associated represent my with my idea Language Is Ambiguous idea or thought or thought no direct link Speakers usually assume that if they say “X,” others will think “X.” But that’s Source: Adapted from Ogden & Richards (1923). not necessarily the case. Language is 188

PART 3 PRESENTING YOURSELF AND YOUR IDEAS Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

CH010.indd 188 07/10/10 6:56 PM ambiguous—words have multiple Figure 10.2 Words, thoughts, and objects: an example meanings and individuals have their own meanings, or associations, for words My trip to the and the concepts those words stand for. Florida Keys Denotative meanings refer to formal, or literal, meanings—the defi nitions you fi nd in dictionaries. Connotative meanings are the unique meanings you have for words based on your own experiences. Even words you might think of

as straightforward, such as the word direct link car, can have multiple meanings. Th e Compact Oxford English Dictionary lists

two defi nitions: “a powered road vehicle direct link designed to carry a small number of people” and “a railway carriage or … wagon.” But that’s just the beginning. Webster’s Revised Unabridged Dictionary lists seven defi nitions, including “a chariot “Palm trees of war or triumph,” “the cage or lift of an remind me of elevator,” and “a fl oating perforated box for the Florida Keys.” no direct link living fi sh.” Investorwords.com explains that in the fi nancial world car means “Th e amount of a commodity underlying Source: Adapted from Ogden & Richards (1923). a commodity futures contract.” According An agreed-upon deﬁ nition of a word found in a dictionary.

A unique meaning for a word based on an individual’s own experiences. © Charles Barsotti/The New Yorker Collection/www.cartoonbank.com © Charles Barsotti/The New Yorker 189

Chapter 10 Using Language Effectively Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

CH010.indd 189 07/10/10 6:56 PM to Dorland’s Illustrated Medical Dictionary, CAR refers to the Canadian Association of Radiologists.6 And those are just the denotative meanings. Th ink about all the meanings you associate with car, such as independence, fi nancial burden, and traveling. Th e ambiguity of language pervades all aspects of the speechmaking process. When selecting your topic, consider the words you’ll choose to identify it. Would you refer to plagiarism as academic integrity or academic dishonesty? Would a speech on plans to repurpose a local vacant lot refer to open space or to undeveloped land? In a speech on the eff ects of our increasingly global society, would you use the term antiglobalization or the term global justice? To take just one of these examples, consider the diff erences between academic dishonesty and academic integrity. Dishonesty has negative connotations; listeners will likely think of activities such as cheating on a test or plagiarizing a speech outline. Integrity brings up positive associations such as studying for a test and carefully documenting sources for a speech. Making the choice between those two words—dishonesty and integrity—will infl uence the tone or general mood associated with the speech (Chapter 3). Use of language to set the mood or How you phrase your topic will guide you in framing the idea, analyzing your atmosphere associated with a speaking audience, conducting your research, and choosing your supporting materials. When you situation deliver your speech (Chapter 12), the language you use to frame and defi ne your topic will infl uence how your listeners interpret your message. It’s during delivery that the ambiguous nature of language will have its most obvious eff ects. Th e way your audience responds to your speech depends in part on the language you choose. Ambiguity isn’t necessarily bad, and can even work in your favor. In his speech, for example, Barack Obama stressed the commonalities Americans share: Tonight, we gather to affi rm the greatness of our nation—not because of the height of our skyscrapers, or the power of our military, or the size of our economy. Our pride is based on a very simple premise, summed up in a declaration made over 200 years ago: “We hold these truths to be self- evident, that all men are created equal. Th at they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights. Th at among these are life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness.” Th at is the true genius of America—a faith in simple dreams, an insistence on small miracles. Simple dreams, small miracles, life, and liberty—these words mean many diff erent things to Americans. Yet they’re deeply embedded in American culture, so they call up positive connotations for listeners. Even so, the audience might view these words positively but still not agree on how to defi ne them.

Language Is Abstract You experience your world with all your senses—you smell bread baking, you see a friend smiling, you taste a square of chocolate, you touch the computer keyboard, you hear a coworker laughing. Th ese things exist in the physical world. Although communicators say, hear, write, and read words, what those words represent is abstract. You can place your hand on this page and touch the printed words, but the meanings those words conjure up exist in your mind. Although all words are abstract, they vary in their level of abstractness. Some words are fairly specifi c, such as “my friend Kyoung.” Others are very abstract, such as “human being.” Figure 10.3 shows how words vary along a continuum from more to less abstract. In the example, “living thing” is the most abstract—the phrase could refer to plants or animals, humans or insects. Th e words become less abstract as you progress up the levels until you reach a particular living thing, 12-year-old Pink-White, a famous sea otter living in Monterey Bay, California. U.S. Representative Tammy Baldwin used diff erent levels of abstraction to her advantage in her speech at the Millennium March for Gay and Lesbian Rights in Washington, D.C. At each point in her speech, she contrasted language that is more abstract with specifi c examples: 190

CH010.indd 190 07/10/10 6:56 PM Figure 10.3 Levels of abstraction in language

Pink-White: 12-year-old California sea otter California sea otter sea otter ocean mammal mammal living thing

more abstract less abstract

Never doubt that there is a reason to be hopeful. Never doubt that Congress will pass legislation that expands the defi nition of hate crimes … But we must make it so—by daring to dream of a world in which we are free. So, if you dream of a world in which you can put your partner’s picture on your desk, then put his picture on your desk—and you will live in such a world.7 By invoking abstract, yet powerful, words, Baldwin provided common ground for the audience to agree with her. Th en, using less abstract terms, she told listeners how they could put those abstract ideas into action.

Language Is Active Like time, language doesn’t stand still. As people learn new things about the world and encounter new experiences, they develop new words. Before the internet, words such as phishing, webisode, and blog didn’t exist. Each year, Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary adds about 100 words to its current edition.8 Similarly, specifi c events change the meanings of words. For example, aft er the 9/11 attacks, jihad developed negative connotations. In a Harvard University commencement address, Zayed Muhammed Yasin, a senior graduating with a degree in biomedical engineering, explained the original meaning of jihad: Speaking of . . . Th e word for struggle in Arabic, in the language of my faith, is jihad. It is a word that has been corrupted and misinterpreted, both by those who do and do not claim to be Muslims, and we Engaging in Lexpionage saw last fall, to our great national and personal loss, the results New words enter the English language daily— of this corruption. Jihad, in its truest and purest form, the form the Global Language Monitor (languagemonitor. to which all Muslims aspire, is the determination to do right, com) estimates English gains one new word to do justice even against your own interests. It is an individual every 98 minutes or nearly 15 new words each day. Want to fi nd out more about struggle for personal moral behavior.9 them? Websites such as Word Spy (wordspy. In his speech, Yasin acknowledged the impact of 9/11 on the meaning of com), the Macmillan English Dictionary jihad and sought to replace negative associations with more positive ones. (macmillandictionary.com), and Double-Tongued Communicators continually alter the meanings of words. Th e Dictionary (doubletongued.org), will clue you in on the latest additions. The American Dialect advent of the internet brought with it new meanings for spam, zombie, Society (ADS; americandialect.org), identifi es and cookie. You might think the term webpage traces its origins from the most infl uential words of the year. For the pages of a printed book. Yet scrolling through a page on a website example, ADS members voted tweet as the is more like unrolling and reading a papyrus document from ancient Word of the Year for 2009 and google as the Egypt.10 Aft er the 2004 tsunami that devastated Asia, many businesses word of the decade. Ten years earlier, Y2K reconsidered their use of the word. For example, Toyota changed the was the top choice, web was the word of the decade, and jazz was the word of the century. name of its Celica Tsunami to Celica Sport Package and a water park in Ohio replaced Tsunami pool with Whitecap. 191

CH010.indd 191 07/10/10 6:56 PM Language is dynamic in another way, too. You’ve probably heard sayings such as “All talk, no action” and “Actions speak louder than words.” Yet language is action. You accomplish goals when you use words. In public speaking, speakers inform, persuade, and entertain. Speakers get listeners to think more deeply, laugh out loud, learn something new, change their views, and alter their behaviors. For example, in response to media reports of his infi delity, famed professional golfer Tiger Woods appeared in a press conference on national television. As part of his speech, he said, I want to say to each of you, simply, and directly, I am deeply sorry for my irresponsible and selfi sh behavior I engaged in…. I was wrong. I was foolish. I don’t get to play by diff erent rules. Th e same boundaries that apply to everyone apply to me. I brought this shame on myself. I hurt my wife, my kids, my mother, my wife’s family, my friends, my foundation, and kids all around the world who admired me.11 Th e speech served as an apology for Tiger Woods’ behavior. You take similar actions with words in your everyday conversations. You promise, calm down, cheer up, compliment, accuse, blame, support, criticize, aff ecting those around you with words.

Language and Culture

Language and culture are inseparable: how you use language refl ects your culture, and your culture infl uences the language you use and how you interpret it. Consider how people in the United States refer to time. You probably say things like, “Th at’s a waste of time,” “I like spending time with you,” and “Time is money.” Most Americans view time as a commodity that can be given (“I can give you a few minutes of my time”) and taken away (“I won’t take much of your time”). You likely think of time as something you “own,” referring to “my” time and “your” time. Th e words people use give strong clues about what’s important in a culture and what’s not. Americans generally consider speech and speaking extremely important, in part because the U.S. Constitution guarantees free speech. FreeTh esaurus.net lists almost three hundred synonyms for speak—words such as articulate, chatter, gab, muse, take the fl oor, and vocalize. Yet listening—a central aspect of democracy as well—doesn’t get nearly the attention that speaking gets. FreeTh esaurus.net includes just thirty-one synonyms for listen, about one-tenth the number for speak.12 Even though communicators listen more than they speak, American culture puts a much greater emphasis on speaking than on listening. Culture tells you what words mean and the associations you should have for them. For example, in the aft ermath of Hurricane Katrina, controversy arose over what to call people in New Orleans and other areas who were forced to fl ee their homes. Were they victims? Survivors? Displaced persons? Refugees? Each word calls up a diff erent image. Generally, refugee refers to an individual who crosses international borders to avoid political or religious persecution. So the word suggested that the now-homeless people in Louisiana and Mississippi were not U.S. citizens. Yet displaced person missed the enormity of the problem. Most media organizations settled on evacuee and fl ood victim, although these terms did not fully capture the dire circumstances many people faced.13 And choosing to use one word over another can lead to diff erent outcomes. For example, people are more likely to buy a “pre-owned” car than a “used” one—even when it’s the exact same car. In public speaking contexts, culture becomes especially evident when speakers use slang, jargon, idioms, euphemisms, and clichés. Slang refers to informal language Informal, nonstandard language, often used typically used in an interpersonal setting, such as whatever, all that, and word. Because within a particular group. public speaking is more formal than conversations with your friends, you’ll want to avoid using slang in speeches. Slang can hurt your credibility, giving your audience the impression that you’re not taking the event seriously or are unprepared. Technical language used by members of a profession or associated with a speciﬁ c Jargon is technical language associated with a specifi c profession or subject. topic. Since the beginning of the war in Iraq, some military jargon has become more 192

CH010.indd 192 07/10/10 6:56 PM commonplace, such as MRE (meal, ready to eat), IED (improvised explosive device), and SOP (standard operating procedure). Both slang and jargon require an insider’s knowledge to understand what the words mean. If you’re part of the military culture, for example, you’ve internalized its jargon as part of your own vocabulary. Similarly, jargon associated with new communication technologies frequently fi nds its way into everyday conversations. People text, blog, and chat. Computer users are concerned about spam, viruses, and malware, and look for hotspots so they can go wireless. Idioms are expressions whose practical meanings are very diff erent from their literal meanings. Listeners must have a solid command of the language as people use it An expression that means something in everyday conversation to interpret an idiom correctly. Here are some examples of the other than the literal meaning of the literal meanings of idioms and their common interpretations: words.

■ Th at test was a piece of cake. Literal meaning: Th at test was a confection made of fl our, sugar, and eggs. Idiomatic meaning: Th at test was easy.

■ You’d better hit the books if you’re going to pass your classes. Literal meaning: You’d better strike your books with your hand or an object if you’re going to pass your classes. Idiomatic meaning: You’d better study if you’re going to pass your classes.

■ Would you lend me your ear for a few minutes? Literal meaning: Would you remove your ear and give it to me for a few minutes? Idiomatic meaning: Would you listen to me for a few minutes? You might laugh at the literal meanings if you’ve grown up speaking English, because you’re so accustomed to hearing and using idioms—you don’t even think about how you’ve learned to interpret them. Speakers use euphemisms in place of words that are viewed as more disagreeable or off ensive. For example, pornographic movies are called “adult fi lms,” and those who A word used in place of another word star in such movies become “adult entertainers.” Euphemisms can prove useful if you’re that is viewed as more disagreeable or concerned you might off end your audience. For the most part, though, euphemistic offensive. language simply confuses listeners. For example, organizations typically refer to employee layoff s and fi rings as “downsizing” and “rightsizing,” which may sound less harsh, but not to the people who have lost their jobs. Clichés are trite or obvious expressions—phrases used so oft en they lack any important meaning. At one point, the remark was original, but overuse has made it dull. An expression so overused it fails to have Examples of clichés include “the big picture,” “thinking outside the box,” and “better late any important meaning. than never.” Clichés cause problems for speakers in two ways. First, as with slang, jargon, idioms, and euphemisms, listeners must possess the cultural knowledge to interpret clichés. Second, because clichés are overused, listeners may think they’ve heard the speaker’s message before and lose interest in the speech. Universal Press Syndicate. Universal Press 193

CH010.indd 193 07/10/10 6:56 PM If you’ve grown up in the United States and English is your fi rst language, you probably wouldn’t be fazed by someone saying, “My bad,” “Let’s Skype later,” “We’re on the same page,” “I fell on my tush ice skating,” and “Money doesn’t grow on trees.” But not all your audience members will have the cultural knowledge necessary to understand slang, jargon, idioms, euphemisms, and clichés. Unless they’re an essential part of your speech, minimize your use of these types of language.

Language and Gender

Language and gender intersect with public speaking in two ways. First, how listeners interpret what speakers say can depend on the listeners’ gender.14 Let’s take an example from research on powerful and powerless language. Powerful language conveys the speaker’s certainty about the topic. “Th is proposal will win over our client!” and “Our team eff ort led to our success” make clear the speaker’s confi dence. Audience members view speakers who use powerful language as dynamic and competent. Powerless language such as “I guess,” “sorta,” and “right?” indicates uncertainty and hurts a speaker’s credibility.15 Even in everyday conversations, listeners are less likely to believe someone who sounds uncertain. Researchers usually categorize tag questions as powerless language. Speakers tack A question added onto the end of on tag questions at the end of a sentence, as in “Th is proposal will win over our client, declarative statement that lessens the don’t you think?” Men usually interpret “don’t you think?” as uncertainty. But women impact of that statement. generally view “don’t you think?” as an invitation for others to state their opinions. Similarly, hedges—words that qualify what the speaker is saying—oft en function A qualiﬁ er, such as probably, that makes diff erently for men than for women. Women might interpret “Our team eff ort likely led a statement ambiguous. to our success” as acknowledging that other factors may have contributed to the group’s accomplishments. For men, “likely” could indicate a speaker’s self-doubt.16 In addition, listeners evaluate a woman as less competent when she uses tag questions and hedges, whereas such language has little impact on how listeners evaluate men.17 Powerful language can lead to similar misunderstandings. Statements such as “Th is research leaves no doubt that the program will fail” and “Employee morale has never been higher” convey certainty and conviction. But for women such language can also convey arrogance and disdain for other perspectives. Second, using language that excludes or demeans some audience members will cause many of them to stop listening to you. To be sure, you’re addressing all members of your audience equally, use nonsexist language, or words that are not associated with Words that are not associated with either either sex. Consider the diff erence between stewardess and fl ight attendant. Th e fi rst sex. word suggests a woman; the second could be a woman or a man. Table 10.1 provides some examples of nonsexist alternatives to sexist language. Using nonsexist language also refers to the order in which speakers refer to people. Generally, listeners think of the fi rst item in a list as the most important and the last as the least important. Do you always say “men and women,” “boys and girls,” “husband and wife”? To avoid privileging one sex over the other, rotate the order of gendered terms. Also, avoid language that demeans either women or men. For example, referring to a “female doctor” suggests that women aren’t typically physicians. Yet a recent survey found that 25 percent of all U.S. physicians and 41 percent of physicians younger than 40 were women.18 Use inclusive pronouns, as in “A bicyclist should always wear her or his helmet.” Better yet, use the plural and avoid gendered language, such as “Bicyclists should always wear their helmets.” Using nonsexist or gender-neutral language in your speeches also means using similar language for women and men when describing them and their accomplishments. From sports to political campaigns, women and men are oft en portrayed in very diff erent ways.19 For example, sportscasters typically describe male athletes in terms of their physical abilities but describe female athletes in terms of their personalities, looks, appearance, and sexual attractiveness.20 Consider the diff erences in these two statements: “His ability to make the key shots is amazing!” and “She looks fabulous in the team’s new uniform!” 194

CH010.indd 194 07/10/10 6:56 PM Table 10.1 Replacing Sexist Language with Nonsexist Language

Instead of saying this . . . Say this . . . mankind humankind, humanity man-hours staff hours, hours the common man ordinary people, average person chairman chair, chairperson freshman ﬁ rst-year student

waitress/waiter server male nurse nurse lady lawyer lawyer career woman professional

Th e bias works both ways. When talking about a man in the nursing profession, a speaker might say, “He’s so sensitive and caring.” Yet those are qualities you’d associated with any nurse. In the 2008 presidential election, you heard about “hockey moms” and “NASCAR dads.” Yet women make up nearly 40 percent of NASCAR fans,21 and plenty of dads go to their kids’ hockey games. So far, you’ve learned about the general characteristics and qualities of language. Although written and spoken language share these general traits, they diff er in important ways. Since audience members listen to your words rather than reading them, use spoken language in your speeches. Th e remainder of the chapter focuses more specifi cally on spoken language.

Spoken versus Written Language

Because spoken and written language diff er in important ways, audiences fi nd memorized speeches or speeches read word for word ponderous and diffi cult to follow. Audiences usually prefer an extemporaneous delivery method (Chapter 12), in which speakers use conversational and engaging language. Th e specifi c diff erences between written and spoken language are explored in this section. Dynamic versus Static Public speaking occurs “in the moment” as the speaker and the audience come together to create a speaking event. As a result, speaking is dynamic. Unless participants record the event in some way, what they say is fl eeting and impermanent. Listeners will recall some of what they hear, but they can’t go back and rehear what you’ve said. Redundancy helps overcome the transient nature of spoken language, and audience members expect some redundancy to help them recall what the speaker said. Speakers therefore preview main points, provide internal summaries, and review key ideas in the conclusion. In contrast, written language is static. Readers can reread a passage of text over and over again, so they don’t need the redundancy that listeners need.

Immediate versus Distant Xavi Arnau/iStockphoto

Th e immediacy of spoken language aff ects public speaking in several Audiences today prefer speakers who use engaging, ways. First, listeners receive the message right away, while the speaker conversational language. 195

CH010.indd 195 07/10/10 6:56 PM is talking, and can provide nearly instantaneous feedback. In contrast, writers receive no immediate feedback from their audiences. Second, public speaking involves all the senses—audience members hear how the words are spoken and see how the speaker uses nonverbal communication. Gestures, movements, and vocal intonations provide a context for the words speakers use. Th ird, immediacy allows speakers to refer to the situation in which the speech is taking place. So speakers can make comments such as “I can see you’ve dressed for the warm weather we’re supposed to get later today” and “How many of you have studied for your fi nals next week?” John Furlong, CEO for the Vancouver Organizing Committee, referred to the speaking situation as he began his remarks at the opening of the 2010 Winter Olympics: Excellencies, president and members of the International Olympic Committee, members of the Olympic family, athletes of the world, ladies and gentlemen: bienvenue—welcome to Vancouver. I commit that the men and women of Vancouver 2010—our partners and our friends—are ready to deliver the performance of a lifetime. As you, the best Winter Olympic athletes of all time, enter the arena prepared for you here in Canada to compete in the honor and glory of sport—seizing the moment to inspire the youth of the world through your heroic eff orts—you carry with you the hopes and the dreams of so many.22 Furlong sprinkled in other references to the speaking event, such as “And tonight the longest domestic torch relay in Olympic history ends in this stadium…” and “On this, the proudest night of my life ….” Even brief references to the speaking situation make audience members feel as if you’re speaking with them personally.

Informal versus Formal When you talk with friends, neighbors, coworkers, and others, your language is rather informal. You might say, “Hey, what’s up?” and “How’s your day?” You use slang and jargon. Your sentences are short and oft en incomplete. Ordinarily, in these interpersonal situations you’re not concerned with choosing the perfect words to express your ideas. In contrast, the language you use when you give a speech is more formal than your everyday conversations, yet still conversational. However, you don’t speak as casually in your speeches as you do with your friends, even if your friends are in the audience.

Irreversible versus Revisable Once you’ve said something, it’s out there. You can try to take it back, but listeners will still have heard what you said. You can immediately correct what you’ve said, as with, “Oh, sorry. I meant to say North Dakota, not South Dakota.” In addition, you can reframe statements. For example, Fox News newscaster Greg Gutfeld made fun of Canadian soldiers in Afghanistan, saying they wanted to “do some yoga, paint landscapes, [and] run on the beach in gorgeous white capri pants.”23 He later explained that he intended his remarks to be humorous and lighthearted. Question-and-answer sessions also allow you to further clarify and elaborate on what you say in a speech. Shortly aft er her visit to Darfur, Sudan, Angelina Jolie spoke at the National Press Club in her role as goodwill ambassador for the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. Aft er Jolie’s formal remarks about the plight of refugee children, journalists asked her for specifi cs about several topics, such as the National Center for Refugee and Immigrant Children that she recently helped establish. Th ese questions provided a venue for Jolie to elaborate on U.S. and UN plans for addressing the needs of young refugees.24 Unlike spoken language, written language allows for nearly infi nite revisions—at least until the deadline for submitting a document. For example, this book underwent many, many revisions and multiple draft s as we worked to make the text right for you, our audience.

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CH010.indd 196 07/10/10 6:56 PM Narratives versus Facts Although you oft en read stories, storytelling has its roots in oral communication. With its informality and immediacy, spoken language provides an ideal vehicle for telling a dramatic and engaging story. Oral language allows audience participation, sometimes including nonverbal feedback and additional information. Th e next time you’re with friends or family, observe what happens when someone starts telling a story. Others likely will jump in with a bit of dialogue or description. When you’re telling a story, it’s oft en a group eff ort. Written language handles facts, statistics, and other technical information more readily than spoken language because readers have time to review numbers and facts. Listeners don’t have that luxury. Citing too many facts and statistics during a speech loses their attention—they can’t comprehend all the information in one sitting.

Rhythm versus Image Spoken language has a rhythm or a fl ow that helps listeners interpret words. For example, a speaker’s vocal pitch goes up with a question and down at the end of a sentence. Speakers pause to give audience members time to contemplate an idea, and speak more loudly when emphasizing a point. Vocal qualities, including pitch, rate, tone, and volume, give additional meaning to a speaker’s words. In contrast, written language is rich in images. Writers and publishers choose specifi c fonts and layouts for organizing text to increase readability and interest. Arranging text in tables and charts clarifi es the writer’s ideas. Th is text, for example, includes tables and fi gures to visually summarize and highlight key ideas. Keep the diff erences between spoken and written language in mind as you read the next section on using audience-centered language in your speeches.

Audience-centered Language

Language geared toward your audience helps you get your message across in a way that resonates with them. You vary the words you use based on the intended recipients and the situation. For example, you use diff erent language when welcoming newcomers to a student organization than when welcoming friends to a get-together in your home. Your success as a speaker depends in part on using words that appeal to your audience.25 Th is section, summarized in Table 10.2 on page198 describes ways to develop audience-centered language in your speech: Put your language in context, personalize your language, use inclusive language, use visual language, and spark imagination with your language.

Put Your Language in Context Th e in-the-moment qualities of public speaking work to your advantage. Integrating comments about the physical location, current events, and the speech situation brings spontaneity to your speech and keeps your listeners interested. For a report you’re presenting at work, for instance, you might begin with, “Th e original idea for this project began in this very room, with many of you who are here today sitting around this conference table.” Or maybe you’re giving a speech of welcome to new students. You could say, “Th is campus—the people, buildings, and traditions—may seem strange to you now. But by the end of the semester what you see around you today will be familiar and comforting—almost like home.” Th ese direct references to the context in which

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CH010.indd 197 07/10/10 6:56 PM Table 10.2 Audience-Centered Language

Put your language in context • mentioning the location by . . . • referring to current events • responding to what happens during the speech

Personalize your language • integrating audience analysis information by . . . • remarking on what other speakers have said using “we,” “us,” “you,” and “I”

Use inclusive language by . . .• avoiding language that discriminates and stereotypes

Use visual language by • similes incorporating . . . • metaphors • parallelism • rhyme • alliteration • antithesis

Spark imagination with your • imaginative invitations language by using . . . • humor

you’re speaking help you gain and maintain your listeners’ attention and lets them know you’ve designed the speech for them. At a concert in South Africa to raise funds for Nelson Mandela’s HIV/AIDS awareness campaign, musician Annie Lennox brought the context into her speech in several ways:

We have come here tonight to bring your attention to an unacceptable situation. What I have to say is going to alarm you …and you need to be alarmed in order to wake up to the fact that the AIDS crisis has reached unprecedented epidemic proportions. Among men, women, and children, here and in other parts of Africa, AIDS is eff ectively causing mass genocide. Let me give you some facts …In Africa, more people are wiped out by AIDS every year than in the entire Asian tsunami disaster. Th ere are probably 25,000 people here in the stadium tonight …look around and take it in …now double that number …every day, more than two stadiums like this become infected with HIV. It’s horrifi c …think about it. And for every ten that are infected… six are women.26

Lennox began by referring to the concert’s purpose. Comparing the death toll from the tsunami disaster in Asia to AIDS deaths in Africa linked her topic to a cataclysmic event in recent memory. Th en she asked her listeners to “look around” at the 25,000 people in the stadium and imagine twice that number becoming infected with HIV every day. Lennox could have said, “Fift y thousand people contract HIV every day,” but visualizing two stadiums fi lled with concert attendees had a much greater impact. Putting context in your language also means responding to events that happen during your speech. If many people were to applaud during a speech of tribute, for example, you could say, “I can tell you agree with me” or, “I share your enthusiasm.” In your public speaking class, you might acknowledge audience feedback by saying, “I see a lot of heads nodding” or “Some of you look puzzled.” 198

CH010.indd 198 07/10/10 6:56 PM Personalize Your Language In most public speaking situations, you and your audience share the same physical space. Even with video conferencing, speakers and listeners hear and see each other. When you are the speaker, this gives you an opportunity to personalize your speech, using language tailored to your audience that promotes dialogue and collaboration (Chapter 3). In your public speaking class, you get to know your audience from the speeches they give and from your audience analysis (Chapter 5). Integrating information from audience questionnaires can help maintain your audience’s attention. You might say

something like “Based on your responses to Davies/Getty Images Gareth my questionnaire, about half of you exercise Musician and activist Annie Lennox effectively referred to the speech context once a week and a quarter of you exercise when she spoke about HIV/AIDS awareness at a fundraising concert. She asked almost every day,” or “Your responses to my her listeners to look around at 25,000 people in the stadium and imagine twice questionnaire helped me narrow down my that number in Africa getting infected with HIV every day. topic.” You can make your speeches even more personal by referring to specifi c people in the class. You might even refer to a speech presented earlier in the term, as with “As Sondra mentioned in her speech a few weeks ago …,” or to one given shortly before yours, as with “In his speech a few minutes ago, Trent said ….” During your speech, you might also comment on a specifi c audience member’s nonverbal communication: “Dana, you look skeptical. Let me tell you more about my idea….” Audiences expect some informality in spoken language, such as using the pronouns we, us, you, and I in your speeches. Using these pronouns includes the audience in your speech and encourages them to listen. For example, if you’re speaking at a meeting of a student organization, you might say, “We’ve raised awareness of three important issues on this campus” or, “I’m proud of the work you’ve accomplished in raising awareness on these three important campus issues.” Words like we and us let your audience know you share similar experiences, values, beliefs, and attitudes. In her “Consciousness Is Power” speech at the 1995 Asian American Convocation at Brown University, Yuri Kochiyama said, How do we measure Asians? We are not a monolithic entity. We are many diff erent ethnic people. We are Asian immigrants, Asian American, part Asian, Amerasian, Asian national, Asian adoptee (mostly Korean), and a Korean category that calls itself “1.5.” We are divided by class, religion, culture, language, and political affi liation. But because of racism and discrimination inherent in this society, despite our diff erences, we are not just thrust together as Asians, but considered as “outsiders,” foreigners, and “not quite Americans.”27 Kochiyama uses we in every sentence. She’s telling her audience that she understands their perspective because it’s the same as hers. Audience members also take notice when speakers use you. Near the end of her speech, Kochiyama appealed directly to her audience: For you young Asian American students, or students in general of any background, who are searching, who have the idealism and enthusiasm, and a natural love for all peoples—fi ght against racism, chauvinism, 199

CH010.indd 199 07/10/10 6:56 PM and imperialism…. Your role can be that [of] supporters. You can also support political prisoners—most of whom are black, Puerto Rican, and American Indian. Th e world you will help develop will surely be more understanding, harmonious, and just, with equal opportunities; where human dignity and human rights become accessible to all. Leave new footsteps for those following aft er you.28 Th e word you makes Kochiyama’s speech more persuasive. Read the same selection below, this time with students and they replacing you: For young Asian American students, or students in general of any background, who are searching, who have the idealism and enthusiasm, and a natural love for all peoples—fi ght against racism, chauvinism, and imperialism…. Students’ role can be that [of] supporters. Students can also support political prisoners—most of whom are black, Puerto Rican, and American Indian. Th e world students will help develop will surely be more understanding, harmonious, and just, with equal opportunities; where human dignity and human rights become accessible to all. Students should leave new footsteps for those following aft er them. Th e words students and they create distance between the audience and the topic. In contrast, you personalizes the speech and make listeners feel included. In this example, you suggests that audience members can take action and make a diff erence. Saying students and they removes the audience from the scene and suggests that someone else— they—will solve the problem. When you use the pronoun I, you let audience members know you’re the one who thinks or believes a certain way. “It’s important for all college students to take a public speaking class” doesn’t have the same meaning—or the same force—as “I think all college students should take a public speaking class.” In the fi rst example, the speaker remains distant from the topic; listeners don’t know whether she agrees with the statement or not. In the second example, the speaker takes a stand, letting the audience know her position.

Use Inclusive Language When you use inclusive language in your speeches, you choose words that don’t Words that don’t privilege one group over privilege one group over another. Noninclusive language promotes discrimination another. and stereotyping, even if the speaker’s word choices are unintentional. Language that needlessly emphasizes someone’s race, class, gender, age, dis/ability, sexual orientation, and the like is noninclusive. Sexist language, discussed earlier in the chapter, provides a clear example of noninclusive language, but speakers may exclude groups in other ways. Here are some examples:

■ Jeannette and her Latina friend Maria volunteer at a local food bank. Problem: Why identify Maria as Latina? Should you assume Jeannette is white?

■ Th e disabled actor put on a great performance. Problem: If the person did not have a disability, would it be okay to say, “Th e nondisabled actor put on a great performance”? Of course not. What, then, would be the best way to identify the actor being discussed? Something like “Th e actor who played the lead role put on a great performance” works fi ne.

■ She’s the senior citizen on her crew team. Problem: Words such as aged, elderly, and senior citizen suggest the person is frail or impaired in some way. If the person’s age is signifi cant to the accomplishment, 200

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Using inclusive language invites all audience members to listen to your speech.

include it, as in “At 75, she’s the oldest active member of her crew team.” If age isn’t important, don’t mention it, as in “She belongs to a crew team.”

■ Th e primitive people of Africa relied on oral communication to pass along cultural stories. Problem: Primitive implies defi ciency or incompetence. Because the reference is to a time period, early is a more accurate word. Th ese may seem like small distinctions, but all instances of noninclusive language aff ect everyone—the people left out and the people singled out. Using inclusive language doesn’t mean talking about people only in generic terms. Sometimes the point you’re making requires you to identify people by the various groups to which they belong. When Linda Chavez-Th ompson addressed a Hotel Employees and Restaurant Employees convention on immigration reform, she used her own and others’ ethnic backgrounds as examples of immigrants in the United States: Immigration is the very core of who we are as a movement. Just look at the executive offi cers of the AFL-CIO. John Sweeney is the son of immigrants from County Antrim, Ireland … Rich Trumka is from a family of Polish and Italian miners …and I am the daughter of Mexican American sharecroppers. Immigrants are the history of the union movement …but too oft en in the past, our movement hasn’t fully embraced new immigrants.29 In this case, identifying each person’s ethnic background demonstrated listeners’ common bond as immigrants and served as inclusive language. Chavez-Th ompson also used inclusive language at other points in her speech, such as “undocumented workers” rather than “illegal aliens” and “workers with disabilities” rather than “disabled workers.”

Use Visual Language Similes and metaphors are analogies—a shorthand way of comparing two dissimilar things. Language devices such as simile, metaphor, parallelism, rhyme, alliteration, and antithesis give your speech force and help your audience visualize your ideas. 201

CH010.indd 201 07/10/10 6:56 PM Similes suggest that two things share some similar qualities. Similes use like and A language device that compares two as to make a comparison, as in “Th at story is like an old friend” and “Th e car rode as things that are generally dissimilar smoothly as a tin can on plastic wheels.” Metaphors equate one thing with another. but share some common properties, expressed using like or as. Th ey oft en compare something more abstract with something more concrete, such as “Life is a rollercoaster” and “Ideas are wildfl owers.” Similes and metaphors make your speech memorable by comparing things that listeners might not ordinarily A language device that demonstrates the think of as going together. For example, in a speech at the Kimmel Center for the commonalities between two dissimilar things. Performing Arts, Minnesota high school student Laura Roehl compared embarking on the process of forgiveness with playing baseball, saying, “Even when life throws us a curve, it’s time for us to step up to the plate—and play ball.30 Th e image Roehl evoked likely stayed in the minds of listeners much longer than if she’d said, “So we need to forgive people.” Similes and metaphors also help audience members understand something unfamiliar by comparing it with something familiar. For example, Vice Admiral Richard H. Carmona, Surgeon General of the United States, said this in a speech presented at a conference on early childhood: I’m almost ashamed to say that the medical profession has too oft en sent people with disabilities to the back of the bus. Th e reality is that for too long we have provided lesser care to developmentally and physically disabled people.31 Carmona’s reference to “the back of the bus” compared something familiar—the now- illegal practice in the southern United States of forcing African Americans to sit in the back of a public bus—to something that most audience members likely found unfamiliar: the medical treatment of persons with disabilities. When using parallelism, speakers use the same phrase, wording, or clause multiple Using the same phrase, wording, or times to add emphasis. In a speech delivered at the Women’s Soccer Breakfast hosted clause multiple times to add emphasis. by the National Soccer Coaches Association of America, professional soccer player Yael Averbuch used parallelism when talking about her views on the game: I will always smile when I think about the time at UNC [University of North Carolina] when we were about to start our fi rst of ten cones (a dreaded fi tness drill) and, as Anson yelled, “GO!” we all fell to the ground as a joke. I will always look forward to being home in New Jersey, where I can go kick the ball around at the local schoolyard with my sister. I will always feel sentimental when I think about playing pickup on Fetzer Field, our UNC game fi eld, in Chapel Hill at midnight, under the single light that’s left on. I will always laugh when I reminisce on the absurdity and turbulence of Sky Blue FC’s fi rst season, when, it seems, we had more coaches than are currently sitting in this room. And my eyes will always light up when I see a ragtag group of guys playing soccer in some random park on the side of the road.32 Th e last phrase, “and my eyes will always light,” gets its impact from the multiple repetitions of “I will always.” Th rough her use of parallelism, Averbuch builds up interest—listeners know she loves soccer, but not why—and she holds her audience’s attention. You’ve likely heard rhymes since you were a young child. Rhyming words have Using words with similar sounds, usually similar sounds, usually the last syllable. Advertisers use rhyme to embed their products at the end of the word, to emphasize a more clearly in our memories. For example, travel company Th omas Cook uses the point. slogan “Don’t just book it. Th omas Cook it,” and Alka-Seltzer coined “Plop, plop, fi zz, fi zz, oh what a relief it is.” During O.J. Simpson’s 1995 trial for the murder of his ex-wife, Simpson’s attorney, Johnnie Cochran, used the phrase “If it doesn’t fi t, you must acquit” 202

CH010.indd 202 07/10/10 6:56 PM to point out perceived fl aws in the district attorney’s case. Th at phrase alone didn’t win the jury’s not-guilty verdict, but the rhyme helped jurors visualize the defense attorney’s contention that the prosecutor’s arguments were not supported by the evidence presented. Speakers use alliteration when they repeat a sound in a series of words, usually the fi rst consonant. Classic tongue twisters provide examples of alliteration, such as “She Repetition of a sound in a series of sells sea shells by the sea shore” and “Fat frogs fl ying past fast.” Alliteration can increase words, usually the ﬁ rst consonant. audience members’ recall, but avoid alliterative phrases or sentences you fi nd diffi cult to say. In his speech on integrity at Tuskegee University, Samuel P. Jenkins, a vice president of Boeing, described the organization’s ethics website in this way: “We established a special portal so anyone could reach us anytime from anywhere, anonymously if necessary.”33 Antithesis refers to the juxtaposition of two apparently contradictory phrases that are organized in a parallel structure. With antithesis, the meanings of the phrases are Juxtaposition of two apparently in opposition, but the arrangement of the words within the phrases is in alignment. contradictory phrases that are organized Antithesis gets listeners’ attention because the speaker brings together words in an in a parallel structure. unexpected, yet balanced, way. For example, in his commencement address at the University of Portland, author Paul Hawken said, “Working for the earth is not a way to get rich. It is a way to be rich.”34 Hawken’s use of antithesis underscored how practicing sustainability and caring for the environment creates wealth that cannot be measured in dollars.

Spark Imagination with Your Language Two language techniques can spark your audience’s imagination: invitations to imagine and humor. Invitations to imagine ask listeners to create a scene or situation in their minds. Visualizing a place or series of events makes the audience feel more involved in Asking listeners to create a scene or your topic. Use your imagination when developing invitations to imagine with phrases situation in their minds. like these:

■ “Th e miners were trapped 250 feet below ground and the water was rising. How do you suppose they felt, not knowing if anyone knew they were alive?”

■ “Does a weekend of snowboarding at Stow e, Vermont sound like a good idea to you?”

■ “What would you have done under the circumstances?” Some of the best stories are the ones you refer to but don’t tell entirely. By reminding your audience of events, circumstances, narratives, or jokes you are confi dent they already know you can ignite their imagination without repeating something that is already familiar. University of Chicago professor Martha C. Nussbaum used this strategy in a speech at Georgetown University. She began with “I want to ask you to pause for a minute, and to think of the ending of a tragic drama, Euripides’s Th e Trojan Women,” an d then told the story in four sentences—just enough to help listeners recall the narrative’s key turning points.35 Speakers sometimes use jokes to connect with their audiences, especially for particular kinds of public presentations, such as aft er-dinner speeches. Humorous stories and anecdotes can relax the speaker and create common ground with the audience. Appropriate use of humor can also help the speaker gain the audience’s confi dence, generate an emotional atmosphere consistent with the purpose of the speech, and provide a pleasant, memorable experience for listeners.36 Eff ectively told humorous stories and asides inherently provoke audiences to imagine and visualize, inviting listeners to actively engage with the speaker’s topic. Use short humorous stories to get the audience’s attention at the beginning of the speech or to conclude in a dynamic, unforgettable way. For example, Wabash College senior Dustin 203

CH010.indd 203 07/10/10 6:56 PM DeNeal began his commencement speech, “Katabasis and Anabasis: A Four-Year Journey,” this way: I know, I know. You’re looking at the title and thinking: “What in the world is this supposed to mean?” Well, to be honest, I’m not completely sure. But out of the countless lessons I’ll take away from Wabash, one of the most important is that half the game is looking like you know what you’re talking about even if you really don’t. Big thanks to campus BS artist Chris Morris for that one. No, seriously.37 DeNeal’s familiarity with his audience allowed Steve Manue/AFP PHOTO/USO/Newscom him to gently poke fun at the title of his speech and Stephen Colbert, host of Comedy Central’s Colbert Report, uses gain his audience’s attention. humor to draw attention to current political events. Incorporating brief stories, quips, and humorous observations throughout your speech can help illustrate a point in the body of the speech and connect the audience with the topic and speaker. DeNeal included humor at several points in his speech, such as “We took the road less traveled and committed four years to an all-male institution. What were we thinking?” Incorporating jokes and anecdotes into a speech can produce positive results if they’re well planned and practiced. Follow these guidelines for using humor in your speeches:

■ Tell only jokes or anecdotes appropriate for you, the topic, the audience, and the situation.

■ Use humor strategically to attract attention, make a point, illustrate an idea, or conclude in a witty way.

■ Keep jokes and humorous stories brief and to the point.

■ Avoid trite and unoriginal jokes. If you’re not comfortable telling jokes or making funny comments, don’t include humor in your speech. Some research suggests that women face challenges using humor in speeches due to cultural and societal norms.38 Self-disparaging humor, in which speakers make jokes about their own shortcomings, negatively aff ects speaker credibility.39 Poor use of humor damages the dialogue you strive to establish with your audience. For example, when accepting an award for leadership, Miami Dolphins player Junior Seau told a derogatory joke about gays. Although he apologized the next day, his remarks off ended members of the audience and hurt his credibility. Apply it Using Audience-centered Language in Service Learning

Whatever type of service learning or similar community language (integrating what you know about your audience), project you’re pursuing, fi nding the right words to talk with use inclusive language (avoiding words that stereotype your audience provides an essential basis for effective or discriminate), use visual language (such as metaphors communication. You may not give formal presentations to the and parallelism), and spark imagination (such as telling a people you’re helping, but you’re probably talking with them humorous story). Observe how others respond when you regularly. Identify ways you can put your language in context use audience-centered language. Which strategies work the (such as referring to current events), personalize your best? Why do you think they’re effective?

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Watch your and use Speech Buddy what you’ve video learned in your next speech. Cengage Learning Cengage Learning SPEECH BUDDY VIDEO 10.1 Engaging Your Audience with Language ACTIVITY 10.1 You’re Engaged! Anthony discusses several strategies for using audience-centered language in your speeches. This activity asks you to identify language for your own speech that will engage your audience.

Guidelines for Using Language in Your Speech

Th e words you choose to convey your message to the audience play a key role in developing your credibility and achieving your purpose. Your language should fi t the topic, occasion, and audience. Speaking ethically requires that you use language that is respectful of yourself and your audience. Th is section explores several specifi c guidelines for using language in your speeches: Use spoken language, choose meaningful words, balance clarity and ambiguity, be concise, avoid off ensive and aggressive language, build in redundancy, and don’t get too attached to your words.

Use Spoken Language Audiences quickly lose interest when speakers read from a manuscript. Choose conversational, engaging, personal, and active language that speaks directly to your audience. Compare “It’s important to investigate this topic in depth so students can gain more knowledge of their civil liberties on university campuses” with “I researched this topic so we could learn more about our civil liberties on campus.”

Choose Meaningful Words Avoid jargon, idioms, euphemisms, slang, and clichés that listeners won’t understand or will fi nd off ensive. If you must use technical terms, defi ne them clearly. Groups with specialized interests oft en use jargon or technical language that speakers can weave into their speeches. But even experts fi nd listening to a speech fi lled with technical language diffi cult and tiresome.40 Th oroughly analyzing your audience will help you strike a 205

CH010.indd 205 07/10/10 6:56 PM balance between precision and comprehension. Use words that are on your audience’s level—not above or below it.

Balance Clarity and Ambiguity Clear language promotes understanding. Compare “Many people believe in this proposal” with “351 individuals signed the proposal.” By replacing “many” with an actual number, the speaker provides a concrete indication of the proposal’s support. Many could mean thousands, tens of thousands, millions, or fewer than ten. At times, however, ambiguous language can bring people together. Nearly everyone would agree that “We need to give children the best education possible.” Such statements motivate audience members to tackle tough projects. If you begin with specifi c ideas that not everyone supports, listeners will focus on areas of disagreement rather than agreement.

Be Concise Concise language avoids unnecessary words. Compare “We must get the up-to- date version of our computer applications and soft ware packages on a regular basis” (seventeen words) with “We must regularly update our computer soft ware” (seven words). As you’re practicing your speech, listen to the words you use and try out ways to present your points as concisely as possible.

Avoid Off ensive and Aggressive Language Connotative meanings oft en stir deep emotions. People link emotions with words and words with experience. As a speaker, you don’t want to use language with negative connotations. You certainly would never use words that denigrate any group. Language that audience members consider aggressive—such as demanding that they take action or questioning their intelligence—puts up a barrier to listening and damages your credibility as a speaker.41

Build in Redundancy Recall the fl eeting nature of spoken language. Listeners can’t stop, go back, and re-listen to your speech the way they might reread written material. Build in redundancy through previews, reviews, clear transitions, and internal summaries. A few words, such as “Now let’s examine,” “As I mentioned earlier,” and “Last, I’ll talk about,” serve to remind your audience of what you’ve covered and where you’re headed.

Don’t Get Too Attached to Your Words Sometimes speakers get caught up in fi nding the perfect words for their speeches and forget about the purpose—informing, persuading, or entertaining the audience. As you practice your speech, try out diff erent phrasing and listen to how it sounds. If you focus on choosing the “right” words, you’ll lose the fl exibility you need to adapt to your audience.

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CH010.indd 206 07/10/10 6:57 PM Watch it Use it Cengage Learning Cengage Learning SPEECH BUDDY VIDEO 10.2 Making Language Choices ACTIVITY 10.2 Wrong Word, Right Word Erin discusses several tips for making effective language choices for your speeches. The activity gives you a chance to evaluate language choices speakers make and suggest improvements.

Speech for Review and Analysis

On January 15, 2010, Tamia Gaines, a fi ft h-grade student at John Neely Bryan Elementary School in Dallas, Texas, presented this fi rst-place speech at the 18th Annual Gardere Martin Luther King, Jr. Oratory Competition in Dallas. Th e fourth- and fi ft h-grade speakers were to answer the question, “What will I be able to achieve in my life because of what Dr. King achieved in his?” If you’d like to watch her speech online, it’s available on YouTube. Reprinted by joint permission of Gardere Wynne Sewell LLP and Tamia Gaines and her parents.

I am Tamia Gaines. And I stand here today to answer the question, What can I achieve in my lifetime because of what Dr. Martin Luther King achieved in his? Dr. King once said, “At the center of nonviolence stands the principle of love.” That quote inspired me to believe that it does not matter what color or race we are, we’re still brothers and sisters. And love is what we need in order to change things. Do we ignore or do we care? Do we hate or do we relate? Dr. King stressed that we must live together as brothers and sisters or perish together as fools. Well, my mother did not raise any fools. She always told me, God does not like ugly. You can look good on the outside, but the way you look on the inside matters more than just a pretty face. Jim Mahoney/DMN You must learn to love your fellow man and help him any way you can. Dr. King struggled for African Americans to have the same advantages Caucasians have. His words, efforts, and passion showed me I can be anything I want to be as long as 207

CH010.indd 207 07/10/10 6:57 PM I have good character. I want to become a lawyer, and Dr. King has inspired me to be determined to reach that goal. I will start by completing elementary, middle, and high school. Then I plan on going to college to get my bachelor’s and master’s degrees. I already know it’s not going to be easy, but I believe I can do it. I won’t let anything or anyone put me down. Don’t hate; appreciate. Don’t judge me; get to know me. Don’t kill my dream; get a dream of your own. God created this great big world, but it is up to me to decide what kind of world I want to live in. If I fi ght, the world will fi ght back. But if I love, the world will love me back. We should do as Dr. King preached: Make this world a better place. And every day you look yourself in the eye, you should say, “I want a better world for myself, my children, my children’s children, and their children.” But we can’t do that if we don’t start to do something more than just stand on the corner with our pants hanging below our buttocks. We can’t do that if every word that comes out of our mouths is a curse word. Or the only way we know how to solve a problem is to use our fi sts. And I am not just talking to the kids, either. Wake up, grown-ups, and show us a better way. Wake up, grown-ups—you’re poisoning young minds of the world. Dr. King preached nonviolence. If you’re fussing and fi ghting all the time, we fuss and fi ght. What can you do to help us? Remind yourself what Dr. King stood up for—a better way to live. Be the mammas and daddies. Raise your children to respect you, to respect themselves, and to respect others—blacks, whites, Hispanics, Asians, and Native Americans. Dr. King was convinced that we could all live as one race—the human race. Are we supporting that dream? Are we helping mankind so our world will be a better place for now and in the future? The time to stand up for rights is right now. I imagine Dr. King looking down right now and shaking his head and wondering, Did I really make a difference? Yes, Dr. King, you did make a difference, but we still have a long way to go. And today I can stand here and say, I support Dr. King’s beliefs. The belief that segregated schools should be ended. The belief that violence against blacks should end. The hatred and prejudice should end. Dr. King gave his life for these beliefs. And I will not let his dreams die. I will not be lazy or uneducated. I will not hate my Hispanic neighbors just because they don’t look like me. I will achieve the dream of becoming an outstanding black female attorney. Dr. King believed that we could overcome. And today, January 15, 2010, I, Tamia Gaines, pledge to all who will hear me: I can, I must, I will achieve my dreams and my successes. Why? Because Dr. King kicked down the door so I can walk through. Thank you, Dr. King. And thank you, ladies and gentlemen.

Questions for Analysis and Discussion

1. How does Tamia’s language refl ect the qualities of spoken language? For example, how was her language immediate? 2. How was Tamia’s language audience-centered? Give an example of how Tamia a. Put her language in context. b. Personalized her language. c. Used inclusive language. d. Used visual language. e. Sparked imagination with her language. 3. How well did Tamia follow the guidelines for using language in public speaking? Give examples for each area. a. Used spoken language. b. Chose meaningful words. c. Balanced clarity and ambiguity. d. Was concise. 208

CH010.indd 208 07/10/10 6:57 PM e. Avoided off ensive and aggressive language. f. Built in redundancy. g. Didn’t get too attached to her words. 4. If you were giving Tamia suggestions for improvement, what would you say?

Summary

anguage enlivens your ideas. Th e words you choose get your audience’s attention, help them visualize your main points, and facilitate their ability to remember Lwhat you say. Language refers to the system of words you use to communicate with others. It is arbitrary, ambiguous, abstract, and active, characteristics that present speakers with both opportunities and challenges. Because language is arbitrary, audiences may interpret your words in ways you don’t intend. Because language is ambiguous, consider both the connotative and denotative meanings of the words you use. Because language is abstract, consider when to discuss ideas and concepts rather than tangible objects and specifi c actions. Because language is active, the words you use and how you use them change over time. Language and culture are interdependent. You learn about the meanings of words from your culture, and words help you interpret culture. Slang, jargon, idioms, euphemisms, and clichés highlight the link between language and culture. Because your audiences may not always share your cultural background, it’s best to avoid these types of culture-specific words or phrases unless they’re essential to the speech. You must also pay attention to gender and language when you give a speech, considering how the gender of your listeners will affect how they interpret your message. In addition, use nonsexist language to avoid alienating some members of your audience. Spoken language diff ers from written language in that it is dynamic, immediate, informal, irreversible, based in narrative, and rhythmic, whereas written language is static, distant, formal, revisable, able to describe multiple facts, and rich in imagery. When you give a speech to an audience, use spoken language in an engaging, conversational manner and use audience-centered language. When you take an audience-centered approach, you put your language in context, personalize your language, use inclusive language, use visual language, and spark imagination with your language. To use language successfully to engage your audience, use spoken language, choose meaningful words, balance clarity and ambiguity, strive for conciseness, avoid off ensive or aggressive language, build in redundancy, and don’t get too attached to your words.

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CH010.indd 209 07/10/10 6:57 PM Review it Directory of Study and Review Resources

IN THE BOOK SPEECH BUILDER EXPRESS Summary Goal /purpose Key Terms Thesis stat ement Critical Challenges Organization Outline MORE STUDY RESOURCES Supporting materials Quizzes Transitions WebLinks Introduction Peer-reviewed videos Conclusion Title STUDENT WORKBOOK W orks cited 10.1: Written and Spoken Style Completing the speech outline 10.2: Working Up a Sentence 10.3: Creating Clusters INFOTRAC 10.4: Analyzing Presidential Style Recommended search terms 10.5: Stylistic Devices Language and public speaking Language and culture SPEECH BUDDY VIDEOS Language and gender WATCH It Video Nonsexist language 10.1: Engaging your Audience with Language Spoken versus written language 10 .2: Making Language Choices Inclusive language USE It Activity Figures of speech 10.1: You’re Engaged! Imagery and language 10.2: Wrong Word, Right Word AUDIO STUDY TOOLS SAMPLE SPEECH VIDEOS “Feeding the Wildlife: Don’t Do It!” by Brandi Stacey, “Fallen Soldiers,” commemorative Critical thinking questions speech Learning objectives Brandi, “Feeding the Wildlife: Don’t Do It!” per- Chapter summary suasive speech

Guide to Your Online Resources

Your Speech Communication quizzes, and the Critical Challenge questions for CourseMate for Public Speaking: this chapter, which you can respond to via e-mail The Evolving Art gives you access to the Speech if your instructor so requests. In addition, your Buddy video and activity featured in this chapter, CourseMate features live WebLinks relevant to this additional sample speech videos, Speech Studio, chapter. Links are regularly maintained, and new Speech Builder Express, InfoTrac College Edition, ones are added periodically. and study aids such as glossary flashcards, review

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CH010.indd 210 07/10/10 6:57 PM Key Terms

alliteration 203 inclusive language 200 parallelism 202 antithesis 203 interpretations 188 rhymes 202 clichés 193 invitations to imagine 203 similes 202 connotative meanings 189 jargon 192 slang 192 denotative meanings 189 language 188 symbols 188 euphemisms 193 metaphors 202 tag questions 194 hedges 194 nonsexist language 194 tone 190 idioms 193

Critical Challenges

Questions for Refl ection and Discussion 1. Although ambiguity can produce positive results, it can also obscure the speaker’s true intentions. Consider your use of ambiguous language. Have you ever used vague language to mislead or deceive others? Or has someone ever misled or deceived you in this way? What was the outcome? How did you feel about what happened? What did you learn from your experience? 2. Similes and metaphors help audience members visualize your ideas. Brainstorm for similes and metaphors that describe your college. How do those analogies help you visualize your campus? How do diff erent similes and metaphors reveal or hide diff erent aspects of your college? What ethical responsibilities do speakers have when choosing similes and metaphors to compare things? 3. Swear words can get your audience’s attention and give added impact to what you say. But is it the impact you want? Should you swear in your speech? Recall an instance in which you heard or read about a speaker cursing during a presentation. How did you react? Do you think that’s the reaction the speaker intended? Is using such words ever appropriate in public speaking? Why or why not? 4. Go to Speech Studio to analyze the type and style of language other students use in their speeches. Alternatively, record a speech you’re working on, upload it to Speech Studio, and ask your peers for their feedback. What feedback could you use to fi ne- tune your language use before you give your speech in class?

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CH010.indd 211 07/10/10 6:57 PM Integrating 11 Presentation Media

Read it • Why We Use Presentation Media 214 • Using Computer Technology 219 • Understanding the Basics of Visual Design 215 • Tips for Using Presentation Media 224 • Using Traditional Visual and Audio Media 215

Watch it • Using Digital Slides 223

• Integrating Presentation Media 225 Cengage Learning Cengage

Use it • PowerPoint Makeover 223 • Exhibit A 225

Cengage Learning

Review it • Directory of Study and Review Resources 226

Ch011.indd 212 07/10/10 6:45 PM oday’s technology offers an array of visual and audio resources Tthat can enhance your speech. Presentation media are technical and material resources, ranging from presentation software such as PowerPoint and Keynote to ﬂ ip charts and handouts, that speakers use to highlight, clarify, and complement the information they present orally. Knowing how and when to use these resources is especially important for public speakers because presentation media are often misused. Resources such as PowerPoint can add a lot to your message, but the unimaginative use of presentation media will bore the audience. When integrated effectively into a speech, even low-tech presentation media can greatly enhance the look and feel of your speeches, strengthen your message, and help ensure the speech fulﬁ lls its purpose. In this chapter, you’ll learn about the most popular presentation media used today, the basics of good design, and guidelines for using presentation media effectively.

Technical and material resources ranging from presentation software and real-time web access (RWA) to ﬂ ip charts and handouts that speakers use to highlight, clarify, and complement the information they present orally.

Bob Daemmrich/PhotoEdit

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Ch011.indd 213 07/10/10 6:45 PM Why We Use Presentation Media

Audiences appreciate speakers who use technological and symbolic resources creatively. When used appropriately, presentation media can become a core feature of your speeches. Learning how to use presentation media well involves more than mastering a set of technical procedures. Your use of presentation media must also be properly motivated and well executed to clarify, support, dramatize, exemplify, or complement information you present orally. You can use presentation media to attract and connect with audience members, spark their imagination, make sure they get the full meaning and impact of what you have to say, and demonstrate your creativity. Used properly, presentation media add something special to your speech by giving the audience additional sensory input about your topic or your argument. However, like everything else in your speech, you must have good reasons for incorporating media into your presentation. You can use presentation media to

■ Draw attention to your topic.

■ Illustrate an idea that can’t be fully described by words alone.

■ Stimulate an emotional reaction.

■ Clarify a key point.

■ Support your argument with a graphical display of facts and fi gures.

■ Help your audience remember your main ideas. Each type of presentation media has advantages and limitations, summarized in Table 11.1. Th e remainder of this chapter explores the most useful applications of the most popular presentation media and considers how you can best employ them in your speeches.

Table 11.1 Advantages and Limitations of Presentation Media

Type Advantages Limitations

Overhead Technical simplicity; ease of use Transparency placement and order; transparency speaker tends to talk to screen

Flip chart or poster Documents audience feedback and ideas Lacks a professional look; may be hard for all audience members to see

Whiteboard or Records spontaneous thoughts Writing takes away from speaking time; chalkboard speaker may appear unprepared, rude

Document camera Projects images with great detail; can zoom Expensive equipment; complex to use in, capture images, display 3-D renderings

Video Evokes emotions in audience; portrays Interferes with speaking pace and examples audience focus

Handout Enhances audience recall after speech; Disrupts continuity of presentation; reinforces key ideas wasteful

Model Provides speciﬁ c references; helps Can be too small or detailed; not audiences visualize materials and concepts suitable for large audiences

Audio media Set mood; trigger imagination Decrease speaking time; distracting

Digital slide Blends text, images, video, sound Overused, boring, speech content neglected; speaker tends to talk to screen

Real-time web Fresh, current information Slow connections and download times; access available systems can be unreliable

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Ch011.indd 214 07/10/10 6:45 PM Table 11.2 General Guidelines for Visual Design

Keep it simple. Avoid including too much information in a graphic. The impact should be immediate and clear. By keeping visual material simple, you maintain maximum personal contact with your audience.

Emphasize only key ideas. When you call attention to ideas with a graphic representation, make sure the graphic clearly illustrates your key points or most important supporting data.

Show what you can’t say. The best use of visual media is to reveal material you can’t easily describe orally or with text. Photographs, drawings, simple charts, and graphs can all accomplish this objective.

Use close-up photographs Select and present photographs, video, and other images that will create and other images. real impact. Close-ups can be very effective, especially to evoke emotional responses from your audience.

Keep the number of images Too many images will tire your audience. Eight or ten relevant images should you present manageable. be the maximum number for most presentations (unless you’re giving a speech about a highly visual topic).

Combine variety with If you use several images, vary the design enough to make them interesting but coherence. keep them aesthetically consistent. For instance, use the same colors or type font, but vary the content. Or mix photographs with graphics that maintain the same style throughout.

Use large lettering. Use large lettering so the audience can read the text easily. Avoid presenting lengthy blocks of text.

Understanding the Basics of Visual Design

Th e principles of good design apply to every visual medium.1 To get the maximum impact from visual presentation media, follow the general guidelines for visual design outlined in Table 11.2. Strive to be clear and concise. For example, putting too much information on a single digital slide will overwhelm and distract audience members—they’ll either dismiss the slide or try to read it instead of listening to you. Choose your visual materials carefully, using just enough to make your points and draw attention to the ideas you want the audience to remember. Visual material that is not obviously relevant to your topic is not appreciated by audiences and not likely to be remembered.2 Use visual materials when images will say more than words. For example, close-up images oft en have a powerful impact because they’re perceived as personal and intimate. To avoid boring your audience, balance variety with coherence by developing a consistent theme for your visual media while varying the content. Finally, large lettering makes it easier for the audience to see your visual media and grasp your points quickly.

Using Traditional Visual and Audio Media

Traditional visual and audio media used in public speaking include overhead transparencies, fl ip charts and posters, whiteboards and chalkboards, document cameras, video, handouts, models, and sound recordings.

Overhead Transparencies Although most speakers in work-related speaking situations use digital slides and document cameras, overhead transparencies are still oft en used in classrooms. To use an overhead projector, you must fi rst make transparencies of the material you want to 215

Chapter 11 Integrating Presentation Media Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

Ch011.indd 215 07/10/10 6:45 PM show. Transparencies are clear acetate pages displayed by an overhead projector during A clear acetate page displayed by means a speech. You can create high-quality transparencies in color or black and white by of an overhead projector. using the presentation, word-processing, or graphics soft ware on your computer, Color is more expensive, but the impact it creates for many applications oft en makes the extra investment worth it. Many classrooms are equipped with an overhead projector for displaying transparencies. If yours is not, arrange to have one delivered to the room on the day of your speech. Check out the location of the overhead projector in the room. Is it mounted on a mobile stand, or will you have to place the projector on a table or a stand? Be sure you know this before the day of your speech. To integrate overhead transparencies smoothly into your speech, apply the following guidelines:

■ Display your transparencies only when you talk about them. Place your fi rst slide on the overhead projector, focus it before you begin your speech, and turn the machine off . When you reach the point in your speech where you want to show the image, turn the projector on. Generally, activate the projector only when you want to project an image. Similarly, if you will spend several minutes on material unrelated to the last image you’ve shown, turn the machine off . If you intend to show several images, especially in rapid succession, it’s okay to keep the machine on between them. When you fi nish with the fi nal image, turn the projector off for good. If the projector is mounted on a mobile stand, push the stand out of your way to give yourself center stage for the remainder of your speech.

■ Number the sheets in the order you’ll use them. Use a small sticker or piece of adhesive paper, about the size of a quarter, for each transparency. Write a number plainly on each dot and place it in the upper right corner of the image. Place the dots consistently in such a way that the dots guide you toward placing the transparency on the projector properly, so that the image will appear correctly on the screen. Th en make a pile of the transparencies in the order in which you will use them, each with the dot in the same position on the page.

■ Don Hammond/Design Pics/Corbis Practice with your transparencies be- Although most speakers in the workplace use digital slides in their presentations, it’s fore you give your speech. Take a few a good idea to know how to use overhead transparencies. They are easy to prepare minutes before the day of your speech and use, and they’re still often used in academic settings. to fi nd out exactly how to position the projector, turn the machine on and off , place your images on the glass properly, and focus the image on the screen. Th en practice facing your imaginary audience the way you’ll speak to the real audience on the day of your speech.

Flip Charts Sometimes speakers want to document good ideas brought up during an interactive A large pad of paper that rests on an brainstorming session. An excellent medium for accomplishing this is a fl ip chart, a easel, allowing a speaker to record text or drawings with markers during a large pad of paper propped up on an easel placed near the speaker. Write on the fl ip speech. chart with a big, bold marker so everyone in the room can see what you’ve written. 216

Ch011.indd 216 07/10/10 6:45 PM Even the biggest high-tech companies routinely use fl ip charts for their in-person brainstorming sessions. Th e audience stays lively during such interactive meetings, as long as the meeting is attended by a relatively small number of people. In large spaces with large audiences, fl ip charts won’t hold the audience’s attention or serve the purpose of facilitating interaction among audience members.

Whiteboards and Chalkboards Using a whiteboard with colored pens, or even a chalkboard with white chalk, can help you achieve the same outcome as a fl ip chart or an easel. Th e board, however, should A smooth whiteboard that can be written be used only when brainstorming with the audience about ideas, never for presenting or drawn on with markers. materials. Although it may be tempting, don’t even use it for posting telephone numbers, web addresses, mailing addresses, and the like. Turning your back to the audience while you scribble something on the board can make you look less prepared and professional than you are. You’ll be more eff ective if you include this sort of information on a digital slide that you project during the speech or put in a handout for distribution aft er you conclude your speech.

Document Cameras Document cameras function somewhat like overhead projectors but provide features that are far more sophisticated and project images in a higher resolution. Unlike A projection device that uses a video overhead projectors, which use light and mirrors to display the image on a transparency, camera to capture and display images, document cameras use a video camera to capture and display the image. Document including 3-D visual materials. cameras allow you to zoom in on a specifi c part of an image, capture an image for later use, and show highly detailed images—abilities an overhead projector doesn’t give you. As with all presentation media, prepare the images you want to display well in advance and practice using the document camera so you’re comfortable with all its features.

Video To determine whether you should use a video clip, ask yourself whether it will contribute something truly important to your speech. Showing a video clip can elicit an emotional response from the audience and improve their recall of your speech.3 But it also dramatically changes the mood of the speech and may disturb the relationship between speaker and audience. With the availability of online video sites such as YouTube and Hulu, searching for and identifying a relevant video clip has become much easier than it used to be. If you use video clips well, audiences are increasingly prepared to appreciate them as part of your speech. More than 90 percent of internet users aged eighteen to twenty-nine watch content on video sharing sites, which is more than visit social networking sites, download podcasts, or use Twitter.4 If you decide to incorporate a video clip into your speech, consider these guidelines:

■ Keep the clip short. With other visual media, speakers continue talking while showing the images or text. Unless you turn off the audio for a video clip, you can’t speak while it’s playing, so you lose valuable speaking time. In addition, a lengthy clip takes the audience’s attention away from you. Choose a short clip for maximum impact.

■ Treat the video component as an integral part of your speech. Determine how you will transition into and out of the video to provide a seamless experience for your audience.

■ If possible, embed the video within your digital slides. Presentation soft ware such as PowerPoint and Keynote allows you to insert video into a slide so you can avoid relying on a separate piece of equipment such as a DVD projector. 217

Ch011.indd 217 07/10/10 6:46 PM ■ Make sure the video is not off ensive. Video clips can be used to stimulate a strong reaction. Just be sure the content won’t off end audience members, which may cause them to stop listening to you or to dismiss your message.

■ Cite the source of the video clip. As you introduce the video segment during your speech, say where it originated, not just where you got it. For example, many videos on YouTube and Hulu come from primary sources such as television networks or movie trailers.

■ Be sure the clip is legitimate. Just as you have to make sure your written sources of information are credible, be certain your visual sources are too. Anyone can post almost anything on video sharing sites, including hoaxes. Be sure you know that the clip you’re using is authentic and legitimate. Be wary of incorporating an attention-getting video clip at the risk of neglecting the most important elements of your speech—the content and the delivery. In addition, keep in mind that relating a fi lm clip to your speech in a way that truly advances your purpose can prove challenging. Audience members may enjoy watching a brief video clip, but it may not inform or persuade them in ways related to your topic.

Handouts Th e paper handout can be very eff ective in some instances. For example, you might Sheets of paper containing relevant use a handout to provide a list of website addresses where audience members can information that are distributed before, make donations to a charity you’ve described in a persuasive speech. You might give during, or after a speech. your audience a diagram illustrating how to administer emergency cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) treatment. You could hand out copies of a letter you’ve written to your state senator promoting tougher child pornography laws, and encourage your listeners to sign and mail them. Some speakers use a handout in conjunction with other presentation media.5 For instance, you might use digital slides to provide photographic detail and graphic summaries of the eff ectiveness of a new cancer-treating drug, then pass out a handout that provides a list of websites where the audience can fi nd additional information about the new treatment. If you decide to use a handout, think carefully about when you’ll distribute it. You have three options: Before you begin the speech, during the speech, or aft er you conclude. To help you decide which option to use, determine when the audience needs the information. Also think about how the physical act of distributing the handout will aff ect your speech performance. Passing paper around the room is noisy and may disrupt your audience’s attention and concentration. In addition, the audience will read the handout and not pay attention to you. All things considered, it’s almost always best to distribute handouts aft er you fi nish your formal remarks.6

Apply it Extending the Speech

You can use various techniques to extend and enhance slides you presented. Or collect the email addresses of the audience’s experience beyond your original audience members and send your slides to them after presentation. For instance, at the end of your speech, pass the speech. In some cases, speakers even dispense with out a handout that indicates how to contact you or the showing digital slides in their speeches and just mail the persons or institutions mentioned in the speech, where to slides to audience members afterward. locate relevant web resources, or how to review the digital

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Ch011.indd 218 07/10/10 6:46 PM Models For certain subjects, physical models that represent the topic being discussed can add a helpful, sometimes necessary, visual dimension to a speech. Models are especially useful for describing and explaining scientifi c topics that involve a physical structure. For instance, the molecular structure of an atom can be demonstrated with a model. A small-scale replica of fossil remains can help a speaker describe the physical characteristics of an extinct species. In fact, speeches about medical and biological topics such as the anatomy of the brain or the physiology of hearing would be diffi cult to present without the appropriate model. Other types of speech topics also lend themselves to the use of models. Community planners and architects oft en use models to promote their ideas. For example, a model of a proposed new building for the community or campus helps audience members visualize what the structure would look like. An alternative to using a physical model is to use a soft ware program that allows you to project animated three-dimensional models onto a screen. Th is option eliminates the two greatest disadvantages of using a physical model: its small size, which limits the audience’s ability to see the model, and the diffi culty of trying to handle or show the model during the speech. YOSHIKAZU TSUNO/AFP/Getty Images Sound Recordings You don’t have to limit yourself to just one type of presentation media during your speech. Sometimes a combination of media Sound, like visual images, can stimulate mental images, can help your audience better understand your ideas. For triggering the imagination and setting a mood.7 Sound can example, this speaker is demonstrating a model of a machine provide examples of something that is diffi cult to explain that measures brain activity. At the same time, he’s show- with words. How might you convince your audience that a ing a digital slide of the areas of the brain that the machine proposal for a new freeway through your city is a bad idea? measures. Play a tape of traffi c noise—loudly. How might you set the A copy of an object, usually built to scale, mood for a demonstration of massage therapy? Begin with a few seconds of calming that represents the object in detail. ambient music, played soft ly. Of course, keep your audience in mind: Avoid music or other sounds that would off end or alienate audience members, such as songs containing profane or sexually explicit language. Audio technology is usually relatively easy to manage. If the place where you’ll be speaking doesn’t provide audio equipment, bring your own portable CD or MP3 player and speakers. Better yet, embed the audio fi le in a digital slide so that you can transition into and out of your audio clip smoothly. Set the volume high enough so everyone can hear the sound clearly, but don’t turn it up so loud that it annoys your audience. Some public speakers briefl y sing or play an acoustic instrument as part of their speeches. Th at can be eff ective too; just don’t confuse giving a speech with giving a concert.

Using Computer Technology

Depending on the speaking context, you may want to use a computer to enhance your presentation. Th e two computer technologies speakers use most commonly are digital slides and real-time web access. 219

Ch011.indd 219 07/10/10 6:46 PM Digital Slides: Do’s and Don’ts Th e name PowerPoint has become synonymous with presentation soft ware, but Apple has presentation soft ware too—Keynote, an easy-to-use program that is rapidly gaining in popularity. Other computer-generated slide soft ware is available from Corel Presentations, Lotus Freelance Graphics, and MagicPoint. Presentation soft ware allows Computer software that allows users to computer users to display information in multimedia slide shows. display information in multimedia slide Without question, presentation soft ware is the most versatile and dynamic shows. multimedia tool for most public speaking purposes. When it is used eff ectively, audiences pay increased attention to speakers, understand main ideas better, and retain information well.8 But not every speech or occasion calls for the use of digital slides.9 Many audiences have tired of overblown PowerPoint-driven speeches. Some classrooms and boardrooms have even banned the use of PowerPoint.10 Still, when used appropriately, presentation soft ware can greatly enhance your speech. You may already feel comfortable and confi dent using PowerPoint or Keynote. If you’re just getting started, consult the online help and documentation that come with the soft ware. Your school may provide tutorials for learning how to use presentation soft ware. You can also fi nd free tutorials online. When used in moderation, presentation soft ware can help you produce a more conversational and engaging presentation.11 But remember: Presentation soft ware will not give your speech for you. Nor should it be more prominent than you, the speaker.12 You give a “speech,” not a “PowerPoint presentation.” You and your message must remain the primary focal points. To use digital slides eff ectively, follow these guidelines:

■ Carefully develop your speech and then consider how you’ll support your oral materials with digital slides. Avoid taking the reverse approach, overpreparing your digital slides and underpreparing the rest of your presentation. Th e success of your speech depends primarily on the quality of what you have to say.13

■ Use digital slides sparingly. Audiences tire of too much visual information and will tune you out if they feel visually overwhelmed.14 When used inappropriately, digital slides take the emotion and personality out of the speech and diminish the vital connection between speaker and audience.15 Use digital slides in a way that keeps your audience connected to you and your topic. Keep in mind that some types of information are better suited to digital slides than others. For example, integrating highly technical material into a speech is one of the most eff ective uses of presentation soft ware.16

■ Balance creativity with clarity and predictability with spontaneity. Avoid depending on the standard templates, clip art, and animation techniques that presentation soft ware programs provide. Because PowerPoint is so widely used today, everyone immediately recognizes those predictable visual forms. Although audiences generally prefer digital slides to overhead transparencies, they usually don’t like the soft ware’s animations and sound eff ects.17 Keep your slides clear and easy for the audience to understand. ©Ted Goff ©Ted 220

Ch011.indd 220 07/10/10 6:46 PM Th e next section provides specifi c strategies for designing Figure 11.1 Too much text slides and managing the computer hardware used to present them. Definitions of Patriotism Merriam Webster Dictionary: love for or devotion to one’s country Wiktionary: Love of country; devotion to the welfare of one’s Digital Slide Design Tips country; the virtues and actions of a patriot; the passion which With presentation soft ware, you have more elements to inspires one to serve one’s country. consider than with other visual media. For example, you can Ultralingua Online Dictionary: Love of country and willingness to make visual transitions from one slide to the next and select sacrifice for it. special eff ects that animate your graphical material. Th ese Cambridge International Dictionary of English: when you love your features represent real advantages over other presentation country and are proud of it Infoplease Dictionary: devoted love, support, and defense of one’s media, but only when you use them strategically and country; national loyalty sparingly. The Wordsmyth English Dictionary: love for, and devotion and loyalty Th e general guidelines for visual design presented in to, one’s nation Table 11.2 outline most of what you need to know about designing digital slides. If you use presentation soft ware, keep the following additional guidelines in mind when designing the slides for your speech:

■ Avoid relying on text or numbers.Th e most eff ective use of presentation soft ware is for visual, not textual or Figure 11.2 Too many bullet points numerical, representation. Th e visuals may be still or moving images. (See Figure 11.1.) TYPES OF PERFORMING ARTS ■ Limit the number of bullet points for each slide. If you • Juggling • Storytelling decide to use text, don’t bore your audience with lengthy, wordy slides. Use a maximum of four to six • Dance • Art Festivals bullet points per slide. (See Figure 11.2.) • Circuses • Fire Arts ■ Limit the number of words for each bullet point. Use • Magic • Variety Entertainment just a few words or a brief phrase for each bullet point. (See Figure 11.3.) • Opera • Comedy

■ Make the type font large and clean. Keep the font size • Musicals large (40-point and above for titles; 20-point and above for text), and stay away from script or overly abstract lettering styles. Use sans-serif fonts, such as Arial, Verdana, and Geneva, for maximum readability. (See Figure 11.4.)

Figure 11.3 Wordy bullet points Figure 11.4 Large, clean type font

Components of Education International Independence Days • Knowledge - what you are confident you understand or know about a subject • Afghanistan - August 19 • Learning - how you go about acquiring knowledge and wisdom through studying a • Guatemala - September 15 subject • Poland - November 11 • Pedagogy - considered both an art and a • Zambia - October 24 science, refers to the methods teachers use in the process of instruction

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Ch011.indd 221 07/10/10 6:46 PM ■ Choose transitions that fi t the tone of your topic and visual material. Presentation soft ware gives you many ways to move from one slide to the next. Good choices include “fade through black” and “dissolve.” Keynote also includes three- dimensional transitions, such as “page fl ip” and “revolving door.” Within a speech, use the same type of transition for all your slides to give the audience a sense of consistency.

■ Avoid special eff ects. Special eff ects allow you to manipulate the visual fi eld of a digital slide in order to put portions of the fi eld in motion. For instance, you can have an image “fl y” in from top or bottom, left or right. Audiences usually fi nd these eff ects annoying and distracting. Any special eff ect you use should serve a purpose directly related to your speech’s purpose.

■ Use color well. To make your slides easy to read, choose colors that produce a high contrast between the background and the font. Most speakers prefer a clean white background with dark lettering. Sometimes it makes sense to match the color scheme of the slide set with the speech event or organization, like using your school’s colors for a presentation about a campus issue.

Apply it Digital Literacy and Creativity

Knowing how to use digital slides offers you advantages groups, public events, clubs, and even family gatherings. that extend far beyond the public speaking classroom. In But don’t think of digital literacy strictly as a technical a competitive job market, being able to use digital slides skill. Like all forms of human expression, composing and well gives you a communication skill that is highly valued presenting digital images gives you a great opportunity to by professional employers. You can also incorporate digital exercise your imagination and creativity. Digital media is slides into presentations for civic organizations, nonprofi t not just a tool—it’s also an art form. Enjoy!

Hardware Setup Tips Th e hardware you use for your presentation soft ware depends mainly on the equipment your school and instructor can make available. Fortunately, most schools and businesses are well equipped to handle PowerPoint, Keynote, and similar soft ware. Your institution may provide a computer and an LCD projector in the room where you’ll present your speech. In that case, you’ll probably only have to save your digital slides on a fl ash drive and bring it with you. Familiarize yourself with the equipment in the room well before the day of your speech. When equipment is not readily available, you may decide to use your own laptop and connect it to a projector supplied by your school. Many speakers fi nd this to be a good solution because they feel most comfortable using their own computers. Any setup you use requires careful planning. Even if you bring your own equipment, know

In the award-winning ﬁ lm An Inconvenient Truth, former U.S. Vice President Al Gore used digital slide imagery creatively to dramatize his argument about the dangers of

VALERY HACHE/AFP/Getty Images VALERY global climate change. 222

Ch011.indd 222 07/10/10 6:46 PM how to make it function properly in the room where you’ll be speaking. Speaking of . . . If you’d like greater freedom to move around the room during your speech, use a remote control device when you present your digital slides. With a remote, you can advance the slides whenever you want from any place in the room. Digital Slide Show Wins Academy Award Computer-generated visuals have become an Real-time Web Access important contributor to public discourse in Today more and more classrooms and meeting rooms have internet modern society.18 This is vividly illustrated in the access, which gives you the option of displaying a website during ﬁ lm An Inconvenient Truth, which won the 2007 your speech. Th is is a dynamic resource that can be very useful for Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature. The ﬁ lm follows former U.S. Vice President Al certain kinds of presentations. When applied to speechmaking, this Gore as he travels around the world giving a functionality is termed real-time web access (RWA). With RWA, you speech about global climate change. As the navigate in real time through web pages associated with your topic. camera pulls back from close-up shots of Gore on You can use RWA to demonstrate how to do something specifi c on various stages, audience members view immense the web, such as researching an idea, checking the current status of digital slides that dwarf the speaker. Imaginatively any topic, or displaying articles found on websites that support your using graphs, charts, images, video, and audio, Gore takes the audience through the sometimes- purpose or argument. Th is web evidence, or webidence, gives your dry technical evidence that supports his thesis: presentation an in-the-moment feeling not possible with static digital Humans are causing climate change and must 19 slides. Because the audience understands that you are speaking act now to save the planet. Gore’s rousing speech in real time, you can also encourage audience participation in your and use of digital slides are credited with raising navigations or searches. international awareness about the seriousness of Th e spontaneous nature of RWA and webidence can be used global warming. to the speaker’s advantage. Still, if you plan to display a web page in real time during your speech, check immediately beforehand to Employing a live internet feed as a visual make sure access is possible and that the site you intend to show is available. media or information resource during a public speech.

Web sources displayed as evidence during a speech, found by using real-time web access or webpage capture software. Watch it Use it

Watch your and use Speech Buddy what you’ve video learned in your next speech. Cengage Learning Cengage Learning SPEECH BUDDY VIDEO 11.1 Using Digital Slides ACTIVITY 11.1 PowerPoint Makeover Erin introduces sample digital slides and highlights design successes and failures. This activity gives you a chance to evaluate several digital slides and suggest ways to improve them.

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Ch011.indd 223 07/10/10 6:46 PM Tips for Using Presentation Media

Presentation media can enhance your eff ectiveness as a speaker but can also detract from your message if they are not used correctly. Th e following tips will help you integrate presentation media into your speech successfully.

Consider Your Room and the Audience To get the maximum eff ect from your presentation media, be sure you have unobstructed access to the equipment while you speak. Th is will boost your confi dence and make you appear more comfortable to your audience. Project your images at a height and distance that will make them easy to see for everyone in the audience. Th is may require moving a table or a stand to a better position. When using digital slides or other media that require a screen, avoid turning toward the screen where the images are projected. Remain facing your audience while they look at the screen. One advantage of digital slides and real-time web access is that the same images your audience sees appear on your computer screen. You will always know exactly what’s on the big screen simply by observing what’s on your computer screen.

Practice with Your Media When you practice your speech, incorporate your digital slides, document camera images, and other presentation media so you learn to integrate them smoothly into your speech. Sometimes speakers forget about their media as they give their speeches, so include reminders on your note cards or outline indicating when to use your presentation media. It’s a good idea to write these reminders in a diff erent color from the rest of your cards or outline so they’ll catch your attention during your speech. Arriving early and checking on the technical equipment for your speech will help you manage nervousness and avoid technology mishaps. If possible, check the sharpness and placement of projected images before audience members enter the room. Put your transparencies in order. Set the volume levels of your audio system. Although presentation media greatly enhance the public speaking experience, you must be prepared for those technologies to fail. Sometimes quick repairs are possible; at other times, you just have to continue your speech without the technology you’d planned to use. In these cases, you must improvise. Use the chalkboard or whiteboard. Ask for volunteers from the audience to demonstrate a point. Bring backup visual materials, such as overhead transparencies with key images or graphics. In short, always be prepared to give your speech without your presentation media in case something goes wrong—the audience will understand! Eff ectively managing your technology requires planning and practice. Design digital

corbis rf/First Light slides, overhead transparencies, audio clips, There’s no need to look at your digital slides while presenting. It’s even and other technological components of your less effective to read the content of your slides to audience members. presentation prior to the day you must give Let them view your slides on their own while you engage them directly your speech. Practice using the technology so with your words. it becomes a natural part of your presentation. 224

Ch011.indd 224 07/10/10 6:46 PM Speak to Your Audience, Not Your Media Whatever presentation media you use, always keep your focus on the audience. You may be tempted to look at the screen when projecting an image. But when you look at the screen, you turn your back on the audience. Listeners will feel ignored, and their attention will wane. Instead, glance at the actual image on the media equipment, such as the computer screen. Most importantly, never read the content of your presentation media to your audience. As you practice with your presentation media, make a conscious eff ort to face your practice audience or face where the audience would be sitting.

Watch it Use it Cengage Learning Cengage Learning SPEECH BUDDY VIDEO 11.2 Integrating Presentation Media ACTIVITY 11.2 Exhibit A Anthony introduces examples of speakers who have integrated presentation media into their speeches T his activity gives you practice in evaluating the effectively. effectiveness of different kinds of presentation media.

Summary

peakers use presentation media to draw attention to their topic, illustrate an idea, evoke an emotional reaction, clarify points, support an argument, and assist with Saudience recall. General guidelines for designing eff ective visual media include keeping it simple, emphasizing only key ideas, showing what you can’t say, using close- ups of photographs and other images, combining variety with coherence, and using large, readable lettering. Traditional visual and audio media such as overhead transparencies, fl ip charts and posters, whiteboards and chalkboards, document cameras, video, handouts, models, and sound recordings allow you to enrich your speech. Digital slides have become a frequently used form of presentation media. Although some speakers rely too much on computer-generated slides, the versatility of soft ware programs such as PowerPoint and Keynote off ers tremendous fl exibility in creating dynamic visual and audio materials. By treating your presentation media as essential components of your speech that require careful preparation and delivery, you can maximize their impact and avoid 225

Ch011.indd 225 07/10/10 6:46 PM common problems associated with their use. Th e key to success in using presentation media is balance: Give media the proper supporting role in your speech. With all the resources available to you, remember that you will always be the best delivery system for communicating ideas to your audience.

Review it Directory of Study and Review Resources

IN THE BOOK SAMPLE SPEECH VIDEOS Summary Amanda, “Domestic Violence,” problem- Key Terms cause-solution speech Critical Challenges Cindy, “U.S. Flag Etiquette,” informative speech

MORE STUDY RESOURCES SPEECH BUILDER EXPRESS Quizzes Visual aids WebLinks Peer-reviewed videos INFOTRAC Recommended search terms STUDENT WORKBOOK Presentation tips 11.1: Brainstorming Images Visual aids and public speaking 11.2: Presentation Media Effects Visual aid design tips 11.3: Slides or a Handout? 11.4: Is It Worth It? AUDIO STUDY TOOLS 11.5: Ignite Speeches “Domestic Violence” by Amanda Critical thinking questions SPEECH BUDDY VIDEOS Learning objectives WATCH It Video Chapter summary 11.1: Using Digital Slides 11.2: Integrating Presentation Media USE It Activity 11.1: PowerPoint Makeover 11.2: Exhibit A

Guide to Your Online Resources

Your Speech Communication chapter, which you can respond to via e-mail if your CourseMate for Public Speaking: instructor so requests. In addition, your CourseMate Th e Evolving Art gives you access to the Speech features live WebLinks relevant to this chapter, Buddy video and activity featured in this chapter, including the Gettysburg PowerPoint Presentation, additional sample speech videos, Speech Studio, which includes background on how the presentation’s Speech Builder Express, InfoTrac College Edition, slides were developed and statistics on its viewership. and study aids such as glossary fl ashcards, review Links are regularly maintained, and new ones are quizzes, and the Critical Challenge questions for this added periodically.

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Ch011.indd 226 07/10/10 6:46 PM Key Terms

document cameras 217 presentation media 213 webidence 223 ﬂ ip chart 216 presentation software 220 whiteboard 217 handout 218 real-time web access 223 model 219 transparency 216

Critical Challenges

Questions for Refl ection and Discussion 1. Although this chapter focuses on how to use presentation media, when should you not use them? Why might you not want to use presentation media? 2. Refl ect on a public speaking event you’ve attended recently, or one that you recall particularly well, in which the speaker used presentation media. How eff ective was the speaker’s use of presentation media? How did the media add to the speech? Were there ways in which the presentation media detracted from the speech? How might the speaker have improved his or her use of presentation media? 3. With digital visual and audio fi les, it’s easy to alter an original photograph, video, song, or taped conversation. What are a speaker’s ethical responsibilities when developing presentation media for a speech? 4. Check out Speech Studio to analyze the presentation media that other students use in their speeches. Or record a speech you’re working on (being sure to tape so that your presentation media can be seen), upload it to Speech Studio, and ask your peers for their feedback. What feedback could you use to fi ne-tune your presentation media before you give your speech in class?

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Ch011.indd 227 07/10/10 6:46 PM Delivering Your 12 Speech

Read it • Selecting a Delivery Method 230 • Managing Your Audience During Your • Understanding Factors That Inﬂ uence Speech 238 Delivery 231 • Preparing Your Presentation Outline 241 • Managing Your Voice During Your Speech 234 • Practicing the Delivery of Your Speech 242 • Managing Your Body During Your Speech 236

Watch it • Reviewing Vocal Delivery 236 • Reviewing Physical Delivery 238

• Practicing Your Speech 245 Cengage Learning Cengage

Use it • Speak Up 236 • Move with Purpose 238 • Take It from the Top 245

Cengage Learning

Review it • Directory of Study and Review Resources 246

Ch012.indd 228 07/10/10 6:47 PM aya Angelou, Susan B. Anthony, Erin Brockovich, Cesar Chavez, MJohn F. Kennedy, Martin Luther King, Jr., Marlee Matlin, Barack Obama—all are known for their skills in the ﬁ fth canon of rhetoric: delivery (Chapter 1). Delivery refers to presenting a speech in publicpublic.. When you deliver a speech,peech, you merge iitsts ververbalbal anandd vvisualisual components into a presentation beforeefore an audience. ScholarsScholars have long recognized the importance of deliverylivery fforor the eeffectiveffective ppublicublic spspeaker.eaker. 1 EffectiveEffective delivery brings togetherher aallll tthehe pplanning,lanning, researcresearching,hing, anandd organorganizingizing you’ve done for your speech. The volume ooff your voice, your posture, how you manage yourur time during a speech—all ooff these and more are aspects of delivery. Your audience willl not eexpectxpect peperfectionrfection ffromrom yoyourur sspeech,peech, as there is always room for improvement.mprovement. However, you want to make the bebestst impression you can and achieve your goals for the speech. This chapter The public presentation discusses several aspects of effective delivery: selecting an appropriate of a speech. delivery method; understanding factors that inﬂ uence a speaker’s delivery; managing your voice, body, and audience during your speech; preparing your presentation outline; and practicing your speech. Theo Wargo/WireImage/Getty Images Theo Wargo/WireImage/Getty

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Ch012.indd 229 07/10/10 6:47 PM Selecting a Delivery Method

Th ere are four types of delivery methods: impromptu, extemporaneous, manuscript, and memorized. Table 12.1 provides an overview of these four methods and the best situations in which to use them. When deciding on a delivery style, choose one that enhances the content of your speech and doesn’t distract your audience.

Impromptu Speaking I n publ ic speaking, delivery wit h little or no preparation is called impromptu speaking. A typ e of public speaking in which You engage in impromptu speaking every day as you communicate thoughts and the speaker has little or no time to ideas that spring up in the moment with no preparation or practice whatsoever. For prepare a speech. example, when you answer a question in class or speak up during a meeting of a campus organization, you’re using impromptu speaking. In this respect, impromptu speaking is simply another way to use the basic communication skills you already have and use regularly. Learning how to express yourself on the spot without relying on research, extensive preparation, or notes will help you do well in your public speaking class and in less-structured speaking situations beyond the classroom. An impromptu speaker is given a topi c on the spot and oft en has a minute or two to think about what to say. Figure 12.1 provides questions you can ask yourself to quickly develop and organize your thoughts when you’re faced with an impromptu speaking situation. As you present your speech, do your best to speak coherently. Keep your general purpose in mind— are you informing, persuading, or entertaining your audience about your topic? Don’t worry about making mistakes—no one expects an impromptu speech to be perfect.

Table 12.1 Delivery Methods

Typical Method Brief deﬁ nition Advantages Disadvantages situations

Impromptu Speaking without Flexibility; complete Not researched; Responding preparation spontaneity can be to audience disorganized; questions speaker has little, if any, time to practice

Extemporaneous Giving a speech Allows speaker to Researching, Most classroom, that has been develop expertise organizing, and professional, planned, on a topic; practicing a speech and community researched, allows structured is time-consuming presentations organized, and spontaneity; allows practiced speaker to adjust to audience feedback

Manuscript Giving a speech Allows speaker to Speaker uses Political that has been choose each word written rather than speeches written out word precisely and time spoken language; for word the speech exactly difﬁ cult to modify based on audience feedback

Memorized Giving a speech Allows speaker to Can seem artiﬁ cial; Short ceremonial that has been present speech requires intensive speeches committed to without notes; same practicing memory speech can be presented many times

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Ch012.indd 230 07/10/10 6:47 PM Extemporaneous Speaking Figure 12.1 Dev eloping and organizing your impromptu speeches For extemporaneousus spspeakingeaking, yoyouu carefulcarefullyly research,research, organize, and rehearsearse yyourour speechspeech beforebefore youyou deliverdeliver • What is my topic? it. Th is approach too speaking balances adapting to • What are my th ought s and feelings abo ut the topic? (Use keywords and phrases to capture your ideas.) the audience in the moment witwithh thoroughthorough planningplanning • How do I want to organize my ideas on the topic? (Identify an and practicing. Becausecause extemporaneous speakingspeaking order for your thoughts.) requires both fl exibilitybility and forethouforethought,ght, it is sometimes • What is a good way to begin my speech ? (Write down a few called “structured spontaneity.”pontaneity.” When youyou appear sentences or phrases that will help you begin.) spontaneous, your speechspeech comes across as natural and • What is a good way to end my speech? (Write down a few authentic. Speakingg extemporaneouslyextemporaneously helps youyou deliverdeliver sentences or phrases that will give your speech closure.) an audience-centereded anandd enengaginggaging message,message, ggreatlyreatly maximizing your chanceshances ooff connecting witwithh your listeners and havinggyourspeechachieveitspurpose your speech achieve its purpose. A type of public speaking in For most of the public speaking situations you’ll encounter, the extemporaneous method is which the speaker resear ches, the most desirable because its structured spontaneity usually makes it the most eff ective. or ganizes, rehearses, and delivers a speech in a way that combines structure and Manuscript Speaking spontaneity. When p oliticians and world leade rs give speeches, they usually appear to be speaking from just a few notes as they look directly at the audience and the camera. However, they’re oft en reading from a teleprompter that displays a manuscript speech—a speech written out word for word. One advantage of manuscript speaking is that you can compose the exact language you want to use for your speech. In situations in which a A type of public speaking in misspoken word might lead to a tragic misunderstanding—such as when negotiating a which the speaker reads a peace treaty—manuscript speaking is necessary to maintain absolute precision. However, written script word for word. most public speakers will never have to speak in such sensitive situations. Manuscript speaking may seem easy—yo u just write your speech out and read it to your audience. But reading from a manuscript greatly reduces your ability to make eye contact with your listeners and adapt to their feedback. Audience members may also feel ignored. In addition, when speakers write out their entire speech word for word, they tend to use written rather than spoken language. Because written language is more complex and less personal than spoken language, audience members may struggle to understand a speaker who is using language that’s meant for reading rather than listening. Audiences tend to favor an extemporaneous style, so avoid reading a speech from a manuscript unless the situation calls for it. Memorized Speaking When delivering a memorized speech, the speaker commits the entire speech to memory and then presents it to an audience. Memorized speaking can be useful and appropriate in certain situations. For short speeches, such as a wedding toast or acceptance of an award, A type of public speaking in knowing exactly what you’re going to say reduces the chances that you’ll sound unprepared which the speaker commits a or make comments you’ll regret later. And memorizing small sections of your speech, such speech to memory. as your introduction, key transitions, and conclusion, helps reduce anxiety and can increase your self-confi dence (Chapter 2). However, memorizing an entire lengthy speech can cause several problems. First, if you forget a line or a word, you may fi nd it diffi cult to recover and continue your speech. Second, you can’t adapt to audience responses during your speech. Th ird, memorized speeches oft en seem artifi cial and lack spontaneity.

Understanding Factors That Inﬂ u ence Delivery

Th e speaking situation and speec h type are external factors that help determine how you will deliver your speech. Th is section addresses four important factors unique to each speaker that infl uence delivery: culture, gender, language fl uency and dialect, and physical dis/abilities. 231

Chapter 12 Delivering Your Speech Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

Ch012.indd 231 07/10/10 6:47 PM Culture and Delivery Cultural factors infl uence how a speaker behaves in front of an audience and how the audience perceives the speaker. For example, people from China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam, and other East Asian countries oft en consider it rude to highlight their own accomplishments. Th is unwillingness to draw attention to themselves may explain the fi nding that college students in Th ailand perceive themselves as less competent in public speaking than their American counterparts. Similarly, the greater emphasis on public speaking in American schools likely contributes to college students in the United States. reporting higher levels of communication competence and willingness to communicate than students in Sweden.2 In contrast, public speaking forms a central part of Kenyan culture, with people of all ages expected to give speeches at ceremonies and other occasions.3 Culture also infl uences how audience s perceive speakers. For example, what American audiences perceive as nervousness in a speaker, Asian audiences may view as modesty or less-direct communication.4 If, based on your cultural, social, or family background, you’re used to asserting yourself in more subtle ways, you might have to develop new skills to adapt to the expectations of American audiences.

Gender and Delivery In the past, audiences evaluated female and male speakers diff erently. For example, men were granted higher status and greater credibility, while women were typically judged based on their clothing and physical attractiveness.5 Much has changed over the years, and some of the most powerful and eloquent speakers today, such as Maureen Dowd, Michelle Obama, Gloria Estefan, and Oprah Winfrey, are well-respected women. Yet research shows that audiences still tend to evaluate speakers based on their gender. Studies of college public speaking c lassrooms reveal that a speaker’s gender has little impact on overall evaluations of competence: Male and female speakers are viewed as equally capable. However, male speakers are oft en viewed as more infl uential and persuasive, even when female and male speakers display similar behaviors. In addition, audiencesaudiences seem to jujudgedge men’s and women’s credibilitycre diff erently. Female speakers’ TheThe hihighnessghness or l owness of credibilitycredibility tends to rest primarilyprimarily on their use ooff trustworthy information sources. In a speakerspeaker ’s voicevoice.. contrast,contrast, male speakers’ credibilitcredibilityy enenjoysjoys a brobroadera base, including believable sources, eye contact,contact, ororganizationganization ooff iideas,deas, anandd vocavocall varietvariety.y 6 Of course, many factors contribute to a speaker’sspeaker’s crecredibility,ddibiliibility, regardlessregardless ofof gender.gender. A womanwoman who avoids making eye contact, speaks TheThe loudness of a spespeaker’saker’s voicevoice.. in a monotone, and ororganizesganizes her points poorlypoorly risrisksk making a negative impression on the audience.audience. SimilarlSimilarly,y, a man who relies onlonlyy on hishis vovoice,i eye contact, and speech structure to winwin over listeners llikelyikely will earn low marks as a speaker. One cchallenginghallenging deliveryde issue women face is making themselvesthemselves heard. WomenWom generally speak at a higher pitch andand a lower volumevolume thanthan men, making women’s voices more diffidiffi cult to hear. (PitchPitchi isi the highness or lowness of the speaker’sspeaker’s voice, and volumevolu is the loudness of the speaker’s voice.) Th is diff erence stems partly from biology—women have shorter vocal cords than men do—and partly from culture— girls are expected to talk more quietly than boys.7 Whatever the reason, female speakers usually must work harder than male speakers to project their voice. Speaking more loudly and at a slightly lower pitch while delivering a speech may feel odd at

AP Images/Tiffany Michalka fi rst, because you’re used to hearing your voice sound a certain Because w omen’s voices are often harder to hear than men’s way. But good vocal volume is essential to public speaking, voices, women speakers must use strategies to make sure because you want your audience to hear your message. their audiences hear them. Even when women use a micro- Th e use of vocal pitch also aff ects how audiences judge phone, speaking at a higher volume and with a slightly lower a woman’s confi dence as a speaker. One way you indicate pitch will help their audiences understand them. you’re asking a question is to raise the pitch of your voice. 232

Ch012.indd 232 07/10/10 6:47 PM When a speaker’s voice goes up at the end of a statement, audience members view the speaker as less confi dent and less sure of the information presented. Research suggests that women tend to do this more than men,8 so women speakers should watch for this problem, and correct it if necessary, as they practice their speeches.

Fluency, Dialect, and Delivery Stuttering is one of the more co mmon speech impairments that aff ect public speakers. Researchers estimate that more than 3 million Americans stutter, although most children who stutter cease to do so as they grow older.9 People who stutter are oft en characterized as nervous, shy, quiet, withdrawn, and fearful. Although studies show these attributes are unfounded, fl uent speakers continue to view people who stutter negatively.10 However, people who stutter can employ three strategies to change those negative perceptions: acknowledgment, goal attainment, and eye contact. First, research has found that simply acknowledging you stutter reduces the pressure you may feel to speak perfectly, improves your fl uency, and causes the audience to view you more favorably. Second, concentrating on the goal for your speech—presenting your ideas to the audience—keeps you focused on your role as a speaker and builds your confi dence. Th ird, making eye contact with your audience may not reduce your stuttering, but it will help others view you more positively and respond in more supportive ways. When you look at your audience, you’re better able to monitor their feedback and respond to it appropriately.11 Dialect is another factor that infl u ences delivery. A dialect is the vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation used by a group of people. Everyone speaks in some The vocabulary, grammar, dialect, even if they don’t recognize it. Although dialects are oft en associated with and pronunciation use d by a speciﬁ c group of people, such specifi c regions of the United States, such as the South and New England, dialects as an ethnic or regional group. can also be ethnically based, as with African American English and Cajun or Creole English.12 Dialects also refl ect migration patterns, as in the case of 2008 vice-presidential nominee and former Alaska governor Sarah Palin. A detailed analysis of her speech found that her dialect, such as saying goin’ rather than going and using terms such as gosh darn and you betcha, refl ected features of Upper Midwest speakers, a region of the United States from which many Alaskans can trace their roots.13 Dialects can reveal rich cultural traditions and help bind a group together. No dialect is inferior to any other way of speaking, although historically public speaking students have been encouraged to speak in the mainstream American English dialect that most newscasters use.14 Th e importance of examining dialect rests in how well your audience can understand you. When you’re talking with others in your own dialect group, you don’t notice how you use language. But when you speak in front of an audience, you must be more aware of how you use language so that you can ensure your audience understands your message. If you articulate your words clearly, pronounce them correctly, and defi ne terms that might be unfamiliar to your audience, you will be able to bridge most of the diff erences between your dialect and your audience’s.

Physical Impairments and Delive ry If you are a speaker with a physical impairment, it may aff ect how you deliver your speech. Th e following sections off er strategies for speakers using mobility aids and speakers with visual or hearing impairments. © Bob Daemmrich/The Image Works

Speakers Using Mobility Aids Speakers who use If you us e a mobility aid, reduce stress when you give a speech by crutches or a w alker must consider several issues planning ahead. For example, consider how you’ll approach and leave before presenting a speech. First, identify your plan for the speaker’s area. 233

Ch012.indd 233 07/10/10 6:47 PM approaching and leaving the speaker’s area to make the minutes before and aft er your speech as stress free as possible. Check that your path to and from the area is unobstructed and easy to reach. Second, decide if standing for your entire presentation will work for you. As you practice your speech, you may fi nd that you become uncomfortable or needlessly tired if you stand up. If that’s the case, consider sitting when you give your speech. Th ird, fi nd the best way to manage your note cards and presentation media so you easily integrate them into your speech delivery. Speakers who use a wheelchair or nee d to sit for their presentations must pay special attention to visibility and voice projection. You can increase your visibility by not having a large object, such as a table, between you and your audience. Th is allows you to get physically closer to your listeners and keeps the focus on you. Practice speaking aloud to attain th e best possible voice projection. Sit up as straight as possible, take a deep breath, and breathe out as you speak. To check your volume, practice with a friend in a room that is similar in size to the one where you’ll be speaking. Have your friend sit at the back of the room and tell you when your voice can be heard easily. If voice projection is still a problem, use a microphone. Speakers with Visual Impairments About 14 million Americans are v isually impaired.15 For public speakers with visual impairments, the key issue is how to recall everything you want to say. Memorization is a safe strategy for short speeches, but committing long speeches to memory is a challenge. Notes in braille are a good solution. If you don’t read braille but are able to read large print, try using big note cards with clearly written keywords. If your visual impairment is such that written notes are not feasible, you might consider three alternatives. First, develop your speech by capturing your ideas on an MP3 player (such as an iPod) or other digital audio recording device, revising until you are satisfi ed with the speech. Using an earbud, present the speech as you listen to it on an MP3 player. Second, if you write in braille, write out your speech, have a sighted person record it in a digital format, and use the MP3 player as in the fi rst strategy. Keep in mind that listening to and saying your speech at the same time is quite diffi cult to do and takes considerable practice. Th e third alternative is to write out your speech and have a sighted person present it for you. You should then be prepared to answer questions aft er the speech. Speakers with Hearing Impairment s Th e Gallaudet Research Institute estimates that nearly 20.3 million people in the United States are deaf or hard of hearing.16 As a public speaker with a hearing impairment, consider your ability to hear and your comfort with using your voice. If you usually communicate using American Sign Language (ASL), signing and using a sign-to-voice interpreter is a logical choice. If you’re confi dent about your vocal abilities, present your speech aloud. During the question-and-answer session, ask listeners to state questions loudly and clearly, or request a microphone for audience members to use. People with impairments should adapt the preceding techniques to suit their own physical, cognitive, and sensory requirements. Th ere’s no need to tell your audience why you are doing things your way.17 If you have an impairment that aff ects your speech delivery, you may want to discuss the matter with your instructor so you’ll get the most out of your public speaking class and your audience will get the most out of your speeches. Managing Your Voice During Your Speech

Your voice is a key tool for get ting your audience’s attention, emphasizing points, stirring emotions, and conveying the content of your message. Good voice volume, variations in vocal qualities, minimal pauses, and clear articulation and pronunciation are essential for eff ective public speaking.

Speak Loudly Enough Right from the beginning of your speech, speak so that everyone in your audience can hear you. Th is may take some practice if you feel uncomfortable raising your voice 234

Ch012.indd 234 07/10/10 6:47 PM volume above an everyday speaking level. However, suffi cient volume is crucial; audience members shouldn’t have to strain to hear you. If Speaking of . . . you’re not sure what “loud enough” sounds like, practice with a friend in the room where you’ll present the speech, or in a similar space. Have your friend sit in the farthest corner of the room, and raise your voice volume until she or he can easily hear you. Banishi ng Vocalized Pauses In everyday conversations, yo u know it’s your turn to speak when the other person pauses. Vary Your Rate, Pitch, and Volu me But sometimes you pause even when you’re Diff erences stand out to listene rs; sameness does not. Not every point not ﬁ nished speaking because you’re trying to or statement included in a speech carries the same weight or tone. formulate the next point you want to make, or you can’t quite think of the word you want. You Some parts of your speech may be on the lighter side; others may be don’t want the other person to jump in and start more serious. A faster rate (the speed at which a speaker speaks), higher talking, so you say “ah” or “um” to tell the other pitch, and louder volume suggest energy and excitement. A slower person, “I’m not done talking yet.” This habit ratete, lower pitchpitch,, and soft er volume indicate a more solemn and carries over to public speaking, even though you contemplativentemplative tone. SpeaSpeakingking in a monotonenotone, or with little alteration know listeners will not start talking if you pause. in pitch,pitch, signalssignals nervousness andand bboredomoredom to your audience.audience.1818 UUsese When you hear yourself using a vocalized pause, vocalcal varietyetyy to fitfi t your your topic topic and evokeevok andke evok emotion in the audience. audience. concentrate on just pausing—your audience will wait for you. Also, as you practice your speech you’ll become more certain of what you want to Avoidvoid VVocalizedocalized PausePausess say, reducing those “ahs” and “ums.” Somm e spespeakersaakers tatalklk more rapirapidlydly in frontfront ofof an auaudience;dience; othersothers speaspeakk moreore slowlslowly.ly. As youyou’re’ re giving your speech,spee ech, observe how much time it it TheThe sspeedpeed at whichwhich a sspeakerpeaker sspeaks.peaks. takes to presentesent tthehe introintroduction.duction. IfIf youyou usedused lessless time tthanhan you ddidid when you practiced, assess your speakinging rate. rate You may be running your words together together A way of spea kinkingg in which the speaker or not pausingsing betweenbetween sentences andand phrases.phrases. In contrast, ifif you usedused more time forfor your ddoesoes not alter his or her ppitch.itch. introductionon thanthan you diddid whenwhen you practiced,practiced, perhapsperhaps you’re speakingspeaking too sslowly.lowly. YoYouu may be usingi vocalizedli d pauseses suchh as ““ah,”ah h”“, “umm,”umm, ” and d“ “youyou know kknow.”. ”Th Th ese verbal b fi llerslfill ChangeChange s in the voluvolume,me, rate, and pitch ooff use up time without providingg anyany information,information, andand theythey hurthurt youryour credibilitycredibility becausebecause a spea ker’s voice that affect the meaningmeaning they make you sound unsure of yyourself.ourself.19 of the wowordsrds dedelivered.livered.

“Ah,” “um,” “you know,” and other verbal ﬁ llers that speakers use when they’re trying to think of what they want to say. © 2004 by Creators Syndicate, Inc. © 2004 by Creators by permission of John Reproduced Deering, John Newcombe and Cre- ators Syndicate, Inc.

Articulate Your Words Cle arly a nd Pronounce Th em Correctly In everyday speech, speakers oft en articulate poorly, leaving off the endings of words (“I’m leavin’ soon”), skipping sounds entirely (“I’m gonna leave in twenny minutes”), and running words together (“Waddaya think?”). Poor articulation isn’t necessarily a problem in casual conversation, but during a speech it may cause your audience to strain The physical process of producing to understand you and may hurt your credibility. Incorrect pronunciationn ccanan alsoalso speciﬁ c speech sounds to makmakee damage your credibility. Some common mispronunciations are “git” for getet, ““excape”excape” for lanlanguageguage inte llilligible.gible. escape, “pitcher” for picture, and “reckanize” for recognize. If you’re unsureeofaword of a word’s’s The act of saying words correctly correct pronunciation, check a dictionary—many online dictionaries include audio fi les according to the accepted standards of so you can listen to how a word is pronounced. And when you practice your speech in the speaker’s language. front of a small audience, ask them to point out words you pronounce incorrectly, then practice saying the words aloud correctly until you’re comfortable saying them. 235

Ch012.indd 235 07/10/10 6:47 PM Watch it Use it Cengage Learning Cengage Learning SPEECH BUDDY VIDEO 12.1 Reviewing Vocal Delivery ACTIVITY 12.1 Speak U p In this video, Janine and Ant hony demonstrate effective and ineffective vocal delivery. This activity asks you fi rst to evaluate various speakers’ vocal delivery and then to apply what you’re learning about vocal delivery by considering what your own vocal challenges might be.

Managing Your Body During Your S peech

Everything about how you present yourself should tell your audience that you’re poised, confi dent, and enthusiastic. In addition, knowing what to do with your body can signifi cantly reduce speech anxiety. Th is section outlines specifi c ways to use attire, facial expressions, and body movement eff ectively when giving your speech. If you live with a dis/ability, you may need to modify some of these guidelines to suit your situation. Dress for the Occasion Ap pearances count, especially in public speaking. Your clothing should enhance your speech and contribute to listeners’ perceptions of your dynamism and overall credibility. Dressing appropriately for your speeches demonstrates respect for your audience—you care enough about them and your speech to look your best. Some instructors require that students dress in corporate business attire for their speeches in order to emphasize the diff erences between social conversation and public speaking. Your instructor’s dress code may not be that formal, but you should dress at least one step up from what you usually wear to class. Th is advice also applies to audiences outside of school, so try to dress about a step up from what you think your audience will be wearing. If you look the part, it will be easier to play the part and manage your nervousness.20 Face Your Audience and Make Eye Contact with Th em Your listeners want to know you’re talking to them—not the fl oor, your notes, a tree outside the window, or a spot on the wall at the back of the room. Look at all your listeners, from those in the front row to those in the back corners. Avoid scanning the room from one side to the other, looking only at audience members who happen to be sitting in the middle of the room, or concentrating your attention on the instructor. When you don’t look at 236

Ch012.indd 236 07/10/10 6:47 PM audience members, they become invisible to you and you become invisible to them.21 Avoid addressing your audience from a sideways angle or from one side of the room, and never speak with your back to the audience. Even when you write something on a chalkboard or white board, turn around and speak to your audience aft er you’ve fi nished writing. Talk to your audience—not to the screen—when using digital slides or an overhead projector. Glance quickly and infrequently at your notes, using them simply to trigger your memory. Good eye contact signals that you are competent, trustworthy, dynamic, and sociable. Display Appropriate Facial Expr essions You communicate much of how you feel through your face. A smile, frown, or puzzled look can underscore a point. Adjust your facial expression according to the content of your speech and the message you’re trying to send. For example, smiling nervously when talking about a serious topic, such as whether the United States should intervene in the confl ict in Darfur, sends a mixed message, and may cause your audience to misunderstand your intent. However, smiling as you greet your audience before you start your speech lets them know you’re pleased to be there. Maintain Good Posture Your posture is the way you position and carry your body. When you have your shoulders back, head up, hands loosely at your sides, knees slightly bent, feet shoulder width apart and The way a speaker positions and carries fl at on the fl oor, and weight evenly distributed, you can easily move and gesture. Standing her or his body. up straight demonstrates your self-assurance; keeping your feet fl at on the fl oor prevents you from shift ing your weight from foot to foot or crossing and uncrossing your feet. Move with Purpose and Spontaneity When planning your speech, consi der what body movements can help you communicate your message in a dynamic way. As you practice, experiment with movement that helps you underscore a point, demonstrates your confi dence, and captures your audience’s attention. For example, you might step closer to your listeners to make them feel included, especially when discussing how a point aff ects them personally. Or you might take a few steps to the left or right to signal a transition from one main point to the next. Have a reason or purpose for movemen ts you make while you speak. For instance, you might want to walk toward one side of the room as you begin a narrative and move to the other side for the dramatic ending. However, you don’t want to walk around aimlessly— your audience will wonder why you’re pacing and may miss what you’re saying. In addition, avoid movements that appear staged or overly dramatic. You sometimes see speakers in classic speeches using stock gestures that clearly were meant to signal specifi c information, such as holding up three fi ngers with the statement, “I’ll cover three main points in this speech.” Today, audiences prefer a more natural, conversational style. Figure 12.2 Str ategies for effective delive ry

Avoid Physical Barriers • Speak loudly enough. Al though a few public speaking c ontexts require a using • Vary your v oice’ s rate, pitch, and vo lume. a podium due to convention and formality, in most cases • Avoid vocalized pauses. you won’t need one. A podium constrains your ability to • Articulate yo ur words clearly and pro nounce them correctly. use your entire body to convey your message and puts a • Dress for the occasion. physical barrier between you and your audience. If you need • Face your aud ience and make eye conta ct with everyone. to use a podium or table to support your visual materials or • Display appropriate facial expression s. laptop, stand to the side, not behind the furniture. • Maintain good posture. Applying the delivery strategies out lined in these • Move with purp ose and spontaneity. discussions of voice and body will help you give dynamic, • Av oid physical barriers. engaging, extemporaneous presentations. Figure 12.2 237

Ch012.indd 237 07/10/10 6:47 PM provides a quick summary of these strategies. Aft er a while, most of this will come quite naturally. You’ll develop your own style as you become more confi dent about your public speaking abilities.

Watch it Use it Cengage Learning Cengage Learning SPEECH BUDDY VIDEO 12.2 Reviewing Physical Delivery ACTIVITY 12.2 Move with Purpose In this video, all the Speech Buddies describe and demonstrate different aspects of physical delivery. This activity gives you a cha nce to evaluate various speakers’ physical delivery and then apply what you’re learning in this chapter by considering what your own physical delivery challenges might be.

Managing Your Audience Dur ing Yo ur Speech

Managing your audience begins wi th researching your listeners and designing your message to achieve their goals as well as your own (Chapter 5). If you have developed a speech that your audience fi nds useful and interesting, and if you present the speech in an enthusiastic, engaging manner, listeners will more likely respond the way you expect them to. You can also help infl uence an audience’s response to you by adjusting your speaking space, involving your audience, respecting your audience’s time, accommodating audience members with impairments, responding calmly to rude or hostile audiences, and being prepared for question-and-answer sessions.

Adjust Your Speaking Space as N eeded Set up the speaking space in a w ay that’s comfortable for you and your audience. Even small modifi cations can infl uence how the audience listens to you. For example, if you’re in a small conference room with a large table, suggest that audience members turn their chairs so it’s easier for them to see you and your digital slides or other presentation materials. Th is also reduces the likelihood that audience members will talk among themselves. If lighting is harsh or glaring, dim or turn off a few lights so audience members will feel more relaxed. Close doors to hallways and other rooms so you’re not interrupted. In a large auditorium, don’t be afraid to get out from behind the podium. Audience members will view you as more confi dent and personable and will pay more attention to your speech. 238

Ch012.indd 238 07/10/10 6:47 PM Involve Your Audience Invo lving your audience requires careful attention to your listeners’ feedback (Chapter 3). Make the audience part of your speech by

■ Referring to what others have said in their speeches (“As Tasha mentioned in her speech last week . . . ”).

■ Calling on specifi c audience members (“Hector, what’s your reaction to the video clip we just saw?”).

■ Asking for volunteers (“I need two pe ople to help me demonstrate this process”). As you’re speaking, observe the audience, noting if they seem interested, bored, confused, supportive, hostile, uncertain, or the like. Nonverbal messages, such as facial expressions and tone of voice, can be ambiguous. So you may want to check your Informa tion that is not commun icated interpretations of audience behaviors. If someone seems confused about a point, you with words, but rather, through movement, gesture, facial express ion, could say, “Anya, you look puzzled. Are you? Other people might be as well, so I can voca l quality, use of time, use of space, explain that last point in more detail.” Some nonverbal behaviors are fairly clear, such as and touch. listeners shaking their heads in disagreement or nodding in agreement. Commenting on the behaviors you observe lets your audience know you are interested in their feedback. When you notice those shaking heads, you might say, “Some of you seem to disagree with me. Let me tell you something that might change your mind.” If listeners are nodding, you might say, “I can tell by your reactions that some of you have had the same experience.” Th ese strategies allow you to integrate audience members into your speech.

Respect the Audience’s Time You may be familiar with time-oriented phrases such as “Don’t waste my time,” “I like to spend my time wisely,” and “Time is money.” Your listeners will expect you to manage your time eff ectively. Remember, it’s their time as well. Make the most of your speaking time so you achieve your goals and your listeners feel satisfi ed with the information you’ve provided. When you practice your speech, recor d your time so you stay within your time limit. Have a general idea of how much time you spend on each part of your speech. Th is information will help you pace yourself when presenting your speech to your audience. As you progress through your speech, monitor your time so that each part of your speech receives adequate attention. For instance, if you have three main points and spend half of your speaking time on the fi rst point, you won’t be able to develop the other two points fully. In addition, as you adjust to your audience’s feedback, you may fi nd it necessary to devote more time to a particular point and leave out other parts of your speech. For example, you might omit an example or shorten a story in your conclusion. Th at’s part of extemporaneous speaking—adapting your speech to your audience and the context during the presentation. How can you monitor your time when s o many other aspects of delivery demand your attention? Many public speaking instructors use time cards for student speeches. For example, if you have fi ve

minutes for your speech, the instructor or a designated student John Oates/Alamy will show you cards that tell you how many minutes you have left . Asking a n audience member t o volunteer for If your instructor doesn’t use a timing method, use a watch or a demonstration is a great way to involve your stopwatch to keep track of your speaking time. audience in your speech. 239

Ch012.indd 239 07/10/10 6:47 PM Accommodate Audience Members wi th Impairments When presenting a speech to audi ence members with cognitive, sensory, or physical impairments, accommodate their needs so they can participate fully in the speaking event. Your goal as a speaker is to include everyone and ensure that no one is left out. First, check that audience members who require accommodations have them. For example, an audience member with a hearing impairment may need an interpreter. Second, face the audience so everyone can easily see and hear you. Make sure nothing interferes with your voice projection. Th ird, speak loudly, clearly, and not too rapidly. Th is is especially important for interpreters, who need a moment or two to translate what you’re saying. Fourth, describe the content of any visual materials you use, such as digital slides or overhead transparencies, explaining images as well as text. Finally, if you’re not sure what you need to do to accommodate audience members, privately ask them before you start your speech.

Respond Calmly to Rude or Hosti le Audience Members Sometimes audience members expre ss hostility during or aft er the speech, although this seldom happens in public speaking classes. Some topics can trigger deep emotions. If you’re speaking on a controversial topic such as capital punishment or gun control laws, be prepared for negative reactions from audience members who disagree with you. In handling these responses, remain calm. Engaging in a shouting match with audience members will damage your credibility and increase your anxiety level.22 Let hostile audience members know you understand that they disagree with you. If they don’t calm down, suggest that you continue the discussion aft er you’ve fi nished your speech.

Be Prepared for a Question-and- Answer Period In many cases, once you’ve fi nis hed your speech, audience members will have an opportunity to ask you questions. Researching your audience helps you anticipate those questions; researching your topic helps you answer them. Apply the following guidelines in the question-and-answer session:

■ Listen carefully to the question, giv ing the audience member time to complete it.

■ Repeat the question if other audience members couldn’t hear it.

■ Answer questions as completely as pos sible.

■ If you don’t know the answer to a que stion, admit it and off er to look up the necessary information. When audience members ask quest ions, they’re most oft en seeking clarifi cation or more information—they’re not evaluating you. Th ink of the question-and-answer session as a friendly conversation and answer questions as best you can.

Apply it Helping Othe rs Deliver Their S peeches

One of the best ways to fi nd out if you’ve really learned Then follow up in a few weeks by having attendees something is to teach others about it. In your service meet again to present brief speeches. Evaluate the learning location or other place where you volunteer your effectiveness of their delivery and your effectiveness time, identify a few people who are interested in learning as a teacher. What did you learn about speech more about speech delivery. Develop a short workshop delivery from teaching others about it? How will or module about how to deliver a speech, such as how you apply what you’ve learned in your own to use your voice and body to enhance your message. presentations?

240

Ch012.indd 240 07/10/10 6:48 PM Preparing Your Presentatio n Outl ine

In the beginning stages of speec h development, you use a working outline (Chapter 4). Th e complete-sentence outline (Chapter 8) elaborates on the working outline by including full sentences detailing all the parts of your speech. Th e presentation outline distills your complete-sentence outline into a list of words and phrases to guide you through the main An outline that distills a parts of your speech and the transitions between them. Like the working outline, the complete-sentence outline, listing presentation outline is brief. Although you may initially create it on your computer or on o nly th e words and phrases that will guide the speake r throug h the main paper, you’ll transfer your presentation outline to note cards to practice and deliver your parts of the speech and the transitions speech. Table 12.2 summarizes the three types of outlines. betwee n them. Knowing how to create and use a presentation outline is a fundamental skill for extemporaneous public speaking. Th e presentation outline allows you to

■ Refer comfortably and precisely to the infor mation you have gathered.

■ Present that information in a clear and organized way.

■ Engage your audience personally and professionally during the speech. As yo u practice your speech, you’ll develop the confi dence to rely on brief notes while speaking in front of an audience. A presen tation outline makes it possible for a well-prepared speaker to delive r an abundance of ideas eff ectively.

Identify Keywords Th e keywords in a presentation outline are very similar to the keywords or search terms you use online: Th ey identify subjects or points of primary interest or concern. A word that identiﬁ es a subject or a point Key words represent the most important points you want to talk about in your speech. of primary interest or concern.

Table 12.2 Types of Outlines

Type of outline Functions Key features Chapter Working Assists in initial Includes main 4: Developing ◀ You are here topic development; points and possible Your Purpose guides research subpoints; revised and Topic during research process

Complete- Clearly identiﬁ es Uses complete 8: Organizing sentence all pieces of sentences; lists and Outlining information for all sections of Your Speech the speech; puts speech and all ideas in order; references; revised forms basis for during preparation developing the process presentation outline

Presentation Assists in Uses keywords; 12: Delivering practicing and revised as you Your Speech giving your speech practice your speech; often transferred to note cards for use during practice and the ﬁ nal presentation

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Ch012.indd 241 07/10/10 6:48 PM Because they’re listed in the same order as the sentences in your complete-sentence outline, they indicate the order in which you want to present those points. Although presentation outlines are usually quite short, they can be created only aft er you’ve fully researched and developed your speech. As you use your presentation outline or note cards to practice your speech, you’ll fi nd that you need to move back and forth between your complete-sentence outline and your presentation outline, revising the former and then the latter several times. Each time, you’ll be challenged to condense your ideas and information into keywords for your presentation outline that will trigger your memory as you present your speech. Figure 12.3 shows an example of a presentation outline.

Transfer You r Presentation Outline to Note Cards Once you’ve completed your presentation outline, you’re ready to transfer the information from your outline to the note cards you’ll u se dur ing your speech. Write your keywords on the note cards t o remind you of the points you want to cover in your speech. Organize and number the cards in the order in which you want to present those points. Stick to your keywords and don’t write out sentences, quotations, or other lengthy bits of information. And make sure the print is large enough for you to read easily as you’re giving your speech. During your presentation, hold your note cards in one hand. Th e only time you should have both hands on your note cards is when you move from one card to the next. Th e audience expects you to consult your notes during the speech—it shows you planned your speech but didn’t memorize it. Maintain eye contact with your audience, glancing at your notes briefl y and infrequently. It’s better to lose your place for a moment than to hide your face for most of the speech. Th e presentation outline and note cards are your dependable assistants. When developed and used eff ectively, the presentation outline helps you give an extemporaneous speech that centers your attentio n on the audience. Using note cards demonstrates your planning and preparation, keeps you organized, and allows you to create a good rapport with your listeners.

Practicing the Delivery of Your Speech

Too little practice and you won’t be ready the day of your speech. Too much practice and your speech loses spontaneity. Moreover, rehearsing your speech over and over will not ensure a successful presentation on speech day.23 Practicing your speech eff ectively requires devoting quality time to rehearsing your presentation. Rather than practicing it just once, you will practice your speech in diff erent ways and at diff erent stages until you are completely ready. But being fully prepared does not mean that the speech you give to your audience will be exactly the same as the speech you practice. You want to present an engaging and dynamic speech, not one that is programmed and predictable. Give a Version of Your Speech Th ink of each speech you give as just one of many possible speeches you could have given with exactly the same information and preparation. You don’t have to gi ve a “perfect” speech—you must simpl y give an excellent version of your speech. If you were to give the same speech tomorrow, and again the next day, you would not deliver those speeches in exactly the same way. Th e speechmaking method you are learning prepares you to give excellent versions of your speeches adapted to your audience and the speaking context.

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Ch012.indd 242 07/10/10 6:48 PM Figure 12.3 Sample presentation outline

Title: The History and Etiquette of Chopsticks Attention-getter: [hold chopsticks and click together twice] Why are th ese called chopsticks ? Because [click, click] the y help you eat fast! Thesis: Chops ticks have a central place in the eating etique tte of several Asian cultures. Preview: First, I’ll tell you about the history of chopsticks in the four “chopstick” countries: China, Vietna m, Japan, and Korea. Then I’ll talk about how each culture has developed its own chopsticks etiquette. I. History A. China: origin—5000 years ago 1. Confucius inﬂ uence 2. Cook over ﬁ re 3. 12 inches 4. Bamboo/wood B. Vietnam: 2000 years ago 1. Like China 2. Old: wood; now: plastic C. Korea: 2000 years ago 1. 8–9 inches 2. Old: silver; n ow: wood/ stainless D. Japan: 1500 years ago 1. Shorter and shar per 2. 10 inches 3. L acquered w ood II. Etiquett e A. China 1. Hold up bowl 2. Don ’t tap 3. Don’ t spear B. Vietnam 1. Eat from own bowl 2. Don’t hold i n mouth 3. Alw ays use two C. Korea 1. Use spoon for ri ce 2. Spoon and chopstick s 3. Dishes on table D. Ja pan 1. Use ch opstick rest 2. Do n’t cross 3. Don’t rub together Review: I explained th e histor y of chopsticks in four Asian countrie s and the diffe rences in chopsticks etiq uette in those four c ultures. Reinfor ce pur pose: Chopsticks ha ve a long hi story, but what the y look like and how they’re used varies based on cultural practices. Closure: Learning about chopsticks history and etiquette gave me an a ppreciation for something I’ve used all my life. Now I know why I eat so quickly [click, click]. Thank you.

With extemporaneous speaking, you should not commit your whole speech or even large sections of it to memory. With thorough preparation and suffi cient practice, you’ll know what you want to say well e nough to say it eff ectively when you deliver 243

Ch012.indd 243 07/10/10 6:48 PM your speech. For example, you will recall certain words and phrases that sounded good when you practiced. You may not say things exactly the same way as you did when you practiced, but you’ll feel confi dent that you know how to make your ideas clear.

Practice Your Speech in Stages Practicing permeates the entire speech preparation process. As you research your topic (Chapter 6), organize your ideas (Chapter 8), identify the language you’ ll use in your speech (Chapter 10), a nd incorporate presentation media (Chapter 11), you’ll practice various parts of the presentation, rethinking and revising what you plan to say. Review your complete-sentence outline as you go along, trying out the introduction, main points, transitions, and conclusion to fi nd out how they work or don’t work. Practice in stages, section by section. Don’t wait until you think you have a fi nished product.

Practicing Parts of Your Speech During this stage of practice, your goals are to check that your speech makes sense, identify keywords that will best trigger your memory, and try out your pre sentation materials. When you practic e, say the words of your speech out loud to determine if your ideas are clear and if your language and delivery techniques work together to achieve your purpose. By speaking out loud when you practice, you hear your main points and supporting materials and can consider how you might say something more clearly, precisely, humorously, seriously, or persuasively. Practicing out loud allows you to become your own audience, ready to give instant, productive feedback. Try saying small portions of your speech as if you were facing an audience. Listen for how you’ve organized and supported your ideas, make adjustments, and keep adjusting with the individual segments of your speech. Practicing your speech during this stage includes practicing with your presentation materials. No matter how briefl y you’ll be using presentation materials, include them in your practice sessions to fi nd out if they accomplish what you want them to and if you can integrate them into your speech easily.

Practicing Your Whole Speech Now that you’ve practiced the various parts of your speech, you’re ready to practice the entire speech. You’ll want to practice just like you’re giving your speec h to the audience: standing up (or sitting, depending on ability), holding your note cards, and integrating all your presentation materials. Practicing the whole speech with any presentation media you plan to use allows you to observe how your main points fl ow. You’ll also be able to perfect your introduction and conclusion (Chapter 9). In this stage of practicing, invite friends, family members, coworkers, and others to provide constructive feedback. If you want them to focus on a particular aspect of your presentation, such as transitions or gestures, tell them before you begin your speech. Th en be ready to listen to their comments without becoming defensive, knowing they want you to do your best. Research shows that practicing your speech in front of four or more people improves your presentation on speech day.24 Videotaping yourself a few times as you practice can also prove helpful because you’ll get an idea of how you look and sound.

Time Your Speech Your speech should fi t within the time allotted and should not go under or over the time limit. When you give your speech, you want to use your time well, presenting the int roduction, main points, and conclusion at a comfortable pace that is neither slow nor rushed. During practice sessions, note the time you need for the sections of your speech so you have a rough idea of how long it takes you to get through each part. Th en when you deliver your speech, you’ll be better able to monitor how you’re using your time. Knowing how long your speech will last also gives you confi dence and control during the presentation. 244

Ch012.indd 244 07/10/10 6:48 PM Watch it Use it

Watch your and use Speech Buddy what you’ve video learned in your next speech. Cengage Learning Cengage Learning SPEECH BUDDY VIDEO 12.3 Practicing Your Speech ACTIVITY 12.3 Take It from the Top In this video, all the Speech Buddies describe and demonstr ate how they practice their speeches. This activity fi rst asks you to evaluate different speech scenarios t o deter mine effective plans to guide the sp eakers when they prac tice their speeches, and then gives you a chance to develop a plan for practicing your own speech.

Summary

elivering your speech brings together all your planning and preparation. Speakers use four delivery methods: impromptu, extemporaneous, manuscri pt, Dand memorized. F or most speeches, you’ll want t o speak extemporaneously, balancing careful planning with fl exibility. Several factors infl uence a public speaker’s delivery, including culture and gender. Cultural norms that diff er from those of the United States might require a public speaking student to develop new a nd adaptive skills. Similarly, women speakers oft en have to adapt to the fact that audiences evaluate women and men diff erently in some aspects of speech delivery. In addition, women oft en have trouble being heard because they tend to speak in a lower volume and at a higher pitch. A well-prepared speaker can overcome negative audience perceptions, regardless of gender. Other factors that infl uence delivery are language fl uency, dialect, and physical impairments. Regarding fl uency, stuttering and dialect are common issues. Research has found that speakers who stutter may best manage the problem through acknowledgement and eye contact with the audience. And all speakers should examine their dialect and make any adjustments necessary for audience comprehension. Speakers with physical impairments may need to adjust their delivery in ways that work best for them and the audience. Delivering your speech well means eff ectively managing your voice, your body, and your audience. In managing your voice and body, apply strategies such as using good vocal variety, clearly articulatin g your words, dressing for the occasion, and making eye contact with your entire audience. To manage your audience eff ectively, adjust your

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Ch012.indd 245 07/10/10 6:48 PM speaking space as needed, involve the audience in your speech, respect the audience’s time, accommodate audience members with impairments, handle hostile or rude audience members calmly, and be prepared for questions. Careful research, planning, organizing, and preparation provide a solid base for presenting your speech. Th e presentation outline helps you achieve an organized, engaging, and professional presentation. Practice your speech in stages, distilling your complete-sentence outline into a brief presentation outline. Incorporate any presentation materials into the speech as you practice, making modifi cations as necessary. Put in quality practice time so that when speech day arrives you’re prepared to give an excellent version of your speech. Closely manage your time, adjusting your speech as needed.

Review it Directory of Study and Review Resources

IN THE BOOK SPEECH BUILDER EXPRESS Summary Goal/purpose Key Terms Thesis statement Critical Challenges Organiza tion Outline MORE STUDY RESOURCES Supporting material Quizzes Transitions WebLinks Introduction Peer-reviewed videos Conclusion Title STUDENT WORKBOOK Works cited 12.1: Model Speakers Completing the s peech outline 12.2: Deli ver a Full T hought t o One Person 12.3: Rotating Audiences INFOTRAC 12.4: Movement for Clarity Recommended search terms 12.5: Filling the Spa ce with Sound Sp eech delivery Phy sical speech delivery SPEECH BUDDY VIDEOS Vocal speech delive ry WATCH It Video Speech pr actice 12.1: Reviewing Vocal Deli very Anxiet y and speec h deli very 12.2: Reviewing Physical Delivery 12.3 : Practicing Your Speech AUDIO STUDY TOOLS USE It Activity “Turn Off Your TV” by Lisa 12.1: Speak Up Critical thinking questi ons 12. 2: Move with Purpose Learning objectives 12.3: Take It from the Top C hapter summary

SAMPLE SPEECH VIDEOS Katherine, “Is That Kosher?” info rmative speech Tiffany, self-intro duction speech

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Ch012.indd 246 07/10/10 6:48 PM Guide to Your Online Resources

Your Speech Communication respond to via email if your instructor so requests. CourseMate for Public Speaking: Th e In addition, your CourseMate features live WebLinks E volving Art gives you access to the Speech Buddy relevant to this chapter, including the American video and activity featured in this chapter, additional Rhetoric website, classic speeches on the History sam ple speech videos, Speech Studio, Speech Builder Channel site, and a site about taming speech anxiety Express, InfoTrac College Edition, and study aids such hosted by the University of Hawai’i Maui Community as glossary fl ashcards, review quizzes, and the Critical College Speech Department. Links are regularly Challenge questions for this chapter, which you can maintained, and new ones are added periodically.

Key Terms

articulation 235 manuscript speaking 231 presentat ion outline 241 delivery 229 memorized speaking 231 pronunciation 235 dialect 233 monotone 235 rate 235 extemporaneous speaking 231 nonverbal mess ages 239 vocalized pauses 235 impromptu speaking 230 pitch 232 vocal variet y 235 keywords 241 posture 237 volume 232

Critical Cha llenges

Questi ons for Refl e ction and Discussion 1. Publi c speaking c lasses usually focus on e xtemporaneous spea king. Wha t are some situations in which you’ll l ikely give extemporaneous speeches in the future? You encounter impromptu speaking situ ations almost daily, especially in a college classroom. Give an example of a recent experience you had with impromptu speaking. While you’re in school, you usually don’t do much manuscript or memorized speaking. When might you use these methods in the future? 2. How have you practiced for speaking situations in the past? How eff ective were those practice strategies? How do you plan to practice for speeches in the future? 3. One aspect of adapting to your audience is accommodating individuals with disabilities. How might you do this in classroom speeches? In speeches outside the classroom? 4. During and aft er your speech, you may fi nd that audience members challenge your ideas and conclusions. How might you avoid becoming defensive—a natural reaction—and encourage reasoned discussion? 5. Ch eck out Speech Studio to analyze how other students deliver their speeches. Or record a speech you’re working on, upload it to Speech Studio, and ask your peers for their feedback. What feedback c ould you use to fi ne-tune your delivery before you give your speech in class

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Ch012.indd 247 07/10/10 6:48 PM Informative 13 Speaking

Read it • Characteristics of an Informative • Organizational Patterns for Informative Speech 250 Speeches 256 • Types of Informative Speeches 251 • Guidelines for Effective Informative • Speciﬁ c Purposes and Thesis Statements for Speeches 262 Informative Speeches 256 • Speech for Review and Analysis 266

Watch it

• Speaking to Inform 265 Cengage Learning Cengage

Use it • Pleased to Inform You 265

e Learning

Cengage Learning

Review it • Directory of Study and Review Resources 270

Ch013.indd 248 07/10/10 6:50 PM heir unique ability to exchange thoughts and instructions eventually Tallowed early humans to become the dominant species in the animal kingdom. Our ancestors’ sheer survival depended on communication skill. By using speech and language effectively, they were able to coordinate their efforts to hunt wild animals, teach each other how to make simple tools, and take care of their children.1 In terms of basic communication, not much has changed since then. To survive and thrive, people still need to pass information on to others clearly and convincingly. Being able to describe or explain something in a way that enables others to benefi t from what you have to say—like what the fi reman is doing in the image that opens this chapter—forms a solid foundation for becoming an excellent public speaker. Today, public speakers have an advantage that speakers in every earlier period in human history lacked: Information from all over the worldd is easily available from a seemingly unlimited number of sources. What’s more, the informationn age has morphed into the communication age. From the convenience of gathering information and images to the incredible ease with which you can send information to people almost anywhere on the planet, digital communication technologies give you new ways to retrieve and share information.2 You can fi nd jobs, take classes, research health issues, learn about other cultures, sell products and services, and conduct a host of other information exchanges online.3 As a public speaker, you can rely on today’s vastly expanded information environment to research your speech topics, fi nd support for your main points, locate images for presentation media, and refer audiences to additional information and insights about your ideas.

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Ch013.indd 249 07/10/10 6:50 PM Characteristics of an Informative Speech

In informative speaking situations, the speaker seeks to deepen understanding, Presenting a speech in which the raise awareness, or increase knowledge about a topic. When you speak to inform, you speaker seeks to deepen understanding, want audience members to learn something from your speech. To do this, you share rais e awareness, or increase knowledge about a topic. information with them. Your skill as a speaker is the mechanism that allows you to transfer information and knowledge accurately to others.4 Figure 13.1 Characteristics of competent informative At the root of all human communication is the connection speaking people make when they share information.5 When you speak informatively, you make this important connection with your listeners. For this to happen, your listeners must fi nd the speech meaningful, the information accurate, and the message clear. Th ese three qualities, shown in Figure 13.1, form the Meaning basis of your competence as an informative speaker.

COMPETENT An Informative Speech Is Personally INFORMATIVE Meaningful SPEAKING By eff ectively relating the topic to the audience, speakers Accuracy Clarity can make their presentations come alive and be personally meaningful. Personalizing your speech begins with the topic you choose, which should be relevant to your audience. You can also personalize your message by using a narrative approach to organize the informative speech topic. Cengage Learning Presentation media can help personalize your information too. Even the creators of today’s digital media try to make the experience of long-distance interaction as personal as possible for users. For example, emoticons (smiley-face icons) were invented to warm up online communication. Many of the emotional techniques you use to personalize instant messages, text messages, photos, and fi les can also be used to personalize the information you share with others in your speeches.

An Informative Speech Is Accurate Today’s robust information environment has heightened the expectations people have about the accuracy and legitimacy of facts that are now so easy to access. Information sources have to satisfy today’s audience’s demand for accuracy.6 For example, the traditional news media have always sought to gain the public’s trust by hiring internal fact checkers to investigate the truthfulness of their stories. But now, online independent news outlets, bloggers, newsgroups, and other gatewatchers also evaluate the information generated by traditional media. Gatewatching involves monitoring news sources to Monitoring news sources to analyze and analyze and assess the information those sources produce.7 Th is increased vigilance assess the information they produce. has led news organizations to check their work even more carefully. Th e principle of gatewatching also applies to informative speaking. Informing your audience eff ectively requires that you present accurate information. Your listeners act as gatewatchers, expecting accuracy in every aspect of your speech: topic choice, supporting materials, organization, language, delivery, and presentation media.

An Informative Speech Is Clear Your audience should not have to work hard to fi gure out what you’re trying to say. When they do, your message could be lost. Audiences understand and recall information best when it is clearly presented and easy to follow. Clarity unravels confusing and complex ideas, making them unambiguous and coherent. Still, clarity oft en presents the greatest challenge to informative speakers.8 What seems clear to you might not be clear 250

PART 4 SPEAKING SITUATIONS Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

Ch013.indd 250 07/10/10 6:50 PM to your listeners—another good reason to remain audience centered as you prepare your speech. Analyzing your audience, selecting appropriate supporting materials, avoiding technical jargon, and organizing your speech so that it fl ows logically from one idea to the next will help make your informative speech clear. And when you give your speech and sense that your audience understands you well, your nervousness will decrease— another benefi t of clarity!

Types of Informative Speeches

Th ere are fi ve common types of informative speeches: 1. Speeches about objects and places 2. Speeches about people and other living creatures 3. Speeches about processes 4. Speeches about events 5. Speeches about ideas and concepts Th ese categories represent general topic areas and you should not consider them mutually exclusive. For instance, a speech about a famous person, such as an inventor, would probably include information about the person’s best-known ideas. A speech about a place might also be about an event that occurs there, which you would probably want to describe briefl y. Still, an informative speech generally has one primary focus you’ll highlight in your speech.

Speeches about Objects and Places An object is any nonliving, material thing that the human senses can perceive. Places are geographic locations. Here are several speech topics and titles addressing objects Any nonliving, material thing that can be and places: perceived by the human senses.

Topic Sample Speech Titles Geographic locations. 3-D movies “Beyond the Flat Screen: How 3-D Movies Work” “Revisiting Classic 3-D Movies” Tijuana “Tijuana: Th e Challenges of a Mexican Border Town” “Th e Delights of Tijuana” toys for special needs kids “Choosing Toys for Kids with Special Needs” “How Toys Improve Special Needs Kids’ Skills” silver mines “Th e Great Silver Mines of Colorado” “How Silver Is Mined Today” extraterrestrials “Ancient Beliefs in Extraterrestrials” “Humorous Films about Extraterrestrials” laser medical technology “Th e Latest Advances in Laser Medical Technology” “Common Types of Medical Lasers” Th ai food “Th e Secret Spices of Th ai Food” “Th ai Food and Drink as Healthy Alternatives” blogs “What Makes a Successful Blog?” “Th e Daily Read: My Favorite Blogs” active volcanoes “Th e Active Volcanoes of Latin America” “Th e Causes of Volcanic Eruptions” folk art “Folk Art in Our Community” “How Does Folk Art Diff er from Commercial Art?” 251

Chapter 13 Informative Speaking Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

Ch013.indd 251 07/10/10 6:50 PM What speech topics could you generate about the nation of Kenya in Africa? For example, have you ever visited there? How do some of the cultures in Kenya differ from those in other African nations? What are some interesting facts about Kenya’s history? What is signiﬁ cant about Kenya in the area of sports? Ami Vitale/Getty Images

Your own interests and knowledge can oft en generate excellent speech topics. Sometimes students believe that the things they know about would not interest an audience. However, with skillful research and delivery, almost anything that is important or interesting to you can be made important or interesting to an audience. Th ink of the town or area where you grew up. What would visitors consider its main attractions? Could you show presentation media that would make those attractions come alive for listeners? If the place doesn’t have a lot of attractions that might interest tourists, what interesting people live there? What interesting or enlightening experiences occurred there? Don’t discount a topic just because you think it wouldn’t interest anyone other than you. Consider how you could make it interesting.

Speeches about People and Other Living Creatures When choosing a topic for an informative speech about people or other living creatures, refl ect on the people who fascinate you or the creatures you think your audience would like to learn more about. Who or what would your audience fi nd meaningful? A well- known celebrity or a lesser-known individual? An international fi gure or someone much closer to home? Would they be interested in an exotic creature, such as the fl ying squirrel or the banded bamboo shark? Or something more common that they know little about, such as the bald eagle or the bottlenose dolphin? Here are some sample topics and titles for this type of speech: Topic Sample Speech Titles Michelle Wie “Th e Asian Wave in Women’s Golf” “Michelle Wie: Professional Golf’s New Superstar” Koko, the “talking gorilla” “When Gorillas Talk, What Do Th ey Say?” “Learning about Human Speech from Koko, the Talking Gorilla” Stephen Colbert “Th e Real World of Comedian Stephen Colbert” “Th e Many Roles of Stephen Colbert” dinosaurs “When Dinosaurs Ruled the World” “Dinosaurs and the Great Extinction Debate”

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Ch013.indd 252 07/10/10 6:50 PM Gloria L. Velásquez “Th e Poetry of Gloria L. Velásquez” “How Gloria L. Velásquez Became Superwoman Chicana” Th e Dalai Lama “A Brief Biography of the Dalai Lama” “Pathways to Peace According to the Dalai Lama” Shaun White “Shaun White: Th e Heart of a Snowboarding Champion” “Shaun White’s Snowboarding Techniques” a local artist “Insight into the Art of Rolando Diaz” “ Th e Struggles and Successes of Local Artist Rolando Diaz” tarantulas “Th e Truth about Tarantulas” “Tarantulas: Evolution of the World’s Scariest Spider” Kathryn D. Sullivan “Kathryn D. Sullivan: Th e First American Woman to Walk in Space” “How to Become an Astronaut Like Kathryn D. Sullivan” For the most part, audiences are highly interested in other people and living creatures— that’s why the Biography Channel, History Channel, National Geographic Channel, and Discovery Channel attract lots of viewers. With careful audience analysis, solid research, and presentation media that include that include images of interesting people and animals, informative speeches about these topics can captivate your audience. Apply it Managing Information for Life

Gathering and organizing information in a smart way health services you need, apply for a job or graduate helps you prepare your speeches and succeed as a public school, give briefi ngs at work, or even set up a business speaker. But these skills can also pay off for you beyond or charity. In today’s data-driven world, it’s to your great the classroom. Taking control of information that is relevant advantage to be really good at fi nding and managing the to your life allows you to manage your fi nances, get the information you need.

Speeches about Processes A speech about a process—how something is done, how it works, or how it has developed—facilitates an audience’s understanding of the process or explains how How something is done, how it works, or audience members can engage in the process themselves. Here are some examples of how it has developed. topics and titles for informative speeches about processes: Topic Sample Speech Titles matching DNA samples “How DNA Aff ects Criminal Prosecutions” “DNA and Genetics: Our Genes Tell Our Stories” selling an item on eBay “How to Sell Your Stuff on eBay” “Th e Do’s and Don’ts of Selling on eBay” testing new cars for safety “Standards for Testing New Cars for Safety” “Test Results on the Safety of New Cars” dancing the Brazilian samba “Dancing the Brazilian Samba with Ease” “Fusing Culture with Movement in the Samba” removing computer spyware “Basic Steps for Removing Computer Spyware” “Avoiding Common Mistakes in Removing Computer Spyware” fi ghting wildfi res “Tactics and Techniques Used for Fighting Wildfi res” “What I Learned Fighting Wildfi res” 253

Ch013.indd 253 07/10/10 6:50 PM buying camping equipment “Buying Good Camping Equipment at a Low Price” “Choosing the Right Camping Equipment for Your Needs” studying abroad “Real Opportunities for Studying Abroad” “Priorities for Choosing an International Studies Program” tracking global climate “Th e Main Indicators of Global Climate Change” change “Tracking Global Climate Change over the Centuries” podcasting “Basic Steps in Making Your First Podcast” “Getting People to Listen to Your Podcasts” Analyze your audience thoroughly before deciding whether you simply want them to understand a process or to enact it themselves. For example, a newscaster speaking to broadcasting students could expect them to participate in producing a TV newscast. In contrast, the listeners in your public speaking class aren’t likely to go out and produce a TV newscast, so simply learning more about the process would be suffi cient for them. Further, if your listeners already know how to perform a process, they likely won’t be very interested in your speech. For instance, many students have iPods or other MP3 players. A speech on how to use an iPod probably isn’t appropriate for a group of college students. Many of those students, however, probably don’t know how to produce a podcast.

Brad Barket/Getty Images Th erefore, a speech explaining how to There are a lot of great examples of speaking about processes on do-it-yourself go through that process may be of great TV shows like Kitchen Impossible, Divine Design, and 30-Minute Meals. interest to them.

Speeches about Events An event is a signifi cant occurrence you experience personally or otherwise know A signiﬁ cant occurrence that an about. An event can take place in the past, present, or future. An event does not individual personally experiences or necessarily have to occur in public—important personal activities and occurrences can otherwise knows about. be events too. Some events, such as concert tours, holiday rituals, fairs, and athletic contests, take place repeatedly. To call something an event gives it a special status and makes this category of informative speeches appealing to public speakers and their audiences. Here are some suggested topics and titles for informative speeches about events: Topic Sample Speech Titles college graduation day “Graduation Day: A Great American Ritual” “Th e Changing Nature of Graduation Day” birthday parties “Ten Essential Ingredients for a Perfect Birthday Party” “Birthday Celebrations in Diff erent Cultures” Chinese New Year “Th e Ancient Tradition of Chinese New Year” “Th e Best Chinese New Year’s Parades in America” 254

Ch013.indd 254 07/10/10 6:50 PM assassination of “Why We Remain Fascinated by the Assassination of President Kennedy President John F. Kennedy” “How the Assassination of President Kennedy Changed Presidential Security Forever” World Cup football “World Cup Football: Who Gets to Play?” “Th e Cultural Signifi cance of World Cup Football” Career Day on campus “Successfully Meeting Employers on Career Day” “Th e Basics of Career Day at Our School” the Grammy Awards “Th e Grammy Awards as a Pop Culture Ceremony” “Th e Grammy Awards Yesterday and Today” the AIDS Walk “Th e AIDS Walk: A Response to a Global Crisis” “Th e AIDS Walk in Our Community” the birth of a baby “Giving Birth: What to Expect Before and During Delivery” “Th e Role of Midwives in Childbirth through the Ages” Ramadan “Ramadan: Th e History of Islam’s Holy Ninth Month” “Th e Importance of Fasting during Ramadan” What would you want to say about an event in your speech? Consider a celebratory event for the recipient of a Habitat for Humanity house. You can talk about what it takes to plan and promote the event, who attends the event and why, or the social signifi cance of the event. When developing an informative speech about an event, consider its many diff erent aspects and choose the ones you think will most interest your audience.

Speeches about Ideas and Concepts Mental activity, including thoughts, understandings, beliefs, notions, and Mental activity produces ideas and concepts, which include thoughts, understandings, principles. beliefs, notions, or principles. Ideas and concepts tend to be abstract rather than concrete. However, over time, an idea or concept may be actualized in the physical world and thus become more concrete. For example, a fundraising event usually starts with someone thinking, “We should raise some money so the community center can buy a new computer.” In another case, a concept car displayed at an auto show begins its life as an automobile designer’s idea and may develop into a marketable product later. Initially, however, all ideas and concepts start out as abstractions, and many remain abstract. When delivering an informative speech about an idea or a concept, the speaker usually explains the origin and main elements of the idea or concept. Th ese aspects of a topic can prove quite extensive David Young-Wolff/PhotoEdit and complex, so select a topic that is manageable within your time frame. Here are some sample topics Events naturally appeal to audiences because they suggest an and titles for informative speeches about ideas and unfolding action, such as the actions that led to this celebratory event concepts. for the recipient of a Habitat for Humanity house. Topic Sample Speech Titles liberty “Looking Back on Liberty in 1776” “Defi ning Liberty aft er 9/11” religious fundamentalism “Th e Roots of Religious Fundamentalism” “What Does It Mean to Be a Religious Fundamentalist?” 255

Ch013.indd 255 07/10/10 6:50 PM the electoral college “Th e American Electoral College: How Does It Function?” “Tracing the History of the Electoral College” marriage “Views of Marriage across Cultures” “How Marriage Has Changed with the Times” binge drinking “Binge Drinking: What are the Risks?” “Th e Binge Drinking Epidemic on Our Campus” individual human rights “What Are Your Individual Human Rights?” “Individual Human Rights: A Guarantee from the United Nations” dance therapy “Dance Th erapy as a Psychological Technique” “Eff ective Dance Th erapy Techniques” cyber bullying “When Does Online Behavior Become Cyberbullying?” “Legal Steps You Can Take against Cyberbullies” niche marketing “How Niche Marketing Developed” “Niche Marketing in a Multicultural Society” distance learning “Th e Beginning of Distance Learning” “Future Directions in Distance Learning” Th is list reveals that subjects for speeches about ideas and concepts can be complex and controversial. Th at’s no reason to avoid such a topic. To the contrary, audiences generally like to learn more about intriguing and provocative topics, especially if you come across as knowledgeable and enthusiastic about the topic.

Speciﬁ c Purposes and Thesis Statements for Informative Speeches

Th e specifi c purpose you develop for an informative speech should refl ect your general purpose: to deepen understanding, raise awareness, or increase knowledge about a topic. For informative speaking, your general purpose is to inform, so your specifi c purpose should begin with a phrase such as “to help my audience learn” or “to make my audience understand.” As you phrase your specifi c purpose, ask yourself, “What do I want my audience to learn?” Th en, as you phrase your thesis, ask yourself, “What does my audience need to know?” Keep in mind that your specifi c purpose and thesis should clarify your topic for your audience, make it meaningful, express the main ideas accurately, and pique the audience’s interest. Table 13.1 on page 257 presents several examples of specifi c purposes and thesis statements for diff erent types of informative speeches.

Organizational Patterns for Informative Speeches

Nearly all the patterns of organization discussed in Chapter 8 work well for informative speeches, including the chronolo gical, spatial, topical, narrative, and cause-and- eff ect pat terns. When choosing a pattern for your informative speech, pick one that complements your topic and promotes your specifi c purpose.

Th e Chronological Pattern Th e chronological pattern allows you to explain how someone or something has developed over a period of time. With this pattern, you highlight the imp ortance of 256

Ch013.indd 256 07/10/10 6:50 PM Table 13.1 Speciﬁ c Purposes and Thesis Statements for Informative Speeches

Informative speech about … Topic Speciﬁ c purpose Thesis statement

Objects and places The Secret Spices To help my audience learn Three secret spices give Thai of Thai Food about the secret spices of food its unique ﬂ avor: lemon- Thai food grass, galangal, and coriander. Beyond the Flat To make my audience A 3-D movie differs from a Screen: How 3-D understand how the traditional ﬁ lm in its technical Movies Work technology of 3-D movies makeup and viewing differs from that of requirements. conventional cinema

People and other How Gloria To help my audience Gloria L. Velásquez became living creatures L. Velásquez learn about how Gloria Superwoman Chicana through Became L. Velásquez became her poetry, ﬁ ction, and music. Superwoman Superwoman Chicana Chicana The Truth about To make my audience True tarantulas are not deadly to Tarantulas understand the truth about humans, usually live a long life, tarantulas and make great pets.

Processes How a Dog Show To educate my audience A professional dog show Is Run about how a professional involves grouping dogs into dog show is run categories, judging the dogs according to standard criteria, and choosing winners by breed and for the overall show. Create Your Own To help my audience Creating your own podcast Podcast understand how to create requires creating the content, their own podcasts recording the content, and publishing the podcast.

Events Career Day To help my audience Career Day on our campus understand the features involves meeting with of Career Day on our prospective employers, fi nding campus out about internships, and enrolling in career-building workshops. The Grammy To make my audience The major milestones in the Awards aware of major history of the Grammy Awards milestones in the history ceremony include the fi rst of the Grammy Awards ceremony in 1959, the fi rst live Ceremony TV broadcast of the ceremony in 1971, Michael Jackson’s sweep of eight Grammy awards in 1984, and the canceled ceremony in 2008.

Ideas and Binge Drinking To help my audience Binge drinking is a form of concepts understand the risks of alcohol abuse that poses binge drinking serious short-term and long-term health risks to the individual. Individual Human To educate my audience Adopted in 1948, the United Rights about the individual Nations’ Universal Declaration human rights guaranteed of Human Rights promotes by the United Nations equal rights, worth, and dignity for all individuals.

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Ch013.indd 257 07/10/10 6:50 PM each step in that deve lopment. Th is pattern works well with informative speeches about objects and places, people and other living creatures, and processes. In the following example, the chronological pattern is used to describe the stages in the life cycle of a living creature. Topic: Th e Life Cycle of Butterfl ies General purpose: To inform Specifi c purpose: To help my audience understand the life cycle of butterfl ies Th esis: Butterfl ies go through four stages in their life cycle: egg, larva, pup a, and metamorphosis. Main points: I. The first stage in the life cycle is the butterfly egg. II. The s econd stage is the larva, known as the caterpillar. III. The third state is the pupa, also referred t o as the chrys alis. IV. In the fourth stage, the organism becomes an adul t butterfly through metamorphosis. For informative speeches that demonstrate how to do something, the best approach is a chron ological pattern that leads the audience through the process step by step. Topic: P acking for a trip by air General purpose: To inform Specifi c purpose: To help my audience learn how to pack a carry-on suitcase for a trip by air Th esis: Packing a carry-o n for an airplane trip involves making a list, checking for banned items, taking only what you need, using the “roll up” technique, and putting breakables in pla stic containers. Main points: I. First, make a list of everything you think you’ll need for the trip. II. Second, check the Transportation Security Administration’s website for a list of banned items. III. Third, check the banned item list against your packing list and cross off any disallowed items. IV. Fourth, reduce your list by bringing only what you absolutely need. V. Fifth, pack using the “roll up” technique to conserve space and prevent wrinkling. VI. Sixth, place breakabl e items in airtight plastic containers. VII. Last, double-check your lis t of items to be sure you didn’t forget anything.

Th e Spatial Pattern Th e sp atial pattern allows you to describe the physical or directional r elationship between objects or places. Th is pattern works well with informative spe eches about objects, place s, people, or other living creatures. For example, if your specifi c purpose is to highlight certain locations, areas, or spaces in a particular place, use a spatial pattern of organization, as in the following example. Topic: Zuni Indian Reservation General purpose: To inform Specifi c purpose: To familiarize my audience with where Zuni Indians live

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Ch013.indd 258 07/10/10 6:50 PM Th esis: Th e Zuni Indians live on the Zuni Indian Reservation in western New Mexico an d on surrounding lands in N ew Mexico and Arizona. Main points: I. The tribal government is based on the Zuni reservation in McKinley County and Cibola County, New Mexico II. Some members of the Zuni tribe also live in Catron County, N ew Mexico, so uth of the main reservation in the western part of the state. III. The Zuni tribe has land holdings and res idences in Apache County, Arizona, in the eastern part of the state, where it shares territory with Navajo tribes. Th e spatial pattern also can be appropriate for informative speeches about people and other living creatures, as in this speech about a person. Topic: Gudridur Th orbjarnardot tir: World Traveler in the Middle Ages General purpose: To inform Specifi c purpose: To educate my audience about the travels of Gudridur Th orbjarnardo ttir, who lived during the Middle Ages Main points: I. Gudridur Thorbjarnardottir was a native of Ice land. II. She also lived in Greenland. III. She explored Vinland, or what is now America. IV. She went to Rome to tell t he Pope about her travels.

Th e Topical Pattern When using the topical patte rn, you divide you r topic into subtopics that address the components, elements, or aspects of the topic. Almost any informative speech topic can be organ ized using this pattern, in which the subtopics become the main points of the

How would you use the spatial pattern to organiz e a speech about the city of Nashville, Tennessee? Barry Winiker/PhotoLibrary 259

Ch013.indd 259 07/10/10 6:50 PM speech. For example, when you simply want your audience to understand a process, use the topical pattern to describe the main features of the process. Topic: Dog shows General purpose: To inform Specifi c purpose: To make my audience aware of how a professional dog show is run Th esis: A professional dog show involves grouping dogs into categories, judging the dogs according to standard criteria, and choosing winners by breed, group, and best in show. Main poin ts: I. In professional dog shows, dogs are divided into breeds, and breeds are classified into groups such as sporting or working dogs. II. Dogs are judged according to conformity wi th the breed standard, as well as personality, age, and sex within breeds. III. The winner of each breed then competes within the appropri ate group. IV. The winners of the groups then compete for best in show. In speeches about concepts and ideas, when you want to explain rather than simply describe important elements of the t opic, the topical pattern can help make your explanation clear . Topic: Globalization General purpose: To inform Specifi c purpose: To help my audience understand the main diff erences among the major forms of globalization Th esis: Th e fi ve forms of glo balization are econom ic, religious, political, c ultural, and media globalization. Main points: I. Trade and commerce between cultural groups represents economic globalization. II. The spread of religious ideas and conversions represents religious globalization. III . The flow of international political influence represents political globalization. IV. The movement of cultural goods from one part of the world to another represents cultural glob alization. V. Connecting the world with new communication technologies represents media globalization.

Th e Narrative Pattern Th e narrative pattern allows you to retell events as a story or a series of short stories. Th is pattern works best with informative speeches about object s, places, people, or other living creatures. Th e narrative pattern has much in common with the chronological pattern, but more strongly emphasizes the dramatic unfolding of events, as in this speech about an object. Topic: Pluto, a Dwarf Planet Specifi c purpose: To help my audience understand why Pluto is a dwarf planet Th esis: Th e story of Pluto began with the discovery of Neptune, reached it s peak with Pluto’s naming as a pla net in the early 1900s, and ended recently with Pluto’s demotion to dwarf pla net.

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Ch013.indd 260 07/10/10 6:51 PM Main points: I. The story of Pluto began with the discovery of Neptune in the 1840s. II. By the late nineteenth century, scientists believed a mysterious planet was affecting Neptune’s orbital plane. III. In the early twentieth century, the planet Pluto was discovered and named. IV. Beginning in 2000, scientists began to doubt that Pluto should have the same status as the other cel estial bodies circling the sun. V. In 2006, the International Astronomical Union reduced Pluto to a secondary status: dwarf planet. Th e narrative pattern works well for turning the chronology of a person’s life events into an absorbing story, adding suspense and dramatic fl air to the topic. Topic: Oprah W infrey General purpose: To inform Specifi c purpose: To make my audience aware of major turning points in Oprah Winfrey’s life Th esis: Oprah Winfrey was born to poor p arents, was a motivated ele mentary-school student, wen t on to high school and college, became a highly successful TV talk show host, and came full circle when she opened a school for disadvantaged girls in South Africa. Main points: I. Oprah was born in 1954 in Mississippi to poor, unwed teenage parents. II. She moved to Milwaukee, where she became a highly motivated and successful student in element ary and middle school. III. Oprah’s love of education became the central part of her li fe as she advanced through high school and college. IV. She developed a highly successful career as a television talk sh ow host. V. Oprah opened a school for black girls from disadvantaged families in South Africa, saying that doing so was her true calling in life—she had come full circle.

Th e Cause-and-Eff ect Pattern Th e cause-and-eff ect pattern shows how an action produces a particular outcome. Th is pattern works well with informative

speeches about events—aft er all, events happen for a travelstock44/Alamy reason. Th is example explains how an alternative holiday What other organizational patterns could you use to give now celebrated by the Maoris, the indigenous people of an informative speech about th e Matariki celebration? New Zealand, came into being when the country declared How would changing the pattern change the focus of your independence from Great Britain. speech? Topic: Matariki: Th e Maori New Year General purpose: To inform Specifi c purpose: To raise my audience’s awareness of the Maori New Year celebration Th esis: Matariki, the Maori New Year, is now an offi cial celebration in Ne w Zealand, part of an eff or t to reclaim and celebrate the Maoris’ cultural heritage. 261

Ch013.indd 261 07/10/10 6:51 PM Main points: I. The Maoris inhabited New Zealand when it was conquered by the English in the eighteenth century. II. Maoris lost much of their cultural heritage in the transition to Br itish rule. III. In 2004, the Maori New Year became an official day of celebration, resulting in the Maoris recla iming some of their cultural heritage. IV. The Maori New Year, Matariki, refers to the appearance of a star cluster that traditionally signals the beginning of the new year. V. Matariki is now widely celebrated among the Ma oris of New Zealand.

Guidelines for Effective Informative Speeches

Th e success of your speech depends greatly on your planning and preparation. Th e following guidelines will help you prepare an exc ellent informative speech and add to your repertoir e of public speaking skills.

Keep Your Speech Informative Whenever you speak about any topic, you may be tempted to evaluate the subject matter, give opinions, or make a suggestion, particularly if you hold strong feelings about the subjec t. In an informative speech, however, you should avoid expressing your personal views. Keep your speech at the level of information sharing. Describe, explain, or demonstrate something, but don’t tell the audience what to think or do about it. Choose a topic that interests you. At the same time, determine what you might realistically expect your audience to get out of your speech. Let’s say, for instance, you want to speak on the subject of rainforests. What would be an appropriate specifi c purpose and thesis for an informative speech about rainforests? What do you want your audience to think or do aft er listening to you? Given the complexities of the topic and the limited time you have to give your speech, you might reasonably expect only to raise the audience’s level of awareness about rainforests generally, focusing on their characteristics. Topic: Rain Forests General purpose: To inform Specifi c purpose: To educate my audience about the characteristics of a rain forest Th esis: Rain forests are characterized by high le vels of rainfall, specifi c types of trees, and four f orest layers. Main points: I. Rain forests receive high levels of rain. II. Only c ertain types of trees live in rain forests. III. Four layers of vegetation exist in a rain forest. Notice that the main points focus on informing the audience and avoid taking a position on the topic. In this case, the difference between informing and persuading lies in explaini ng what rainforests are without advocating an environmental policy. If you believe you can focus on your informative purpose, and not stray into a persuasive purpose, you will be able to give an acceptable informative speech.

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Ch013.indd 262 07/10/10 6:51 PM Make Your Speech Topi c Come Alive Informative speeches come alive when speakers demonstrate a positive attitude and connect the topic to the audience in meaningful ways. You can accomplish this by establishing a context for your topic that excites the audience’s imagination and using vivid language to describe the main points. For example, Queen Rania of Jordan opened an exhibit on the ancient Middle Eastern city of Petra at the New York Museum of Natural History with an informative speech on the city’s history.9 Here is part of what she said: Th e magical rose-red city of Petra—whose wonders will enchant you tonight—is like nothing else on earth. It is a remarkable testimony to the human spirit, etched for all time in sa ndstone and shale…. But Petra is more than just an archeological treasure. Petra, I believe, off ers an enduring message to all mankind. In Petra, human beings— ordinary mortals like you and me—saw potential beauty and grandeur in walls of sheer stone. Th ey imagined the possibility of elegance and splendor where others would see only a barren and desolate wilderness. Most importantly, they had the vision and courage to attempt the impossible…. Petra teaches us that nothing is impossible and that even the bleakest and most barren situation contains t he promise of hope. It takes a dream, a plan and a supreme eff ort—but anything is possible. Th is is the true wonder of Petra, magical and constant through the centuries. In Jordan, we are proud to be the t rustees of this heritage of hope…. and bear with pride our responsibility to share it with our region and to the entire world. Notice how, in just a few words, Queen Rania makes the “Lost City of Stone” come alive and provides a context for appreciating the exhibit’s art and artifacts. She links the story of Petra to recent world events and then suggests that her nation, Jordan, serves as a bridge between the Islamic Middle East and the more diverse West. Th e exhibit that accompanied her speech further enhanced the appeal of her message. Connect Your Topic to Your Audience By using techniques that reduce the distance between themselves and their audiences, good speakers encourage audience members to pay attent ion and focus more intently on the topic. For audiences unfamiliar with your topic, you’ll have to connect it to their general life experiences.10 For audiences familiar with your topic, you can attract and maintain attention by reinforcing commonalities between you and your listeners. Help the audience understand how learning about your topic benefi ts them, and how they can perhaps even incorporate the short lesson into their own lives. Raph Koster, chief creative offi cer of Sony Online Entertainment, connected his speech topic, “Th eory of Fun for Games,” to his audience at a Game Developers Conference with language, examples, and humor.11 Hi, my name is Raph, and I am a gamer. [Audience laughs.] Why do we recognize that reference? Why are we ashamed about “Hi, my name is Raph, and I am a gamer”? Why do we see that c onnection? Why do we have to defend gaming to people? Why do we have to explain to someone or justify why we do what we do? A Th eory of Fun came out of this: a “back to the basics” process of why and how games work…. People are really good at pattern matching. I’m going to off er the vast oversimplifi cation that what we think of as “thinking” or consciousness is really just a big memory game. Matchin g things into sets. Moving things into the right place, and then moving on…. A really good example of this is faces. Th e amount of data in a face is enormous. Just enormous. We’ve only just started to fi gure things about it in the 263

Ch013.indd 263 07/10/10 6:51 PM past few decades; when a bird-watcher spots a bird, the face recognition part of the brain goes off . We see faces everywhere…. So when we see a pattern that we get, we do it over and over again. We build neural connections. Now this is what I call fun. Building those patterns is necessary for our survival…. Fu n is the feedback the brain gives while successfully absorbing a pattern. We need to absorb patterns, otherwise we die. So the brain HAS to give positive feedback to you for learning stuff . We tend to think of fun as being frivolous. Th e stuff that doesn’t matter. And this is the serious games cheer line: I’m here to tell you that fun is not only not frivolous but fundamental to human nature and required for survival. Th erefore what we do is saving the human race from extinction. [laughs] Right from the beginning, Koster emphasized the powerful natural relationship he has with his listeners. “Hi, my name is Raph, and I’m a gamer.” Th e audience laughed at this clever introduction because, fi rst, they all knew who he was. Raph Koster is a legendary fi gure in the world of online gaming, and the audience was there specifi cally to hear what he had to say. Second, he echoed the way people introduce themselves in twelve-step addiction recovery programs. Because gaming is considered an addiction by some, his opening words off ered a sly joke. Th ird, by stating the obvious, “I’m a gamer,” he made fun of his own superstar status by suggesting that the audience might not know he plays online games. And, because most audience members were online gamers, he was able to establish and reinforce a sense of community with them. Th roughout the presentation, the speaker used language that reaffi rms the experiences online gamers share. He used the informal language common in gaming culture and constantly referred to online game players as “we.” His tone was upbeat and fresh. He hit on a key word—fun—as a featured idea. Th en he tied gamers’ shared appreciation of fun to his thesis: “Fun is the feedback the brain gives while successfully absorbing a pattern.” Inform to Educate Informative speaking involves more than simply imparting information. A successful informative speaker informs the audience in a way that educates them. Aft e r hearing the speech, au dience members should understand

Tom A. Peter/The Christian Science Monitor/Getty Images Tom the nature and importance of the topic. Educating your audiences requires demonstrating the A tireless advocate for protecting chimpanzees, gorillas, and other primates in the wild, Jane Goodall describes her experiences as relevance of the speech topic to their lives or values. By a ﬁ eld researcher in Afr ica. Personal stori es helped her connect nature, people respond better to information that promises the topic to her college audiences. How could you make your next to enhance their lives in some way. As an informative speech come alive for your listeners? speaker, you must give your audience a reason to listen. In the following example, Jean-Michel Cousteau addressed a congressional committee in late 2001 about progress in researching and preserving the world’s oceans. Notice how he skillfully connects his topic to the tragedy of 9/11 and uses audience-centered language to educate this audience.12 Particularly in light of recent events, many of you may wonder why we’ve chosen to go ahead with Oceans Day. In times of tragedy and trial, the human spirit seeks constancy. What d oes constancy mean? On a personal level, it might be the constancy of our families, and the love we have for each other. On a professional level, it might be the constancy of our work and the sense of purpose we derive from it. I’d like to suggest even another level of constancy—one we take for granted every day. It’s the constancy 264

Ch013.indd 264 07/10/10 6:51 PM of the physical environment that surrounds us—the earth, the sky, and of course the water…. We are, in fact, a water planet. Two-thirds of the earth is covered in water, the vast majority being the salt water of the ocean. As you know so well, the ocean is vital to life on ear th … whether it be as a driver of the climate that provides life-giving rains, as a source of protein, or as a source of life-saving medicines. Yet, we take this precious resource for granted, polluting it, extracting from it—without regard to its now very noticeable limits to handle such activities. Last year alone, 92 stocks in the United States were determined to be over-fi shed. Coastal wetlands are disappearing at an alarming rate. And polluted waters result in everything from coral reef die-off s to beach closures. As an example of how pollution is aff ecting the St. Lawrence waterway—beluga whales in that area have shown such high levels of contaminants that they would qualify as toxic waste! Cousteau’s challenge was to educate his audience about the importance of preserving the world’s water resources, especially the endangered oceans. To connect his message to the aud ience, he appealed to their sense of “constancy.” People want stability and reliability in their family and professional lives, he said. Th ey need predictability in their physical environments too—in this case, their water supplies. Cousteau encouraged his listeners to become educated about the subject by tying his message to their most basic personal interest—the instinct for survival. He also employed a variety of relevant supporting materials to illustrate the seriousness of the threat to the world’s water supply without trying to overwhelm the audience with too muc h technical information. Cousteau believes that the way to assure a more favorable water environment in the future is to educate people about the perilous state of the oceans. In his speech, he helped his audience develop knowledge and understanding about the subject, not just receive information.

Watch it Use it Cengage Learning Cengage Learning

SPEECH BUDDY VIDEO 13.1 ACTIVITY 13.1 Speaking to Inform Pleased to Inform You In this video, Janine and Evan present complete This activity gives you a chance to analyze an infor mative speeches. Janin e’s speech is a bout the informativ e speec h and then identify ways to apply fi rst Kodak camera, a nd Evan’s speech is about what you’ve learned in your own speech. techno music.

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Ch013.indd 265 07/10/10 6:51 PM Use Presentation Media to Inform Informative speeches frequently include some form of presentation media. However, because you oft en have only a few minutes to give an informa tive speech, you have to keep your pres entation media limited and basic. A few well-placed images to introduce your topic or audio or visual references in support of your main points can prove eff ective. When you limit and carefully select your presentation media, you direct more attention to the images and increase their potential impact. Developing an engaging delivery rhythm that moves smoothly and confi dently between you as the speaker and your presentation media is crucial to becoming an excellent speaker. For example, change your slides at just the right time to illustrate and reinforce the specifi c points you want to make. When used well, presentation media can help make your informative speech a positive experience for you and your audience.

Speech for Review and Anal ysis

Tudor Matei gave this informa tive sp eech in an introductory public speaking class at San José State University. Th e assi gnment was to give a four- to six-minute informative speech that incorporated presentation media and at least three sources. Students were also asked to annotate their references section, explaining why they chose the sources listed. As you read the outline of Tudor’s speech, consider how audience-centered, clear, and accurate the speech is. Is the speech structured in a way that helps Tudor deepen the audience’s understanding of the topic? You can use your CourseMate for Public Speaking: Th e Evolving Art to watch and listen to Speech Buddy Evan deliver this speech in video 13.1, “Speaking to Inform.”

The Universal by Tudor Matei13 Speciﬁ c purpose: To have the audience understand how techno music has Language of brought different nations together. Thesis statement: Techno music c omes from computers, and just as Techno Music computers are common gro und for people all around the world, techno is like a universal language that enables people from diverse c ultures to communicate and enjoy technology in a creative way.

Introduction I. You probably hear the word techno just about every day, but what exactly is techno music? A. Up until recently, people just responded to it, but nobody knew what it really was. B. T he real question most of you may have is, “Why is techno music so popular?” C. In his article “A Brief History of Techno,” Jacob Arnold says that its “recent popularity is due to th e growing number of people who are accepting

Cengage Learning computer technology as an integral p art of their lives. Because techno is created almost entirely with electronics, much of it has become an expression of the interface between humans and machines.” II. Before I talk to you about when and where techno was invented, I want to cover some basics about this type of music.

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Ch013.indd 266 07/10/10 6:51 PM Body I. What are the basics of techno music? A. Techno falls unde r the broader category of electronic dance music. B. The name “techno” is derived from the word technology because techno musi c is made on a computer using digital so und. C. Techno has electronic sounds, little melody, high energy, and rhythmic beats. Transition: Since we now have some techno basics down, I can talk about where techno music was invented. II. Where was techno invented? A. Techno was created in the 1980s in Detroit, Mic higan. B. You may be surprised that this genre was developed in Detroit, also the birthplace of Motown. C . Three pioneers—called the “Be lleville Three”—are credited with creating techno. 1. Their names are Derrick May, Juan Atkins, and Kevin Saunderson. 2. The music they created is classifi ed as Detroit techno. Transition: Yes, there are subcategories of techno. I’ll tell you a bit about each. III. Techno can currently be divided into t hree subcategories. A. The fi rst subcategory is the origina l form, Detroit techno. 1. This form is distinguished by simple rhythms and a small number of electronic sounds. 2. It only has a small number of s ounds because technology back in the day was limited 3. Detroit techno is not very interesting compared to today’s other forms. B. Trance techno is pro bably the type of techno you were already familiar with. 1. Trance is one of the most po pular styles of techno at large parties and in clubs. 2. Trance started in the early 1990s in Germany at a party. a. The party was called “Age of Love.” b . DJ Sakin played a song called “Protect Your Mind.” 3. Trance techno is louder than most genres of music. a. It features bass fl uctuating betwe en high and low points. b. Trance techno also contains many drum climaxes and wavy sounds. C. Hardcore techno is, at least for now, the last subcateg ory of techno. 1. This form basically features a bunch of sou nds played together to create a chaotic feeling. 2. The sounds may include anything from happy vocals to pianos to drums and even airplanes crashing. 3. Frankly, it is enjoyed often by people who take Ecstasy—not something I recommend . Transition: All of the subcategories of techno music are essentially made the same way. IV. The musicology (history and science) of techno is unique. A. Techno music generally has around 130 to 140 beats per minute or higher. B. The music is usually created with separate ke yboards and synthesizers, but it can also be created with one single computer. C. Most producers try to push the limits of how many sounds they can cram into a song, but they also try to achieve a listenable dance mix.

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Ch013.indd 267 07/10/10 6:51 PM Transition: If you’re getting interested in th is kind of music, you might be especially curious about where it stands today. V. Techno is still popular and developing. A. Techno has bee n very popular in the recent years. 1. It retains its popularity despite its association with the controversial rave scene. 2. A lot of clubs have a special “techno danc e fl oor” or dedicated “techno nights.” C. Techno’s infl uence has spread throughout the world and throughout entertainment. D. Probably the bi ggest group of techno listeners is in Australia. E. Techno infl uences other music ge nres, such as hip-hop. F. Tons of new movies use techno songs, especially action mov ies. Transition: That techno can be enjoyed by people from all different cultures is one of the things I like best about it. Conclusion I. Like computers, techno music provides a universal l anguage for people around the world and brings together people from diverse backgrounds. II. Although there are a lot of electronic genres in music, techno is by far the most popular. A. Trance techno in particular is really popular. B. People can easily dance to trance—even without doing drugs. III. In the end, I feel that techno is not just another music genre, but also a way for people to communicate and enjoy te chnology in a very creative way. IV. Any requests to hear one o f those samples again?

References Flavell, K. (Producer), & Mittmann, J. D. (Director). (2003). Sounds Like Techno [Video ﬁ le]. Retrieved from http://www2 .abc.net.au/arts/soundsliketechno/swf/default.asp (T his website is probably my most important source of information. The Australian Broadcasting Corporation did a documentary on techno music.) i:Vibes crew. (2009). i:Vibes: Your guide to electronic music [Website]. Retrieved from http://www.ivibes.nu/ (This website had free samples of techno music. It helped me more easily und erstand the type of music I am dealing with.) Jacob, A. (2008, November). A brief history of techno. Gridface. Retrieved from http:// www.gridface.com/features/a_brief_history_of_techno.html (This website helped me with the history of techno. I even quoted a line in my speech about it.) Savage, J. (Summer 1993). Machine soul: A history of techno. [Rock & Roll Quarterly insert] The Village Voice. Retrieved from http://music.hyperreal.org/library/ machine_soul.html (This w ebsite also helped me with history of techno. It helped me understand the way producers worked.) Technomusic.com (2010).[Audio podcast]. Retrie ved from http://www.technomusic. com/ (A good site for listening to samples of techno music.) Thigpen. (n .d.) Thigpen’s techno music page. Retrieved from http://www.ccs.neu.edu/ home/thigpen/html/music (This website is very old, but it has interesting early techno songs. I found s ome old playlists.) Wikipedia. (2010, June). Techno. In Wikipedia. Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia. org/wiki/Techno (This website has a tremendous amount of information. However because it is Wikipedia, I did not trust everything the site said. I used the information as a starting point, and found a lot of original sources in the Bibliography, Filmography, and References sections.)

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Ch013.indd 268 07/10/10 6:51 PM Questions for Analysis and Discussion

1. Was Tudor’s speech likely to be considered personally meaningful by her audience? What did she do or fail to do to connect her topi c to the audience? 2. Th e specifi c purpose of Tudor ’s speech was to have the audience understand how techno music has brought diff erent nations together. Did she accomplish her purpose? 3. How familiar are you with techno music? Did you learn anything new from Tudor’s speech about techno music? If yes, what? 4. What organizational pattern did she use? Given the spec ifi c purpose of her speech, was that the best choice? What organizational pattern would you have chosen? 5. Can audio or video samples be used eff ectively in a four- to six-minute speech to inform? If yes, how would you use presentation media in this speech? If no, why wouldn’t you use pres entation media? 6. Did you fi nd anything in Tudor’s speech to be inaccurate or unclear? 7. Does the conclusion of Tudor’s speech advance her purpose for giving the speech? How might she have concluded more eff ectively?

Summary

h en you give an informative speech, you seek to deepen understanding, raise awareness, or increase knowledge about a topic. To connect e ff ectively wi th an Waudience in order to shar e information, you must ensure that your speech is meaningful, accurate, and clear. Most informative speeches are about objects and places, people and other living creatures, processes, events, or ideas and concepts. Th e general and specifi c purposes you develop for an informative speech should refl ect your overall goal—to foster understanding about a subject or to explain to your audience how to perform a process. Several patterns of organization work well for informative speeches, including the chronological, spatial, topical, narrative, and cause-and-eff ect patterns. Th e pattern you choose for an informative speech should complement your general and specifi c purposes for that speech. Five strategies for delivering an eff ective informative speech are to keep your speech informative rather than persuasive, make your speech come alive with colorful language and a topic that sparks your audience’s imagination, connect your topic to your audience in meaningful ways, inform to educate, and use presentation media to inform.

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Ch013.indd 269 07/10/10 6:51 PM Review it Directory of Study and Review Resources

IN THE BOOK SPEECH BUILDER EXPRESS Summary Goal/purpose Key Terms Thesis statement Critical Challenges Organization Outline MORE STUDY RESOURCES Supporting ma terial Quizzes Transitions WebLinks Introduction Peer-reviewed videos Conclusion Title STUDENT WORKBOOK Works cited 13.1: Short Info rmative Spee ches V isual aids 13. 2: Audienc e Outcomes Completing the speech outline 13.3: Gra ding a Teacher 13.4: Audience Attention INFOTRAC 13.5: Document a Documentary Recommended search terms Infor mative s peaking SPEECH BUDDY VIDEOS Informative speech topic s WATCH It Video Biography 13.1: S peaking to Inform H ow things w ork USE It Activity Community events 13.1: Pleased to Inform You Organizat ional patterns for speeches SAMPLE SPEECH VIDEOS AUDIO STUDY TOOLS Curt, “The Illo ngot Headhunters,” inform ative “The Illongot He adhunters” by Curt speech Critic al thinking questions Jeff, “H istory of Fort Colli ns, Colorado,” Learning objectives informative speech Chapter summary

Guide to Your Online Resources

Your Speech Communication quizzes, and the Critical Challenge questions for CourseMate for Public Speak ing: this chapter, which you can respond to via email The Evolving Art gives you access to the Speech if your instructor so requests. In addition, your Buddy video and a ctivity featured in this chapter, CourseMate features live WebLinks relevant to this additional sample speech videos, Speech Studio, chapter, including sites that provide examples of Speech Builder Express, InfoTrac College Edition, excellent informative speeches. Links are regularly and study aids such as glossary flashcards, review maintained, and new ones are added periodically.

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Ch013.indd 270 07/10/10 6:51 PM Key Terms

event 254 ideas and concepts 255 places 251 gatewatching 250 object 251 process 253 informative speaking 250

Critical Challenges

Questions for Refl ection and Discus sion 1. Does clarity or lack of clarity raise ethical questions? How does clar ity relate to transpar ency—the vis ibility or accessibility of information disclosed by government, big business , and other organizations? Why might professional public speakers, especially some politicians and business leaders, purposefully avoid being clear about their messages? 2. Th e diff erence between an informative speech and a persuasive one can sometimes be diffi cult for speakers to grasp. Consider the topics you might choose for an informative speech. How wo uld you keep those topics safely inside the boundaries of speaking to inform? 3. We are bombarded with lots of information every day. Is there such a thing as too much information? Does “information overload” really exist? (Information overload is a term coined by U. S. writer Alvin Toffl er to describe the diffi culty individuals can have understanding an issue and making decisions when they take in more information than they can process.) Under what circumstances would you personally choose not to learn something new? 4. Check out Speech Studio to watch and listen to other students’ informative speeches. Or record a speech you’re working on, upload it to Speech Studio, and ask your peers for their fee dback. What feedback could you use to fi ne-tune your informative speech before you give it in class?

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Ch013.indd 271 07/10/10 6:51 PM 14 Persuasive Speaking

Read it • Deﬁ ning Persuasion 274 • Persuading Different Types of Audiences 287 • Speeches on Questions of Fact 275 • The Ethics of Persuasive Speaking 292 • Speeches on Questions of Value 278 • Speech for Review and Analysis 294 • Speeches on Questions of Policy 281

Watch it

• Speaking to Persuade 293

ge Learning ge

gag

Cengage Learning Cengage Cen Cen

Use it • Persuasion Equation 293

e Learning

Cengage Learning

Review it • Directory of Study and Review Resources 297

Ch014.indd 272 07/10/10 6:52 PM hen Antonio Villaraigosa was elected mayor of Los Angeles, he Wrepresented great hope for millions of Mexican Americans who live in the City of Angels. Villaraigosa grew up in East L.A., a poor Latino part of the city. Before he turned seventeen, Villaraigosa had dropped out of high school—twice. But soon he straightened himself out, started working hard, and learned to appreciate education. In addition, Villaraigosa developed outstanding persuasive speaking skills. In a persuasive speech,h, the speaker attempts to reinforce,reinforce, modify,modify, or change audience members’ers’ beliefs,beliefs, attitudes, opinions, values, and behaviors. ThroughThrough many inspirationalnspirational public speeches, Los Angeles’s fi rst elected Latino mayor in modern history convinced many ofof the city’s residents to envision a brighterter future,future, even in times ofof declining budgets and economic instability.ity. In his fi rst state ofof the city address, Villaraigosa saidsaid ThisThis dayday isn’t about addressingaddressing the state ofof thingsthings as theythey are.are. It’sIt’s aboutabout thethe statestate of ourour citycity as itit shouldshould be.be. OverOver ninenine A speech in whi ch the speaker months ago, I stood before you on the south steps of City attempts to reinforce, modify, Hall, and I asked you to dream with me about a different kind or change audience members’ beliefs, attitudes, opinions, of future for Los Angeles. A future where LA is taking the lead values , and behav iors. as the great global city of the twenty- fi rst century. A future where people in communities around our city are drawn closer together by a world-class transit system. A future where we are growing greener as we grow. Where children can walk to school in safety. And where no kid in any neighborhood in any part of Los Angeles is ever robbed of his or her childhood. And I asked you to imagine a future where it doesn’t matter who you are or where you come from…. Whether you’re African American, Latino, Caucasian, or Asian…. Whether you’re gay or straight, rich y ges

Getty Images or poor…. Where every Angeleno has a chance to show their talent.1

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Ch014.indd 273 07/10/10 6:52 PM Antonio Villaraigosa has become a major ﬁ gure in American politics because he understands how to connect with people, stir their hopes and dreams, and move them to act. In short, he speaks persuasively. This chapter covers the basics of persuasive public speaking, and Chapter 15 explains how you can apply the elements of argument in persuasive situations. The two chapters work together to provide speciﬁ c strategies for giving an effective and ethical persuasive speech.

Deﬁ ning Persuasion

Persuasion relies on language, images, and other means of communication to infl uence Using language, images, and other people’s beliefs, attitudes, values, or actions.2 Every day you encounter and manage means of communication to inﬂ uence a constant fl ow of persuasive messages. Friends want to make plans with you for the people’s attitudes, beliefs, values, or actions. weekend. A coworker texts you for advice on a project. Television constantly tries to sell you more products. Family members need help. Instructors explain why what they’re teaching you is useful. Pop-up ads interrupt your online searches. Charitable organizations solicit donations. Demands like these for your attention and cooperation never stop. In addition to being infl uenced, you also must infl uence others so you can fulfi ll your personal needs and be an eff ective member of society. Since ancient times— when philosophers emphasized the positive role of persuasion in public discourse— democratic societies have depended on the ability of ordinary citizens to make their voices and opinions heard. Businesses, organizations, media, groups of friends, sporting teams, and even families reward people who can express their views convincingly and motivate others to act. Whether persuasive attempts deal with relatively minor personal matters or serious Forcing someone to think a c ertain way or making someone feel compelled to act issues that involve entire groups, people subjected to social infl uence must always have under pressure or threat. the freedom to say no. Persuasion implies choice. Coercion, however, does not. When a person is forced to think a certain way or feels compelled to act under pressure or threat, they are not being persuaded. Th ey are being coerced. Brainwashing or intimidating people to get a desired eff ect is not persuasion. Neither is physically restraining or bullying someone. Free societies are founded on the right of individuals to choose courses of action willfully. Informative and persuasive speaking diff er in an important way. Informative speakers fulfi ll the role of expert on a topic and seek to facilitate audience understanding about it. In contrast, persuasive speakers take on the role of promoter or proponent, advocating a particular view on a topic they want the audience to adopt. As a persuasive speaker, you’ll become an expert on your topic, but you’ll go beyond your expertise to argue for a specifi c viewpoint that you want the audience to accept. Persuasive speakers voice a clear position on a topic, whereas informative speakers remain neutral. For example, for an informative speech on the digital camera, the speaker would make the audience more aware of the topic, say, by describing the camera’s history. In contrast, a persuasive speaker would advocate a particular view of the topic, perhaps arguing that traditional cameras are superior to digital ones. George Jartos/CartoonStock George 274

Ch014.indd 274 07/10/10 6:52 PM Persuasive speeches address three types of questions: fact, value, and policy. While each of these types of speeches has the general purpose of persuading an audience, they diff er in the kind of outcome the speaker seeks. Th e type of persuasive speech you give infl uences how you develop your specifi c purpose and thesis, select main points, and organize your ideas.

Speeches on Questions of Fact

A question of fact asks whether something is true or false. In speeches addressing questions of fact, the speaker tries to persuade an audience that something did or did not A questions that asks whether something occur, or that one event caused another. For example, in a criminal court the prosecution is true or false. attempts to persuade the jury the defendant did engage in illegal activity, while the defense argues the defendant did not. Chapter 7 defi ned facts as observations you make from your own and others’ experiences, and inferences as conclusions you draw based on facts. In speeches addressing questions of fact, speakers and listeners must carefully distinguish between facts and inferences. An infamous example of a speech that blurred the line between facts and inferences is former Secretary of State Colin Powell’s address to the United Nations on February 5, 2003.3 In his speech, Powell argued that Iraq’s leader, Saddam Hussein, possessed weapons of mass destruction and would use them against other countries, including the United States. Employing satellite images, artists’ drawings, intelligence fi ndings, audiotapes, and other information, Powell argued that an attack was imminent. But much of what Powell presented as fact turned out to be invalid inferences based on contestable information.4 Th e satellite photos, for instance, did show some trucks, but they were water or fi re trucks, not decontamination units for people working with biochemicals as Powell implied. Several years later, aft er weapons of mass destruction had not been found in Iraq, Powell admitted he regretted giving the speech and presenting as facts information he later found out was unreliable.5 Speeches on questions of fact typically address three issues: what is observed or known, how the observations were made, and whether new observations have changed what people once thought of as fact. Generally, individuals agree on facts because they’re verifi able—they can be proven true or false. But sometimes people disagree about what they observe or how the observations were made. For example, a recent study found that on average Americans talk regularly about their personal troubles with two people, down from three in 1985. However, the questions asked implied face-to-face communication only, leaving out other ways to interact, such as phone calls, emails, text messages, and online chats. You might agree with the study’s results but disagree with how the questions were worded. Because facts can be contested, the speaker must persuade the audience that the version of the facts presented is correct. Th e persuasiveness of a speech addressing a question of fact rests on the speaker’s ability to present sound, credible evidence. Facts and statistics typically provide the foundational evidence for speeches on questions of fact. But speakers may also use examples, testimony, defi nitions, or narratives as supporting evidence. For example, in a persuasive speech arguing that mandatory seat belt laws save lives, the speaker might include quotes from an interview with a highway patrol offi cer or a personal narrative about how wearing a seat belt saved the speaker’s life in a car crash.

Specifi c Purposes, Th esis Statements, and Main Points for Speeches on Questions of Fact For persuasive speaking, your general purpose is to persuade, so your specifi c purpose should begin with something like “To persuade my audience to [take some sort of action]” or “To convince my audience to [think a certain way].” 275

Chapter 14 Persuasive Speaking Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

Ch014.indd 275 07/10/10 6:52 PM When you give a speech on a question of fact, you want the audience to believe or agree with you that something is true or false. You focus on reinforcing or changing how people think, not on how they behave, as the following example shows. Topic: Th e Peak in Worldwide Oil Production General purpose: To persuade Specifi c purpose: To convince my audience that oil production in the world has peaked Th esis: Historical evidence shows that worldwide oil production has peaked and can no longer increase. Th is example demonstrates how the topic, general purpose, specifi c purpose, and thesis work together to answer a question of fact. In this speech, you’re asking, “Has oil production in the world reached its peak?” Your specifi c purpose and thesis provide the answer you want your audience to agree with: Yes, “historical evidence shows that worldwide oil production has peaked and can no longer increase.” When creating your main points for a speech on a question of fact, ask yourself, “What would make someone think this claim is true (or false)?” For example, in a speech about the causes of autism, the thesis suggests that the speaker will address theories associated with autism’s causes. Topic: Causes of Autism General purpose: To persuade Specifi c purpose: To convince my audience that the causes of autism are unknown Th esis: Current theories about autism have not identifi ed its cause.

Main points: I. Genetic theories of autism suggest the disease is caused by an anomaly in the ways certain genes interact with each other, but the research is inconclusive. II. Viral theories suggest that autism is caused by a virus or infection, although research findings are inconsistent. III. Some theories, such as the notions that childhood vaccines and poor parenting cause autism, have not been supported.

Organizational Patterns for Speeches on Questions of Fact As with an informative speech, choose a pattern of organization for a persuasive speech consistent with your specifi c purpose and thesis. All the organizational patterns discussed in Chapter 8 can be used for persuasive speeches. For speeches that address questions of fact, speakers usually arrange their main points in a chronological, spatial, topical, or cause-and-eff ect pattern. Th e thesis oft en provides guidance about how best to organize a speech. For example, the thesis for the oil production speech, shown again below, suggests a chronological pattern, which allows the speaker to trace production trends from the past to the present. Organizational pattern: Chronological Topic: Worldwide Oil Production General purpose: To persuade Specifi c purpose: To convince my audience that oil production in the world has peaked Th esis: Historical evidence shows that worldwide oil production 276 has peaked and can no longer increase.

Ch014.indd 276 07/10/10 6:52 PM Main points: I. The rate of new oil discoveries worldwide has declined since the 1960s. II. In 1970, U.S. oil production peaked. III. In 1976, the last major oil reserve was found in the Middle East. IV. Oil production has not increased in the past ten years. V. Demand for oil has quadrupled in the past five years. Th e next two examples show how speeches on questions of fact can be organized according to the spatial and topical patterns. Notice how the thesis statements suggest the appropriate pattern to use. Organizational pattern: Spatial Topic: Health Risks in International Travel General purpose: To persuade Specifi c purpose: To convince my audience they will encounter health risks when visiting foreign countries Th esis: Visiting foreign countries brings various health risks. Main points: I. When visiting South America, you must consider certain health concerns. II. When visiting East Asia, you should be aware of other health risks. III. U.S. visitors to South Asia encounter important health risks as well. IV. U.S. visitors traveling to Africa face several health risks. Organizational pattern: Topical Topic: Th e Eff ectiveness of Vitamin Pills General purpose: To persuade Specifi c purpose: To convince my audience that vitamin pills don’t improve health Th esis: Although vitamin intake through the foods we eat is necessary for good health, vitamin pills are unnecessary and risky to good health. Main points: I. Vitamin intake is necessary for good health. II. Sufficient vitamin intake occurs through proper eating habits. III. Vitamin pills add nothing to natural vitamin intake. IV. Vitamin pills can create health risks. Speakers use the cause-and-eff ect pattern of organization for speeches on questions of fact when attempting to prove or disprove that one behavior or event causes another. Consider this example about bans on handheld cell phone use while driving. Topic: Handheld Cell Phone Use While Driving General purpose: To persuade Specifi c purpose: To convince my audience that banning handheld cell phone use while driving reduces accidents and saves lives Th esis: Statistics show that banning the use of handheld cell phones while driving reduces accidents and saves lives. Main points: I. Many states have banned the use of handheld cell phones for drivers. II. As indicated by traffic accident statistics, banning handheld phone use while driving reduces accidents and saves lives. 277

Ch014.indd 277 07/10/10 6:52 PM In applying the cause-and-eff ect pattern of organization to speeches on questions of fact, the speaker must clearly demonstrate causation—that action A led to action B. Th e handheld cell phone ban example appears to do that, with statistics showing reduced accidents and fewer lives lost aft er the ban was enacted. Still, the speaker must not confuse correlation with causation. Two actions may appear linked, but that does not mean they are causally connected. For example, while it’s true that banning handheld phones may save lives, decreases in the number of accidents and deaths on the road may be infl uenced by other factors too. For example, at the time the cell phone ban went into eff ect, the economy was slowing down. People were driving less and were therefore less likely to get into an accident. In addition, in recent years improved safety technology in cars, more sophisticated road engineering, and crackdowns on drunk driving have also contributed to lowering the number of accidents and deaths on U.S. highways.6

Speeches on Questions of Value

A question of value asks for a subjective evaluation of something’s worth, signifi cance, A question that asks for a subjective quality, or condition. Questions of value ask if something is good or bad, right or wrong, evaluation of something’s wo rth, beautiful or ugly, boring or engaging, funny or serious—all qualitative judgments about signiﬁ cance , quality, or condition. something’s signifi cance. A question of value, therefore, addresses individual opinions and cultural beliefs rather than proving something true or false. Sarah Palin shot to political and cultural stardom on the basis of a “values” speech she gave when accepting the nomination for vice president at the Republican National Convention in 2008. She became famous for associating herself with what she calls “the real America”—conservative small towns in the country’s heartland, where she says love of country and “family values” dominate. Early in her acceptance speech, she brought up the notion of patriotism, telling an enthusiastic audience that her son Track was headed to Iraq to serve the United States as an Army infantryman. She continued to emphasize the value of patriotism by pointing out that he would depart for combat on September 11. Palin then attempted to establish more strongly her credibility as a conservative by portraying herself as a politician who puts traditional family values fi rst: A writer observed: “We grow good people in our small towns, with honesty, sincerity, and dignity.” I know just the kind of people that writer had in mind. . . I grew up with those people. Th ey are the ones who do some of the hardest work in America, who grow our food, run our factories, and fi ght our wars. eyTh love their country, in good times and bad, and they’re always proud of America. I had the privilege of living most of my life in a small town. Palin went on to tell the enthusiastic crowd and huge television audience that she was “just your average hockey mom who signed up for the PTA.” She said she married her high school sweetheart, loves her kids, drives to work, dismissed the governor’s personal chef, sold Alaska’s luxury jet on eBay, and at the end of her speech, like all politicians in the United States, she asked God to bless America.7 Sarah Palin had a clear behavioral objective in mind. She tried to link “small-town values” to voters’ values in order to drum up support for the McCain–Palin ticket in the general election. But not all speeches AFP/Getty Images on questions of value include a well-defi ned call to action like Palin’s Addressing the Republican National Convention did. Similar to speeches on questions of fact, most speeches on questions in her vice-presidential nomination speech, of value focus on persuading the audience to believe a certain way. Sarah Palin spoke of patriotism and family Th ey don’t necessarily ask the audience to take action or change their values to connect with voters. behavior. 278

Ch014.indd 278 07/10/10 6:52 PM Speeches on questions of value address timeless issues such as the morality of war or concerns like the ethical uses of social networking Speaking of . . . websites like Facebook or Twitter. Topics may be serious, as with the best way to address terrorism, or more lighthearted, as with a critique of a city’s worst architecture. Still, any discussion based on applying subjective standards will result in some level of disagreement. Learning about What Americans Value Because questions of value can prove contentious, they oft en make for at America.gov stimulating persuasive speeches, especially if you and your audience What do Americans value? Because the U.S. view the topic diff erently. population is diverse in so many ways, there’s no easy answer to that question. The U.S. Department of State’s Bureau of International Specifi c Purposes, Th esis Statements, and Main Information Programs includes on its website Points for Speeches on Questions of Value (America.gov) two collections of information related to American values. One, American Life, In a speech on a question of value, your specifi c purpose reveals your discusses topics such as education, the arts, evaluation of the topic’s quality. Do you think something is good or bad, diversity, and education. The other, Democracy, right or wrong, moral or immoral, the best or the worst? Make your focuses on U.S. efforts to support democracy and human rights worldwide. The site targets an position clear so your audience will know exactly what you think aft er international audience, especially foreign media listening to your speech. Th en develop a thesis that supports your position. organizations, government ofﬁ cials, and leaders, Topic: Public Art as well as the general public. Go to America. gov and explore the site. What values is the site General purpose: To persuade attempting to communicate to the international Specifi c purpose: To convince my audience that public art is community? To what extent do you think all good for everyone Americans share those values? How can knowing about these values help you in public speaking? Th esis: Public art is good for everyone because it rejuvenates commercial areas, gives residents a better quality of life, encourages tourism, and energizes local artist communities. Th e main points for a speech on a question of value must clearly present and strongly support your position. Some speeches addressing questions of value focus on fairly noncontroversial topics, such as “recycling is good” or “littering is bad.” But because questions of value refl ect individual judgments, speeches on questions of value more oft en touch on controversial and sensitive topics such as capital punishment, abortion, the right to die, and animal rights. Your challenge is to make your position on the topic seem reasonable to an audience, especially a negative audience. As you prepare your main points, ask yourself questions such as “What kinds of supporting materials will best convince my audience to accept my position or change their views? What ideas support my position and how should I organize them? What can I reasonably expect my audience to think aft er listening to my speech about this topic?” Th e value of school vouchers provides a useful example. Th is topic has caused much debate among parents, teachers, administrators, church groups, and others concerned with public education. One way to address this controversy is to examine how well school vouchers perform here and in other countries. Topic: School Vouchers General purpose: To persuade Specifi c purpose: To convince my audience that school vouchers are the best way to solve education problems in K–12 schools Th esis: School reform movements in the United States and other countries show that school vouchers are the best way to solve current problems in K–12 schools. Main points: I. School reform movements in Australia provide support for the superiority of a school voucher program over other choices. 279

Ch014.indd 279 07/10/10 6:53 PM II. Education reform movements in Japan also provide support for school vouchers. III. Recent changes in Canada’s public school system indicate a school voucher program would work in the United States. IV. Trial programs in U.S. schools show that school vouchers solve current problems.

Organizational Patterns for Speeches on Questions of Value For speeches that address questions of value, speakers usually arrange their main points in a chronological, spatial, or topical pattern. As with all persuasive speeches, choosing the appropriate organizational pattern for a speech on a question of value infl uences your ability to convince the audience. For example, in a speech about the use of computer-generated imagery (CGI) in fi lms, a chronological pattern allows you to begin by discussing highly acclaimed movies made before CGI, strengthening your argument that CGI-based movies are inferior. Organizational pattern: Chronological Topic: Computer-generated Imagery (CGI) in Movies General purpose: To persuade Specifi c purpose: To convince my audience that movies using CGI are inferior to movies that don’t use CGI Th esis: Movies using CGI are inferior to movies without CGI because movies with CGI focus more on the CGI technology than on telling a good story. Main points: I. Before computer-generated imagery (CGI), Hollywood produced rich narratives such as Citizen Kane, Sunset Boulevard, and One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest. II. CGI was introduced in the early 1970s with the movie Westworld, and attention then turned to CGI and away from writing good stories. III. Today, the emphasis is on CGI, and telling a good story is forgotten, as with Jumper and Pirates of the Caribbean: At World’s End. A topical pattern of organization works well for a question of value speech when the main points are of about equal importance. In the following example, all three points contribute in diff erent but equally important ways to the thesis. Organizational pattern: Topical Topic: Skin-lightening Products General purpose: To persuade Specifi c purpose: To convince my audience that skin-lightening products are unethical Th esis: Skin-lightening products are unethical because they can cause physical and psychological harm to users and imply that light skin is better than dark skin. Main points: I. Cosmetic products used to lighten the skin can cause physical harm to the users. II. Cosmetic products used to lighten the skin can cause psychological harm to the users. III. Cosmetic products used to lighten the skin create a racist impression that light skin is preferable to dark skin. For an example of a speech on a question of value organized using the spatial pattern, review the speech on school vouchers earlier in the section. 280

Ch014.indd 280 07/10/10 6:53 PM Speeches on Questions of Policy

A question of policy asks what course of action should be taken or how a problem should be solved. Note the word should—that’s your clue that a speech addresses a A question that asks what course of question of policy rather than a question of fact or value. action should be taken or how a proble m Questions of policy may refl ect current controversies, such as U.S. immigration policies, should be solved. or less contentious topics, such as getting more exercise. Th ese questions also range from the general, such as promoting democracy around the world, to the specifi c, such as academic integrity policies on your campus. Examples of questions of policy include the following:

■ Should consumers buy products made in the United States?

■ Should we eliminate remedial courses in U.S. higher education?

■ How should people protect themselves from identity theft ? Speeches on questions of policy ask the audience to personally take (or not take) a particular action or support (or not support) a particular position.8 Speakers might request immediate involvement, general support for a social or political movement of some kind, disapproval of an idea, or a change in behavior. For example, a speaker might propose that

■ College students should circulate a petition to ban junk food on campuses.

■ People should support the animal rights movement.

■ Local residents should not approve of changes in the zoning law.

■ Everyone should exercise more. In a general sense, policies are formal doctrines used by institutions like governments, organizations, schools, teams, and clubs. Th ese policies oft en take the form of rules, laws, plans, or codes of behavior that institutions create and enforce. A speech that calls for making noisy leaf blowers illegal, for instance, or a proposal for constructing more aff ordable housing units in your community, falls into this category. But as the above examples demonstrate, questions of policy address a wide range of issues at the personal, group, institutional, societal, and cultural levels. Moreover, many questions of policy call for individualized responses, such as recommending that consumers carefully monitor their food and clothing purchases or protect themselves against identity theft . When choosing a topic for a speech about a question of policy, you need not stick with traditional public policy controversies like gun control, capital punishment, and the right to die. Indeed, unless there’s a current discussion surrounding the issue you may want to avoid these topics. Original, thought-provoking topics or unique positions on well-known subjects are more likely to interest your audience than material they’ve heard many times before. Most important, choose something you truly care about that will resonate with your audience. You might consider, for instance, policy questions involving universal human rights, social justice, or the environment. Do schools have the right to strip-search students? Should a tax be imposed on cosmetic surgery? Should online sports gambling be legalized and regulated? Is the new generation of clean nuclear power plants key to solving America’s energy crisis? Are parents who deny their children medical care for religious reasons guilty of murder if the child dies? You may want to present your views on one of the many controversies springing from interpretations of the U.S. Constitution or government policy, such as fl ag burning, separation of church and state, or limits on the president’s discretion to start a preventive war. Developing regional public transportation, raising teachers’ salaries, or banning negative political campaign ads are other debatable issues that spring from government policy. Or you may want to choose a more specifi c, local issue arising from your campus, your workplace, or your community. Are new regulations needed to control the local police department’s use of excessive force? Are the visiting rules in your school’s dormitories too restrictive? Should smoking be completely banned on your campus? 281

Ch014.indd 281 07/10/10 6:53 PM Apply it Be an Advocate!

Why not put your skills as a persuasive speaker to opinion on a particular issue. There is also plenty of room work outside school by advocating for causes you think in a democratic society for individuals to advocate for deserve support? To advocate means to speak in favor causes they care about. Advocates often speak up on of or recommend something. An advocate is a person behalf of citizens whose interests are not well represented who argues for, supports, or defends a cause. Many in the legal system—homeless people, for example, or advocates try to infl uence decisions about government consumers, special needs children, indigenous groups, or and institutional policies or the use of resources that an individual who is unfairly accused of a crime. Your public affect people’s lives.9 Lawyers advocate for their clients. speaking skills help prepare you for getting personally Advocacy groups try to infl uence policies or sway public involved in this important form of social activism. UPI Photo/Michael Kleinfeld/Landov

Speeches on questions of policy often ask an audience to take a course of action addressing a need or solving a problem in their community. What problem in your community do you think would make a good topic for a persuasive speech?

Specifi c Purposes, Th esis Statements, and Main Points for Speeches on Questions of Policy Unlike speeches on questions of fact and value, speeches on questions of policy oft en include a call to action, urging the audience to engage in a specifi c behavior. You may ask your audience to take immediate action, such as signing a petition, or do something in the future, like carefully reading the fi ne print when they sign an employment contract. Sometimes you ask your listeners simply to lend passive support, as with favoring a campus regulation on skateboards or opposing new zoning laws. Phrase your specifi c purpose to indicate clearly what you want your audience to do or agree with. Th en develop your thesis so it outlines how you’ll support your position. When you create your main points, choose ones that clearly show why a change to an existing policy or situation is necessary, what the benefi ts of a change are, and what you 282

Ch014.indd 282 07/10/10 6:53 PM want the audience to take away from your message. As you’re preparing your speech, ask yourself these questions:

■ What support can I show for my position?

■ How close is my audience to my position—positive, negative, divided, uninformed, or apathetic?

■ How does what I suggest solve the problem or move the cause forward in some way? Th e following examples, one calling on audience members to take action and the other asking for their support of a position, demonstrate how the main points fl ow from the thesis. Topic: Personal Emergency Preparedness General purpose: To persuade Specifi c purpose: To persuade my audience to better prepare themselves for natural disasters that may occur in our area Th esis: Individuals increase their chances of surviving a natural disaster by practicing personal emergency preparedness. Main points: I. Recent natural disasters demonstrate what happens when we fail to prepare for such calamities. II. Responses to recent natural disasters in our area show that most people are not prepared for them. III. Personal emergency preparedness is essential to responding appropriately to natural disasters. IV. Personal emergency preparedness increases your likelihood of surviving a natural disaster. V. Personal emergency preparedness involves developing an emergency plan, assembling a disaster supply kit, and identifying local disaster shelters. Topic: Year-round Education in K–12 General purpose: To persuade Specifi c purpose: To persuade my audience to support the institution of year- round education nationwide Th esis: Year-round K–12 education should be instituted nationwide because of its educational, social, and economic benefi ts. Main points: I. The current nine-month school calendar shortchanges students, taxpayers, and society. II. Having K–12 students attend school year-round provides educational, economic, and societal benefits. In the fi rst example, the speaker indicates why a change is necessary, explains what change should occur, and then tells listeners the specifi c actions they need to take. In this way, the main points support the response the speaker seeks from the audience: to prepare for natural disasters. In the second example, the speaker simply asks the audience to support the position, fi rst demonstrating why a change is necessary and then describing the benefi ts of the change.

Organizational Patterns for Speeches on Questions of Policy Because speeches on questions of policy ask for some sort of change, speakers must clearly articulate why the change must occur and what should be done. Although the 283

Ch014.indd 283 07/10/10 6:53 PM organizational patterns previously described can be applied to this type of speech, three other patterns generally are more eff ective: problem–solution, problem–cause–solution, and Monroe’s motivated sequence.

The Problem–Solution Pattern of Organization Th e problem–solution pattern presents a need or problem and then shows how to solve it, as the following example demonstrates: Topic: Corporal Punishment by Parents General purpose: To persuade Specifi c purpose: To persuade my audience that parents never should physically strike their children Th esis: Because it’s harmful, parents should not strike their children. Main points: I. Children suffer serious physical and psychological consequences as a result of corporal punishment. II. Parents should never physically strike their children. Using this pattern successfully requires clearly establishing the problem’s existence. If listeners aren’t convinced the problem exists, the solution becomes irrelevant. Once they think there’s a problem, the solution must Image not available due to copyright restrictions seem reasonable. In the corporal punishment speech, the solution fl ows naturally from the problem—hitting children harms them, so parents shouldn’t do it. However, if you called for long prison sentences to be given to parents who spank their children, most members of the audience likely would consider your solution too extreme.

The Problem–Cause–Solution Pattern of Organization Th e problem–cause–solution pattern of organization extends the problem– solution pattern by adding an additional step: the cause of the problem. Consider this example of a speech about junk food on campuses. Topic: Junk Food on Our Campus General purpose: To persuade Specifi c purpose: To encourage my audience to sign a petition banning the sale of junk food on our campus Th esis: Junk food should be banned on campus because it contributes to obesity, poor nutrition, and immune system problems. Main points: I. Many college students are overweight, eat poorly, and have weak immune systems. II. Junk food is a major contributing factor to these problems. III. We must work to ban the sale of junk food on our campus. Th e fi rst main point explains the problem: Many college students are overweight, eat poorly, and have weak immune systems. Th e second point identifi es the cause of this problem—junk food. Th e third point provides a solution: Get rid of junk food, at least 284

Ch014.indd 284 07/10/10 6:53 PM on campus. Here’s another example of a speech about a question of policy that applies the problem–cause–solution pattern. Topic: Border Security General purpose: To persuade Specifi c purpose: To convince my audience to support increased border patrols between the United States and Canada Th esis: We must have better security to prevent illegal immigrants from crossing the U.S.–Canada border. © Michael Newman/PhotoEdit In a persuasive speech on reducing credit card use by col- Main points: lege students, you could use the problem–cause–solution I. Every year, thousands of people cross into the United pattern to argue that students often spend more money than States illegally from our neighbor to the north, Canada. their budget allows (problem); easy credit causes students to spend money they don’t have on purchases they don’t II. Security on the U.S.–Canada border is lax, making it need (cause); and refraining from using credit cards is the easy for people to enter our country illegally. only way to get spending under control (solution). How would III. We must increase border patrols between the United the focus of this speech change if you organized it using States and Canada. another pattern? As with the problem–solution pattern of organization, getting the audience to believe a problem exists provides the foundation for the remainder of a speech using the problem–cause–solution pattern. Th e speaker must then link the problem with the cause and show that the solution represents a reasonable answer to the problem.

Monroe’s Motivated Sequence Your primary challenge in persuasive speaking is to motivate your audience to respond to your speech the way you want them to. With Monroe’s motivated sequence, you organize your speech in such a way that you lead your audience through a fi ve-step thought process that encourages them to agree with you and take action (Chapter 8). You ask your listeners to grasp the relevance and importance of your topic, understand the problem you describe, become satisfi ed that the solution you off er is a good one, imagine how the solution could be enacted, and feel motivated to do their part in solving the problem. Th e motivated sequence allows you to take an audience-centered approach to public speaking. When you use this organizational pattern, you focus clearly on what you want the audience to think and do every step of the way throughout your speech.10 Table 14.1 provides a reminder of what you need to do to get the desired response from your audience at every step of the sequence.

Table 14.1 Monroe’s Motivated Sequence

Step Speaker’s Action Audience’s Response

Attention Relate topic to audience to gain attention. I will listen because this is relevant to me.

Need Establish the problem/current harm. There’s a problem that needs my attention.

Satisfaction Describe the solution to the problem. Here’s the solution to the problem.

Visualization Show beneﬁ ts of proposed solution and/or costs I can visualize the beneﬁ ts of this solution of not implementing it. and/or the costs of not implementing it.

Action Explain how audience can implement I will do this. proposed solution.

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Ch014.indd 285 07/10/10 6:53 PM If you’re giving a persuasive speech in which you ask you r audience to take some sort of action, all fi ve steps of the motivated sequence apply, as in the following example: Topic: Simplify Your Life General purpose: To persuade Specifi c purpose: To persuade my audience to take steps to simplify their lives Th esis: Our consumer culture makes our lives needlessly complex, so we should take concrete steps to simplify our lives. Attention: I. We work more hours, spend more time commuting, take fewer vacations, and wade through more email and voicemail than at any time in the past. Need: II. We buy things we don’t need, waste time watching television and surfing th e web, and drive miles out of our way to save a few pennies on gasoline. Satisfaction: III. Simplif ying your life means figuring out what you value most and focusing on activities that help you fulfill those values. Visualization: IV. Think about all the time you’d have to do what you like if you cut out all the things you do that aren’t really necessary. Action: V. There are specific steps you can take to simplify your life, such as concentrating on a few g oals and doing them well, setting aside time for yourself, and getting rid of clutter by donating to charity or throwing away the things you don’t really use. If you simply want the audience’s agreement or support, you can drop the fi ft h step of the motivated sequence, the action step, as with the following example: Topic: Cooperation in Video Games General purpose: To persuade Specifi c purpose: To persuade my audience to support video games that contribute to society by promoting more cooperation and less competition Th esis: Video games that en courage players to cooperate with each other rather than compete against each other would benefi t our society. Attention: I. The stereotypical video game player is a teenage male, but did you know that women account for over 40 percent of interactive game players and the average age of a player is twenty-eight? Need: II. Violent video games make th e headl ines, but the real problem is the lack of games that help players develop the teamwork skills that are so essential in today’s world. Satisfaction: III. Video games based on cooperation rather than on com petition provide a logical way to facilitate the development of teamwork skills. Visualization: IV. Even if you don’t play video games, facilitating people’s ability to cooperate with others contributes more generally to society, as you’ve probably experienced yourself when working with a team.

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Ch014.indd 286 07/10/10 6:53 PM In this example, you’re not asking the audience to play or develop cooperation-based video games. Instead, you’re asking them to agree with you that such games contribute positively to society. You want your audience to understand yo ur argument and then agree with your point of view. Th e logical progression of the steps in the sequence helps you meet this goal. Compared with other organizational patterns, the motivated sequence is particularly good at helping audience members understand main points, which helps you persuade them to change their attitudes.11 Developed in the last century by Alan Monroe, a well-known professor of speech, the motivated sequence draws its core ideas from the philosophy that John Dewey expressed in his classic book, How We Th ink.12 Th e motivated sequence works well b ecause it mirrors the way we naturally process information and make decisions in our everyday lives. Th is organizational pattern can also be used for practical purposes other than public speaking, including how to compose a convincing business letter13 or write clear and compelling technical documents.14

Persuading Different Types of Audiences

Just as advertisers must know their audiences well and understand how to reach them eff ectively, you should know where your audience stands on your topic so you can design a message that wi ll encourage them to listen and consider your views. Chapter 5 explains how to analyze an audience for any type of speech. Th is section provides specifi c strategies persuasive speakers use to address the attitudes, values, and beliefs of fi ve common audience positions: negative or hostile, positive or sympathetic, divided, uninformed, and apathetic.15 Th ese audience positions and strategies are summarized in Table 14.2.

Th e Negative Audience A negative audience, also called a hostile audience, is informed about your topic and holds an unfavorable view of it. A negative audience may seem intimidating, but An audience that is informed about a simple exposure to diff ering points of view is where eff ective persu asion starts for speaker’s topic and holds an unfavorable many audience members. Suppose, for instance, you want your audience to support an view of the speaker’s po sition. initiative on your campus to abolish all general education requirements. Th at goal may be immediately unattainable, so you might want to argue for a more moderate step, such as reducing the required number of general education units. When you know you’ll likely encounter a high degree of resistance to your position on a topic, several strategies will help you achieve your goal.16

■ Establish your credibility with the audience. Developing a positive relationship with the audience, showing an interes t in them, and demonstrating your expertise on the topic all contribute to making a good impression.

■ Take a common-ground approach to the topic. Identify a reas of agreement with the audience, then move to areas of disagreement. If listeners perceive they share similar viewpoints with you, they’ll be more open to your message.17 In a speech on same-sex marriage, you might d raw parallels between the right of gays and lesbians to marry and other struggles over civil rights—abolishing slavery, passing laws against child labor, or giving women the right to vote, for instance. You could demonstrate how much resistance there was to each of these changes and then point out that these rights are now considered ordinary.

■ Help your audience visualize your topic in positive ways. Often just helping the audience get used to a new idea is the first step in effective persuasion. In a speech advocating increased funding for space exploration, you might

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Ch014.indd 287 07/10/10 6:53 PM Table 14.2 Types of Audiences

Type of Audience and View of Topic Persuasive Strategies

Negative • Establish credibility (informed → • Take common-ground approach unfavorable or • Visualize topic in positive ways highly unfavorable) • Anticipate and address objections • Keep persuasive objectives within reason

Positive • Rely on engaging evidence to reinforce commitment (informed → • Use vivid language and images favorable or highly • Incorporate narratives when possible favorable) • Suggest action

Divided • Acknowledge reasonableness of both sides (informed → split: • Establish credibility half favorable, half • Take common-ground approach unfavorable) • Integrate strategies for negative and positive audiences

Uninformed • Show relevance of topic to audience (uninformed → • Demonstrate expertise and fairness no opinion) • Use repetition and redundancy • Keep persuasion subtle

Apathetic • Gain attention and interest (informed → not • Show how topic affects audience important) • Display energy and dynamism • Take a one-sided approach • Use presentation media

show a few compelling digital slides of Mars or distant galaxies to spark the audience’s imagination and give them a more favorable impression of the topic.

■ Prepare for your audience’s negative reaction to your position. Consider all the reasons your audience may not agree with you. Th en determine how you will confront and overcome those objections in your speech. For example, in a speech on raising the minimum wage in the Uni ted States, you could address your listeners’ concerns about job loss by pointing to research that shows no such eff ect. When you acknowledge the audience’s concerns in your speech, you demonstrate an understanding of their perspective, which increases your likelihood of winning them over.

■ Finally, keep your persuasive objectives within reason. You are not very likely to move your audience to act in a way that confl icts with strong feelings they already hold about your topic. In this case, make it your objective to get the audience to start thinking about the topic in a diff erent way. For instance, an audience that is strongly opposed to allowing the U.S. government to collect DNA samples from all citizens is not going to sign a petition in favor of doing that right aft er listening to your speech advocating the idea. But you might be able to reduce their resistance and start them thinking about the advantages you think a national DNA archive provides. 288

Ch014.indd 288 07/10/10 6:53 PM Th e Positive Audience A positive audience, also called a sympathetic audience, is informed about your topic and has a favorable view of your position. Th ese audience members want to have An audience that is informed about a their views confi rmed and reinforced, learn more about the topic, and in so me cases, speaker’s topic and has a favorable view join a community of like-minded people or fi nd out what they can do personally to of the speaker’s posi tion. advance the cause. Political campaign speeches and religious rallies commonly attract positive audiences. Several strategies will help you focus on reinforcing thoughts and behaviors.18

■ Incorporate engaging evidence that reinforces the audience’s commitment to the topic. Use testimony and examples your audience will fi nd captivating; stay away from long lists of facts, endless statistics, and dull defi nitions. For instance, you might explain how various s uccessful political initiatives—saving forests, rivers, wetlands, and lakes from pollution and urban sprawl, for example—have preserved valuable natural resources and improved the quality of life for all the planet’s inhabitants.

■ Use vivid language and images to heighten your audience’s enthusiasm for the topic. Refer to “fl ourishing, green forests; icy cold, raging rivers; wetlands teeming with wildlife; and cool, inviting lakes” rather than “forests, rivers, wetlands, and lakes.” Incorporating a short series of colorful slides displaying the beauty of land and water saved from destruction through political action can also deepen your audience’s appreciation for the topic. Th ey’re already on your side, so give them something tangible to take away from the speech that confi rms their opinion and extends their knowledge on the topic.

■ Rely on narratives to elaborate your points. Stories work especially well to reinforce the position audience members already hold. For example, if you know that your audience believes in the value of environmental responsibility, a speech promoting environmental activism m ight begin with a story about the personal experience that got you involved in the topic.

■ When audience members already agree with your view, rally them to take action. For example, you might encourage your audience to join Christopher Ena/AP Photo an environmental group in the community or on campus, participate actively in Earth Day Forced to be a boy soldier in his native Sierra Leone, Africa, this year, support impending environmental Ishmael Beah, now in his twenties, advocates for the rights of children exploited in war-torn countries. His personal experiences, legislat ion, purchase reusable cloth shopping friendly speaking style, and well-supported arguments lead audiences bags, stop junk mail, or boycott products that to view him and his cause sympathetically. degrade the environment.

Th e Divided Audience A divided audience is informed about your topic but split in its views: half have a favorable view and half have an unfavorable one. Speakers are oft en faced with divided audiences, An audience that is informed about a especially when addressing diverse audiences or speaking about controversial issues. speaker’s topic but equall y split between those who favor the speaker’s position W ith a divided audience, the main challenge is persuading those audience members who and those who oppose it. disagree with you. Th erefore, you can employ the same basic approach used for a negative audience. Th is means that you’ll want to establish your credibility and connection with the audience clearly, take a common-ground approach, visualize the topic in positive ways for 289

Ch014.indd 289 07/10/10 6:53 PM the audience, and confront possible objections. Still, you want to acknowledge those who agree with you as well. Relevant narratives, appealing testimony and examples, and engaging images will help you target sympathetic audience members and may appeal to hostile listeners as well. Suppose you’re speaking to a community group in an urban neighborhood that has experienced a high rate of street crime in recent years. Th e specifi c purpose of your speech is to convince your audience that video surveillance cameras should be installed throughout the area . Some members of your audience favor the idea as a practical way to reduce crime. Other members oppose the idea, viewing it as an intrusion on their right to privacy. Here are a few strategies that will help you address the entire audience eff ectively:

■ Demonstrate that you recognize the legitimacy of the arguments for and against the issue. Street crime is a problem that must be solved, yet the right to privacy is a fundamental principle of democracy and should be upheld.

■ Establish your credibility by citing statistics s howing that video surveillance does reduce street crime signifi cantly.

■ Establish common ground among all audience members by saying you are certain everyone in the room agrees with the right to privacy.

■ Integrate strategies for n egative and positive audiences. In this case, you could address the objection that surveillance cameras intrude on the community’s right to privacy by saying that the point is not to take away anyone’s rights but rather to restore privacy rights t hat have been taken away. You can also reinforce the position of those who agree with you with testimony and examples from places where surveillance cameras are used. In the end, you encourage the resisters to rethink their position not only by the strength of your argument and supporting evidence but also because you, the speaker, understand what’s at stake in terms of privacy.

Th e Uninformed Audience Uninformed audiences a re unfamiliar with your topic and have no opinion about it. An audience t hat is unfamiliar w ith a Audience members potentially could be interested in a topic you care about, but they speaker’s topic and has no opinion simply lack exposure to it. For example, people who are not serving in the military oft en about it. know very l ittle about military benefi ts. Yet you can argue that members of the armed forces put their lives on the line to protect all of us and deserve to receive decent salaries and benefi ts. Several strategies will help you provide the information listeners need to facilitate their agreement with you.19

■ Show the relevance of your topic to the audience. By linking the audience with the topic you can help them realize, “I don’t know much about this, but I should.” For example, you’d show how not only military families but audience members too would be aff ected by changing b enefi ts for veterans. Changing benefi ts may not seem at fi rst to aff ect nonveterans, but increased benefi ts might mean higher costs for all taxpayers. It’s worth it, though, because decreased benefi ts might result in a greater fi nancial burden on local social services. Benefi ts infl uence troop morale too, and that can aff ect everyone’s security.

■ Demonstrate your expertise on the topic and fairness in addressing all perspectives. As a persuasive speaker, you will argue one side of the issue or the other. What changes in benefi ts for military families do you support? Without turning your persuasive speech into an in formative one, you must describe the issue. Show you’ve done your research on the topic and can provide listeners with what they need to know to formulate an opinion. Audience members will be much more 290

Ch014.indd 290 07/10/10 6:53 PM likely to agree with your position if they believe you have given them a fair and comprehensive sense of the issue.

■ Use repetition and redundancy to reinforce your points. Your audience is new to this topic, so provide them with basic information about the topic in several forms. In our example about veterans’ benefi ts, you could defi ne the purpose of the benefi ts, present facts about t he services the government currently off ers veterans, show statistics comparing those services with the proposed services, off er testimony from a scholar who studies veterans’ benefi ts, and tell a story about a veteran who used those benefi ts to achieve an important goal, such as completing college. Th ese diff erent types of supporting materials all focus on the veterans’ benefi ts, building redundancy into the speech.

■ Keep your persuasion subtle. Let the audience know your position, but avoid emphatic, infl ammatory, or overly-passionate statements. Instead, take a matter-of- fact approach. In our example, you might say, “I support the changes to veterans’ benefi ts currently under consideration. Let me tell you about it.” If you wait too long to let audience members know your position on the topic, they’ll feel deceived and might devalue the information you’ve presented. But if you’ve motivated your listeners to learn more about the topic and have established yourself as an expert, they’ll be more likely to trust you to treat the topic fairly, whatever position you take.

Th e Apathetic Audience Apathetic audiences are informed about your topic but not interested in it. Th ey may be apathetic because think it doesn’t apply to them. Why bother to pay attention? Th is type An audience that is informed about a of audience challenges a speaker to forge a positive link betw een topic and audience, speaker’s topic but not interested in it. which can be achieved in the following ways:

■ Gain their attention and pique their interest. Even more than with an uninformed audience, you have to show apathetic audience members why they should care about the topic. For instance, let’s say that you want to argue that the United States should provide economic support to developing countries. To do this, you propose that America should provide start-up loans for small businesses in those countries. But your audience analysis, or at least your hunch, indicates that your listeners believe the topic has no relevance to their lives. Th ey may have heard about it, but it hasn’t interested them enough to get them to think about it very much. However, you know they tend to give to charity and support strengthening local communities overall. Th is convinces you that with the right appeal you’ll be able to connect your topic to their sense of social responsibility. Using strong supporting evidence, you might demonstrate the positive impact that economic aid can have on the lives of people who live in the developing world while providing more stability and security for us here at home.

■ Show how the topic aff ects them specifi cally. When listeners identify with a topic and feel it’s relevant to them, they’re more likely to be persuaded.20 You might be able to convince your audience to care about this seemingly distant topic by explaining how the health of the U.S. economy depends on the presence of a stable global economic system. You tell them that so long as developing countries struggle economically, the stability of the global economic system is threatened. Th at precarious condition negatively aff ects the American economy, the value of the dollar overseas, and even national security. So the question of supporting developing countries directly aff ects the audience’s pocketbook and its safety—primary human motivations.

■ Show your audience how much you care about the topic through your energy and dynamism. In promoting U.S. economic support for developing countries, you 291

Ch014.indd 291 07/10/10 6:53 PM must demonstrate your deep commitment to and interest in the topic. So you speak rapidly but clearly, raise your vocal vo lume a bit, take only short pauses, and gesture and move with energy and purpose. Th ese types of nonverbal behaviors signal your passion for the subject.21

■ Take a one-sided approach to the topic. Although you must make a balanced presentation of information, you need not address all perspectives on it, as you would when facing a negative audience. When audience members are generally apathetic, taking a one-sided approach to the topic is both reasonable and ethical. In persuading the audience, you will want to advocate a viewpoint that corresponds with the reasons they should care about the topic. ■ Use presentation media. Incorporating appropriate presentation media helps the audience visualize your topic, stirs their emotions, and is oft en more persuasive than words alone.22 In the case of encouraging people to support U.S. economic aid to developing countries, several photographs demonstrating the positive eff ects

Getty Images for Burda Media Getty Images for Burda of such aid or a fi ft een-second clip from a documentary on life in the developing In our visual society, using interesting or dramatic presentation media can help engage an apathetic audience. This can be particularly true when world could interest an apathetic audiences you’re discussing a topic that seems “boring” or when audience members from the start. have heard many other speeche s about the same t opic.

The Ethics of Persuasive Speaking

Ethical public speakers must meet the National Communication Association’s standards of ethical communication (Chapter 3). Persuasive speakers must adhere to this principle in particular: “We condemn communication that degrades i ndividuals and humanity through distort ion, intimidation, coercion, and violence, and through the expression of intolerance and hatred.” Ethical speakers do not attempt to deceive or manipulate the audience. Instead, they present their information and arguments truthfully, accurately, and honestly. In addition, they “endorse freedom of expression, diversity of perspective, and tolerance of dissent.”23 To demonstrate diff erences between a persuasive speech that meets ethical standards and one that doesn’t, consider the subject of DNA testing to determine a person’s genetic ancestry. DNA testing has become an indispensable tool for criminologists—in many cases it is the key to helping them accurately identify who did or did not commit a crime. And DNA makes it possible for scientists to determine the age of fossil remains. But the science of DNA has also become available for another purpose: to trace personal genetic history.24 Encouraging an audience to subscribe to one of the services that analyzes personal DNA certainly could be developed into an interesting persuasive speech. But what ethical considerations are associated with this topic? An ethical speaker would carefully research how DNA t ests are done and properly used to show the audience how they can benefi t from the testing process, as well as the risks involved. For example, the speaker might discuss how DNA tests can help diagnose a genetic disorder like Huntington’s disease, warn of predispositions to addictions, or estimate the risk of passing on a genetic disease to a child. Th e speaker might try to motivate 292

Ch014.indd 292 07/10/10 6:53 PM the audience by explaining how DNA tests can help people fi nd unknown parents, siblings, or other relatives. In addition, the Speaking of . . . speaker could mention that DNA tests can reveal where every audience member’s ancestors come from. Two categories of ethical violations can be identifi ed on this Topic: (1) suggesting that DNA tests can deliver something Persuasion or Manipulation? they cannot and (2) failing to mention the drawbacks of DNA Persuasion involves using language, images, testing, which can be serious. For instance, although the tests can and other means of communication to infl uence indicate a person’s ge netic makeup (European, African, Asian, people’s attitudes, beliefs, values, or actions. How does this differ from manipulation? What Native American), they cannot reveal a person’s race.25 Race is an is the line someone must cross to go from unreliable way of categorizing people by appearance; it is not a persua der to manipulator? There are two key scientifi c category based on genetics. An ethical speaker would not differences between the two. First, manipulation try to convince an audience that DNA testing could help people involves using dishonest means to infl uence identify their race. others. Omitting crucial evidence, presenting Perhaps most important, the speaker must warn the audience inaccurate or false information, or intentionally about the biggest danger associated with DNA testing: the shock misrepresenting research to infl uence others to your advantage are examples of manipulation. many people receive when their DNA results don’t match up Second, manipulation often involves abuse of with their long-held sense of ethnic identity—who they imagined social power by those in a dominant group.27 themselves to be. For example, the head of Harvard’s African- For example, a boss who threatens to fi re or American Studies Department, Henry Louis Gates, Jr., discovered punish an employee who doesn’t agree with the that his genetic ancestry is as much European as African, boss’s position or a physician who overstates completely altering the way he imagined how he descended from dire health consequences for an uncooperative his ancestors.26 Companies that conduct DNA tests warn clients patient are examples of abusing power to manipulate others. As an ethical speaker, about these risks, especially the possible threat to their ethnic persuade rather than manipulate your audience. identity. Th us, when persuading others, ethical speakers must consider and address the possible harms their audiences may encounter.

Watch it Use it g e Learnin g a Cengage Learning g en Cengage Learning C SPEECH BUDDY VIDEO 14.1 Speaking to Persuade ACTIVITY 14.1

In this video, Erin presents a complete persuasive Persuasion Equation speech about the dangers of driving while using a This activity gives you a chance to analyze a cell phone. persuasive speech and then to identify ways you can apply what you’ve learned about persuasive spe aking i n your own speech.

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Ch014.indd 293 07/10/10 6:53 PM Speec h for Review and Analysis

Lisa Taylor gave this persuasive speech in an introductory public speaking class at San José State University. Her assignment was to give a six- t o eight -minute persuasive speech that inco rporated presentation media and at least three sources. As you read the outline of Li sa’s speech, consider how eff ective she is at remaining audience-centered, how well she supports her ideas, and how reasonable her proposed solution is. You can use your CourseMate for Public Speaking: Th e Evolving Art to watch and listen to Lisa deliver this speech. Look for it in the Chapter 14 resources. Outline of student Lisa Taylor Tulee’s speech, “Turn Off Your TV.” Used with permission.

by Lisa Taylor28 Turn Off Specifi c purpose: To persuade my audience to spend their leisure time doing more productive and fulfi lling things than watching TV. Your TV Thesis: We Americans waste much of our valuable leisure time watching TV, w hen we should be spending that time on more productive an d fulfi lling activities.

Introduction I. “Dost thou love life? Then do not squander time, for that’s the stuff life is made of.” (Ben jamin Franklin) II. If you’re like me, you don’t have enough hours in the day. A. You attend classes. B. You work part time or full time. C. You have family commitments, personal business, and homework. Cengage Learning 1. You have family errands such as grocery shopping, dry cleaning, and doctor’s appoin tments. 2. You have personal business such as car repair and ba nking. 3. You have scho ol commitments such as homework and research for papers.

Body I. Every day I have a long list of tasks, and often I must add more before I can even complete the tasks already on the list. A. There are only twenty-four hours in the day. B. If you sub tract time for necessities such as sleep and personal care, you probably have fewer th an ten hours a day of leisure time.

Transition: There simply aren’t enough hours in the day, are there?

II. What if I told you that you could ﬁ nd more time in the day? A. Since 1985, Americans have gained four to eight hours a week of leisure time. (Bureau of Labor Statistics, American Time Use Survey, 2006 results) 1. We’ve doubled the amount of time we spend in sports and exercise activities. 2. We spend fewer hours in paid employment than we did previously. 3. We spend 20 percent less time on our grooming than we did twenty years ago. 4. We sleep an hour a night more than we did fo rty years ago. 5. We spend three hours a day, more than twenty hours a week, wat ching television.

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Ch014.indd 294 07/10/10 6:53 PM Transition: So, what does this mean to you?

B. Almost half of our leisure time is spent watching television. 1. My goal here is not to talk about the ills of television. a. I’m not going to talk about whether the media has too much control over our lives. b. I’m not going to talk about whether sex and violence on television is good or bad for society. c. And I’m not going to talk about the fact that Americans are overweight because we watc h too much television and are too sedentary. 2. My goal is to talk about how much time we waste in front of the television.

Transition: Some suggest that computers, electronic toys, an d the internet waste even more time than watching television.

C. Outside of paid work, we spend only about twenty minutes a day on our computers (ATUS, 2006 results). 1. The experience of using our computers is mu ch different from the experience of watching TV. a. The interaction with electronics is less passive; we make choices and decisions, and we tell the equipment what to do. (Winn, The Plug-In Drug, 2002) b. “You watch television to turn your brain off, and you work on your computer when you want to turn your brain on.” (St eve Jobs, co- founder of Apple Computer) 2. Much of the time we spend using computers is multitasking. 3. In addition, computers can save us time. a. For example, online search engines enable us to do research in much less time than it takes to do research at the library. b. The internet also allows us to spend l ess time on tasks such as errands and shopping.

Transition: So why am I standing here telling you this? Wh at does this mean to you?

III. Outside of work and sleep, we spend more hours a day watching television than any other activit y. A. The time we spend watching television is time wasted. 1. Watching television is pas sive and doesn’t stimulate our minds. 2. It’s time we could be using to do something more productive and fulﬁ lling. B. If you think there aren’t enough hours in the day, try turning off your TV. 1. What could you do with three more hours a day ? a. Spend time with friends, hang out at the quad or the coffee sh op, or have a beer. b. Read a book, study, learn a new sport or a new hobby, or have more time for your friends. c. Spend time with your family.

Transition: A s Benjamin Franklin suggested, if you love time, d on’t waste it.

2. If you’re game, turn off your television for one week. a. Depending on your TV habits, you could have twenty to thirty more hours of free time. b. To motivate y ou, make a list of things you’d like to do with that time.

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Ch014.indd 295 07/10/10 6:53 PM Conclusion I. Consider turning off your TV for a week as a social experiment or a class assignment. A . Do whatever it takes to motivate you. B. Try it and see what happens. II. If you’re lik e me, you’ll never turn on the TV again.

References BrainyQuote.com . Benjamin Franklin Quotes. http://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/ authors/b/benjamin_franklin.html (accessed Se ptember 6, 2010). Kaiser Family Foundatio n. “The Media Family: Electronic Media in the Lives of Infants, Toddlers, Preschoolers and their Parents.” Ma y 2006. http://www.kff.org/entmedia/ upload/7500.pdf (accessed September 13, 2010). Snell, Jason. “Steve Jobs on the Mac’s 20th Anniversary.” Macworld , February 2004. U.S. Census Bureau. “American Time Use Survey, 2006 results.” Sponsored by the Bureau of Labor Statistics. June 28, 2007. http://www.bls.gov/news.release/pdf/atus.pdf Winn, Marie. The Plug -In Drug: Television, Computers, and Family Life. New York: Penguin Group, 2002.

Questions for Analysis and Discussion

1. How does Lisa gain her audience’s attention at the beginning of the speech? How eff ective is her attention-getter? 2. Identify the types of supporting materials Lisa uses to persuade her audience. How do they work together to help h er achieve her specifi c purpose? How c onvinced are you aft er reading through her outline? 3. Does this speech address a question of fact, value, or policy? How closely does Lisa follow the guidelines for the type of persuasive speech she gave?

Summary

hen you persuade others, you use language, images, and other means of communication to infl uence their attitudes, beliefs, values, or actions. WPersuasive speeches may address questions of fact, value, or policy. Speeches on questions of fact ask whether something is true or not true. Speeches on questions of value take a position on the worth of something. Speeches on questions of policy are concerned with what should or should not be done. Speeches on questions of fact or value are typically organized using topical, chronological, spatial, or cause-and-eff ect patterns. Because speeches on questions of policy ask for action or passive agreement on the part of the audience, the problem–solution, problem–cause–solution, or motivated sequence are the best patterns of organization for such speeches. In general, persuasive speakers face fi ve types of audiences: negative, positive, divided, uninformed, and apathetic. Each type calls for diff erent persuasive strategies. For example, negative audiences require persuasive speakers to thoroughly demonstrate their credibili ty, take a common-ground approach, visualize the topic in positive ways, and address audience objections. And for apathetic audiences, speakers must gain and maintain audience attention, relate the topic to the audience, display dynamism, and take a one-sided approach to the topic. Ethical public speakers must meet the National Communication Association’s standards of ethical communication. Ethical persuasive speakers present their information and arguments truthfully, accurately, and honestly, and never deceive or manipulate the audience. 296

Ch014.indd 296 07/10/10 6:53 PM Review it Directory of Study and Review Resources

IN THE BOOK SPEECH BUILDER EXPRESS Summary Goal/pur pose Key Terms Thesis stat ement Critical Challenges Organization Outline MORE STUDY RESOURCES Supporting materi al Quizzes Transitions WebLinks Introductio n Peer-reviewed videos Conclusion Title STUDENT WORKBOOK Wo rks cited 14.1: Debate Visual aids 14.2: Learn about Your Target Audience Completing the speech out line 14.3: RF K in Indy 14.4: Fact, V alue, and Policy in Supporting INFOTRAC Materials Recommended search terms 14.5: Watch Commer cials for Ethics Persuasive speech Question of fact SPEECH BUDDY VIDEOS Question of va lue WATCH It Video Question of policy 14.1: Speaking to Persuade Ethical communication USE It Activity Ethica l speaking 14.1: Persuasion E quation Audience adaptation SAMPLE SPEECH VIDEOS H ostile audien ce Katherine, “Is That Kosher?” Sympathe tic au dience info rmative speech AUDIO STUDY TOOLS Tiffany, self-intro duction speech “Breast Cancer Awareness” by Lisa Critical thinking questions Learning objectives Chap ter summary

Guide to Your Online Resources

Your Spe ech Communication Challenge questions for this chapter, which you can CourseMate for Publ ic Speaking: Th e respond to via email if your instructor so requests. Evolving Art gives yo u access to the Sp eech Buddy In addition, your CourseMate features live WebLinks video and activity feat ured in this chapter, additi onal relevant to this chapter, including sites where you sample speech v ideos, Speech St udio, Speech Builder can fi nd topics for interesting and timely persuasive Express, InfoTrac Colle ge Edition, and study aids such speeches. Links are regularly maintained, and new as glossary fl ashcards, review quizzes, and the Critical ones are added periodically.

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Ch014.indd 297 07/10/10 6:53 PM Key Terms

apathetic audience 291 persuasion 274 question of fact 275 coercion 274 persuasive speech 273 question of policy 281 divided audience 289 positive (sympathetic) question of value 279 negative (hostile) audience 287 audience 289 uninformed audience 290

Critical Challenges

Question s for Refl ect ion and Discussion 1. Ho w are you immersed in a sea of p ersuasion? Give some examples of pers uasive messages you’ve received in i nterpersonal, public speaking, and mass medi a contexts. What can y ou do to become a more c ritical consumer of persuas ive messages? 2. As a persuasive speaker, what steps must you take to avoid manipulating your audience? As an audience member, how can you make sure speakers don’t manipulate you? 3. Adapting to the audience is especially important for the persuasive speaker. Consider the other side of the po dium—when you’re in the audience. What are your responsibilities as a listener in a persuasive speaking situation? What can you do to contribute to the productive communication climate discussed in Chapter 3? For example, how can you disagree with the speaker yet still maintain a climate that encourages dialogue? 4. What unique ethical considerations face persuasive speakers when they’re addressing questions of fact? What are the ethical considerations associated with questions of value? What ethical issues must a persuasive speaker addressing a question of policy confront? 5. Check o ut Speech Studio to watch and listen to other students’ persuasive speeches. Or record a speech you’re working on, upload it to Speech Studio, and ask your peers for their feedback. What feedback could you use to fi ne-tune your persuasive speech before you give it in class?

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Ch014.indd 298 07/10/10 6:53 PM Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

Ch014.indd 299 07/10/10 6:53 PM Understanding 15 Argument

Read it • What Is an Argument? 302 • Using Reasoning Effectively 313 • Using Claims Effectively 302 • Avoiding Fallacies in Argument 320 • Using Evidence Effectively 307 • Speech for Review and Analysis 324

Watch it

• Identifying the Elements of Argument 319

ge Learning ge

gag

Cengage Learning Cengage Cen Cen

Use it • Convince Me 319

e Learning

Cengage Learning

Review it • Directory of Study and Review Resources 327

Ch015.indd 300 07/10/10 6:54 PM t four o’clock in the morning on Thursday, March 28, 1979, the Areactor in Unit 2 of the Three Mile Island Nuclear Generating Station near Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, suffered a partial meltdown. Radioactive gasses were released into the air, causing panic throughout North America. Seven years later, Reactor 4 in the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant in the former Soviet Union exploded, sending a plume of radioactive smoke over Europe. Thirty-one people died and many more suffered acute radiation sickness. It was against this unsettling history that President Barack Obama called for construction of “a new generation of safe, clean nuclear power plants” in his 2010 State of the Union address.1 It was a highly controversial proposal because the American public is understandably wary of nuclear power. Knowing this, before the President and Congress were even able to consider proposing construction of new power plants, they themselves had to be convinced it was a good idea. Experts would have to demonstrate that thee beneﬁ ts of nuclear power outweigh the risks. A specialist on the subject—Eileen Claussen, president of the Pew Center on Global Climate Change—gave a particularly important speech that helped inﬂ uence the politicians to go ahead with legislation to construct new nuclear power plants.2 As her job title suggests, Claussen even argued that modern sources of nuclear power could begin to reverse the ravages of global climate change.

Jim Arbogast/Digital Vision/Jupiter Images

301

Ch015.indd 301 07/10/10 6:54 PM What Is an Argument?

In common usage, the term argument refers to a disagreement or a confl ict. But in public Presenting claims and supporting them speaking, argument does not have negative connotations. To the contrary, arguments are with evidence and reasoning. constructive. Th ey support persuasive speakers’ positions on questions of fact, value, or A position or assertion that a speaker policy (Chapter 14). Argument forms the foundation of persuasion. Successful speakers wants an audience to accept. formulate arguments eff ectively and present them well. An argument makes a claim and backs it up it with evidence and reasoning.3 Supporting materials—narratives, In public speaking, a claim is the position or assertion a speaker wants the audience examples, deﬁ nitions, testimony, facts, and statistics—that a speaker to accept, and evidence refers to the supporting materials—narratives, examples, presents to reinforce a claim. defi nitions, testimony, facts, and statistics—the speaker presents to reinforce the claim. Reasoning is the method or process used to represent the claim and arrive at the The method or process used to link argument’s conclusion.4 Figure 15.1 illustrates the elements of an argument. claims to evidence. Who contributes arguments to contemporary public discourse is changing in today’s expanding media landscape.5 For instance, we’re used to the idea of the Figure 15.1 Elements of an argument news media presenting speeches delivered by important people. Media commentators respond to the speeches, oft en adding their own views to the ideas discussed in the speech. Given CLAIM spontaneously just aft er the speech, their remarks position or generally are not well organized or argued. But assertion in recent years MSNBC news anchor Keith Olbermann began to give a series of “Special Comments” on his program. Olbermann’s comments are, in essence, persuasive speeches.6 Topics range from his views of the Middle East REASONING wars to Supreme Court decisions and the plight of method or people without health care. Together with Rachel process Maddow and Chris Matthews, Olbermann argues the progressive side of American politics. Th e conservative side is represented by Bill O’Reilly, Glen Beck, Sean Hannity, and others on Fox EVIDENCE News. supporting Th is chapter discusses the elements of materials argument in detail and how they work together to create the foundation of a persuasive speech. You’ll also learn how speakers use argument and avoid fallacies in persuasive speaking. Source: Adapted from Toulmin (2003).

Using Claims Effectively

Claims go beyond facts and other supporting materials to propose conclusions based on the evidence presented. For example, a speaker might say, “Video games are addictive.” Th at is a claim, or a position the speaker is taking. Th e speaker might then present scientifi c studies to support that claim. But the claim “Video games are addictive” is still an inference based on the results of those studies. So claims require that listeners make a leap from what is known—the evidence—to some conclusion.7 Claims lay the groundwork for your thesis. Th ey respond to basic questions about your topic and the position you take. Claims answer the question, “What is the speaker asserting?” As you develop your speech, consider the questions your topic raises and how you might respond to them. How you answer those questions will help you

302

Ch015.indd 302 07/10/10 6:54 PM Table 15.1 Questions and Claims for Speech on Banning Handguns

Topic Question Claim

Why ban handguns and not other types of weapons? Handguns pose a speciﬁ c problem that can be addressed by legislation.

To what extent are handguns responsible for violent Handguns contribute more than other weapons to crime? violent crime.

Wouldn’t banning handguns violate the Second The Second Amendment needs to be reconsidered Amendment of the Constitution, which guarantees in today’s context. Americans the right to bear arms?

How can we be sure that banning handguns will have a Violent crime decreases in places where handguns positive effect? are illegal.

identify the claims you’ll make in your speech and reveal your position on the topic. Table 15.1 provides an example of the questions a speaker might ask about a speech on banning handguns in the United States and the claims that correspond with those questions.

Types of Claims Arguments includ e two types of claims: premises and conclusions. Th e conclusion is the primary claim or assertion a speaker makes. A premise gives a reason to support a A primary claim or assertion. conclusion. Both conclusions and premises are claims, but premises are smaller claims 8 A claim that provides reasons that lead up to a conclusion—the central claim or position the speaker promotes. For to support a conclusion. example, in Eileen Claussen’s speech supporting nuclear power plant construction, she off ered one conclusion and three premises as support: Premise 1: Climate change is real. P remise 2: Protecting the global climate is necessary. Premise 3: All forms of energy have problem s. Conclusion: Nuclear power should be part of the solution to climate change. For audience members to agree with th e conclusion, they must agree with all the premises leading up to it. If they fi nd fault with one premise, they’re highly unlikely to support the conclusion. Specific words, either implied or stated, often identify premises and conclusions. Words indicating a premise include because, whereas, since, on account of, and due to. Words indicating a conclusion include therefore, consequently, and so, thus, and accordingly. Think of the relationship between premises and conclusions in this way: Because (premise 1), because (premise 2), and because (premise 3), therefore (conclusion). Claussen asserted that because climate change is real, because protecting the environment is necessary, and because all forms of energy have problems, it is therefore right to create a role for nuclear energy in the national energy policy. Although because and therefore were unstated, Claussen made the relationship between her premises and conclusion clear. Table 15.2 on page 304 presents additional examples of premises and conclusions. Sometimes an argument’s premises or conclusion are i mplied rather than stated. An argument in which a premise or conclusion is unstated. Such arguments, called enthymemes, assume the audience will fi gure out the premise or conclusion on their own. Enthymemes depend on the audience’s social information or

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Chapter 15 Understanding Argument Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

Ch015.indd 303 07/10/10 6:54 PM Table 15.2 Examples of Premises and Conclusions

Visual Ergonomics Globalization and Labor Online Dating Services

Premises 1. Poor visual ergonomics 1. Globalization allows for the 1. In today’s world, when using a computer free movement of goods single people are too causes eyestrain. between countries. busy to join clubs and 2. Poor visual ergonomics 2. Globalization allows for the organizations to meet when using a computer free movement of services other singles. leads to neck and between countries. 2. Today, people have shoulder problems. 3. Globalization allows fewer friends to organizations to locate introduce them to freely to other countries. potential romantic partners.

Conclusion Improving visual ergonomics Globalization should also Online dating services is essential for the health and allow for the free movement are a practical way to safety of computer users. of individual workers between meet romantic partners in countries. today’s world.

knowledge to complete the argument.9 For example, in a speech on a question of policy about making copies of DVD movies, the speaker might argue: Premise: Burning DVDs of copyrighted movies is agai nst the law. Conclusion: Don’t burn DVDs of copyrighted movies. Th is basic argument leaves out one premise: If you’r e caught burning DVD copies of movies, you could go to jail, pay a fi ne, or both. But there’s no need for the speaker to say that because the audience already knows it. Speeches on questions of fact or value oft en leave the conclusion unstated. In a speech on traffi c congestion, for example, the speaker might include these premises: Premise 1: Traffi c congestion in our city wastes ti me. Pre mise 2: Traffi c congestion in our city wastes resources . Premise 3: Traffi c congestion in our city increases pollut ion. Th e unstated conclusion is that something should be done about traffi c congestion. But as this is a speech addressing a question of fact, the speaker is concerned only with whether or not something is true (or false), not with taking some kind of action. An enthymeme invites audience participation as listeners mentally fi ll in the missing parts of the argument, facilitating a dialogue between the speaker and the audience.10 Encouraging these kinds of thought processes can give the audience a better understanding and a more favorable view of the speaker’s argument.11 Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., was well known for his persuasive oratory. In a speech at the Dexter Avenue Baptist Church in Montgomery, Alabama, during the early © Miguel Pereira/Alamy days of the Civil Rights Movement12 he made these claims: Advertisers often rely on visual enthymemes, especially when the product’s appeal is highly subjective—like Premise 1: Love is the best way to respond to enemi es. taste. This ad is trying to persuade you to buy Coke, Pre mise 2: Mass nonviolent resistance to oppression claiming that if you drink Coke you’ll be the super-cool is bas ed on the principle of loving one’s person that the women in the ad are excited to see. The enemies. ad assumes your social conditioning will persuade you to come to the conclusion that, yes, you would be cool if But King left one premise and the conclusion unstate d. you drank Coke. First, he omitted the premise that audience members were 304

Ch015.indd 304 07/10/10 6:54 PM oppressed. Although he did refer to people of color around the world as oppressed, he did not say, “We are oppressed” or “You are Speaking of . . . oppressed.” He didn’t need to—his audience knew it. Second, he left out the conclusion that audience members should join in mass nonviolent demonstrations. Th is gave his audience something to consider: Should they join in the protests or not? Leaving out part Im ages and the Naturalistic of his argument was one of many strategies King used to engage his E nthymeme audience more deeply in the speech and his position on the topic. Not all c laims are expressed with words; Advertisers oft en pile on claims in their commercials but leave some claims involve images. For example, advertisers often use images to advance their out the conclusion, although there’s rarely any doubt about what they claims that you should buy their products or want the audience to conclude. Th e claims must be relevant to the services. Soft drink ads, for instance, typically conclusion, but they need not be stated explicitly. For instance, in a show individuals or groups laughing and television commercial for the insurance company Liberty Mutual, a enjoying themselves. The claims are fast-paced series of individual acts of kindness is shown for nearly a Premise 1: Everyone likes to have fun. minute. A woman picks up and returns a toy to a baby in a stroller, Premise 2: Dr inking this soft drink is one a man holds open an elevator door for someone rushing to get in, way to have fun . a woman keeps a man from falling over backward in his chair, a Premise 3: If you drink this soft drink, you’ll man helps a driver get out of a parking place safely, and so on. No have fun. narration accompanies the visuals; we hear only music. At the very Conclusion: You should buy this soft drink. end, a female voiceover says, “When people do the right thing, they Yet no one has to say anything in the ad—you call it responsible. When it’s an insurance company, they call it Liberty know how to interpret those visual claims based Mutual.” Even when an argument is made in an abstract and creative on your social and cultural experiences. One way like this, the premises and the conclusion must be clear: key reason that visual claims work so well is the naturalistic enthymeme—audiences assume Premise 1: Acting responsibly is a highly desirabl e human that unless there’s evidence to the contrary, a quality. camera captures a realistic and natural view 13 Premise 2: Liberty Mutual is a responsible insurance of what they would see. Of course, when compa ny. an image is clearly altered, as with computer- generated imagery in fi lms, the naturalistic Th e conclusion desired by the sponsor is that the au dience will put enthymeme does not hold true. But even when together the two premises and decide they should consider viewers know images have been staged, as with Liberty Mutual next time they buy car, home, or life insurance. the soft drink commercials, they still tend to assume that the images represent something real—the fi rst step in visual persuasion. Guidelines for Phrasing Claims To accept a clai m, an audience must view it as reason able. Because claims are assertions, they can always be challenged. Some claims, such as “smoking causes cancer” and “a college education leads to a better job,” are easily supported. But others, such as “U.S. employers don’t give employees enough vacation time” and “Hunting whales does not impact their survival rates,” are not so widely accepted. Even topics that seem completely uncontroversial are not without question. By the seventeenth century, science had proved the Earth revolves around the sun, but 20 percent of the American public today still believes the sun revolves around the Earth.14 Qualifi ers provide a way to make your claims more reasonable to an audience. A qualifi er indicates the scope of the claim with words such as probably, likely, oft en, and usually. Th ese words help you stay away from indefensible assertions or claims that must A word or phrase that clarifi es, hold up in every case. Qualifi ers answer the question “How strong is the claim?” For modifi es, or limits the meaning of example, instead of claiming “Major airline outsourcing of plane maintenance increases another word or phrase. the number of plane accidents,” you might say, “Major airline outsourcing of plane maintenance likely increases the number of plane accidents.” Here you acknowledge that outsourcing probably increases accidents, but you’re not defi nitely sure. Th ere may be other factors leading to an increase in accidents, or it may be that accidents haven’t increased at all. Figure 15.2 on page 306 shows how a qualifi er fi ts in with the elements of argument. As a per suasive speaker, you want to anticipate alte rnative assertions or claims related to your topic by acknowledging, and carefully refuting, objections or diff erent 305

Ch015.indd 305 07/10/10 6:54 PM Figure 15.2 Elemen ts of an argument with qualiﬁ er

CLAIM position or assertion

QUALIFIER moderates assertion REASONING method or process

EVIDENCE supporting materials

Source: Adapted from Toulmin (2003).

points of view in your speech. Considering other claims lets audience members know you are not just single-minded about the topic. Acknowledging positions held by audience members that diff er from your view shows you understand their perspective, even if you don’t agree with it. Th is helps you establish a respectful and productive connection with your listeners.15 Eileen Claussen used this strategy in her speech advocating construction of new nuclear power plants. Claussen is well aware that many people, including some environmental groups, oppose further development of nuclear power. Aft er claiming that “nuclear power could make a substantial contribution to our eff orts to reduce greenhouse gasses,” she said, However, there are other things we can’t ignore. And these are the potential problems associated with the expanded use of nuclear power in this country and around the world … Th e brutal facts for nuclear power include the fact that we still have not resolved a number of threshold issues that are essential to this industry’s future… She pointed out that the main objections to nuclear p ower today are the safety of the power plants and the storage of nuclear waste. To put those problems into perspective, she briefl y discu ssed the obstacles posed by wind and solar power—public opposition to huge wind farms and solar power’s relatively low and intermittent power production. But her primary concern about the future of nuclear energy was America’s lack of a comprehensive climate policy at the time of her speech: Th e federal government needs to be involved in solvi ng some of the most urgent problems facing key energy alternatives,… I want to wrap up by making the point again that nuclear power can be an important part of the solution to global climate change. But fi rst we need to … take a more discerning look at the world around us—what’s possible, where the problems are, and how to overcome them in ways that don’t create still more problems for humanity and for the world. 306

Ch015.indd 306 07/10/10 6:54 PM Eileen Claussen strongly advocated making nuclear po wer part of a comprehensive energy plan because she believes it off ers a partial solution to climate change. Th e strength of her argument lies not only in the evidence she presents and the reasoning she uses to weave her ideas together, but in the way she deft ly raises objections to her position and then gently and smartly refutes possible counterarguments. Similarly, a speech designed to convince an audience that globalization helps poor countries raise their standard of living will be stronger if the speaker acknowledges that globalization has also widened the gap between rich and poor in many countries. By voicing alternative claims, the speaker gains the trust of the audience for being fair. When speakers ignore or hide information they disagree with, or try to mislead the audience about diff ering viewpoints, they behave unethically and undercut their own position on the topic.

Using Evidence Effectively

Evidence provides the foundation for your claims. Rec all that a claim answers the question “What is the speaker asserting?” Evidence answers the question “What is the speaker’s support for the assertion?” In presenting evidence to support a claim, the persuasive speaker relies on the four types of appeals introduced in Chapter 1: logos, ethos, pathos, and mythos. Th ese appeals are summarized in Table 15.3 and discussed in depth in this section.

Logos: Appeals to Logic Logical appeals, or logos, can be the most persuasive type of appeal w hen pr esented well. In addition, aud iences expect experts on a topic to use logical appeals in their speeches.16 Although logical appeals typically are associated with facts and statistics, defi nitions and testimony may also fi t this category of evidence. Logical appeals rely on appearing reasonable and rational to infl uence an audience. Generally, logical evidence is verifi able. Use of rational appeals based For example, listeners can research the facts a speaker presents or look up a defi nition on logic, facts, and analysis to the speaker off ers. inﬂ uence an audience. When using logical appeals, eff ective speakers gather current statistical data, facts, defi nitions, or expert opinions. For example, a just-released poll of Americans’ attitudes toward congressional reform would add considerable weight to an argument favoring changes in political lobbying laws. By demonstrating the currency of your research, you’ll earn your audience’s respect and keep them listening to you. In addition, your audience must comprehend the logical evidence you present. Long lists of facts and statistic s can overwhelm your listeners and cause them to lose interest. However, logical appeals need not be dry and boring. Successful persuasive speakers make evidence clear through their use of language and presentation media. Dr. Nora D. Volkow, director of the National Institute on Drug Abuse, included logical appeals in her speech “ Drug Addiction: Free Will, Brain Disease, or Both?”17

Table 15.3 Types of Appeals

Appeal Brief Deﬁ nition Example

logos logical proof facts and statistics

ethos speaker’s credibility references to own expertise on topic

pathos emotional proof a humorous quote or story

mythos cultural beliefs and values a well-known fable

307

Ch015.indd 307 07/10/10 6:54 PM She presented her speech to Town Hall Los Angeles, an audience of city residents. In this part of her speech, she focused on her claim that drug addiction is a brain disease: Drug addiction is a developmental disease. What do we mean by that? What we’ve learned from many years of epidemiological studies is drug addiction develops during these periods of our lives, during adolescence and early adulthood. Th is is a graph [on a digital slide] that actually describes at what age individuals develop, at fi rst, a dependence on marijuana.

© A. Ramey/PhotoEdit Similar graphs occur for cocaine, nicotine, and Presenting veriﬁ able evidence in a thought-provoking and alcohol. You can see the peak at this case is easily understandable way increases the pow er of your around age eighteen. By age twenty-fi ve, if you logical appeals. have not become addicted to marijuana the likelihood that you will do so is very minimal. It’s not zero but it’s very minimal.18 Volkow presented data from a large number of studies to support her claim. She used a digital slide to show the statistics, and then explained what the graph meant to the audience.

Ethos: Appeals to Speaker Credibility Th e eff ectiveness of appeals to speaker credibility, or ethos, rests in the degree to which Use of the audience’s perception of the audience perceives the speaker as competent, trustworthy, dynamic, and likeable—the the speaker as competent, trustworthy, speaker’s ethos. Competence or expertise in particular has a direct positive impact on a dynamic, and likeable to inﬂ uence an audience. speaker’s persuasiveness. If your audience believes you’re an expert on your topic, you’re more likely to convince them. Speaker credibility also depends on the degree to which listeners feel connected to you. Research shows that i f you haven’t established a good relationship with your audience, expertise alone will not convince them.19 Your credibility as a speaker, then, relies on more than just doing your research. Th e audience must also perceive you as likeable or sociable. Open gestures, a slightly faster rate of speech, a somewhat raised voice volume, eye contact, smiling, and other nonverbal behaviors that suggest friendliness, energy, and enthusiasm all contribute to listeners’ perceptions of a speaker’s sociability.20 Th e degree to which an audience finds a topic personally relevant also infl uences the eff ects of speaker credi bility.21 When audience members view the source of a message as highly credible but fi nd the subject uninteresting, they judge the speaker as not very persuasive. Similarly, if audience members don’t think the topic applies to them, they don’t pay much attention to it. Dr. Carl J. Schramm’s speech on entrepreneurship at a European Union Finance Ministers meeting provides a usef ul example of appeals to speaker credibility.22 As president and chief executive offi cer of the Ewing Marion Kauff man Foundation and a member of the business school faculty at the University of Virginia, Schramm brought much training and experience (fi xed qualifi cations) to the event. Yet he began his speech by establishing a connection with his listeners, gaining their interest with a bold statement, and indicating the topic’s relevance to them: I am deeply honored to have been asked by Minister Crasser to speak with you about the new economy that a waits us. Simply, we are in the midst of a transformation of capitalism. What is emerging might be called Entrepreneurial Capitalism. Th is evolution continues to evade description for various reasons, not the least being that economists and offi cials charged with the management of economic aff airs have understandably deep loyalties to our inherited wisdom. We are comfortable with a 308

Ch015.indd 308 07/10/10 6:54 PM changing economic landscape that presents a steady stream of challenges requiring diff erent policy approaches. We are not at ease, however, with changing economic theory. Nonetheless, the new economic order overtaking the U.S., Ireland, the U.K., and, to a remarkable degree, transforming China and India, must be recognized for what it is.23 Beginning with a humble statement directed to the audience provided a way for Schramm to appear more like able and friendly. He then got their attention with the statement, “We are in the midst of a transformation of capitalism.” He showed the topic’s relevance to the audience, referring to “economists and offi cials charged with the management of economic aff airs” and using the pronoun we. In these ways, Schramm laid a foundation for his primary appeal to speaker credibility, which he included at a later point in his speech: Elsewhere I have proposed part of a conceptual framework for entrepreneurial capitalism and here off er on ly a précis. Th e economic model that prevailed through the last century envisioned economic activity as dependent on three central players. Big labor, business, and government coexisted and engaged in a balance of power as a means of achieving two predominant goals—equilibrium and predictability. John Kenneth Galbraith described the balanced duopolies amongst any two players as “countervailing” power relationships.24 Schramm went on to explain his conceptual framework, using technical language appropriate to the audience . Note how he referred to his own work, yet also cited the work of others. He used both his research on the topic and an authoritative reference in his appeal to speaker credibility. And by including several charts and fi gures to help the audience visualize his points, he further demonstrated his competence and produced a more dynamic presentation, enhancing his credibility as a speaker.

Pathos: Appeals to Emotion Emotional appeals, or pathos, rely on emotional evidence and stimulation of feelings to infl uence an audie nce. Speakers typically use stories, examples, defi nitions, and Use of emotional evidence testimony when appealing to our emotions. Appeals to emotion work well when they and stimulation of feelings to inﬂ uence an audience. tap into the audience’s beliefs and needs, call up personal associations with the topic, and help listeners recall the speaker’s message.25 Emotion can reinforce or change an audience’s position on a topic or stir people to action. Emotional appeals alone seldom work to convince an audience, yet in conjunction with other types of appeals they can win over even skeptical listeners.26 According to social psychologist Abraham Maslow, humans are motivated by fi ve types of needs: physiological, s afety, love/belonging, esteem, and self-actualization.27

■ Physiological needs are those necessary for our body to function, including food, water, and sleep.

■ Safety need s are associated with the desire to feel free from harm.

■ Love/belonging needs include wanting to fee l part of a group and loved by others.

■ Esteem needs focus on our sta tus and having others recognize our accomplishments.

■ Self-actualization needs are concerned with personal growth and self-fulfi llment. You’re motivated to ful fi ll your needs in a hierarchical order, satisfying more basic needs before progre ssing to higher-order ones (Figure 15.3 on page 310). You interact emotionally and connect with others to satisfy your needs. For example, you depend on 309

Ch015.indd 309 07/10/10 6:54 PM Figure 15.3 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs29

self-actualization

esteem

love/belonging

safety

physiological

others to help you feel safe and loved. Obtaining even basic needs such as food and water requires the help of others.28 Understanding these needs can help yo u develop appropriate emotio nal appeals for your audience. Appe aling to a positive emotion such as happiness usually proves more persuasive than appealing to a negative emotion such as fear. Yet persuaders commonly use fear appeals to scare audiences into doing or not doing something based on the horrible consequences that might result. Th ese appeals oft en target the most basic needs—physiological and safety needs. Fear appeals can work, but they don’t work very well if the appeal is so threatening that people feel overwhelmed by fear. When that happens, audience members resist the persuasive attempt, deny that the appeal applies to them, and reject any proposed change in thought or behavior. However, if the fear appeal produces a milder emotional response and leads the audience to believe they can do something to control the danger, they’re much more likely to be persuaded.30 In her speech at the fi rst meeting of the President’s Identity Th eft Task Force, Deborah Platt Majoras, chair of the Federal Trade Commission, said: Personal information is the currency of our new information economy. It permits the global marketplace to be brought digitally to our doorsteps, indeed our fi ngertips. But like cash currency, it also attracts thieves. Th ese identity thieves are cheats and cowards. Unlike their victims, identity thieves do not work to earn their resources and to establish good names and good credit. Instead, they steal from others in a most insidious manner—by taking their identities.31 In defi ning identity thieves and their victims, Majoras highlighted a fear many people share: that someon e will steal their personal information and use it to run up bills that the thief never intends to pay. Here she appealed to the audience’s safety needs—safety from the theft of private personal information rather than the more traditional sense of safety from physical harm. She went on to list the actions the new task force would take to address this fast-growing problem. When audience members believe they can take action to counteract a threat, a fear appeal is more successful. Personal narratives are probably the most common way persuasive speakers appeal to audiences’ emotions. In a s peech given at the University of Richmond, author Lois Lowry recounted several narratives to support her claim that people oft en avoid or turn away from things that may seem too painful, diffi cult, or challenging.32 Near the end of the speech, she told this story: In 1994, when Th e Giver was awarded the Newbery Medal, a picture book called Grandfather’s Journey was aw arded the Caldecott. Its author/ illustrator was Allen Say. Allen is Japanese, though he has lived in the USA since he was a young man. He gave me a copy of Grandfather’s Journey and inscribed it to me. In return, I signed Th e Giver to him, writi ng my name in Japanese 310

Ch015.indd 310 07/10/10 6:54 PM below my usual signature. He chuckled, looking at it, and asked me how I happened to be able to do that. You can picture the ensuing conversation. “I lived in Japan when I was eleven, twelve, thirteen,” I explain. “What years?” asks Allen Say. “1948, 49, 50. I was born in 1937.” “Me too. We’re the same age. Where did you live?” “Tokyo,” I tell him. “Me too,” he says. “What part?” “Shi buya.” “So did I! Where do you go to school?” Alle n asks me. “Meguro. I went by bus each day.” “I went to school in Shibuya.” “I remember a school there,” I tell him. “I used to ride my bike past it.” Silence. Th en: “Were you the girl on the green bike?” Allen and I are close friends now. But we had lost fi ft y-seven years of friendship because we had both turned away. To do otherwise—in that place and that time—would have been too hard.33 Lowry’s story evokes both happiness and sadness—she won a prestigious award and met a new friend, yet als o missed out on that friendship for nearly sixty years. She appealed to listeners’ esteem and belonging needs, suggesting that satisfying these needs means that individuals must bear some pain along the way. Persuasive speakers also use presentation media as evidence to elicit emotion. For example, to support the cla im that your community needs a new theater, you might show a short clip of an especially powerful performance by the local theater group, presented in its current dilapidated venue. Digital slides of unwanted pets waiting for adoption at the Humane Society can stir feelings of sympathy and buttress the claim that all pets should be spayed or neutered. Emotional appeals must do more than stimulate an emotional response. Such appeals must serve as evidence—direct support for your claim. When you tell a story, defi ne a term, recite a quote, or show a photograph, you appeal to your audience’s emotions in ways that advance your claim. As with any evidence you include in your persuasive speech, an emotional appeal must be relevant to your topic and appropriate to your audience. Mythos: Appeals to Cultural Beliefs Appeals to cultural beliefs, or mythos, rely on the values and beliefs embedded in cultural narratives or stories to infl uence an audience. Speakers use traditional songs, Use of values and beliefs tall tales, rhymes, proverbs, familiar stories, and the like to suggest a common bond with embedded in cultural narratives or the audience. For example, the myth of the American hero, who does good deeds, works stories to inﬂ uence an audience. hard, and triumphs over misfortune, is deeply engrained in our culture.34 Stories related to this mythic fi gure tap into our cultural beliefs in helping others, industriousness, and persevering in the face of adversity. Dr. J. Edward Hill, president of the American Medical Association (AMA), said this during a speech at the association’s annual meeting: As many of you know and have heard before, I spent twenty-seven years in Hollandale, Mississippi, a littl e town in the Delta that is home, not just to the blues, but to some of the poorest patients in America…. Worst of all— at least in the eyes of my partner, Dr. John Estes, and myself—shamefully high rates of maternal and fetal mortality. It all came home to me one day, when I drove off to care for a woman who had just given birth, unassisted, at home. She had lost so much blood, she couldn’t raise her head without losing consciousness. I can still remember driving her to the town clinic aft er giving her an emergency transfusion. Th e woman recovered from her ordeal. But I did not. Th at night, on television, I watched Neil Armstrong 311

Ch015.indd 311 07/10/10 6:54 PM take his famous walk on the moon’s surface. I asked myself how a nation as great as ours could put a man on the moon but still couldn’t provide basic obstetrical care to a poor, rural woman in the Mississippi Delta.35 Hill’s reference to Armstrong’s historic feat calls up the image of the American hero, in this case conqu ering space to set foot on the moon. When faced with a stubborn societal problem, it’s common to hear the statement “We can put someone on the moon, but we can’t [solve this problem].” Hill’s appeal to cultural beliefs frames his story within a signifi cant American event and forecasts that he and his partner do overcome the odds to provide better health care for their patients. Th e heroic image of Neil Armstrong also serves to support Hill’s claim that physicians must be the leaders in changing America’s health care system. Presenting a cultural icon in a novel way provides another strategy that uses mythos. Author Michael Crichton did this in a speech titled “Fear, Complexity, and Environmental Management in the Twenty-First Century” by beginning

© Tom Friedman/Tom Friedman Gallery Friedman/Tom © Tom with an upside-down map of the United Michael Crichton’s use of a recognized cultural image presented from a unique States—Texas at the top, North Dakota persp ective, an inverte d map of the United States, prepared the audience for an at the bottom. Crichton used the map to unconventional view of environmental management. advance his claim that individuals hold “assumptions so deeply embedded in our consciousness that we don’t even realize they are there.”36 Showing a well-recognized cultural image from a unique perspective helps the audience examine beliefs they take for granted.

Apply it Arguing for Alternative Policies

Because they enjoy a ve ry high standard of living, from Gonzaga University, created Corporate Ethics Americans ha ve a special responsibility to contribut e to International. His mission is to “transform the role of the global good. Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) corporations so that they are once again in service to and offer real opportunities to campaign for social responsibility under the control of civil society.”37 Among other issues, on a range of issues. Spokespersons for NGOs argue Marx’s organization argues against extracting dirty oil from for instituting or changing public policy in ways that often the Canadian wilderness, encourages big-box stores to “go go against mainstream interests. For example, Michael green,” and proposes sustainable environmental policies to Marx, an environmentalist and communications graduate government leaders in the United States and Canada.

Guidelines for Using Evidence in Argument Follow these guidelines for using evidence eff ectiv ely in your persuasive speech:

■ Keep your evidence relevant to your topic. Your audience must be able to grasp quickly and clearly how the evid ence you present supports your claim. For example, if you wanted your audience to support returning cultural artifacts 312

Ch015.indd 312 07/10/10 6:54 PM to their countries of origin, you would cite statistics concerning the scope of the problem. You might also provide examples of artifacts that have been returned. But you would not mention current artwork and other artifacts not involved in the controversy. Every piece of evidence you include must directly support your argument.

■ Draw your evidence from highly credible sources. Credible evidence comes from identifi able, respected sources. If you want to demonstrate the unfairness of teachers’ salaries, for example, provide data about what they earn from the government agencies that pay them. When conducting interviews, choose individuals who are truly experts on your topic.

■ Select evidence from diverse sources. Integrating evidence from a variety of sources provides a stronger founda tion for your claims, shows you’ve done your research, and enhances your credibility. For example, in a speech advocating a ban on personal fi reworks, you could cite state and local statistics on fi reworks-related injuries and property damage, interview the fi re chief, and present facts from areas where such a ban is in place.

■ Incorporate evidence addressing all types of appeals. Eff ective speakers rely on logos, ethos, pathos, and myth os to advance their claims. Speeches that include only one type of evidence seldom succeed in persuading the audience. Employing logical appeals, appeals to the speaker’s credibility, emotional appeals, and appeals to cultural beliefs provides a broad foundation of evidence to support your claims.

Using Reasoning Effectively

Reasoning is the method or process speakers use to link their evidence and claims. Claims answer the question “What is the speaker asserting?” and evidence answers the question “What is the speaker’s support for the assertion?” Reasoning answers the question “How are the support and assertion connected?” Reasoning provides the bridge between the claim and the evidence, indicating to the audience why the evidence presented should be accepted as support for the claim. Although there are many types of reasoning, this section discusses only those most relevant to persuasive speaking: deductive, inductive, causal, and analogical. Table 15.4 summarizes those types of reasoning. Deductive Reasoning In deductive reasoning, the speaker argues from a general principle to a specifi c instance or case. Persuasive speakers apply deductive reasoning to cat egorie s of people, Reasoning from a general objects, proc esses, and events, claiming that what applies to the group also applies to the condition to a speciﬁ c case.

Table 15.4 Types of Reasoning

Type Brief Deﬁ nition Strengths Weaknesses

Deductive From general principle to Relies on established formal Invalid premises leading to speciﬁ c case logic false conclusions

Inductive From speciﬁ c examples to Visualizes and personalizes Lack of representation, general principle argument sufﬁ ciency, relevance

Causal One event causes another Useful for explanation and Incorrect cause–effect link prediction

Analogical Draw similarities between Links the unfamiliar with the Ignoring of key differences two distinct cases familiar

313

Ch015.indd 313 07/10/10 6:54 PM individual: “Compact fl uorescent light bulbs save energy and last longer. Th e light bulb I bought is compact fl uorescent, so it will save energy and last longer.” With deductive reasoning, if the general principle is true, the specifi c instance must be true as well. You use deductive reasoning in everyday life. You might read a favorable report on j ob prospects for college students in your major and reach the conclusion that your own job prospects will be good as well. Here you’re reasoning from the general—all college students in your major—to the specifi c—yourself. Deductive reasoning relies on formal logic and most commonly follows this pattern: major premise (general condition), minor premise (specifi c instance), and conclusion. With this form of r easoning, also called a syllogism, both premises must hold true for A form of deductive reasoning consisting the conclusion to be true. Here are some examples: of a major premise, minor premise, and conclusion. Major premise: All triathletes are in excellent physical condition. Minor premise: Taylor is a triathlete. Conclusion: Taylor is in excellent physical condition. Major premise: All a ccredit ed colleges and universities must go through a rigorous assessment p rocess for certifi cation. Minor premise : My college is accredited. Conclusion: My college went through a rigorous assessment process. Major premise: No one in our family missed the reunion. Minor premise: Afarin is part of our family. Conclusion: Afarin did not miss the reunion. Major premise: Citizens may rightfully over throw a tyrannical government. Minor premise: Th e king o f Great Britain’s rule in the American coloni es is a tyrannical government. Conclusion: Th e citizens of the American colonies may rightfully overthrow the king of G reat Britain’s government in the colonies. Th is last syllogism may sound familiar, as it outlin es the essential argument set forth in the U.S. Declaration of Independence.38 Reviewing the words used in each claim— the major premise, the minor premise, and the conclusion—helps you visualize the connections among the three parts of a syllogism. Figure 15.4 outlines the syllogism underlying the Declaration of Independence.

Figure 15.4 Syllogism underlying the Declaration of Independence

Citizens may rightfully Major a tyrannical government. premise overthrow

The King of Great is a tyrannical Minor Britain’s rule in the government. premise American colonies

The citizens of the the King of Great Conclusion American colonies may Britain’s government rightfully overthrow in the colonies.

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Ch015.indd 314 07/10/10 6:54 PM Th e major premise makes clear the general condition on which the Declar ation of Independen ce is based: Overthrowing a tyrannical government is right and moral. Th e minor premise estab lishes the current system governing the American colonies as a tyrannical one. So the obvious conclusion is that the colonies are justifi ed in ending their ties with Great Britain’s rule. Th at’s the power of deductive reasoning: the conclusion cannot be questioned, because it is determined by the major and minor premises.39 To successfully employ an argument based on deductive reasoning, persuasive speakers must demonstrate the validity of their major and minor premises with supporting evidence, then work the ir way toward the conclusion. If speakers do this well, listeners cannot easily refute the argument. Consider the following example from a student speech advocating a ban on smoking in public places: Topic: Smoking Ban in Public Places General purpose: To persuade Specifi c purpose: To convince my audience that smoking should be banned in all public areas in our state Th esis: Smok ing should be banned in all public areas throughout our state because se condhand smoke harms nonsmokers. Major premise: One obligation of the state is to keep individuals safe f rom harm in public places. Minor premise: Smoking in public causes harm to nearby nonsmokers. Conclusion: Smoking should be banned in all public places in our state. For the audience to accept the conclusion th at smoking should be banned in public places, the speaker musts fi r st show that (1) the state is responsible for protecting people from har m when they’re out in public and (2) secondhand smoke harms nonsmokers. Supporting the major premise may pose a challenge, because the state government cannot protect individuals from all forms of harm. For example, driving, cycling, or walking on a road can be dangerous. Should the state ban all roads? Th at’s not practical. Instead, states develop laws and regulations to make roads safer, though not completely safe. For the minor premise, the speaker must demonstrate the magnitude of the harm. Research does suggest a link between secondhand smoke and several diseases.40 Still, the speaker’s evidence must convince the audience that the minor premise is true. Once the audience accepts both premises, the conclusion becomes logically apparent. Deductive reasoning may be valid or invalid. For deductive reasoning to be valid, the premises and conclusion must be true, as in the previous examples. Sometimes, however, premises do not guarantee a true conclusion. In those cases, the argument is invalid.41 Consider the following syllogism: Major premise: Reducing stress helps students get good grades. Minor premise: Playing video games reduces stress. Conclusion: Playing video games helps students get good grades. Th e s peaker may be able to fi nd evidence supporting the major and minor premises. And for some audience members the conclusion may hold true. But for others, playing video games wastes time that could be spent preparing for tests, writing papers, or doing other things that help assure good grades. Th erefore, the conclusion that playing video games will help students get good grades is not proven. It may be true for some people, but other factors limit the conclusion’s more general truth. In this case, the conclusion does not necessarily follow from the premises, so the argument is invalid. In persuasive speaking, there are two keys to applying deductive reasoning when linking claims to evidence. First, the speaker must have suffi cient supporting evidence to convince the audi ence that the general condition (major premise) and specifi c 315

Ch015.indd 315 07/10/10 6:54 PM instance (minor premise) are true or correct. Second, the speaker must have suffi cient supporting evidence to show that the conclusion is the correct one based on the premises.

Inductive Reasoning Speakers use inductive reasoning when they support a claim with specifi c instances or Supporting a claim with specifi c cases examples. Also called reasoning by example, inductive reasoning asks the audience to or instances; also called reasoning by accept a general claim based on a few cases or even just one case. People naturally think example. inductively, using their own experiences to draw conclusions about the world.42 Suppose you practice a speech for your public speaking class in front of friends and do much better than when you only practiced by yourself. Based on that single experience, you decide that practicing with an audience is always better than practicing alone. In this case, you’re applying inductive reasoning. When speakers use inductive reasoning to make their arguments, they rely on the principle of probability—that the Speaking of . . . evidence they present in their argument leads to a conclusion that is prob ably correct. Inductive reasoning depends on the quality of the evidence presented and the way speakers make sense of it. Princell Hair, a journalist and former general manager of CNN/U.S., How Many Examples Are Enough? used inductive reasoning in a portion of his speech to the Radio– How do you know when you have enough Television News Directors Association & Foundation: evidence when reasoning inductively? You can never know f or sure. Unlike deductive Journalism, be it CNN/U.S. television, CNN.com or r easoning or formal logi c, where you’re certain any of the other hundreds of news outlets available of your concl usion, inductive reasoning relies in this country, provides a sort of “national campfi re” on probability—the idea that the conclusion is around which people gathe r…. Our role as journalists likely true. So that’s your task as a persuasive in helping to frame a larger dialogue—to tend that speaker: to present enough evidence to show that your position has a high probability of national campfi re I just mentioned—has never been being correct. But it’s more than a numbers more important, or more complicated. Th e good game. Three diverse and representative news for me, and for anyone in this room who wants examples make a much stronger case than to be a journalist or who already is a journalist, is fi fty similar examples. If you were arguing, for that Americans seem to want to listen to—and even instance, that all students on your campus join—in the conversation. Simply put, news brands are support building a new student center and reaching more people than ever before. you interviewed only students you knew, you wouldn’t have an appropriate sample. But if For example, my network CNN alone reaches you chose and interviewed a cross-section almost 107 million people in the United States of students based on demographics such as each month. And this 107 million includes only age, major, class standing, and where they the viewers in homes and using the Web—this lived, you would have greater confi dence in doesn’t include restaurants, gyms, airports and all reasoning from those specifi c cases to the those many other places where CNN is available. general student population. Worldwide, in a single day, CNN has the power to aggregate 1.7 billion audience impressions.43 Hair begins with his conclusion that news outlets produce a “national campfi re” where people gather to talk with each other. He then presents the premise that large numbers of people watch or listen to the news. To support his claims, he uses CNN’s viewership as an example. His reasoning follows an inductive pattern—from the specifi c (CNN) to the general (all news outlets are experiencing increased audience numbers). Inductive reasoning can be persuasive because it provides specifi c, concrete evidence that makes the claim more real or understandable. In addition, humans naturally think inductively, so using such reasoning to connect claims and evidence fi ts well with the audience’s thought processes. One example alone, however, seldom convinces an audience of a claim’s legitimacy. Inductive reasoning works best when speakers use multiple, diverse, and relevant examples.44 Later in his speech Hair referred

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Ch015.indd 316 07/10/10 6:54 PM to statistics on website news traffi c, broadening the range of his supporting evidence. In addition, examples must clearly represent the general conclusion they support. As a network dedicated to broadcasting news, CNN provides a reasonable example for the claim that more people are watching the news.

Causal Reasoning Persuasive speakers use causal reasoning in four ways: to explain why something happened, to identify who’s responsible for something, to determine whether peopl e can control an event, and to predict what might occur in the future. In each of these cases, the speaker wants to show the cause of something. In causal reasoning, the speaker argues that one action or event resulted in another.45 People frequently use causal Linking two events or reasoning to make sense of their everyday experiences. You take on an extra project actions to claim that one at work, for instance, and aft er you complete it you get a raise. To explain the increase resulted in the other. in salary, you point to your eff orts on the project as the cause. Causal reasoning also plays an important role in your attempts to predict the future. If you can determine a causal relationship between two events that occurs consistently, you can expect the relationship will continue to occur. You might observe, for instance, that if you take a brief nap during the day you feel more alert in the evening than on the days you skip a nap. You’d predict, then, that in the future taking a nap will help you feel refreshed later in the day. U.S. Department of Education Deputy Secretary Raymond Simon used causal reasoning in his testimony about the No Child Left Behind Act before the House Committee on Education and the Workfo rce. As you probably know, No Child Left Behind is a federal law designed to improve elementary- and secondary-school education. Th e legislation has both supporters and detractors. Deputy Secretary Simon testifi ed in support of the law: You deserve to know whether the No Child Left Behind Act is working as intended. I am here to report that it is. Across the country, test scores in reading and math in the early grade s are rising, and the “achievement gap” is fi nally beginning to close. Students once left behind, I am pleased to say, are now leading the way, making some of the fastest progress. We know this because No Child Left Behind measures the academic performance of all students through testing. And we know it because the law breaks down these results by student subgroup—Af rican American, Hispanic, students with disabilities, the economically disadvantaged, limited English profi cient, and more. Th is disaggregation of data, as it’s known, is at the heart of the law. It shines a bright light of accountability on our schools for all parents and taxpayers to see. And it allows teachers to catch students before they fall behind.46

In his remarks, Simon elaborated on the eff ects—better test scores, reduced achievement gap, and identifying students before they fall behind—and attributed them to the No Child Left Behind Act. Later in his comments, he provided more technical information to support his reasoning and described education problems the new law solved. His causal reasoning answered two questions: (1) What is responsible for improvements in K-12 education? (2) How does the No Child Left Behind Act improve K-12 education? Causal reasoning can prove quite persuasive because humans are naturally inquisitive—they like to know why and how things happen. People also like a sense of stability and prediction, whic h causal reasoning can provide. As a persuasive speaker, however, you must be sure that the two events are indeed related and that one truly 317

Ch015.indd 317 07/10/10 6:54 PM Summit Entertainment/Everett Collection Summit Entertainment/Everett

When you use causal reasoning, think carefully about what the true causes of an event or action are. For example, does violence in movies cause people to commit violence? If so, s hould violent movies be censored? Or do other factors—broken homes, substance abuse, high unemployment, or mental illness, for instance—contribute more to violent behavior? Considering an event or action’s true causes—and using supporting evidence to back up your claim—will help you present a stronger argument.

causes the other. You must consider, for example, other factors that might lead to a particular result. Deputy Secretary Simon credited No Child Left Behind with many academic improvements. But additional variables may be at work as well, such as changes in local and state education practices completely unrelated to No Child Left Behind.

Analogical Reasoning An analogy is a comparison between two things. Analogies work well when the two things compared share clear points of relevance. For example, most people wou ld probably understand the analogy “Th e internet is an information highway” because both the internet and highways involve speed, networks, points of access, and long- distance travel. But the analogy “Th e internet is an information country road” likely wouldn’t resonate with an audience because the two objects don’t have obvious points of comparison. When persuasive speakers use analogical reasoning, they compare two similar Comparing two similar objects, processes, objects, processes, concepts, or events and suggest that what holds true for one also concepts, or events and suggesting holds true for the other. Th e similarities between the two provide the rationale for the that what holds true for one also holds true for the other. conclusion the speaker off ers. In a speech on diversity, McGill University professor Fahri Karakas47 used analogical reasoning to compare North America and a sweet dessert called Noah’s pudding: We have today with us a very special, unique, authentic dessert. Let me introduce to you this marvelous dessert, called “Ashura” or “Noah’s pudding.” Noah’s pudding is a sweet dessert prepared of mixed nuts and fruits in a pudding texture in the Middle East in remembrance of the event of Noah’s ark, and the pudding is distributed to friends, family, and neighbors…. Ashura symbolizes diversity and tolerance. Each of the forty ingredients is cooked and prepared in a diff erent fashion. Th is 318

Ch015.indd 318 07/10/10 6:54 PM symbolizes a genuine respect for the diff erences. Ashura is ess entially a celebration of diversity… . North America is like a cup of Noah’s pudding as it embodies and contains the diversity and richness of almost all human civilizations. Canada and the United States have become post-nation al and multicultural societies, containing the globe within their borders, and we know that our diversity is a comparative advantage and a source of continuing creativity and innovation. We grow socially, economically, culturally, and spiritually by valuing our diversity and contributing to the world.48 Karakas went on to detail more explicitly the ways in which Ashura and diversity in North America are similar. He used this line of analogical reasoning as a platform to argue that di versity lies at the center of eff ectively solving global problems such as hunger, illiteracy, and war. Th e analogy works well—in large part because Karakas provides rich detail in describing the dessert and clearly linking diff erent aspects of it to diversity. For an analogy to be an argument and not simply a comparison, the speaker must state or imply a premise and a conclusion. Let’s examine Karakas’s speech: Premise: Ashura shows that diff erent ingredients can work together harmoni- ously to produce something extraordinary. Premise: Th e people of North American are like a cup of Ashura. Conclusio n: North Americans can work together to produce something extraordinary.

Watch it Use it Cengage Learning engage Learning Cengage Learning C SPEECH BUDDY VIDEO 15.1 Identifying the Elements of Argument ACTIVITY 15.1

Anthony reviews the elements of a sou nd argument. Convince Me This act ivity gives you a chance to analyze arguments in persuasiv e speec hes and suggest ways in which each a rgument might be impr oved. Finally, it g ives you a chance to identify th e ways you can apply what you’ve learned about the elements of argument in your own persuasive speeches.

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Ch015.indd 319 07/10/10 6:54 PM As with all arguments, analogical rea soning must include some conclusion.49 In this case, Karakas appl ied the analogy to make the assertion that diverse people can jointly address glob al issues. But just saying, “North Americans are like Ashura” would not have been suffi cient—it’s only a comparison. When speakers reason by analogy, the two things they compare must have enough similarities to make the comparison believable. For example, a persuasive speaker might argue that alcohol and marijuana are similar, so the latter should be legalized. But the audience must be convinced that the two are truly similar. In addition, the speaker must recognize diff erences between the things compared. If the diff erences are larger or more important than the similarities, the analogy won’t work. For example, solutions to environmental problems in one city may not translate to another city due to diff erences in climate and geography, even if the two locations share similar environmental problems.

Avoiding Fallacies in Argument

A fallacy is an error in making an argument. Th e error may be in the claims off ered, the An error in making an argument. evidence presented, or the reasoning process. Whatev er the mistake, a fallacy results in an err oneous argument.50 Th e challenge for speakers and listeners rests in identifying fallacies. Fallacies oft en appear valid and reasonable, but upon closer inspection they do not hold up. Fallacies may even persuade the uncritical listener.51 Yet including fallacies in a persuasive speech—even if unintentionally—refl ects poorly on the speaker and ultimately constitutes unethical behavior. Fallacies fall into four main categories: 1. Faulty assertions 2. Flawed evidence 3. Defective reasoning 4. Erroneous responses Eff ective speakers recognize fallacies in their arguments and elim inate them before they make their presentations. Table 15.5 summari zes common falla cies in public speaking, which are discu ssed in more detail in this section.

Fallacies in Claims Fallacies stemming from the claims a speaker makes refer to errors in basic assumptions or assertions. Th e false dilemma fallacy, also called either–or thinking, occurs when Argument in which a speaker reduces a speaker tries to reduce the choices an audience can make to two even though ot her available choices to only two even al ternatives exist. For inst ance, to say that “We must completely fund this program or it though other alternatives exist; also called the either-or fallacy. is doomed” fails to acknowledge other options, such as supporting parts of the program and eliminating other parts. Begging the question, or circular reasoning, is another fallacy rooted in a speaker’s Argument in which a speaker uses claims. When speakers beg the question, they imply the truth of the conclusion in the a premise to imply the truth of the premise or simply assert that the validity of the conclusion is self-evident. In attempting conclusion or asserts that the validity of the conclusion is self-evident; to persuade an audience to support closing some elementary schools to reduce costs, also called circular reasoning. a speaker states, “Closing these schools will save the district money. We will only close schools whose closure will fi nancially benefi t the district.” But the speaker has provided no support for the premise that closing these schools really will reduce costs. Th e premise implies the conclusion, which essentially restates the premise. Argument in which a speaker asserts When a speaker says that one event will necessarily lead to another without that one event will necessarily lead to showing any logical connection between the two, the speaker has used the slippery- another without showing any logical connection between the two slope fallacy. Although the conclusion might possibly follow from the premise, events. the speaker skips the steps between them. Th e speaker argues, for example, “If the 320

Ch015.indd 320 07/10/10 6:54 PM Table 15.5 Common Fallacies in Public Speaking

Fallacy Brief Deﬁ nition Example

Fallacies in Claims

False dilemma Choices are reduced to just two. We either raise student tuition or lay off teachers.

Begging the question Something is true because it is. Our program is the best one because we rate it highly.

Slippery slope One event leads to another without If we improve this highway, it will lead to a a logical connection decrease in trafﬁ c deaths.

Ad ignorantiam A thing is true because it hasn’t Angels must exist because we have no proof been disproved. that they don’t.

Fallacies in Evidence

Red herring Distract with irrelevant point or Spend less time online. Our community is example losing its unity, so people should get more involved in it.

Ad populum Appeal to popular attitude or If you’re a true patriot, you’ll support our emotion petition for a new city hall.

Appeal to tradition Support the status quo In-person college classes are better than online classes because City College has always taught classes face to face.

Comparative Inappropriate use of statistics Violent crime in our city doubled from last evidence year. [Speaker omits previous year’s number, which was very low.]

Fallacies in Reasoning

Division Parts of a whole share the same The red states voted Republican. Pat lives properties in a red state and therefore must have voted Republican.

Hasty generalization Insufﬁ cient examples or inadequate Two local restaurants have seen an increase sample in business since the stadium was built, so all restaurants have beneﬁ ted.

Post hoc Misrepresent causal relationship The year after the department hired a new manager, sales increased.

Weak analogy Key dissimilarities make the Buying stocks is like gambling because both comparison misleading involve money and risk.

Fallacies in Responding

Ad hominem Personal attack That administrator is an idiot, and of course came to a wrong conclusion.

Guilt by association Claim linked to objectionable Osama bin Laden would support this idea. person

Straw man Misrepresentation of a claim My opponent’s position is that the police force should be abolished. [In reality, the speaker’s opponent is calling for minor budget cuts.]

Loaded words Emotionally laden, misleading Hunting is the senseless murder of innocent language creatures.

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Ch015.indd 321 07/10/10 6:54 PM government passes a law requiring all citizens to carry a national identifi cation card, it will be a lot easier for politicians to invade our private lives in other ways, too.” So a national identity card will lead to the dismantling of all privacy rights. Th is type of argument is fallacious because one event will not necessarily lead to a much larger and more signifi cant event. Th e ad ignorantiam fallacy, or appeal to ignorance, suggests that because a claim Argument in which a speaker suggests hasn’t been shown to be false, it must be true. It is also called the burden-of-proof fallacy. that because a claim hasn’t been shown Senator Joseph R. McCarthy used this tactic in the 1950s to accuse people of being to be false, it must be true; also called an appeal to ignorance. communists. He argued that if people couldn’t disprove his allegations, they must be communists. Claims of UFOs, alien abductions, and paranormal activities usually rely on the ad ignorantiam fallacy: Scientists have no proof that UFOs don’t exist. Th erefore, there are UFOs.52

Fallacies in Evidence Even if a speaker presents valid claims, the evidence used to support those assertions may be irrelevant, inaccurate, or insuffi cient. Sometimes speakers present evidence that has nothing to do with the claim. In these cases, the speaker creates a red herrin g, Argument that introduces irrelevant distracting the audience with irrelevant evidence. To urge the audience to support evidence to distract an audience from abolishing all competitive sports on campus, a speaker might argue, “We need to end the real issue. competitive sports here at our college. Th e state is in a budget crisis, and tuition is going up.” Th e state’s budget crisis and rising tuition are not necessarily related to the idea of abolishing competitive sports, but mentioning those points does sensationalize the topic—and take the audience’s mind off the real issue. Th e comparative evidence fallacy occurs when speakers use statistics or compare Argument in which a speaker uses numbers in ways that mislead the audience and misrepresent the evidence included statistics or compares numbers in ways to support the argument. Th is may happen unintentionally when a speaker simply that misrepresent the evidence and mislead the audience. misinterprets statistical data. In other cases, th e speaker may manipulate the numbers or omit some information and purposefully deceive the audience. For example, some urban universities highlight their low rates of crime by reporting only crimes that occur on the campus itself, leaving out any that are reported even within a block or two of the campus’s borders. While the statistics may be accurate, omitting nearby crime incidents may give students, faculty, and staff a false sense of security. In addition, speakers may favor statistical evidence too heavily, privileging numbers over other forms of evidence such as testimony, narrative, and examples. Although statistics can provide powerful evidence, they are not always the best choice. Statistics oft en shed little light on how t hings work, for instance. A speaker may present statistics showing that students who learn math using a new method score higher on tests than do students using an old method. But the reason for the higher scores may be the increased attention that students using the new method received, rather than the method itself. Without additional evidence, the audience can’t be sure of the process that led to the results.53 Th e ad populum fallacy is commonly found in advertising. Although eff ective Argument in which a speaker appeals to speakers do employ narratives, examples, and other evidence in appealing to an popular attitudes and emotions without offering evidence to support claims. audience’s emotions, the ad populum fallacy plays on popular attitudes without off ering any supporting materials. Speakers may appeal t o audience members’ prejudices or their desire to be part of the group. If you want to be considered cool, for instance, you should drive a certain car or use a particular brand of computer. Diet fads fall into this category, too. Trying to persuade an audience to go on a reduced-carbohydrate diet because everyone’s doing it is an example of the ad populum fallacy. When speakers use the appeal to tradition fallacy, they argue that the status quo or Argument in which a speaker asserts current state of things is better than any new idea or approach. Audience members oft en that the status quo is better than any fi nd this fallacy persuasive because it argues against change and for the familiar and new idea or approach. known. Although the appeal to tradition fallacy seems like an appropriate use of mythos, 322

Ch015.indd 322 07/10/10 6:54 PM or an appeal to cultural beliefs, this fallacy asserts the superiority of the status quo simply based on what’s always been done. Th e appeal to tradition fallacy has been used to argue against allowing women in all-male colleges and in favor of forcing African American children to attend segregated schools. Sometimes traditional ways of doing things are indeed the best course of action. But the speaker must present suffi cient evidence to support that stance.

Fallacies in Reasoning Fallacies in reasoning involve errors in how the speaker links the evidence and the claims. One error in deductive reasoning is the division fallacy, in which speakers assume that what’s true of the whole is also true of the parts making up the whole. A Argument in which a speaker sur vey might fi nd, for instance, that students at your college hold a favorable view of assumes that what is true of the whole is also true of the parts current general-education policies. Does this mean all students feel that way? Possibly, that make up the whole. but you can’t be sure that’s the case. When speakers draw a conclusion based on too few examples or from an unrepresentative sample, they’ve made a hasty generalization, a fl aw in inductive reasoning. Th e hasty generalization fallacy occurs when the speaker makes a claim aft er off ering only one or two examples, or when the exam ples off ered don’t represent the Argument in which a speaker larger group. For example, a speaker who argues for improving the quality of national draws a conclusion based on too teacher training by using data drawn only from a few schools would not be able to few or inadequate examples. establish convincingly the need for reform at the national level. Th e post hoc fallacy, or false cause fallacy, involves concluding that a causal relationship exists simply because one event follows another in time. Say, for instance, Argument in which a speaker that the police chief in your city was fi red and shortly thereaft er the crime rate increased. concludes a causal relationship exists simply because one event Did the fi ring necessarily lead to the higher crime rate? Maybe, but many other factors follows another in time; also called could be involved as well, such as the time of year, decreased patrols in an area, better the false cause fallacy. reporting of crimes, or a sudden downturn in the economy. When a speaker argues that one event necessarily caused another, always consider additional possible explanations for why something occurred. Th e weak analogy fallacy results when two things have important dissimilarities that make the comparison inaccurate and the analogy faulty. Although it’s possible to Argument in which a speaker identify similarities between almost any two things you might want to compare, the compares two things that are dissimilar, making the comparison similarities must contribute to the argument and the dissimilarities must not detract inaccurate. from it. A speaker argues, for example, “Graffi ti is like any other form of public art and should be supported.” But the process for displaying public art is quite diff erent from that for displaying graffi ti. With public art, members of the community decide on the type of art and where it should be placed. With graffi ti, the person applying the paint is making those choices.

Fallacies in Responding Listeners may make errors in argument when critiquing a speaker’s arguments. Probably the most common fallacy in responding is the ad hominem fallacy, or the against the person fallacy. Th is fallacy occurs when a claim is rejected based on Argument in which a speaker rejects perceptions of t he speaker’s character rather than the evidence. Th e ad hominem another speaker’s claim based on that speaker’s character rather than fallacy typically follows this pattern: “You think we should adopt the group’s plan. the evidence the speaker presents; also Everyone knows you’re an inconsiderate person. Your position is wrong.” Th e person’s called the against the person fallacy. character is irrelevant to the initial claim. Although you can certainly examine a speaker’s credibility, you must critique an argument based on the evidence presented rather than something about the person that has nothing to do with the topic. Personally attacking the speaker or the source of the evidence takes attention away from the true merits of a claim. 323

Ch015.indd 323 07/10/10 6:54 PM Like the ad hominem fallacy, the guilt by association fallacy suggests something wrong with the speaker’s character—in this case, others who support the speaker’s claim. Also known as the bad company fallacy, this fallacy links the speaker with someone the audience fi nds objectionable, dep lorable, repulsive, or even evil. Responding to a speaker arguing for national health care, an audience member says, “Fidel Castro set up a national health care system in Cuba. I certainly wouldn’t want something in the United States that was designed by a dictator.” Of course, other democratic countries, such as Canada and Great Britain, have national health care, but MGM/THE KOBAL COLLECTION/Picture Desk MGM/THE KOBAL COLLECTION/Picture by associating the speaker’s claim with Speakers who use the straw man fallacy misrepresent an argument to the extent someone the audience probably dislikes, that it seems the argument is as easy to topple as the Wizard of Oz’s Scarecrow. the person responding employs the guilt Argument in which a speaker suggests by association fallacy. that something is wrong with another Th e straw man fallacy misrepresents a speaker’s argument so that just a shell of speaker’s claims by associating those the original claim remains. Th en the argument is easily refuted because it appears so claims with someone the audience 54 ﬁ nds objectionable; also called the bad implausible or simplistic, much like the ease of pushing over the straw Scarecrow in Th e company fallacy. Wizard of Oz. Th ese fallacies oft en occur in political campaigns when candidates present distorted and exaggerated views of their opponents’ positions. A candidate for mayor Argument in which a speaker who favors education reform may be accused of seeking to abolish the public school misrepresents another speaker’s system. A candidate for president of the student government who advocates revising the argument so that only a shell of the grading system used to assess student performance might be denounced as calling for an opponent’s argument remains. end to grades. In both cases, the original claim is misrepresented so that the argument against it becomes obvious. Th e loaded word fallacy uses emotionally laden words to distract from the speaker’s Argument in which a speaker uses argument and evaluate claims based on a misleading emotional response rather than emotionally laden words to evaluate the evidence presented.55 Th e intent in using such language is to refute a speaker’s claims based on a misleading emotional response rather than the claims without off ering any substantial evidence. Responding to a speaker’s claim that evidence presented. online gambling should be legalized by saying, “Condoning the corrupt operations of the rapacious online gaming interests will only serve to allow more innocent victims to fall prey to this deplorable vice” may play on emotions but does nothing to refute the original argument.

Speech for Review and Analysis

Home Schooling: Not the Best Choice56 Rober t gave this speech in an introductory speech class. His assignment was, with a partner, Dixie, to give one of two persuasive speeches that presented the pros and cons about a controversial topic. Rob ert chose to give a speech that prese nted the cons about home schooling. Go to t he Chapter 15 resources in your CourseMate for Public Speaking: Th e Evolving Art to watch and listen to Robert and Dixie’s speeches and read their speech transcripts, outlines, and note cards.

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Ch015.indd 324 07/10/10 6:54 PM Speciﬁ c purpose: To persuade my audience that educating our children in public schools is better than educating them through home schooling. Thesis statement: Educating our children in public schools in preferable to educating them through home schooling bec ause parents do not make effecti ve teachers, the home is an ineffective schooling environment, and parental involvement provides the link to success for students who attend p ublic schools.

We tell our children that they can do whatever they want to do if they only try. We tell our children that they should do the best that they can so that they can live up to their potential. How our children are educated plays a big role as to what their potential will be and what they will do the rest of their lives. All of us have come from different educational backgrounds: from public and private schools to religious schools and even home schools. After having been exposed to what I consider to have been a positive learning environment, I will show that the home school is not the most benefi cial to o ur children. To prove this I will address the issues of parents as teachers, the home as a schooling environment, and, last, parental-involvement link to student success. So who is most qualifi ed to teach our children? A key issue to home schooling rests with the fact that the parent is also the teacher of the student. Could any of us seriously imagine giving up our jobs and maybe our careers to staying home and teaching our children? Many obvious arguments arise without even putting any amount of thought into this issue. Is it really possible that parents could be just as effective, if not more effective, than classroom teachers? The answer is a clear no. The September 1, 2000, edition of Maclean’s stated that “the parents’ greatest challenge is educating themselves on how and what to teach.” The book by Ballmann, How and Why of Home Schooling, stated that many parents just don’t take the time to make lesson plans each and every day. These f acts should not be surprising, as parents can only do what they know how to do. They just simply aren’t teachers. Let’s think about this again: Even if some of our parents are teachers, can we seriously imagine them teaching us everything that we need to know, on every level, to be successful? So far, I’ve addressed the issue of parents as teachers in the home. However, can the home itself be an effective environment for learning? The home cannot be a substitute for our school systems. For example, let’s just take our homes right now. Do we have the equipment available to offer a complete educational environment? I know that in my home, we do not, and I’m pretty sure that in the majority of our homes we do not have the tools necessary to provide an adequate education. In the book by Colfax entitled Homeschooling for Excellence it was found that many home school students work on their studies for a short period of time, but fi nd something else more interesting to do as a result of not having the same attention that they should when they’re in a typical school environment. The February 22, 1996 U.S. News online report stated that 76 percent of homeschooling parents surveyed from the states of Utah, Nevada, and Oregon found that they want to enroll their students at least part time in private or public school courses. Schools just have so many resources to of fer students. They have the interest of many diverse teachers as well as access to numerous scholastic materials. There is no suffi cient substitute for our school systems out there. Up to this point, we have addressed the pitfalls to home schooling. So let’s turn to what we know will create student success, that being parental involvement. The biggest factor that will determine this is parental involvement. Regardless of whether any of us have children, the benefi ts to parental involvement are very obvious. When we use this term, we are not necessarily saying that parents should teach their children. Rather, they should support them. The journal article in The World and I, June 2000, interviewed Kathleen Lyons, a communications director for the National Education Association. In this article,

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Ch015.indd 325 07/10/10 6:54 PM Kathleen contends, “It takes more than a good heart to be a good teacher.” She went on to conclude that the quote-unquote “common denominator” to student achievement implies parental involvement. And this acknowledgement makes perfect sense, as parents have the responsibility to empower their children to succeed and be successful. They do not have to be classroom teachers to make this work. What they need to do, though, is support their children by talking to them and listening to what they have to say. Success for children rests with parental involvement. Today I’ve shown clearly why parental involvement will help children and why home schooling is not as beneﬁ cial as our typical schooling environment. Keep in mind the issues I addressed involving parents as teachers, the home environment for learning, and the one thing that will create student success if used, that being parental involvement. We need to put our children in the most effective schooling environment. If we truly want our children in the most effective classrooms for learning, with the most effective teachers for teaching, then home schooling is not the answer.

Questions for Analysis and Discussion

1. What claim did Robert make? Did he suffi ciently support his claim? Explain. 2. How could he have strengthened his argument? 3. Th e sources in this speech are old at this point, but Robert delivered it in 2000. Were his sources timely an d appropriate when he gave the speech? If he w anted to update it to give to an audience today, how would you suggest he do it? 4. Overall, how eff ective do you think this persuasi ve speech was? Explain your answer.

Summary

he well-constructed argument forms the foundation of persuasive speaking. An argument consists of three elements: claims, evidence, and reasoning. Clai ms lay Tthe groundwork for the thesis of your speech, answering the question “What am I a sserting?” Ev ery claim includes at least one p remise and a conclusion. When speakers use an enthymeme, they omit part of the claim, leaving the audience to complete the claim. Qualifi ers moderate a claim, indicating where there might be exceptions to the speaker’s position. Evidence refers to the supporting materials presented to back up the claim, answering the question “What is the support for my assertion?” Speakers may use logical appeals (logos), appeals to the speaker’s credibility (ethos), emotional appeals (pathos), or appeals to cultural beliefs and values (mythos). Generally the strongest arguments are those that eff ectively integrate all four types of appeals. In addition, evidence should be relevant to the topic, come from highly credible sources, and represent a diversity of sources. Reasoning is how speakers connect their evidence with their claims. Reasoning answers the question “How are my supporting materials and assertions linked together?” and shows the audience how the evidence you’ve chosen provides justifi cation for your position on the topic. Persuasive speak ers rely on four types of reasoning: deductive, inductive, causal, and analogical. Deductive reasoning refers to arguing from a general principle to a specifi c case. Inductive reasoning involves giving examples in support of a claim. In causal reasoning, the speaker argues that something caused something else. Speakers use analogical reasoning to compare two things that share similarities. A fallacy occurs when an error is made in constructing an argument. Although fallacies may be persuasive, they are nonetheless a deceptive and unethical approach to convincing an audience. Fallacies may stem from errors in claims, evidence, reasoning, or responding. Common fallacies in cla ims are false dilemma, begging the question, 326

Ch015.indd 326 07/10/10 6:54 PM slippery slope, and ad ignorantiam. Fallacies in evidence include red herring, ad populum, appeal to tradition, and comparative evidence. Division, hasty generalization, post hoc, and weak analogy are fallacies in reasoning. Audience members responding to persuasive arguments may also fall victim to fallacies, including ad hominem, guilt by association, caricature, and loaded words.

ReviewReview it it Directory of Study and Review Resources

IN THE BOOK SPEECH BUILDER EXPRESS Summary Goal/purpose Key Terms Thesis statement Critical Challenges Organization Outline MORE STUDY RESOURCES Supporti ng material Quizzes Transi tions WebLinks Introduction Peer-reviewed videos Co nclusion Title STUDENT WORKBOOK Works cited 15.1: Variations on a Claim Visual aids 15.2: Presid ential Premises Completing the speech outline 15.3: F aulty Letter to the Editor 15.4: We Hold These Truths to Be Self-Evident INFOTRAC 15.5: I Nee d That Recommended search terms Public speaking and argument SPEECH BUDDY VIDEOS Argument and claim WATCH It Video Argument and eviden ce 15.1: Id entifying the Elements of Argument Reasoning USE It Activity Argument and appe als 15.1: Convinc e Me Enthymeme s SAMPLE SPEECH VIDEOS Syllog isms Dixie, “Home Schooling: Super iority and Reasoning falla cies Success,” persuas ive speech AUDIO STUDY TOOLS Robert, “Home Sch ooling: Not the Best Choice,” “H ome Schooli ng: No t the Best C hoice” pers uasive speech by Ro bert Critical thinking questio ns Learning objectives Chapter s ummary

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Ch015.indd 327 07/10/10 6:54 PM Guide to Your Online Resources

Your Speech Communicatio n Critical Challenge questions for this chapter, which CourseMate for Public Speaking: Th e you can respond to via email if your instructor so Evolv ing Art gives you ac cess to the Speech Buddy requests. In addition, your CourseMate features live video and activity featured in this chapter, additional WebLinks relevant to this chapter, including sites sample speech videos, Speech Studio, Speech Builder where you can fi nd interesting folklore and myths to Exp ress, I nfoTrac College Edition, and st udy aids use in appeals to cultural beliefs. Links are regularly such as glossary fl ashcards, review quizzes, and the maintained, and new ones are added periodically.

Key Terms

ad hominem fallacy 323 claim 302 hasty generaliz ation fallacy 323 ad ignorantiam fallacy 322 compa rative evidence fallacy 322 loa ded word f allacy 324 ad populum fallacy 322 conclusion 303 logical appeals (logos) 307 analogical reasoning 318 deductive re asoning 313 post hoc f allacy 323 appeals to cultural beliefs division fa llacy 323 premise 303 (mythos) 311 emotional appeals (pathos) 309 q ualiﬁ er 305 appeals to speaker credibility enthymemes 303 reasonin g 302 (ethos) 308 evidence 302 red herring 322 appeal to tradition fallacy 322 inductive reasoning 316 slippery -slope fallacy 320 argument 302 fallacy 320 straw ma n fallacy 324 begging the question 320 fals e dilemma fallacy 320 syllogism 314 causal reasoning 317 guilt by a ssociation fa llacy 324 weak ana logy fallacy 323

Cr itical Challenges

Quest ions for Refl ection and Discussio n 1. Choose a controve rsial topic you’re interest ed in and identify th e claims eac h side present s. What are th e premises and t he conclusions each side is asking the audience t o accept? 2. Revi ew three or four advertis ements in magazines or newsp apers, on TV, or online. What appeals do the advertise rs use? Give specifi c examples. How eff ective are those appeals? 3. Refl ect on a recent discussion you’ve had in which you tried to persuade others to accept your point of view. What type or types of reasoning did you use? How well did your reasoning work? 4. Research on instruction in argumentation and persuasion has found that students who learn about the fu ndamentals of argument are better at detecting fallacies than are students without training in argument. How has what you’ve learned in this chapter made you more alert to fallacious argume nts? How has it infl uenced the way you respond to persuasive messages?

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Ch015.indd 328 07/10/10 6:54 PM 5. Check out Speech Studio to analyze how other students used reasoning and arguments in their speeches. As you watch their speeches, pay attention to whether they rely on logical fallacies. Or record a speech you’re working on, upload it to Speech Studio, and ask your peers for their feedb ack. What feedback could you use to fi ne-tune your arguments before you give your persuasive speech in class?

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Ch015.indd 329 07/10/10 6:55 PM Special Occasion 16 and Group Speaking

Read it • Speeches for Special Occasions 332 • Evaluating Small Group Presentations 346 • Presenting in Small Groups 342 • Speech for Review and Analysis 348

Watch it

• Evaluating Group Presentations 347

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Cengage Learning Cengage Cen Cen

Use it • As a Group 347

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Review it • Directory of Study and Review Resources 350

Ch016.indd 330 07/10/10 6:55 PM ll college students look forward to graduation day. Commencement Aspeeches are a central part of the ceremony. During these speeches, speakers often try to inspire the graduates or reﬂ ect on their own life experiences. For example, in his recent commencement speech at Bates College, Fareed Zakaria, author and host of CNN’s GPS: Global Public Square, challenged graduating seniors to “recognize that you are the change you seek. You are the great change agents of the world.”1 Addressing the graduating class at the College of William & Mary, Jon Stewart, host and executive producer of Comedy Central’s The Daily Show, reminisced about his undergraduate experiences there. Judy Woodruff’s speech to graduates of American University focused on her work in journalism, from college reporting to hosting a news program on national public television. Kermit the Frog, giving a commencement address at Southampton College, reﬂ ected back on his time as a tadpole! Many of the presentations you’ll give outside the classroom will take place on special occasions or in a mediated setting, or involve working in a group. This chapter addresses speeches for special occasions, such as introducing a main speaker or accepting an award. In addition, the chapter provides basic guidelines for presenting in the media and describes how to participate effectively in various types of small-group presentations, including videoconferences.

Image provided by Bates College

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Ch016.indd 331 07/10/10 6:55 PM Speeches for Special Occasions

Special occasion speeches extend the nature of what you do all the time—talk to others about what’s going on in your lives. When you introduce a friend to someone else, for example, you might say something about your friend as part of the introduction—this is also a common aspect of special occasion speeches. Special occasion speeches include speeches of introduction, acceptance speeches, aft er-dinner speeches, tributes and eulogies, nomination speeches, public testimony, and roasts and toasts.

Speeches of Introduction Whenever you attend a public speech given by a well-known person, you’ll probably fi rst hear a short speech that introduces that person to the audience. Th at’s a speech of introduction. Th e speech of introduction should prepare the audience for who and what A short speech that introduces they came to hear: the main speaker and the main speech. A few basic principles apply someone to an audience. to speeches of introduction: prepare the audience for the speaker and the occasion, give accurate information, and connect with the audience and the event.

Prepare the Audience In introducing the main speaker, keep your remarks brief yet at the same time prepare the audience for the speaker and the occasion. Th e audience has gathered to hear the main speaker, not the introducer. While it may be tempting to go on and on about the speaker, especially if the person has impressive credentials, there is no need to spend more than a few minutes on an introduction. Most audience members already know quite a bit about the speaker—that’s why they’re attending the speech. Even if you and the main speaker are very friendly with each other, keep the attention focused on the speaker rather than on your relationship. Th e audience expects the introductory speaker to quickly orient them to the main speaker, the topic, and the occasion. For example, when Jonas Gahr Støre, Norway’s minister of foreign aff airs, introduced Dr. Mohamed ElBaradei, former director general of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), at a luncheon in ElBaradei’s honor, he began with At the outset let me congratulate you, Dr. ElBaradei and the IAEA, on receiving the Nobel Peace Prize. It is a prize well deserved. Th e IAEA is crucial to international peace and security. But people make a diff erence. It is thanks to the untiring eff orts of Dr. ElBaradei and his collaborators that the agency continues to be an eff ective and effi cient instrument of nuclear disarmament and nonproliferation. May the Prize inspire you to keep up this crucial work. And may the Prize serve as an inspiration to us all in our endeavours to strengthen the nonproliferation regime. As a citizen of Norway, I look forward to welcoming you to Oslo on 10 December for the Peace Prize ceremony. Norwegians love Nobel Peace Laureates, and I know this will be no exception.2 Th e speaker indicated the reason for the occasion—ElBaradei’s recent receipt of the Nobel Peace Prize for his work in the IAEA—and off ered a brief explanation of the Prize’s importance.

Be Accurate and Up to Date When preparing a speech of introduction, research the speaker as you would any topic. If you’re introducing someone you don’t know personally, check online for any information the person may have posted, such as a website or social networking site such as Facebook or LinkedIn. Search for stories in the popular press and consult encyclopedic sources such as Who’s Who in America. If possible, interview the speaker by email or phone or in person to get the most accurate and up-to-date information. 332

Ch016.indd 332 07/10/10 6:55 PM A speech of introduction helps an audience get to know the featured speaker and establishes the speaker’s credibility. Justin Sullivan/Getty Images

Connect with the Audience Even a speaker the audience knows well needs an introduction in order to create a positive response and generate maximum enthusiasm among the listeners. When the speaker is less well known, the introducer’s role in connecting the speaker with the audience becomes all the more important. Making a strong connection between the main speaker and the audience requires that you know enough about the speaker and what the person intends to say so you can skillfully gain the audience’s interest. At a recent meeting of the International Women’s Media Foundation, famed television journalist Christiane Amanpour introduced Amira Hass, an Israeli newspaper columnist and author, to the audience. Hass was being honored with the organization’s Lifetime Achievement Award for her reporting on Israeli-Palestinian relations. Amanpour told the audience: She writes what the Palestinian journalists think about their country’s leadership but dare not say themselves. She writes what she thinks citizens of Israel should know about their leadership but do not want to hear. Some call her a traitor. It is uncomfortable to hear the truth; it’s very uncomfortable to tell the truth. Some say she is the only voice of truth in a polarized confl ict. For twenty years she’s paid no attention to either of these camps, choosing instead to follow her own path. Amira knows that dictators do not like journalists, but more than that, democracies don’t like journalists either.3 Speaking to journalists, Amanpour emphasized how Amira Hass’s investigative reporting has exposed the grim realities of the confl ict between Israel and Palestine. Highlighting the essential principle of good journalism—objectivity—she praised Hass for her fearless reporting and commentary. Amanpour kept herself out of the introduction, shining a bright light instead on the recipient of the award.

Acceptance Speeches Audiences expect individuals who are recognized, honored, or awarded to give an acceptance speech aft er they step up to the podium or move to the front of the room. If you were to fi nd yourself in the position of being publicly recognized, what should you Speech given by an individual say? Most individuals who receive honors or awards know in advance that they have who is being recognized, honored, won, so you’ll have plenty of time to prepare. or given an award. 333

Chapter 16 Special Occasion and Group Speaking Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

Ch016.indd 333 07/10/10 6:55 PM When accepting an award, some general rules apply. Most important, award recipients should thank the presenter, organization, and audience; demonstrate humility; and keep their remarks succinct. In addition, some acceptance speakers may contextualize the award by discussing the work or activity that won them the award or providing a personal narrative that is relevant to the occasion.

Be Thankful and Humble You’ve seen enough award ceremonies to know the audience expects certain responses from award winners. Everyone thanks the people who helped them succeed. For example, when Powderburn won Best Metal Band at the 2007 Austin Music Awards, the group thanked “everyone who has ever helped us or made it easier in this town for us to do what we love and appreciate us for being good songwriters and not just for our genre. Th ank you, everyone.” Th e group members went on to thank “our fans on YouTube and MySpace … and everyone who voted.”4 On the occasion of his induction into the New Jersey Hall of Fame, Bruce Springsteen spoke of the love and gratitude he has for people in his home state. In his unassuming way, “Th e Boss” made good fun of the state he adores by reciting a “Garden State benediction”: EST Rise up my fellow New Jerseyans, for we are all members of a confused but noble race. We, of the state that never gets any respect. We, who bear the coolness of the forever uncool. Th e chip on our shoulders of those with forever something to prove. And even with this wonderful Hall of Fame, we know that there’s another bad Jersey joke coming just around the corner.”5 Award winners also tend to minimize their accomplishments, demonstrating a sense of perspective, even humility. Accepting an award for her children’s nonfi ction book, Gorilla Doctors: Saving Endangered Great Apes, author Pamela S. Turner ended her speech by saying: I am so very grateful that the Bank Street College of Education has found Gorilla Doctors worthy of an award given for inspiring young readers. I certainly can’t take credit for making children interested in animals; they already are interested. I can’t take credit for making children empathize with animals, either; children already have empathy. I do hope I’ve encouraged children to combine scientifi c knowledge with their interest and empathy. I hope the result will be children better equipped to share this world respectfully, humbly, and lovingly with the rest of the animal kingdom. Th ank you.6 Closing her speech in this way shift ed the audience’s focus to the more general goal of raising children’s awareness of treating animals ethically. In this way, Turner acknowledged the impact her book might have on children’s attitudes toward animals, but noted that many other factors are involved as well.

Be Succinct “Brevity is the soul of wit,” quipped Polonius in Shakespeare’s Hamlet. Listeners expect comments made when accepting an award to be brief and to the point. Th e Webby Awards likely hold the record for shortest and funniest acceptance speeches—recipients are allowed only fi ve words. Recent speeches include “Had we lost, we’d sue” by the American Bar Association (Law category); “Even better than rocket science,” by the National Science Foundation website (Government category); “Creativity is a renewable resource,” Twitter co-founder Biz Stone (Breakout of the Year category); and “Me, me, me, me, me,” by Stephen Colbert (Person of the Year category).7 Few award ceremonies call for speakers to say only fi ve words, but you still want to keep your remarks brief when accepting an award. Accepting a nomination by President Barack Obama to be a U.S. Supreme Court judge, Sonia Sotomayor fi rst thanked the “many friends and family who have guided and supported me throughout my life, and who have been instrumental in helping me realize 334

Ch016.indd 334 07/10/10 6:55 PM Showing enthusiasm for an award demonstrates for your audience how thankful you are. Be sure your level of enthusiasm is appropriate for the occasion—some awards presentations are more formal than others. Frederick M. Brown/Getty Images M. Brown/Getty Frederick

my dreams.” She briefl y recounted her professional record as a lawyer and lower court judge and stated how her background would guide her service on the Supreme Court if confi rmed by the Senate: Th is wealth of experiences, personal and professional, has helped me appreciate the variety of perspectives that present themselves in every case that I hear. It has helped me to understand, respect, and respond to the concerns and arguments of all litigants who appear before me as well as to the view of my colleagues on the bench. I strive to never forget the real-world consequences of my decisions on individuals, business, and government.8 Sotomayor fi nished her short speech by thanking the President for the honor of the nomination. She said she wanted the American public to know she is just “an ordinary person who has been blessed with extraordinary opportunities and experiences” and “looked forward to working with the Senate in the confi rmation process.” Contextualize the Award Speakers may provide a context for an award by describing activities they participated in that led to the award or telling a story related to the occasion. Th ese comments, oft en emotionally touching and inspiring, personalize the award and help the audience feel more connected with the recipient. When Michael Giacchino won an Oscar for the music he wrote for the movie Up, he encouraged kids to unleash their creativity: Th ank you, guys. When I was nine I asked my dad, “Can I have your movie camera? Th at old, wind-up 8 millimeter that was in your drawer?” And he goes, “Sure, take it.” And I took it and I started making movies with it and I started being as creative as I could, and never once in my life did my parents ever say, “What you’re doing is a waste of time.” Never. And I grew up—I had teachers, I had colleagues, I had people that I worked with all through my life who always told me, what you’re doing is not a waste of time. So it was normal to me that it was okay to do that. I know there are kids out there that don’t have that support system, so if you’re out there and you’re listening, listen to me: If you want to be creative, get out there and do it. It’s not a waste of time. Do it, okay? Th ank you.9 In accepting the International Gandhi Award for his work on leprosy, Yohei Sasakawa traced his social activism to his father: 335

Ch016.indd 335 07/10/10 6:55 PM For more than thirty years, I have worked to eliminate leprosy from the world. My father, Ryoichi Sasakawa, was the main reason I became involved in this mission. He died in 1995 at the age of ninety-six. As a young man, he had seen the misery and anguish that leprosy caused individuals and families, and his life’s ambition was to alleviate their suff ering. But more than just off ering comfort and encouragement, he wanted to ensure that every single person who required treatment had access to it. As his son, I am carrying on his work, and doing my utmost to fi nish what he began.10 Explaining the motivation for his work gave the audience a better understanding of Sasakawa’s interests in eradicating both the physical disease and social stigma of leprosy. In addition, he provided a context for his work with which many people likely could identify.

Aft er-Dinner Speeches Aft er-dinner speeches usually serve as a featured part of an organized event. Th ese kinds of events were originally scheduled as dinner gatherings, but today they are just as likely to be scheduled for breakfast or lunch. Whatever the time of day, the goal of an aft er-dinner speech is to contribute something pleasurable to the occasion. Aft er-dinner speeches amplify and extend the good feelings the sponsors of the event want to create for everyone in attendance. Th e topic for the speech can be serious for some occasions, but most aft er-dinner presentations are upbeat and oft en humorous. Some aft er- dinner speeches take place on special personal occasions like weddings, anniversaries, retirements, or graduation parties. As with any other speech, the aft er-dinner speech must fi t the makeup and interests of the group that is gathered for the event.

Be Entertaining and Lighthearted Humor is a cornerstone of aft er-dinner speeches, but it isn’t the only way to entertain and enlighten an audience. Although aft er-dinner speeches oft en include jokes or funny anecdotes, don’t force yourself to be funny if you don’t feel comfortable in that role. Above all else, aft er-dinner speakers should try to develop good rapport with their audiences and leave them feeling good about the time they’ve spent together. Sharing thoughtful refl ections, telling a relevant story, making insightful comments about an issue of interest to the group, and using language creatively can please your listeners just as much as a good joke.

Focus on a Theme Although most aft er-dinner speeches have an upbeat, enjoyable quality, they should also develop a thesis and have a point. Th e audience should feel not only entertained but also enriched in some way. However, this doesn’t mean you should drone on and on. Your job is to provide an enjoyable fi nal touch to the event, not to lecture your audience. Imagine, for example, that you’ve been asked to give an aft er-dinner speech to your former classmates at a high school reunion. You might good-naturedly tell a few stories about some of your old friends and teachers, but you’d also want to develop a theme. For instance, you might want to speak about how important those high school days were for everyone and how much you’ve all benefi ted from knowing each other. For an aft er- dinner speech at an annual sales convention, you might make fun of how diffi cult it was to introduce a new product line during the year. But ultimately you’d want to say something about how successful the product and company have become during the past year.

Avoid Presentation Media Audiences for aft er-dinner speeches don’t want to be lectured to, be challenged too seriously, feel off ended, or think they should be taking notes. Except for very special and limited purposes, speakers in these situations should avoid using presentation media. An audio or video segment might be appropriate for 336

Ch016.indd 336 07/10/10 6:55 PM a speech that focuses on sports, media, music, or fashion, for instance, but even then, speakers must be careful. All the rules that apply to the use of presentation media in general pertain to the aft er-dinner speech in even greater measure, especially concerning the technical aspects. Unless the room is equipped precisely for the use of presentation media, speakers should avoid using them.

Tributes and Eulogies Speech that gives credit, respect, Sometimes people are honored for something they’ve done, for who they are, for where admiration, gratitude, or inspiration they’ve been in life, or for where they’re headed. Speeches of tribute give credit, respect, to someone who has accomplished admiration, gratitude, or inspiration to a person or group who has accomplished something signiﬁ cant, lives in a way that deserves to be praised, or is about to something signifi cant, lives in a way that deserves to be praised, or is about to embark on embark on an adventure. an adventure. Eulogies are a special kind of speech of tribute presented as retrospectives about individuals who have died. Speech of tribute presented You may very well have occasion to give one or more of these speeches. Perhaps as a retrospective about an you’ve already done so. Weddings, anniversaries, retirements, school reunions, even individual who has died. family birthday parties or welcome-home gatherings frequently call for speeches of tribute. Th e best man or maid of honor, or both, may be asked to give a brief tribute to a newly married couple. A returning veteran from a war zone might be praised by his best friend at a party in his honor. A successful classmate from high school might be recognized at a school reunion. Th e daughter of a couple celebrating their golden anniversary might toast her parents’ marriage. You sometimes see and hear impassioned praise of famous people—past presidents, civil rights leaders, sports heroes, or entertainers, for instance—in eulogies that are shown on television and the web. But most eulogies take place much closer to home. Family members and friends oft en fi nd it appropriate to eulogize deceased loved ones at

Speaking at a wedding is one of the most common forms of public speaking for many people. Some tips for giving an after-dinner speech at a wedding are to use humor that’s appropriate to the occasion, tell a light-hearted story about people that many of the guests will know (such as the bride and groom), and practice several times before the wedding so you can deliver the speech extemporaneously. JFB /Getty images 337

Ch016.indd 337 07/10/10 6:55 PM funeral ceremonies. Eulogies not only praise or shed light on the person who has passed away, but also help surviving family members and friends cope with the loss.

Emphasize Emotion Appropriately Tributes and eulogies oft en are quite emotional. Th e mood of the tribute depends on the occasion, but speeches of tribute are generally warm, friendly, and positive. For example, in a speech of tribute for the state’s law librarians, Connecticut Chief Justice Chase T. Rogers said in part: We honor our law librarians with this year’s Law Day Award. . . . Our law librarians … have one fi nger on the pulse of a keyboard and another on the pulse of how human beings assist, encourage, and educate others to learn and push ahead. An editorial in the Denver Post several years ago put it this way: “Librarians are very special people. Th ey are the caregivers of the world of the mind, the nurturers of dreams and the defenders of truth. Perhaps no other profession is so marked by the singular generosity of its practitioners.” On behalf of the entire Judicial Branch, I couldn’t agree more. We are indeed fortunate that you have chosen to devote yourselves to the law libraries of the Judicial Branch, and most important, to the members of the public they serve. Th ank you and congratulations.11 Th e chief justice identifi ed the qualities of law librarians that led to the decision to honor them on the state’s Law Day. She praised their work and contributions not only to the law but also to society in general. At the memorial service for the late Tim Russert, a television journalist and long- time host of NBC’s Meet the Press, Maria Shriver, who had been a colleague of Russert, remembered his personal qualities. She spoke of how he “loved helping people. He loved helping people who worked for him. He loved helping strangers. He loved anybody who he thought he could help. And with that Russert radar, he just knew who among us needed help.” Refl ecting on the moment she fi rst met him, Shriver said: You see, I lost my heart to Timmy Russert the day I met him. And the entire time I knew him, he took care of it. He protected my heart when it needed protection. He nurtured it when it needed care. He helped it grow. And he never, ever, broke it.12

Provide Inspiration Speeches of tribute oft en inspire the audience as well as praise the person being honored. In this eulogy for her father, “Crocodile Hunter” Steve Irwin, eight-year-old Bindi Irwin stressed the importance of continuing his work: My daddy was my hero. He was always there for me when I needed him. He listened to me and taught me so many things. But most of all he was fun. I know that Daddy had an important job. He was working to change the world so everyone would love wildlife like he did. He built a hospital to help animals and he bought lots of land to give animals a safe place to live. He took me and my brother and my mum with him all the time. We fi lmed together, caught crocodiles together, and loved being in the bush together. I don’t want Daddy’s passion to ever end. I want to help endangered wildlife just like he did. I had the best daddy in the whole world. And I will miss him every day. When I see a crocodile I will always think of him, and I know that Daddy made this zoo so everyone could come and learn to love all the animals. Daddy made this place his whole life. Now it’s our turn to help Daddy. Th ank you.13 Speaking to thousands of people gathered at Australia Zoo for the memorial service, Bindi Irwin revealed her personal feelings about her father and at the same time encouraged others to carry on his mission of wildlife conservation. 338

Ch016.indd 338 07/10/10 6:56 PM Mexican American labor leader Cesar Chavez co-founded the United Farmworkers Union in California in the 1970s. He struggled all his life to improve the plight of immigrant farm workers who were dying from cancer caused by pesticides sprayed onto the fi elds where the immigrants pick the crops. Chavez’s tribute to Dr. Martin Luther King helped draw attention to the problem faced by immigrant farm workers and brought about a boycott of grapes: Th e time for action is upon us. Th e enemies of justice want you to think of Dr. King as only a civil rights leader, but he had a much broader agency. He was a tireless crusader for … the rights of workers everywhere. My friends, the suff ering must end. So many children are dying, so many babies are born without limbs and vital organs, so many workers are dying in the fi elds. We have no choice; we must stop the plague of pesticides.14 Th e rules for giving an eff ective speech of tribute are fl exible. Some speeches are written in manuscript form and read to the audience, while others are presented extemporaneously. In either case, the speaker must be exceptionally well prepared. Responsibly accepting and executing the challenge of giving a speech of tribute or eulogy is oft en greatly appreciated by the audience and particularly rewarding for the speaker.

Speeches of Nomination Speeches of nomination focus on the qualifi cations or accomplishments of a particular person. Nomination speeches demonstrate why a particular individual would be successful at something if given the chance. Speech that demonstrates For nomination speeches, a few simple guidelines apply. First, deciding on who does why a particular individual would be successful at something if the nominating can be just as important as what is said about the nominee. For example, given the chance. the person who nominates someone for an elected offi ce, position, citation, prize, or award should be well respected and liked by the people who will select a winner from a fi eld of candidates. Oft en a person who seeks to be nominated for a position or prize asks a trusted individual to make the nomination speech on his or her behalf. At other times an individual or group approaches a person with the idea of nominating him or her. In any scenario, the speech of nomination can play a determining role in who gets elected or selected. Especially when the stakes are high, nomination speeches should be arranged well in advance. Th e nominator must have accurate, concise, and compelling information about the nominee. Audience members want to know why they should consider a particular candidate favorably. What are the strongest reasons for choosing this person to serve in some capacity or be given recognition for something the nominee has accomplished? Th e speaker should justify the nomination in a way that creates confi dence in the individual as deserving of the job or of formal appreciation. Most nomination speeches are brief. When making a nomination, accurately identify the nominee, cite the best reasons for selecting the individual, personalize the candidate without being too informal, express confi dence in how the nominee will perform, ask for the group’s support, and thank the group. For instance, if you were nominating someone for treasurer of a school organization, you might say, “I nominate Rhea Salazar for treasurer of our club. Rhea is an excellent person for the position because she has earned top grades in all her accounting classes and has worked part-time as a bookkeeper for a local bakery. I’ve known Rhea for several years, and I’ve observed her dedication to the tasks she sets out to do. She’s organized, detail-oriented, and a problem-solver. I know she’ll serve our organization well. So please give her your support. Th ank you.”

Public Testimony Th e U.S. system of government and way of life depend on the willingness and ability of individuals to share their knowledge and voice their opinions in public meetings. 339

Ch016.indd 339 07/10/10 6:56 PM Th rough public testimony you have many opportunities to participate in discussions Factual information and opinions about that shape the policies that directly aff ect your world. policy issues presented to government Government bodies are required to consider public opinion during their bodies or other public institutions. deliberations. For instance, the mayor of San José, California, recently notifi ed citizens of their right to express their views about the construction of a new soccer stadium in the city. Two factions showed up at City Council chambers to comment on the proposal: fans of the team, who strongly supported the idea, and families from the neighborhood where the stadium would be constructed, who were generally opposed to construction. Dozens spoke up. Each individual was given one minute to speak. Don’t think one minute is much time? By applying the principles of good speechmaking, you can say a lot in one minute.

■ Narrow your comments down to the basics. Introduce yourself by name and state any relevant fact or affi liation you may have (for example, “I live on a street that will be directly aff ected by the stadium” or “I’m a coach in the Youth Soccer League”).

■ Th en contribute something original and useful to the discussion, not only “I am in favor. It seems like a really good idea” or “I don’t care about soccer.” If you have relevant information, provide it (for example, “Th e freeway in our neighborhood is already loud, and noise is cumulative” or “Construction workers desperately need work in this economy”).

■ Organize your thoughts into keywords and phrases you want your audience to remember. For instance, one supporter of the stadium proposal said, “San José is a big city. Let’s make it a big-league city. Build the stadium now!” An opponent said, “Th e stadium will be nothing more than a bright and noisy eyesore in the neighborhood we love!”

Grammy award–winning singer Shakira (at left) joins students seeking support for legislation to establish basic education programs for children in poor nations. Paul Morigi/WireImage

Roasts and Toasts Comedians are paid to be entertaining and funny, but the rest of us rarely have an opportunity to make a humorous presentation in public. A roast may be your only chance, so make the most of it! While you may not immediately think of a roast as a public speech, it is a spoken-word performance before an audience. When you roast a piece of meat, you expose it to heat, usually in an oven. Th at’s the idea behind a roast 340

Ch016.indd 340 07/10/10 6:56 PM speech, too. Th e roast exposes a guest of honor to ironic and sometimes scathing (but never mean-spirited) ridicule in front of others. Th e idea is to amuse an audience at the Humorous and good-natured ridicule guest of honor’s expense, but in a good-natured way. directed toward the guest of Speakers for roasts have two audiences—the person being roasted and everyone honor at an event. else in the room. You need to know the “roastee” well enough to come up with good material. Don’t take that job lightly, even if you know the person well. Brainstorm. Jot down things you think the audience would also fi nd funny or telling about the roastee. Select particular habits, personality quirks, or behaviors the audience would recognize and appreciate. At the same time, remember that although you want to poke fun at the roastee, you don’t want to off end the audience or humiliate the roastee. Use good judgment when deciding what to include in your comments—and what to leave out. People attend roasts because they like or appreciate the person being roasted. And because the object of ridicule is a real person, you have to know where to draw the line. While you don’t have to go through all the steps for outlining a speech when preparing to give a roast, you still want to organize your ideas into a fl ow that makes sense. Aft er brainstorming and coming up with a sequence of ideas, use a keyword outline written on an index card to prompt you from one comment or brief story to the next. Concise stories that call attention to unique characteristics of the roastee oft en work well. Be sure to practice telling the stories before the event, and keep them short. Don’t write the stories down. Th e appeal of storytelling rests largely on its spontaneous nature, so practice beforehand and trust yourself to tell the story well. Whereas a roast makes good fun of the guest of honor, a toast unabashedly celebrates the person or persons being toasted. While a funny anecdote or comment might be appropriate Brief remarks celebrating the as part of the toast, consider the seriousness of the occasion. For example, although wedding accomplishments of a guest of receptions are oft en fun and can include lots of humorous moments, weddings are also honor at an event. important rituals. Th ese sorts of occasion demand an extra level of sensitivity and preparation on the part of the people making the toasts. When giving a toast, keep your remarks short and upbeat. Th e person giving the toast should stand, while the person being toasted should remain seated. Refer to the person being toasted by name, briefl y say something about your relationship to that person, mention the occasion for which the person is being toasted, and then fi nish up with something encouraging or inspiring like, “We are all very proud of you, Charles, and wish you great success in the future. Cheers!” Roasts and toasts are among the most common public presentations people are asked to make. Welcome the chance to roast or toast your friends or colleagues. While it’s certainly an honor to be the person or persons recognized on these special occasions, it’s also a privilege to speak about them—a privilege that comes with responsibility. Mediated Speaking Access to the mass media opens up new ways to extend your ventures into public speaking. But traditional media make up only a part of the fi eld of public speaking possibilities. Information and communication technologies off er a constantly expanding world of opportunities. For instance, you might want to set up a website for yourself or for an organization, where you deliver an introduction or other message by video streaming. Or you could prepare, deliver, and record a talk about any topic that interests you and post it on YouTube or another video-sharing website. When presenting a speech in front of a camera, keep the following general guidelines in mind:

■ If you’ll be speaking at a media event, such as an interview at a local TV station, try to learn as much as possible about the structure and format of the event before your appearance. Ask about the event’s format, how long your part will last, and whether an audience will be present.

■ Dress appropriately. With the exception of black, dark colors generally work better than light colors, and solid colors should be worn rather than prints or 341

Ch016.indd 341 07/10/10 6:56 PM patterns. Pay the greatest attention to your shirt, jacket, blouse, or tie because in most situations you won’t be shown below the waist.

■ Write a brief presentation outline with keywords and phrases that you can quickly review shortly before the camera rolls. Th is will prompt you to stress the most important points you want to make.

■ Limit your physical movement but try not to look stiff or uncomfortable.

■ Be assertive, confi dent, and to the point, but present yourself as thoughtful, reasonable, comfortable, and friendly.

■ Speak clearly, with good volume, and not too fast.

■ Avoid jargon or acronyms that only specialists or others who are knowledgeable about your topic would understand.

■ If you’re speaking to an in-person audience, focus on them and not the camera. Th ere is no standard media appearance. Some appearances are initiated by a group or media spokesperson; others take the form of responses to inquiries from the media. Some appearances are planned well in advance; others occur without much notice at all. Media appearances can last an hour or more, or they can last a minute or less. You might talk one-to-one with an interviewer or be part of a group or panel. Media appearances may occur in a studio or at another location. However, the guidelines listed above apply to all of these situations.

Presenting in Small Groups

With the popularity of teams and groups in organizations on the rise, you’ll encounter many situations that require you to work with others and then present information to an audience.15 Group presentations usually involve both interacting within the group and speaking to those outside the group. A small group is a collection of individuals A collection of individuals who interact who interact and depend on one another to solve a problem, make a decision, or achieve and depend on one another to solve a another common goal. In your public speaking class, you may have worked in groups to problem, make a decision, or achieve a common goal or objective. develop various skills associated with public speaking, such as brainstorming for topics or analyzing your audience. Your instructor might also assign a group presentation. Working in groups in a classroom setting and giving group presentations prepare you for participating in team-based organizations and other professional contexts.16 Th is section explains how to give and evaluate fi ve types of group presentations: oral reports, panel discussions, round table discussions, symposiums, and forums.

Oral Report When a group presents an oral report, one representative from the group gives the A report in which one member of a group entire report. Th is oft en happens with work teams in organizations. Various members presents the group’s ﬁ ndings. of the organization develop the report, and then one of the group members is selected to present the fi ndings to management or upper administration. Eff ective oral reports clearly recognize the contributions of all group members. Th e speaker should use pronouns such as we and us to indicate that the group, rather than the individual, produced the report. In addition, specifi c references to group members or units in the organization that wrote the report acknowledge everyone’s contributions. Th e speaker must be fully versed in all aspects of the report, asking group members for clarifi cation where needed. Th e oral report format provides consistency and smooth transitions between the sections of a presentation. Oral reports avoid the inherent disruptions associated with each team member taking her or his speaking turn. Audience members need only adjust to one person’s speaking style.

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Ch016.indd 342 07/10/10 6:56 PM Panel Discussion You’ve likely viewed panel discussions on weekend TV talk shows. A moderator or facilitator asks questions to direct the group’s interaction, which occurs in front of an audience. Group members are experts on the subject and know beforehand what will be covered. Th e moderator usually provides an introduction, giving an overview of the topic and stating the purpose of the discussion. Th e moderator may then briefl y recite each person’s credentials or ask panelists to introduce themselves. Although panel discussions are not rehearsed, they are not entirely impromptu either. Participants oft en

refer to notes during the discussion. Some questions AP Photo may be unexpected and the responses spontaneous. Still, Although only one group member delivers an oral report, it’s a good participants prepare carefully and don’t simply “wing it” idea for members to work together to prepare the report. This during the discussion. One example of a panel discussion ensures that the entire group contributes to the speech and can occurs during the Career Day sponsored each semester by the Communication Studies Department at San José help answer questions after the formal presentation. State University. To give students fi rsthand information about what they can do with a degree in communication, the department invites several A discussion in which a moderator asks questions of experts on a topic alumni to talk about their careers in communication-related professions. A faculty in front of an audience. member facilitates the fl ow of talk. Aft er the formal presentations, audience members ask the panelists questions.

Round Table Discussion Unlike panel discussions, round table discussions do not have audiences—only the group members are present. All group members participate in a round table discussion, A discussion in which expert participants which may or may not have a leader or facilitator. Because speakers are experts on discuss a topic in an impromptu format the topic under discussion, responses are impromptu. Nevertheless, speakers arrive without an audience present. prepared, knowing the topic and oft en the other participants, too. Th e setting for a round table discussion is generally informal, with speakers sitting in a circle to facilitate dialogue and engaged participation. Speaking of . . . Th e facilitator or host fi rst describes the purpose of the discussion, outlines procedures for conducting the round table, and sets a time limit. At the conclusion of the event, the facilitator or host summarizes the main themes that emerged from the discussion and indicates what will be done with the Exchanging Ideas Around the Table information. In addition, the discussion is recorded or someone is assigned to Participating in a round table discussion may take notes so the information participants generate can be used at a later date. seem intimidating at ﬁ rst because you don’t have Round table discussions provide a means for individuals to exchange a rehearsed speech to present. But this format information and ideas about a topic of common interest. All discussants provides an excellent way to exchange ideas are encouraged to participate, maximizing the opportunity to consider with others and learn about perspectives and diff erent points of view on the subject. Oft en roundtable discussions are topics you may not know much about. Consider organizing round table discussions on your convened to generate new ideas and innovative approaches to a problem. campus that focus on local, regional, national, For example, in an eff ort to develop strategies for stimulating the local and global topics of interest to you and other economy, the Akron Beacon Journal brought together local experts to students. Getting people together for discussions discuss promoting entrepreneurship, small-business growth, and start-up helps improve speaking skills and allows for the businesses in northeastern Ohio. Th e product of that discussion was a list of free ﬂ ow of new ideas and information. recommendations distributed to community leaders.17

Symposium A presentation format in which each If you’re giving a group presentation in your public speaking class, you’re probably using member of a group presents a speech a symposium format. In a symposium, the group chooses a topic and divides it into about a part of a larger topic. 343

Ch016.indd 343 07/10/10 6:56 PM diff erent areas. Each group member then presents a speech on her or his subtopic. For example, your group might choose popular music and identify hip-hop, country, metal, and rock as the subtopics. Speakers usually follow the same organizational pattern in order to provide continuity among the speeches. In the music example, each speaker might discuss the music genre’s history, identify two or three key artists or groups, and provide a few examples. Most group interaction occurs in the early stages of the symposium’s development. Th oroughly planning the format in advance is essential. For example, group members must discuss whether or not to use a podium, the formality of their attire, the presentation media they will use, how they will structure their speeches, and how they will transition from one speaker to the next. Once the groundwork for the symposium is complete, group members work independently to prepare their individual speeches. In the later stages of speech preparation, group members come together to practice and make any necessary adjustments.

Forum Aft er listening to an oral report, panel discussion, or symposium, audience members oft en want to ask questions. Th e question-and-answer session following the formal group presentation is a forum. Group members must listen attentively and be ready to The question-and-answer session answer audience members’ questions as thoroughly and honestly as possible, just as they following a group’s formal presentation. would aft er individual speeches. Coordinating group members’ responses can prove challenging in forums because you don’t want to appear disorganized or unsure of your answers. Before the presentation, decide which group members will handle which question areas. Choose someone to facilitate the forum. Aft er a panel discussion, that person would probably be the moderator. For oral reports, the group may choose the presenter or ask another group member to coordinate the responses. In symposiums, anyone who participated may lead the question-and-answer session. Here are some tips that will help you and others in your group establish rapport with the audience:

■ Maintain good eye contact with the questioner. A head nod or smile makes the questioner feel appreciated and listened to.

■ When listening to a question, quickly make a note that refl ects the questioner’s concern or is something you or another person in the group wants to say in response.

■ Th ank the questioner and don’t become defensive, even when responding to hostile questions. (And as an audience member asking a question, be sure not to disrespect the speaker or the position taken.)

Videoconferencing With webcams now standard on new computers, web chat and other forms of online video communication are becoming more commonplace for group presentations. In videoconferencing, people at multiple physical locations use video to communicate A small group presentation in which orally and visually in real time. Videoconferencing can be done using a personal individuals at multiple physical locations computer, webcam, and interactive soft ware, and hence has become inexpensive and interact in real time orally and visually, 18 using video and high-speed computer more commonplace. Nevertheless, videoconferencing still requires careful planning technology. and preparation.

Preparation and Practice Good presenters in any situation prepare note cards based on a presentation outline. Before the videoconference, they practice what they’re going to say when they display 344

Ch016.indd 344 07/10/10 6:56 PM the visuals. Not surprisingly, research shows that individuals who are better prepared for their videoconference session have a more positive and productive experience.19 Videoconference presenters prepare their digital slides well in advance. In addition, before the presentation they check that all equipment in all locations functions properly. For example, microphones are tested for audibility and cameras for visibility.

During the Presentation On the day of the conference, arrive or set up early and complete a fi nal check of the equipment. Dress appropriately—don’t wear bright or white clothing or jewelry that will glare in the camera’s eye. Have all your notes and your visual and audio materials ready. Once the presentation begins, be mindful of what you are doing and saying at all times. Video is unforgiving, picking up sounds and movements not ordinarily noticed. Avoid extraneous noises such as tapping a pencil or unzipping a backpack. When you are not speaking, devote all your attention to whoever is speaking and appear genuinely interested in that person. For a videoconference, use the mute button on your microphone to keep background noises to a minimum, particularly when the videoconference involves many people or several sites. When it’s your turn to talk, speak clearly and crisply. Although you might think audience members focus most on the video aspect of videoconferencing, research shows that audio—your voice—receives the most attention.20 Balance a dynamic delivery with the constraints of video. Excessive movement clutters the screen and distracts from your ideas. Too much moving about can also detract from the picture’s technical quality. Monitoring your body movement is especially important when using a webcam because the camera doesn’t follow you around. In addition, slow connection speeds oft en cause video problems. If necessary, switching to audio-only mode will at least allow you to continue speaking and complete your presentation. Watch your time limit and stick to it so that everyone has a chance to speak. If the presentation includes a question-and-answer session, assign a facilitator beforehand. Explain the session’s format as you begin, and announce how much time the group will allot to questions.

After the Presentation Once the presentation has ended, thank the speakers and audience members for their participation. Note what went well and what you would do diff erently the next time you speak in videoconference.

As videoconferencing becomes more common, it’s important to understand how speaking on camera differs from speaking in person. Dan Krauss/Getty Images 345

Ch016.indd 345 07/10/10 6:56 PM Evaluating Small Group Presentations

When evaluating your group’s presentation, focus on your “groupness,” or the way you fi t together into a cohesive whole. Eff ective group presentations emphasize group rather than individual eff ort. So in addition to the qualities usually expected in an excellent oral presentation—that it be well researched and audience centered, employ engaging language and appropriate presentation media, and the like—evaluation focuses on signs that the presentation truly refl ects a group endeavor.21 Assess the coherence of your group’s presentation in terms of how well prepared you were as a group, how well you coordinated the presentation, how eff ectively you listened to each other and to the audience, how many clear references you made to the group, and the degree to which you believe you achieved your group’s goal.

Preparation as a Group Preparation as a group provides the foundation for a coherent group presentation. Even in a panel discussion, for which presenters do not practice together, group members keep the others in mind as they prepare for the presentation. Similarly, participants in a round table discussion typically develop notes for their presentations within the context of what other presenters will say. Symposiums require the most preparation as a group. Although group members talk about their own subtopics, those subtopics must come together and form a coherent whole in the presentation. For example, suppose a group chooses the topic of unusual team sports, with kabaddi, badminton, canoe polo, curling, and korfb all as the subtopics. Before beginning in-depth research, group members must agree on the main points they’ll cover in their speeches. Each one might, for instance, talk about his or her sport’s general description, history, and what makes it especially unique or interesting. Th e group would want to avoid having one person discussing only history, another covering only how the game is played, and a third focusing on why the audience should learn how to the play the game. Th is advance preparation as a group becomes evident in the group’s presentation, with speakers following a similar format, smooth transitions between speakers, and no repetition of identical material.

Coordinated Presentations How well group members coordinate their presentations is a second area of assessment. For example, in a forum, group members should decide in advance who is responsible for questions in specifi c topic areas. Th is avoids two problems: several group members responding to a question at the same time, or all group members having blank looks and no one responding. With panel discussions, the moderator or facilitator assumes primary responsibility for the smooth fl ow of discussion. Still, listeners expect group members to avoid interrupting or talking over each other. Symposiums provide multiple points for evaluating how well the group members coordinate the presentation. For example, each speaker should provide a smooth transition to the next. And although presentation media need not be identical, some standardization gives the audience an impression of continuity and prior planning.22 Finally, regardless of the type of group presentation, an eff ective opening overview and closing summary give the presentation a sense of cohesion.23

Eff ective Listening Eff ective listening plays a key role in the success of any group presentation. No matter what the setting, group members should display active listening skills, such as giving the speaker their complete attention, nodding, looking at the speaker, taking brief notes, and 346

Ch016.indd 346 07/10/10 6:56 PM showing interest in what the speaker has to say. Group members should not work on their own presentations, talk or whisper with each other, or engage in any other activities that detract from the group’s presentation. Careful listening is especially important in round table and panel discussions because participants likely do not know exactly what others will say. Appropriately responding to other speakers requires close attention to the discussion. In addition, round table and panel discussions typically include speakers with diff erent—and opposing—viewpoints, making critical listening essential. In these types of group presentations, audience members expect participants to carefully examine other speakers’ ideas and supporting evidence.

Clear References to the Group Listening to group members as they present helps speakers refer to what their co-presenters have said. Th ese clear references to the group are a fourth important area for evaluation and provide another mechanism for linking together the parts of a group presentation. In a symposium, a speaker might say, “As Sheila remarked in her presentation…” or, “Similar to what Drew found…” Th ese comments help demonstrate how the diff erent pieces of the presentation fi t together. In an oral report, the speaker might refer to specifi c aspects of the project that individual group members worked on. Th ese brief acknowledgments personalize the report and indicate how diff erent members of the group contributed to the project. Using the pronouns we, our, and us also refl ects a sense of groupness. Responding to a question during a forum, the speaker might say, “In our research, we found …” or, “It surprised us when …” In making clear references to the group, audiences should learn about both individual contributions and group eff orts in the presentation.

Watch it Use it g e Learnin g a Cengage Learning g en Cengage Learning C SPEECH BUDDY VIDEO 16.1 Reviewing Group Presentations ACTIVITY 16.1 As a Group In this video, Janine suggests key points to focus on when evaluating group speeches and shows a In this activity, you’ll evaluate how your own group sample group presentation. worked together and completed its presentation.

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Ch016.indd 347 07/10/10 6:56 PM Goal Achievement Th e fi nal area for evaluating group presentations concerns the degree to which the group achieved its goal. For an oral report, the speaker must give a balanced view of all the members’ perspectives and adequately cover the report’s sections. All participants in a panel discussion should have an equal opportunity to speak and respond appropriately to the moderator’s questions. Round table discussions rely on a free fl ow of information among speakers that produces possible solutions to problems. Symposiums are designed to either inform or persuade audience members. Forums should allow for full audience participation. Evaluation of the group’s goal attainment determines the group’s ultimate success: Did the group achieve what it set out to do?

Speech for Review and Analysis

Tara Flanagan gave this speech of tribute in an introductory public speaking class at Colorado State University. Her assignment was to give a three- to fi ve-minute commemorative speech about a person she admired. As you read Tara’s speech, consider how eff ective her use of language is and how well she commemorates her grandfather. You can use your CourseMate for Public Speaking: Th e Evolving Art to watch and listen to Tara deliver this speech. Look for it in the Chapter 16 resources. Used by permission.

by Tara Flanagan24 My Grandfather, Speciﬁ c purpose: To commemorate my grandfather and his compassion, John Flanagan humor, and courage Thesis statement: Although the day of my grandfather’s funeral was the Sr. saddest day of my life, I was uplifted by my memories of him and by the stories that conﬁ rmed his compassion, humor, and courage.

As I wiped the streams that ﬂ ooded down my face, I saw out of the corner of my eye a group of homeless men enter the room. My sadness turned to anger as I watched these uninvited guests interrupt my grandfather’s funeral. They were like unwanted ants invading a family picnic. After our pastor concluded his eulogy, I went to the back of the room to ask them to leave. “Excuse me,” I said, “but this is my grandfather’s funeral, and only invited guests are allowed inside.” And one of the men looked at me, and he said, “You must be Tara. Your grandfather carried a picture of you in his wallet.” Much to my surprise, these homeless men were friends of my grandfather. My grandfather was never a good judge of people. He was just better at not judging them at all. As I walked around the room, I saw many people that neither my family nor I recognized, but each one of them had a story on how my Cengage Learning grandfather had touched them with his love and kindness. My grandfather was a loving,l brave man with an amazing sense of humor, and these virtues never shone brighter for me than they did on the day of his funeral. From the funeral home, our entourage headed to the cemetery to place my grandfather in his ﬁ nal resting place. It was a hot July day, and the sun was just pounding down on our car. We were following the white hearse when all of the sudden it stopped, and this terrible, white smoke began billowing out of the hood. It laid there like a huge, immovable beached whale. My father began laughing as the cars piled up behind us, and he said, “I bet your grandfather had something to do with this.” My grandfather had an amazing sense of humor. This incident reminded us of the

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Ch016.indd 348 07/10/10 6:56 PM many jokes he told and pulled on our family. Making his own hearse break down on the day of his funeral to give us all a good laugh wasn’t beyond him. I remembered a time when my grandfather cheered me up when I was younger. I was visiting my father for the summer, and I was incredibly homesick. I missed my mom and my sister very badly. He spent the entire afternoon telling me silly knock- knock jokes and doing random things just to make me laugh. And I remember feeling so much better. My homesickness melted away. My grandfather always had a way of making our family laugh and feel better, and the day of his funeral was no exception. When we fi nally got the white whale back on the road, we drove into the lush cemetery. There were fl owers blossoming and a gentle stream that ran through the middle. It was like a scene out of the Garden of Eden. There to greet us were several gentlemen dressed in their Marine best. They carried with them large guns and gave my grandfather his twenty-one–gun salute. After the service I spoke with them, and they told me of my grandfather’s bravery while he served in World War II. One of the men had actually served with my grandfather. He told me a story about how my grandfather had saved his life, and they ended up being the only two men out of the entire platoon to survive. At the end of the war they even saw the famous raising of the fl ag at Iwo Jima. Living, laughing, loving life: My grandfather was an amazing man who taught me so much about humor, courage, and compassion. Even though his funeral was the saddest day of my life, I was uplifted by all the lives that he had touched. I hope that someday I can learn to love people more than I judge them, just like he did.

Questions for Analysis and Discussion

1. Tributes should shed light on the individual being praised. Aft er reading Tara Flanagan’s speech about her grandfather, do you feel you learned important things about him? What things stand out in your mind? 2. How did Tara use emotion to enhance the quality of her speech? Were the emotional elements she used appropriate for this speech? How did they help you appreciate her grandfather? 3. Tributes can inspire the audience to think about something in a diff erent way. Her introductory story about the presence of uninvited guests at her grandfather’s funeral was an attempt to do this. What was she trying to accomplish by telling that story? 4. Tara said she wanted to impart a sense of her grandfather’s compassion, humor, and courage in her tribute to him. Did she provide enough material in the speech to accomplish this three-part objective?

Summary

any special occasions call for some type of speech. Speeches of introduction prepare the audience to listen to the main speaker. Speakers accepting awards Mshould be thankful and humble in their brief comments. Aft er-dinner speeches are meant to entertain. Tributes and eulogies typically provide inspiration. Speeches of nomination focus on the qualities that make the nominee the best person for the position or award. Public testimony allows speakers to participate in discussions that shape the policies that directly aff ect their world. Roasts amuse an audience at the guest of honor's expense in a good-natured way, and toasts unabashedly celebrate another person. Some occasions call for mediated speaking. Groups may give several types of presentations, including oral report, panel discussion, roundtable discussion, symposium, and forum. For an oral report, one member of the group presents the entire report. Panel discussions involve a moderator 349

Ch016.indd 349 07/10/10 6:56 PM asking questions of experts on a topic in front of an audience. Round table discussions also include expert speakers, but the focus is on the exchange of ideas among participants, so an audience is not present. Symposiums are the most common form of classroom group presentations. Speakers each choose a subtopic of the group’s topic and present individual speeches to an audience. Forums are question-and-answer sessions. Th ey may stand alone, but more oft en they occur directly aft er an oral report, panel discussion, or symposium. Groups oft en use videoconferencing to connect people in geographically dispersed locations. In addition to all the qualities that go into eff ective public speaking, group presentations must form a unifi ed whole. Th e cohesiveness of a group’s presentation depends on good preparation as a group, coordination of the presentation, active listening, clear references to the group, and achievement of the group’s goal.

Review it Directory of Study and Review Resources

IN THE BOOK SPEECH BUILDER EXPRESS Summary Goal/purpose Key Terms Thesis statement Critical Challenges Organization Outline MORE STUDY RESOURCES Supporting material Quizzes Transitions WebLinks Introduction Peer-reviewed videos Conclusion Works cited STUDENT WORKBOOK Visual aids 16.1: Introducing… 16.2: Elevator Speech INFOTRAC 16.3: Watch and Critique an Award Show Recommended search terms 16.4: Group Experiences Speech of introduction 16.5: Failed Media Appearances Nomination speech Roasts SPEECH BUDDY VIDEOS Toasts WATCH It Video Eulogy 16.1: Evaluating Group Presentations Small group presentation USE It Activity Effective small groups 16.1: As a Group Videoconferencing SAMPLE SPEECH VIDEOS AUDIO STUDY TOOLS Jennifer, Megan, Stephanie, and Daniel, “The “The Dirty Truth about Antibacterial Products” Dirty Truth about Antibacterial Products,” by Jennifer, Megan, Stephanie, and Daniel persuasive group presentation Critical thinking questions Lawrence Small, Dedication address at the Learning objectives opening of National Museum of the American Chapter summary Indian, special occasion speech

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Ch016.indd 350 07/10/10 6:56 PM Guide to Your Online Resources

Your Speech Communication quizzes, and the Critical Challenge questions for CourseMate for Public Speaking: this chapter, which you can respond to via email The Evolving Art gives you access to the Speech if your instructor so requests. In addition, your Buddy video and activity featured in this chapter, CourseMate features live WebLinks relevant to this additional sample speech videos, Speech Studio, chapter. Links are regularly maintained, and new Speech Builder Express, InfoTrac College Edition, ones are added periodically. and study aids such as glossary flashcards, review

Key Terms

acceptance speech 333 panel discussion 343 speech of introduction 332 eulogy 337 public testimony 340 speech of tribute 337 forum 344 roast 341 symposium 343 nomination speech 339 round table discussion 343 toast 341 oral report 342 small group 342 videoconferencing 344

Critical Challenges

Questions for Refl ection and Discussion 1. Which types of speeches for special occasions can you imagine yourself giving? Why? 2. Forum in Latin means “marketplace” and “a place of public discussion.” As a speaker, how can you encourage audience members to off er diff ering views during your group’s question-and-answer session? What do you need to avoid that might deter the audience from speaking out? 3. Check out Speech Studio to analyze other students’ special occasion or group speeches. Or record a speech you’re working on, upload it to Speech Studio, and ask your peers for their feedback. What feedback could you use to fi ne-tune your special occasion or group speech before you give it in class?

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Ch016.indd 351 07/10/10 6:56 PM Glossary

acceptance speech Speech given by an appeal to tradition fallacy Argument or asserts that the validity of the individual who is being recognized, in which a speaker asserts that the conclusion is self-evident; also called honored, or given an award. status quo is better than any new idea circular reasoning. ad hominem fallacy Argument in or approach. behavior An observable action. which a speaker rejects another argument Presenting claims and belief Something an individual accepts speaker’s claim based on that speaker’s supporting them with evidence and as true or existing. character rather than the evidence reasoning. bibliographic information A source’s the speaker presents; also called the arrangement Th e way the ideas in a against the person fallacy. complete citation, including author, speech are organized. date of publication, title, place of ad ignorantiam fallacy Argument in articulation Th e physical process of publication, and publisher. which a speaker appeals to popular producing specifi c speech sounds to blogs Short for web log; a web page attitudes and emotions without make language intelligible. off ering evidence to support that a blog writer, or blogger, updates claims. attention getter Th e fi rst element of regularly with topical entries. an introduction, designed mainly to body Th e middle (main) part of a speech; ad populum fallacy Argument in create interest in a speech. which a speaker suggests that because includes main and subordinate points. a claim hasn’t been shown to be false, attitude How an individual feels about brainstorming Th e free-form it must be true; also called an appeal to something. generation of ideas in which ignorance. audience Th e intended recipients of a individuals think of and record ideas alliteration Repetition of a sound speaker’s message. without evaluating them. in a series of words, usually the fi rst audience analysis Obtaining and consonant. evaluating information about an call number Th e number assigned to analogical reasoning Comparing two audience in order to anticipate their each book or bound publication in similar objects, processes, concepts, or needs and interests and design a a library to identify that book in the events and suggesting that what holds strategy to respond to them. library’s classifi cation system. true for one also holds true for the audience centered Describes a captive audiences Individuals who other. speaker who acknowledges the feel they must attend an event. analogy A type of comparison that audience by considering and listening caricature fallacy Argument in which describes something by comparing it to the unique, diverse, and common a speaker misrepresents another to something else that it resembles. perspectives of its members before, speaker’s argument so that only a weak during, and aft er the speech. anecdotes A brief narrative. shell of the original argument remains; audience-centered communication also called the straw man fallacy. antithesis Juxtaposition of two Adapting a speech to a specifi c causal reasoning Linking two events apparently contradictory phrases that situation and audience. are organized in a parallel structure. or actions to claim that one resulted in audience research questionnaires the other. apathetic audience An audience that A questionnaire used by speakers to cause-and-eff ect pattern A pattern that is informed about a speaker’s topic but assess the knowledge and opinions of not interested in it. organizes a speech by showing how an audience members; can take the form action produces a particular outcome. appeals to cultural belief (mythos) of an email, web-based, or in-class Use of values and beliefs embedded survey. channel A mode or medium of communication. in cultural narratives or stories to award presentation Speech that infl uence an audience. recognizes individuals to celebrate chronological pattern A pattern appeals to speaker credibility (ethos) something they have done well. that organizes a speech by how Use of the audience’s perception of the something develops or occurs in a time sequence. speaker as competent, trustworthy, begging the question Argument in dynamic, and likeable to infl uence an which a speaker uses a premise to claim A position or assertion that a audience. imply the truth of the conclusion speaker wants an audience to accept.

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Glossary.indd 352 07/10/10 7:28 PM clichés An expression so overused that cultural diversity Diff erences in the speaker’s position and those who it fails to have any important meaning. cultural backgrounds and practices oppose it. closed-ended questions A question around the globe. division fallacy Argument in which that limits the possible responses, cultural norms Prescriptions for a speaker assumes that what is true of asking for very specifi c information. how people should interact and what the whole is also true of the parts that coercion Forcing someone to think a messages should mean in a particular make up the whole. certain way or making someone feel setting. document cameras A projection compelled to act under pressure or culture Values, beliefs, and activities device that uses a video camera to threat. shared by a group. capture and display images, including coherence An obvious and plausible currency How recent information is— 3-D visual materials. connection among ideas. the more recent it is, the more current it is. dynamism An audience’s perception communication climate Th e of a speaker’s activity level during a presentation. psychological and emotional tone that deductive reasoning Reasoning from develops as communicators interact a general condition to a specifi c case. with one another. emotional appeals (pathos) Use of deep web Th e portion of the web emotional evidence and stimulation of comparative evidence fallacy composed of specialty databases, feelings to infl uence an audience. Argument in which a speaker uses such as those housed by the U.S. enthymemes An argument in which a statistics or compares numbers in ways government, that are not accessible by premise or conclusion is unstated. that misrepresent the evidence and traditional search engines; also called mislead the audience. the invisible or hidden web. environment Th e external surroundings that infl uence a public competence Th e qualifi cations a speaker defi nitions A statement that describes speaking event. has to talk about a particular topic. the essence, precise meaning, or scope complete-sentence outline A formal of a word or a phrase. ethical communication Th e moral aspects of our interactions with others, outline using full sentences for all delivery Th e public presentation of a including truthfulness, fairness, points; developed aft er researching speech. the speech and identifying supporting responsibility, integrity, and respect. demographics Th e ways in which materials; includes a speech’s topic, ethnocentrism Th e belief that one’s own populations can be divided into general purpose, specifi c purpose, worldview, based on one’s own cultural smaller groups according to key thesis, introduction, main points, background, is correct and best. subpoints, conclusion, transitions, and characteristics such as sex, ethnicity, age, and social class. ethos Appeal that is linked to the references. speaker’s credibility. denotative meanings An agreed- conclusion Th e end of a speech, in eulogies Speeches of tribute presented which the speaker reviews the main upon defi nition of a word, found in a dictionary. as retrospectives about individuals points, reinforces the purpose, and who have died. provides closure. In reasoning, a dialect Th e vocabulary, grammar, and primary claim or assertion. pronunciation used by a specifi c group euphemisms A word used in place of of people, such as an ethnic or regional another word that is viewed as more connotative meanings A unique disagreeable or off ensive. meaning for a word based on an group. individual’s own experiences. dialogue Occurs when speakers are event A signifi cant occurrence that an sensitive to audience needs and listen individual personally experiences or context Th e situation within which a otherwise knows about. speech is given. to audience members’ responses, and listeners pay careful attention evidence Supporting materials— copyright A type of intellectual to speakers’ messages so they can narratives, examples, defi nitions, property law that protects an author’s respond appropriately and eff ectively. testimony, facts, and statistics—that a original work (such as a play, book, speaker presents to reinforce a claim. song, or movie) from being used by direct quote Comments written in others. response to an open-ended question in examples An illustration or case that an audience research questionnaire. represents a larger group or class of copyright information A statement things. about the legal rights of others to use discussion list An email–based an original work, such as a song (lyrics distribution list that allows members extemporaneous speaking A type of and melody), story, poem, photograph, to email everyone who belongs to the public speaking in which the speaker or image. list using just one email address; also researches, organizes, rehearses, called a listserv. and delivers a speech in a way that credibility An audience’s perception combines structure and spontaneity. of a speaker’s competence, divided audience An audience that is trustworthiness, dynamism, and informed about a speaker’s topic but external noise Conditions in the sociability. equally split between those who favor environment that interfere with listening.

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GLOSSARY Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

Glossary.indd 353 07/10/10 7:28 PM facts An observation based on actual ideas and concepts Mental activity, invitations to imagine Asking experience. including thoughts, understandings, listeners to create a scene or situation fair use Using someone else’s original beliefs, notions, and principles. in their minds. work in a way that does not infringe idioms An expression that means on the owner’s rights, generally something other than the literal jargon Technical language used by for educational purposes, literary meaning of the words. members of a profession or associated criticism, and news reporting. illusion of transparency Th e tendency with a specifi c topic. fallacy An error in making an argument. of individuals to believe that how they false dilemma fallacy Argument in feel is much more apparent to others keywords During research for than is really the case. which a speaker reduces available supporting materials, a term associated choices to only two even though impromptu speaking A type of public with a topic and used to search for other alternatives exist; also called the speaking in which the speaker has little information related to that topic. either-or fallacy. or no time to prepare a speech. In a presentation outline, a word feedback Audience members’ inclusive language Words that don’t that identifi es a subject or a point of responses to a speech. privilege one group over another. primary interest or -concern. fl ip chart A large pad of paper that inductive reasoning Supporting a rests on an easel, allowing a speaker to claim with specifi c cases or instances; language Th e system of words people record text or drawings with markers also called reasoning by example. use to communicate with others. during a speech. information overload Occurs leading questions A question that forum Th e question-and-answer when individuals receive too much suggests the answer the interviewer session following a group’s formal information and are unable to seeks. presentation. interpret it in a meaningful way. listening Involves hearing, informative speaking Presenting a interpreting, responding to, and gatewatching Monitoring news speech in which the speaker seeks recalling verbal and nonverbal sources to analyze and assess the to deepen understanding, raise messages. information they produce. awareness, or increase knowledge listening anxiety Anxiety produced general purpose Th e speaker’s overall about a topic. by the fear of misunderstanding, not objective: to inform, to persuade, or to internal consistency A logical fully comprehending, or not being entertain. relationship among the ideas that mentally prepared for information you may hear. goodwill An audience’s perception make up any main heading or that a speaker shows she or he has subheading in a speech. loaded word fallacy Argument in the audience’s true needs, wants, and internal noise Th oughts, emotions, which a speaker uses emotionally interests at heart. and physical sensations that interfere laden words to evaluate claims based on a misleading emotional response guilt by association fallacy Argument with listening. rather than the evidence presented. in which a speaker suggests that internal summary A review of main something is wrong with another points or subpoints, given before going logical appeals (logos) Use of speaker’s claims by associating those on to the next point in a speech. rational appeals based on logic, claims with someone the audience interpretations An individual’s facts, and analysis to infl uence an fi nds objectionable; also called the bad internal process of assigning meaning audience. company fallacy. to words. logos Appeal to logic. interview guide A list of all the handout Sheets of paper containing questions and possible probes an manuscript speaking relevant information that are distributed A type of public interviewer asks in an interview, before, during, or aft er a speech. speaking in which the speaker reads a as well as notes about how the written script word for word. hasty generalization fallacy interviewer will begin and end the media credibility Perceptions Argument in which a speaker draws interview. a conclusion based on too few or of believability or trust that introduction Th e beginning of a inadequate examples. audience members hold toward speech, including an attention getter, communications media, including TV, hate speech Words that attack groups a statement of the thesis and purpose, the internet, newspapers, radio, and such as racial, ethnic, religious, and a reference to the speaker’s credibility, news magazines. sexual minorities. and a preview of the main points. memorable message A sentence hearing Th e physical response to invention Discovering what you want or group of sentences included sounds. to say in a speech, such as choosing in the conclusion of a speech, hedges A qualifi er, such as probably, a topic and developing good designed to make the speaker’s thesis that makes a statement ambiguous. arguments. unforgettable. 354

Glossary.indd 354 07/10/10 7:28 PM memorized speaking A type of nonverbal messages Information exists simply because one event follows public speaking in which the speaker that is communicated without another in time; also called the false commits a speech to memory. words, but rather, through cause fallacy. memory Using the ability to recall movement, gesture, facial posture Th e way a speaker positions information to give an eff ective expression, vocal quality, use of and carries her or his body. time, use of space, and touch. speech. premise A claim that provides reasons message Th e words and nonverbal to support a conclusion. object Any nonliving, material thing cues a speaker uses to convey ideas, that can be perceived by the senses. presentation media Technical and feelings, and thoughts. material resources, ranging from open-ended questions A broad, general metaphors A language device that presentation soft ware and real-time question, oft en specifying only the topic. demonstrates the commonalities web access (RWA) to fl ip charts between two dissimilar things. oral citations A source of information and handouts, that speakers use to that a speaker mentions, or cites, metasearch engines A search tool that highlight, clarify, and complement the during a speech. compiles the results from other search information they present orally. engines. oral report A report in which one presentation outline An outline that member of a group presents the model A copy of an object, usually distills a complete-sentence outline, group’s fi ndings. built to scale, that represents the object listing only the words and phrases in detail. that will guide the speaker through panel discussions A discussion in the main parts of the speech and the monologue Occurs when which a moderator asks questions transitions between them. communication is one way and of experts on a topic in front of an presentation soft ware Computer communicators are only concerned audience. with their own individual goals. soft ware that allows users to display parallelism Using the same phrase, information in multimedia slide shows. monotone A way of speaking in which wor ding, or clause multiple times to preview of main points Th e fi nal the speaker does not alter his or her add emphasis. pitch. element of the introduction, in which pathos Appeal to emotion. the main points to be presented in the Monroe’s motivated sequence A pattern of organization body of the speech are mentioned. fi ve-step pattern of organization that A structure requires speakers to identify and for ordering the main points of a primacy eff ect An audience is more respond to what will motivate an speech. likely to pay attention to and recall audience to pay attention. persuasion Using language, images, what speakers present at the beginning and other means of communication of a speech than what they present in mythos Appeal to cultural beliefs and the speech body. values. to infl uence people’s attitudes, beliefs, values, or actions. primary questions A question that narratives A description of events persuasive speech A speech in which introduces a new topic or subtopic in in a dramatic fashion; also called a the speaker attempts to reinforce, an interview. story. modify, or change audience members’ primary sources Information that beliefs, attitudes, opinions, values, and narrative pattern A pattern that expresses an author’s original ideas or behaviors. organizes a speech by a dramatic fi ndings from original research. retelling of events as a story or a series pervasive communication problem-solution pattern A pattern of short stories. environment Th e ability to access and that organizes a speech by describing negative (hostile) audience An share information in multiple forms a problem and providing possible audience that is informed about a from multiple locations in ways that solutions. speaker’s topic and holds an unfavorable transcend time and space. process How something is done, how view of the speaker’s position. pitch Th e highness or lowness of a it works, or how it has developed. neutral questions An unbiased and speaker’s voice. pronunciation Th e act of saying words impartial question seeking a forthright places Geographic locations. correctly according to the accepted answer. plagiarism Presenting someone else’s standards of the speaker’s language. noise Anything that interferes with the ideas and work, such as speeches, psychographics Psychological understanding of a message. papers, and images, as your own. data about an audience, such as nomination speechs Speech that positive (sympathetic) audience standpoints, values, beliefs, and demonstrates why a particular An audience that is informed about attitudes. individual would be successful at a speaker’s topic and has a favorable public speaking A situation in which something if given the chance. view of the speaker’s position. an individual speaks to a group of nonsexist language Words that are not post hoc fallacy Argument in which a people, assuming responsibility for associated with either sex. speaker concludes a causal relationship speaking for a defi ned length of time. 355

Glossary.indd 355 07/10/10 7:28 PM public testimony Factual information roast Humorous and good-natured speeches of tribute Speeches that give and opinions about policy issues ridicule directed toward the guest of credit, respect, admiration, gratitude, presented to government bodies or honor at an event. or inspiration to someone who has other public institutions. round table discussions A discussion accomplished something signifi cant, in which expert participants discuss a lives in a way that deserves to be qualifi er A word or phrase that topic in an impromptu format without praised, or is about to embark on an clarifi es, modifi es, or limits the an audience present. adventure. meaning of another word or phrase. sponsored link A link whose owner question of fact A question that search engines A sophisticated has paid a search engine company asks whether something is true or soft ware program that hunts through such as Google to place the link in the false. documents to fi nd those associated results list of a search. question of policy A question that with particular keywords. spotlight eff ect A phenomenon that asks what course of action should be secondary questions A question that leads us to think other people observe taken or how a problem should be asks the interviewee to elaborate on a us much more carefully than they solved. response. actually do. question of value A question that secondary sources Others’ standpoint Th e psychological location asks for a subjective evaluation of interpretations or adaptations of a or place from which an individual something’s worth, signifi cance, primary source. views, interprets, and evaluates the world. quality, or condition. signpost A transition that indicates a key move in the speech, making its statistics Numerical data or rate Th e speed at which a speaker organization clear to the audience. information. speaks. similes A language device that style Th e language or words used in a real-time web access Employing a live compares two things that are generally speech. internet feed as a visual medium or dissimilar but share some common summary statistics Information in information resource during a public properties, expressed using like or as. the responses to an audience research speech. slang Informal, nonstandard language, questionnaire that refl ects trends and reasoning Th e method or process used oft en used within a particular group. comparisons. to link claims to evidence. slippery-slope fallacy Argument in supporting materials Evidence recency eff ect An audience is more which a speaker asserts that one event used to demonstrate the worth of an likely to remember what speakers will necessarily lead to another without idea. present at the end of a speech than showing any logical connection syllogism A form of deductive what they present in the speech body. between the two events. reasoning consisting of a major red herring Argument that introduces small group A collection of premise, minor premise, and irrelevant evidence to distract an individuals who interact and depend conclusion. audience from the real issue. on one another to solve a problem, symbols Something, such as a word, relabeling Assigning more positive make a decision, or achieve a common that stands for something else, such as words or phrases to the physical goal or objective. a person, place, thing, or idea. reactions and feelings associated with sociability Th e degree to which an symposium A presentation format speech anxiety. audience feels a connection to a speaker. in which each member of a group relevance How closely a web page’s spatial pattern A pattern that presents a speech about a part of a content is related to the keywords used organizes a speech by the physical larger topic. in an internet search. or directional relationship between reliability Th e consistency and objects or places. tag questions A question added onto credibility of information from a speaker Th e person who assumes the the end of a declarative statement particular source. primary responsibility for conveying that lessens the impact of that statement. review of main points Th e portion of a message in a public communication the conclusion of a speech in which context. target audience Th e particular group the main points presented in the body specifi c purpose A concise statement or subgroup a speaker most wants to of the speech are briefl y mentioned articulating what the speaker will inform, persuade, or entertain. again. achieve in giving a speech. technophobia Fear that others will rhetoric Aristotle’s term for public speech anxiety Fear of speaking in react negatively if one appears inept at speaking. front of an audience. using technological aids. rhymes Using words with similar speech of introduction A short testimony An individual’s opinions sounds, usually at the end of the word, speech that introduces someone to an or experiences about a particular to emphasize a point. audience. topic. 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Glossary.indd 356 07/10/10 7:28 PM thesis A single declarative sentence uninformed audience An audience volume Th e loudness of a speaker’s that captures the essence or central that is unfamiliar with a speaker’s topic voice. idea of a speech. and has no opinion about it. voluntary audiences Individuals who toast Brief remarks celebrating the can choose to attend or not attend a accomplishments of a guest of honor at validity Th e soundness of the logic speaking event. an event. underlying information presented by tone Use of language to set the mood a source. weak analogy fallacy Argument or atmosphere associated with a value An ideal that serves as a in which a speaker compares two speaking situation. standard of behavior. things that are dissimilar, making the comparison inaccurate. topic Th e main subject, idea, or theme videoconferencing A small group of a speech. presentation in which individuals at web directories An online list that organizes web pages and websites topical pattern A pattern that multiple physical locations interact in real time orally and visually, using hierarchically by category; also called a organizes a speech by arranging video and high-speed computer search index. subtopics of equal importance. technology. webidence Web sources displayed as transition A word, phrase, sentence, visualization Imagining a successful evidence during a speech, found by or paragraph used throughout a communica using real-time web access or web page speech to mark locations in the tion event by thinking capture soft ware. organization and clearly link the parts through a sequence of events in a of a speech together. positive, concrete, step-by-step way. whiteboard A smooth white board vocalized pauses that can be written or drawn on with transparency A clear acetate page “Ah,” “um,” “you know, markers. displayed by means of an overhead ” and other verbal fi llers that projector. speakers use when they’re trying to working outline An outline that think of what they want to say. guides you during the initial stages trustworthiness An audience’s vocal variety Changes in the volume, of topic development, helping to perception of a speaker as honest, rate keep you focused on your general ethical, sincere, reliable, sensitive, and , and pitch of a speaker’s voice purpose and clarify your specific empathetic. that aff ect the meaning of the words delivered. purpose.

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Glossary.indd 357 07/10/10 7:28 PM References

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References.indd 367 07/10/10 7:28 PM Index

Page numbers followed by an f indicate figures; followed by a t indicate tables

APA (American Psychological Association) delivery and, 8 A style, 119, 165 demographic information and, 81– 82 Abbott, Robert, 90 Apathetic audience, 291–292 diverse, 52–53, 79–81 ABC News, 138 Apologies, speech anxiety and, 35 divided, 199, 289–290 Academic Search Premier, 102 Appeal to ignorance, 322. (See also Ad environment, 224 Acceptance speeches, 173, 333–336 ignorantiam fallacy) expectations, 4, 84 Accuracy, 12t, 43t, 250, 332 Appeal to tradition fallacy, 321t, 322–323 focusing on, 35 Action, in Monroe’s motivated sequence, Appeals, 7–8, 64, 77 hostile, 65, 132, 240, 287–288. 154, 155 Appeals to cultural beliefs, 126, 311–312 (See also Negative audience) Acumen Fund, 171 Appeals to speaker credibility, 8, 308–309 informative speaking and, 62 Ad hominem fallacy, 321t, 323–324, 326 Apple Inc., 83 introduction and, 172, 173f, 174, 179, 332, Ad ignorantiam fallacy, 321t, 322, 327 Appreciative listening, 54 333 Ad populum fallacy, 321t, 322, 327 Arguments (s), 300–329 involvement of, 239 Adaptability/adapting, 10 claims and (See Claim(s)) language and, 4, 8, 44, 81, 83, 93 ADS. (See American Dialect Society (ADS)) defined, 302 management of, 238–240 Advanced search option, 109, 102 developing, 7–8 media and, 225 AECT. (See Association for Educational elements of, 302f, 306f negative, 27, 287–288 Communications and Technology evidence and, 7, 203, 307–313 non-classroom, 87 (AECT)) fallacies in (See Fallacies) options/responsibilities and, 4 African-American Almanac, 102 good, 84 persuasive speaking and, 66 African Americans, 5, 46, 80, 82, 85, 90 overview, 301, 326 positive, 35, 289 African and African Americana Studies, persuasive, 179, 180 presentation media and, 176 Harvard University, 46 reasoning and, 7–8, 313–320 in presenting speech, 11 After-dinner speeches, 336–337 review and analysis, 324–326 psychographic information and, Against the person fallacy, 323. (See also Aristotle, 7–8 82–85 Ad hominem fallacy) Armstrong, Neil, 311–312 researching, 31, 85–87 Age, 7, 25, 52, 82, 82 ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects response, 27 Aggressive language, 130, 205, 206 Agency), 150–151 service learning and, 176 ALDAcon. (See Association of Late- Arrangement, as an art, 8 setting and, 27–28, 65–66, 89–92 Deafened Adults Conference Articulation, 235 sexism and, 52–53, 195t (ALDAcon)) ARTstor, 103 speaker connection, 78–79, 181, 333 Alliteration, 203 Asian American, audience for, 199–200 special occasion speeches and, 62, 133 Almanacs, 102, 104t Ask, 106t speech anxiety and, 9–10 America’s Historical Newspapers, 102 ASL. (See American Sign Language (ASL)) sympathetic, 183, 289. (See also Positive AMA. (See American Medical) Assertions, faulty, 116 audience) Applied Communication Research, 49 Atkin, Nigel, 176–177 target, 79 Arrival, 33 Atlases, 102 thanking, 181 Amanpour, Christiane, 333 Attention getter, 173–174, 175–176 time and, 239 Ambiguity, 190, 205, 206, 209 Attention, in Monroe’s motivated topic and, 64, 263–264 America.gov, 279 sequence, 154 types of, 287–292 American Dialect Society (ADS), 191 Attitude(s), 34, 45, 84 uninformed, 81, 290–291 American Medical Association (AMA), 311 Audience(s), 10, 27, 32, 64, 65 values, 83–83 American Psychological Association style, 165 adapting to, 10, 76–95, 93–94 voluntary, 90 American Sign Language (ASL), 234 apathetic, 291–292 Audience analysis, 77 American Society of Newspaper Editors, 132 appealing to, 78 defined, 77 Analog radio, 17 attention, 173–174 Audience data, 87–89 Analogical reasoning, 133–134, 201–203, attitudes, 84 Audience diversity, 52–53, 79–81 318–320 beliefs, 84 Audience expectations, 4, 84 Amalog media, mobile, 17 captive, 90 Audience research data, 31, 87–89 Analogy, definition by, 133–134, 201, 318 classroom, 79 types of, 87 Anecdote, 127 conclusion and, 160. (See also summary statistics, 87 Annan, Kofi, 120 conclusion) direct quotes, 88 Anthony, Susan B., 5 credibility and, 10 referring to, 88–89 Antithesis, 203 cultural norms and, 52 Audience research questionnaire, 85–87 Anxiety, 9–10, 27, 55 defined, 17, 78 Audience-centered, 79, 87 368

Index.indd 368 07/10/10 7:00 PM Audience-centered communication, 7, 11, Bullet points, for digital slides, 221 Closure, 180–181 20, 87 Bush, George, 135 Closure statement, 113 Audience-centered language, 197–205 Butler, Octavia E., 147–148 Clusty, 106t Audiences’ expectations, for public speakers, 84 CNN, 138, 316–317, 351 Audience-speaker connection, 181, 333 C Cochran, Johnnie, 202 Audio, 215–216, 218 Cable television, 6 Coercion, 274 Audio clips, 19, 105t, 154, 179, 219, 224 Call number, 101 Coherence, 158 Audio materials, 50, 225 Calming techniques, 33 Coke, 304f Audio media, 34 Camera(s), 217 Colbert, Stephen, 204f, 334 Audio study tools Canadian Associaton of Radiologists (See CAR Color, for digital slides, 222 arguments, 327 (Canadian Associaton of Radiologists)) Comedy Central, 204 building confidence and, 37 Captive audiences, 90 Commonalities, audience and, 51–52, 80–81, ethical speaking, 58 CAR (Canadian Associaton of Radiologists), 190, 202 group presentations, 350 190 Commonwealth Club, 46 informative speeches, 270 Carmona, Richard H., 202 Communibiology paradfigm, 26 introductions, 184 Castro, Fidel, 324 Communication presentation media, 226 Catalog of United States Government audience-centered, 79, 87 public speaking, 21, 37 Publications, 102 degrading, 44 research, 122 Causal reasoning, 9, 150t, 158t, 167, 317–318 digital, 7 special occasion, 350 Cause-and-effect pattern, 10, 150t, 152–153, dishonest, 55, 190. (See also Plagiarism) supporting ideas, 141 156t electronic, 6 Author, 45, 49, 101, 118, 110 CBS, 135, 138 ethical, 18 Averbuch, Yael, 202 Celebrity testimony, 135 honest, 44 Award presentations, 335–336 Cell phones, 6, 9f, 17, 28, 44, 84 human, 14–15 Central idea, 68 in-person, 115, 163 B CGI. (See Computer generated imagery interactional model of, 16 Bad company fallacy, 324 (CGI)) internet, 103–108, 136, 150, 151 Balance, 148–149 Chalkboards, 217 interpersonal, 14 Baldwin, Tammy, 190–191 Challenges, ethical, 18, 20 mass, 15 Baross, John, 61 Channel, 15, 17 new model of, 15 Basketball Hall of Fame, 78 Character nonverbal, 16, 239 Beah, Ishmael, 289 public speakers and, 8, 18 online, 14 Beck, Glen, 302 evoking in speeches, 127, 174 organizational, 14 Begging the question, 320 Chatting/chat, 6f, 12, 16f, 34, 45, 115, 193 public, 15 Beliefs, defined, 84 Chavez, Cesar, 339 public speaking as, 14–18 Belonging needs. (See Love/belonging needs) Chavez-Thompson, Linda, 201 small-group, 14 Berners-Lee, Tim, 150–151 Children spheres, 15–16f Beschloss, Michale, 91 as public speakers, 27 transactional model of, 16 Bhatia, Peter K., 132 speech anxiety and, 27 transmission model of, 15, 20 Bibliographic information, 118 Chronological pattern, 149t, 150, 151, 156t, unethical, 41 Billboards, 17 256, 258 verbal, 16–17, 20 Biographies, 14, 103 Cicero, 5f, 8–9 Communication across the curriculum Black, Cathleen, 90, 91 Circular reasoning, 320. (See also Begging the (CXC), 12 Blethen, Frank, 83 question) Communication anxiety. (See Speech/ Blogdigger, 108 Citing sources, 49–51 communication anxiety) Blogging/blogs, 108 Civil rights movement, 99, 125–126, 130, Communication climate, 42, 44 Board of Education, Brown v., 174 134–135 Communication contexts, 12–14, 14–15 Body, 146–157 Claim(s), 302–307 Communication skills, 13f, 20 in arrangement, 8 accuracy of, 136 Community, 32, 42, 130 defined, 146 defined, 302 Community stories, 130 delivery and, 8 fallacies in, 320–323 Compact Oxford English Dictionary, 132, 189 elements of, 147f guidelines for, 305–307 Comparative evidence fallacy, 321t, 322, 327 managing, 236–238 overview, 302–303 Competence, 92 as part of speech, 146 phrasing, 305–307 CompletePlanet, 107t body movement, 8, 31, 34, 54, 127, 179 premises and conclusions and, 303, 304t Complete-sentence outline, 160–165 Bono, 128 reasoning and, 323 formatting, 161–165 Books, 101 speech on banning handguns and, 303t labels, 164 Brainstorming, 62– 63, 71, 73 types of, 303–305 (See also Evidence) levels, 163 defined, 62 Clarity, 147, 250–251 main points, 162–163, 164 images and, 63f Class, 199, 200 outline preface, 161 rules for, 63 Classes, speaking in, 42 overview, 160, 167 Breathing, 29–30 Classical era, 5, 20 purpose of, 160–161 Brigham Young University, honor code, 48 Classroom, 18, 79 reference list for, 165 Brokow, Tom, 61 Classroom audiences, 79 review and analysis sample, 165–167 Brown, Rita Mae, 180 Claussen, Eileen, 301 subordinate ideas, 163–164 Brown v. Board of Education, 174 Clichés, 193 subpoints, 162–163, 164 Bryan, John Neely, 207–208 Clinton, Bill, 182 symbols and indentations, 164 Buddhist preaching, and the five arts, 8 Closed-ended questions, 85–86 types of outlines, 161t 369

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Index.indd 369 07/10/10 7:00 PM Computer-generated imagery (CGI), 280 Reeve and, 135 Department of Education, 317 Computers, 219–223 sexism and, 52–53, 195t Design, visual, 215–219 creativity and, 222 sociability, 93 basics of, 215 design tips, 221–222 speaker, 92 audio, 215, 219 digital slides, 220–221, 223 source, 18 document cameras, 217 hardware setup tips, 222–223 Tong and, 125–126, 136 flip charts, 216–217 literacy and, 222 Trustworthiness, 92 handouts, 218 real-time Web access, 223 Crichton, Michael, 312 models, 219 Concepts, speeches about, 82, 255–256, 257t Critical listening, 54 overhead transparancies, 215–216 Concise language, 84 Critical thinking, 18 traditional, 215–219 Conclusion C-SPAN, 168 use of design, 215 argument and, 303, 304t Cueing system, 16, 54, 56, 77 video, 217–218 complete-sentence outline and, 70 Cultural awareness, 19 whiteboards and chalkboards, 217 defined, 179 Cultural context, 80 Desktop computers, 17f developing, 179–181 Cultural diversity, 52, 232 Detroit Free Press, 49 elements, 179f Cultural identity, 6, 80, 93 Dialect, 191, 233 formatting, 164 Cultural norms, 52 Dialogue, 44, 57 of interviews, 113 Cultural stories, 129 Diaphragmatic breathing, 29 organizing, 160–161 Culture(s), 51 Dictionaries, 102–103, 132–133, 134, 189–190 as part of speech, 146 Currency, 117 Digital age. (See Information/digital age) presentating, 32 Current events, 65, 92 Digital cameras, 6, 16 speech anxiety and, 9–10 CurryGuide, 106t Digital communication, 7 transitions to, 160 CXC. (See Communication across the Digital divide, internet and, 7 Conclusion preview, 113 curriculum (CXC)) Digital slide software/digital slides, 220–222 Confidence, 8–9, 28–30, 31–32. (See also Digital technology, 18, 41 Speech/communication anxiety) D Direct questions, 56 after the speech, 35 Data/databases, 81–82, 82–85, 102–103, Direct quotes, 88 before presentations, 33–34 104t–105t, 135 Directory of Open Access Journals, 102 during the speech, 34–35 Decatur Correctional Center in Illinois, 25 Dis/ability, 55, 81, 82, 84, 135, 200 overview of, 36 Declaration of Independence, 314–315 Discussion lists, 109 planning and preparing and, 31–32 Deductive reasoning, 313–316 Dishonest communication, 55 relabeling, 29, 30f Deep web, 107 Distance speaking, 14 relaxation, 29–30 Defective reasoning, 320 Distant language, 195–196, 209 strategies for, 36t Definitions, 131–134 Distractions, 17, 55, 115 visualization, 29, 30f, 154–155 by analogy, 133–134 Diverse audience, 52–53, 79–81 Conflict, 46 by function, 132–133 Diversity, 52–53. (See also Cultural diversity; Connor, Bull, 46 defined, 132 Ethical speaking/listening) Connotative meanings, 132, 189 Degrading communication, 44 culture and, 231 Content, 54 Delivery, 228–247 ethnocentrism, 52 Context, 12–14, 14–15, 18 audience and, 238–240 sexism, 52–53 Contextualization of the award, in speeches, content and, 218 Diversity of perspective, 46f 335–336 defined, 8, 229 Divided audience, 199, 289–290 Coordinated presentations, 346 dialect, 233 Divine Design, 254 Copyright, 47 effective, 12–14, 19 Division fallacy, 323 Copyright information, 47, 110 example of, 8 Document cameras, 217 Copyright laws, 47 factors influencing, 231–234 Documentary films, 99, 178, 223 Corel Presentations, 220 fluency, 233 Dogpile, 106t Cosby, Bill, 174 gender and, 232–233 Doing Honest Work in College: How to Cousteau, Jean-Michel, 264–265 information, speed of, 84 Prepare Citations, Avoid Plagiarism, and Crasser, Minister, 308 language and, 190 Achieve Real Academic Success, 47 Creativity, 175 managing body during, 236–237 Dorland’s Illustrated Medical Dictonary, 190 Creatures, speeches about, 252–253, 257t managing voice in, 234–236 Dow’s Dictionary of Railway Quotations, 102 Credibility, 92–93. (See also Ethos) overview of, 229, 245–246 Dramatic statement, 181 appeals to speaker, 10, 308–309 physical disabilities/impairments, 233–234 Dress, 33 audience and, 10, 92–93 practicing, 31–32, 242–245 anxiety and, 33 audience-centered approach and, 79, 87 presentation outline and, 240–242 du Sable, Jean Baptiste Point, 90 Bono and, 128 presentation software and, 19, 220 proper attire, 236 building, 10 question-and-answer period and, 240 DVDs, 16f, 99, 217 competence, 92 strategies for, 237 Dynamic language, 195 current events and, 92 Delivery method, 195, 230t Dynamism, 92 defined, 92 Delivery options, 20 dynamism, 92 Democratic National Convention, 187 E ethnocentrism and, 52 Demographic data, 81–82 Educate, inform to, 264–265 ethos and, 8, 92, 308–309 Demographic information, 81– 82 Education level/education, 7, 80 gender and, 53 Demographics, 81 Either-or thinking, 320. (See also False in interview, 116 Demographic stereotyping, 82 dilemma fallacy) introduction and, 177–178 Deneal, Dustin, 203–204 ElBaradei, Mohamed, 332 media, 138–139 Denotative meanings, 132, 189 Electronic communication, 6, 41 370

Index.indd 370 07/10/10 7:00 PM Electronic databases, 99, 103 defined, 130 Ford, Gerald, 176 Emotion, 66, 126, 127t, 151, 214t–215t, 217, general, 130 Ford Motor company, 131 338. (See also Pathos) specific, 131 Formal language, 196 Emotional appeals, 126, 174, 214t–215t, 217, hypothetical, 131–132 Forum, 344 309–311 Excuses, speech anxiety and, 35 Fox, Michael J., 136 Empathic listening, 54, 55, 92 Experience Music Project, 103 Fox News, 138, 196 Employers, communication-related skills Experience, researching and, 98–99 Franklin, Benjamin, 128 from, 13f Expert testimony, 134–135 Free speech, 43 Encyclopedias, 102 Expression, 193 FreeThesaurus.net, 192 Energy, speech anxiety and, 34 Extemporaneous speaking, 195, 231 Freedom of expression, 43t Entertaining speech, 62, 336 External noise, 55 FTC. (See Federal Trade Commission (FTC)) Enthymemes, 303–304, 305 Eye contact, 16, 28, 35, 44, 54, 115, 236 Full-sentence outline, 161. (See also Environment, 15, 18, 224 Complete-sentence outline) Erroneous responses, 43t F Function, 132–133 Esteem needs, 26, 132 Fabergé, 152 Furlong, John, 196 Estes, John, 311 Facebook, 7, 63, 104t, 118t, 138, 332 Ethical challenges, 18, 205 Face-to-face communication, 15, 236–237 G Ethical communication, 42 Facial expressions, 34, 54, 127, 179, 237 Gaines, Tamia, 207–208 in the classroom, 42 Fact(s), 135–136, 175 Gallaudet Research Institute, 234 Ethical responsibilities, 47–51 Fair use, 47 Gallup Poll, 82, 95 Ethical speaking/listening, 41–59 Fallacies, 320–324 Gates, Bill, 77, 78f classroom and, 110 ad hominem, 321t, 323–324, 326 Gates, Henry Louis, Jr., 46 code of ethics, 42 ad ignorantiam, 321t, 322, 327 Gatewatching, 250 community code of, 42 ad populum, 321t, 322, 327 Gender, 52–53, 195t, 232–233. defined, 41 appeal to ignorance, 322. (See also Ad (See also Sex/sexism) dialogue and, 44–47, 57 ignorantiam fallacy) Gender-neutral/nonsexist language, 53, 194 ethical communication principles and, appeal to tradition, 322–323, 327 General examples, 130 42–43t in arguments, 320–324 General purpose, 61–62 ethics/cultural diversity and, 52–53 caricature, 327 defined, 62 overview, 41, 57–58 in claims, 320, 321t link with specific purpose and topic, 67t persuasive speaking and, 292–293 comparative evidence, 321t, 322, 327 GeniusFind, 107t plagiarism and, 45, 47–51 defined, 320 Gestures, 8, 54, 127, 196 Ethics, 18 division, 321t, 323, 327 Gigablast, 106t Ethnic background/ethnicity, 44, 52, 55, 81, in evidence, 321t, 322–323 Glacchino, Michael, 335 201 false dilemma, 320, 321t, 326 Global Market Information Database, 102 Ethnocentrism, 52 guilt by association, 321t, 324, 327 Global speeches, 6f Ethos, 18, 308–309. (See also Credibility) hasty generalization, 321t, 323, 327 Global warming, 98, 223 Eulogies, 337–339 loaded word, 321t, 324, 327 Goodall, Jane, 264 Euphemisms, 193 against the person, 323. (See also Ad Goodwill, 92 Euripides, 203 hominem fallacy) Google, 90, 106t, 108, 191 EUROSTAT, 136 post hoc, 321t, 323, 327 Gore, Al, 191f, 223 Evaluation in reasoning, 321t, 323 Government, 136 listening components, 54 in responding, 321t, 323–324 Government publications, 102 speech anxiety and, 27f, 28 slippery slope, 320, 321t, 327 Government websites, 109, 136 Events, speeches about, 254–255, 257t straw man, 324. (See also Caricature Grigorenko, Elena, 101 Evidence, 306–313 fallacy) Grouping ideas, 72t in analogical reasoning, 318–320 weak analogy, 321t, 323, 327 Group speeches/presentations, 344–345 argument and, 7, 84, 312–313 False dilemma fallacy, 320, 321t, 326 Groupness, 346–347 checking, 49 Fanning, Shawn, 151 Guardian responsibilities. (See Parenting/ in causal reasoning, 317–318 FAOSTAT, 136 guardian responsibilities) in deductive reasoning, 313–316 Faubus, Orval, 46 Guidelines, research, 119 defined, 302 Faulty assertions, 320 Guilt by association fallacy, 321t, 324 ethos, 308–309 Federal Trade Commission (FTC), 136–137 Gutfield, Greg, 196 fallacies in, 322 FedStats, 136 flawed, 320 Feedback, 15, 17, 27, 35, 46–47 H guidelines for, 312–313 Figurative analogy, 133 Habitat for Humanity, 255f in inductive reasoning, 316–317 File sharing, 57 Habituation, 9 logos and logic, 307–308 Films, 16, 105t, 151 Hair, Princell, 316–317 mythos, 311–312 First Amendment, 44, 45 Handouts, 218 overview, 326–327 Fisher, Mary, 176 Hanks, Tom, 173 pathos, 309–311, 309–311 Five arts, and Cicero, 8–9 Hannity, Sean, 302 in persuasive speaking, 302, 313, Flanagan, Tara, 348–349 Hardware set-up tips, 222–223 315–316 Flawed evidence, 320 Harry Potter, 176 researching and, 307 Fletcher, Elva, 174 Hartman, Hermene, 90 review and analysis, 324–326 Flexibility, in presenting speech, 121 Harvard University, 46, 176 using, 307–313 Fliers, 17f Hass, Amira, 333 validity, 116 Flip charts, 216–217 Hasty generalization fallacy, 321t, 323 Ewing Marion Kauffman Foundation, 308 Folklore/folk life, 328 Hate speech, 44 Examples, 130–131 Font size, for digital slides, 221 Hawking, Stephen, 203 371

Index.indd 371 07/10/10 7:00 PM Hearing, 53 for interview, 110–116 purpose for, 110–111 Hearing impairments, 233, 234 media as, 138–138, 266 sample guide, 113f–114f Hearst Magazines, 90 organizing, 10–11 Introduction, 172–179 Hedges, 194 presenting, 11 attention getting, 181 Hill, J. Edward, 311–312 psychographic, 82–85 complete-sentence outline and, 70 Home schooling speech, 324–326 requests, 56–57 conclusion and, 179–181 Honesty, 44 researching and, 85–87 defined, 172 Hope, Bob, 173 Information literacy, 18, 109 developing, 172–179 Hope, Delores, 173 Information overload, 53 elements, 173f Hostile audience, 65, 132, 240f, 287–288. Information/digital age, 5–6 formatting, 164 (See also Negative audience) Information technology, 15 humor, 175 Hotmail, 78 Informative speaking/speeches, 248–271 overview, 183 Humbleness, in speeches, 334 characteristics of, 250–251 as part of speech, 146 Human communication, 4–6, 14–15 conclusion and, 303, 304t planning and preparation for, 32 Human communication models, 15–18 defined, 250 presenting, 32 Human-interest story, 173–174, 175 guidelines for, 262–266 review and analysis, 182–183 Humor, 55, 62, 175 organizational patterns for, 256– 262 speeches of, 332–333 Humphrey, Hubert, 91 overview, 249, 269 Invention, 8, 134 HURIER model, 53–54 purpose/topic and, 31, 61–62, 256, Invisible web, 107 evaluating, 54 263–264 Invitations to imagine, 203 hearing, 53 review and analysis, 266–269 Irreversible language, 196 interpretation, 53–54 specific purposes for, 66–68 Irwin, Bindi, 338 remembering, 53 thesis and, 68–70, 256 Irwin, Steve, 338 understanding, 53 types of, 251–256 Ixquick, 106t Hussein, Saddam, 275 working outline and, 163t Hypertext, 150 Ingles, Don, 13 J Hypothetical examples, 131–132 In-person communication, 115, 121, 163 Jagger, Bianca, 119–121 Inspiration, 338–339 Jargon, 192 I Instant messaging/messages, 12, 16f, 41 Jenkins, Samuel P., 203 IAEA. (See International Atomic Energy Institutional stories, 128–129 Jobs, Steve, 296 Agency (IAEA)) Interactional model of communication, 16 JoeAnt.com, 106t Ideas and concepts, 124–143 Interests, 64 Johnson, John H., 90 central, 68 Internal consistency, 71 Johnson Publishing Company, 90 defined, 255 Internal noise, 55 Joke, 175. (See also Humor) exchanging, 343 Internal summaries, 159–160 Jolie, Angelina, 196 grouping, for main points, 71–72 International Association of Business Jordan, Michael, 77–78 organizing, 10–11 Communicators (IABC), 42 Journals, 102 overview, 125–126, 141 International Atomic Energy Agency Judgment, listening and, 55–56 speeches about, 255–256, 257t (IAEA), 332 Jux, 106t uncertainty about, 27 International Labor Organization, 16, 136 Identity, cultural, 6, 80, 93 International Spy Museum, 159 Idioms, 193 International Women’s Media Foundation, K Illusion of transparency, 34 333 Karakas, Fahri, 318–320 Illustrations, 102–103, 104t Internet, 4, 6, 15 KartOO, 106r Image, 63, 106t, 110, 150t, 173, 216 Internet connection speed, 7 Kelly, Randy, 128 Imagination, 175, 179, 198t, 203–204 Internet resources, 103, 106–108 Kennedy, John F., 229, 255 Immediate language, 195–196 blogs, 108 Kermit the Frog, 351 Immigration, Diversity, and Education, 101 databases for, 106t Keynote, 11 Impairments, 233–234, 240. (See also deep web, 107 Keywords, 100, 109, 241–242 specific types) real-time web, 108 King, Martin Luther, Jr., 46, 83, 103, Impromptu speaking, 230 Websites, 103, 106–107 304–305, 339 Inclusive language, 200–201 Interpersonal communication, 14 Kitchen Impossible, 254 Income, 81 Interpersonal skills, 13, 25 Kochiyama, Yuri, 199–200 IncyWincy, 107t Interpret, 53–54 Koster, Raph, 263–264 Indentation, 164 Interpretations, 188 Individual differences, 45 Interviewee(s), 111 L Inductive reasoning, 315–317 Interview guide, 111–114 Lady Gaga, 61 Industrial age, 5 Interviews, 110–116 Land-line phones. (See Wired/land-line phones) Inferences, 117t closing, 113 Language InfoGrid, 106t community and, 115 as abstract, 190–191 Informal language, 102, 196 conducting, 114–115 as active, 191–192 Information. (See also Internet) development of questions for, 111 aggressive, 206 audience and, 175–176 integration of information for, as ambiguous, 188–190, 206 bibliographic, 118 115–116 as arbitrary, 188 copyright, 47, 110 interview guide, 111–114 audience-centered, 4, 7, 11, 20, 87, 97–205 demographic, 81– 82 interview guide organization, 111–112 basics of, 188–192 ethical communication and, 56–57 interviewee(s), 111 can-do, 29 finding/using reliable, 10, 100–101, 116 overview, 110 clarity, 206 372

Index.indd 372 07/10/10 7:00 PM choices, 207 senses, use of, 56 McCarthy, Joseph R., 322 concise, 206 speaker’s main points of, 56 Meaning, informative speaking and, 250 in context, 197–198 questions and, 56 MedHunt, 106t conversational, 195f types of, 54 Media, 34, 138, 266. (See also Presentation culture and, 51, 192–194 Listening anxiety, 55 media) defined, 188 Listening skills, 10, 111, 346–347 Media appearance, 342 distant, 195–196 Listservs, 45. (See also Discussion lists) Media credibility, 139 dynamic, 195 Literacy, 45 Media literacy, 164 facts, 197 Literal analogies, 133–134 Media players, 17f formal, 196 Loaded word fallacy, 321t, 324 Media recorders, 17f gender and, 184–195 Location, for speech, 89–90 Mediated speaking, 164, 266, 341–342 gender-neutral/nonsexist, 53, 194 Logic, 7 Meditation breathing, 30 guidelines for, 205–206 Logical appeals, 126, 132, 135, 307–308. (See Memorable message, 180 image, 197 also Logos) Memorized speaking, 195, 231 imagination and, 203–204 Logos, 126, 307–308 Memory, as an art, 8 immediate, 195–196 Lotus Freelance Graphics, 220 Men inclusive, 200–201 Love/belonging needs, 309–310 audience and, 83 informal, 196 Lovins, Amory, 132 delivery and, 232–233 irreversible, 196 Lowry, Lois, 310–311 language and, 194 labeling, 29 Lynch, Owen Hanlely, 49 as public speakers, 5, 53 narratives, 197 Lyons, Kathleen, 325–326 sexism and, 52–53, 195t offensive, 206 Merriam-Webster, 191 personalize, 199–200 M Message, defined, 16 redundancy, 206 Macmillan English Dictionary, 191 Metaphors, 133, 202 review and analysis, 207–208 Mac-versus PC ads, 83 Metasearch engines, 103, 106t–107 revisable, 196 Macy, William, 135 Microsoft, 77, 78f rhythm, 197 Maddow, Rachel, 302 Middle Ages, 5 spoken, 205 Magazines, 102, 139 Millennium March for Gay and Lesbian static, 195 MagicPoint, 220 Rights, 190 symbols, defined, 188 Mail, 78 Mindfulness, 11 visual, 201–203 Main points, 71, 146–157 MLA (Modern Language Association) words, meaningful, 205–206 balance, 148–149 style, 165 written, 195–197 cause-and-effect pattern, 150t, 152–153, 156t Mobile analog media, 17f Language basics, 188–192 chronological pattern, 149t, 150, 151, 156t, Mobile digital media, 17f Language fluency, 233 256, 258 Mobility aids, 233–234 Laptop(s), 17f, 28, 192 clarity, 147 Models, 16–17f, 219 Latino, 67, 80, 105t, 166 conclusion and, 180 Monologue, 44 Lay testimony, 135 developing, 146–149 Monroe’s motivated sequence, 150t, LCD projector, 34, 222 introduction and, 178 154–155, 157t, 285–287 Leading questions, 111 Monroe’s motivated sequence, 150t, Monotone, 235 Lennox, Annie, 198, 199f 154–155, 157t, 285–287 Mood, 190 Lexpionage, 191 narrative, 150t, 152, 156t Mores, 18 LexisNexis, 102 number of, 149 The Morris Dictionary of Word and Phrase Library of Congress, 136 on questions of fact, 275–276 Origins, 102 Library resources, 101–103 on questions of policy, 282–283 Morrison, Toni, 129 databases, 104t–105t on questions of value, 279–280 Motivated sequence pattern, 150t, 154–155, 157t Library/libraries, 78, 98t, 101–103, 104t, 106t, organizational patterns, 149–157 Movement, body, 8, 34, 127, 179 109–110 preview, 178 MSNBC, 302 Life skills, 11 problem-solution pattern, 150t, 153–154, Multimedia resources, 103 Lifetime Magazine, 90 157t Multiple perspectives, 99–100 Lighthearted, after-dinner speeches and, 336 relevance, 147–148 knowledgeable sources and, 99–100 Linear model of communication. (See spatial pattern, 149t, 151, 156t Munich, 151 Transmission/linear model of topical pattern, 150t, 151–152, 156t, Mutual respect, 44 communication) 259–260 MySpace, 108t, 334 LinkedIn, 332 Majoras, Deborah Platt, 310 Mythos, 8, 126, 311–312 Lipson, Charles, 47–48 Mamma, 106t Myths, 129, 147 Listener(s), 10 Mandela, Nelson, 198 Listening, 53–55. (See also Ethical speaking/ Manipulation, 292 N listening) Manuscript speaking, 205, 231 NAACP, 174 anxiety, 55 Maps, 102, 104t, 106t, 111 Napster, 150 components of, 53–54 Marketing, 78, 82 Narrative pattern, 150t, 152, 156t, 260–261 distractions, 55 Markkula Center for Applied Ethics, 44 Narratives, 9, 127–130 effectively to speeches, 54–57 Marshall, Thurgood, 46 defined, 127 goals, setting, 55 Maslow, Abraham, 309–310f personal stories, 128 HURIER model, 53–54 Mass communication, 15 others’ stories, 128 judgments and, 55–56 Mass media, 15 institutional stories, 128–129 notes, 48–49 Matei, Tudor, 266 cultural stories, 129 online resources, 59 Matthews, Chris, 302 community stories, 130 373

Index.indd 373 07/10/10 7:00 PM NASA, 6, 102, 118t, 120 Patterns of organization, 149–157. (See also National Association of Colleges and O Organizational pattern) Obama, Barack, 187–188, 190, 301, 334 Employers Survey, 13f cause-and-effect, 10, 150t, 152–153, 156t, Objects, speeches and, 151, 251–252, 257t National Breast Cancer Coalition, 174 261–262 Occasion, 90–91. (See also Special occasion National Bureau of Statistics of China, 136 chronological, 149t, 150, 151, 156t, 256, speaches) National Center for Refugee and Immigrant 258 O’Connor, Sandra Day, 175 Children, 186 defined, 149 Offensive language, 193 National Communication Association informative speeches, 256–262 Olbermann, Keith, 302 (NCA), 42 motivated sequence, 150, 154–158 Online communication, 14 National Education Association (NEA), 188 narrative, 150t, 152, 156t, 260–261 On-topic questions, 56 National Equality March, 61 organizational, 149–158 Open Directory Project, 106t National Guard, 135 problem-cause-solution, 284–285 Open-ended questions, 56, 86 National Hospice and Palliative Care problem-solution, 10, 150t, 153–154, 157t, Opinion polls, 82, 95 Organization, 100 284 Opinions, 43t, 45, 62, 80, 85, 154 National Institute on Drug Abuse, 307 on questions of policy, 283–287 Oracle, 333 National Opinion Research Center, 82, 95 on questions of value, 280 Oprah Magazine, 90 National Press Club, 196 resources for, 168 Oral citations, 49, 117–118 National Public Radio (NPR), 139 spatial, 149t, 151, 156t, 258–259 Oral communication skills, 12 National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 102 topical, 150t, 151–152, 156t, 259–260 Oral report, 28, 342 National Science Foundation, 334 Pauses, vocalized, 235 Organization(s), 14, 43t, 100, 109 National Speakers Association (NSA), 42, 43t PDAs. (See Personal digital assistants Organizational communication, 14 Native American, 80, 85, 106t, 133 (PDAs)) Organizational pattern, 149–157. (See also Naturalistic enthymeme, 305 People, speeches about, 116, 252–253, 257t Patterns of organization) Naxos Music Library, 103 Personal communictions technology, 15 balance, 148–149 NBC, 15, 61, 138, 338 Personal convictions, 43t, 82 cause-and-effect pattern, 150t, 152–153, NCA. (See National Communication Personal digital assistants (PDAs), 17f 156t Association (NCA)) Personal Report of Public Speaking Anxiety chronological pattern, 149t, 150, 151, 156t, NEA. (See National Education Association (PRPSA), 26 256, 258 (NEA)) Personal stories, 128 defined, 149 Needs, 35, 44, 64, 65, 92 Perspective, 45 informative speeches, 256– 262 Negative audience, 35, 52, 287–288 Persuasion, 62, 174, 274–275 Monroe’s motivated sequence, 150t, Negative words, use of, 29 Persuasive speech/speaking, 273–298 154–155, 157t, 285–287 Nervousness, 9, 28, 29, 34, 173, 224. (See also argument and (See Argument(s) narrative, 150t, 152, 156t, 260–261 Speech/communication anxiety) audiences and, 180, 287–292 problem-solution pattern, 150t, 153–154, Networking, 63, 90, 117, 118, 217 cause-and-effect, 153 157t Neutral questions, 111 conclusion and, 32 on questions of fact, 276–278 New model of communication, 15–18 defined, 273, 274–275 on questions of policy, 283–287 New York Museum of Natural History, 263 ethics of, 292–293 on questions of value, 280 The New York Times, 138 listening and, 54 relevance, 147–148 News magazines, 139, 140, 142 versus manipulation, 292 spatial pattern, 149t, 151, 156t Newsgroups, 45, 109 overview, 273, 296 topical pattern, 150t, 151–152, 156t, Newspaper reporting, 47 persuasion in, 62, 66 259–260 Newspapers, 102 purpose/topic and, 61, 66 Organizational sources, 100 NewsVoyager, 107t questions of fact and, 275–278 Organizing, 146–157. (See also Main points) Newsweek, 139 questions of policy and, 281–287 body of speech and, 146–157 Nobel Foundation, 127 questions of value and, 278–280 complete-sentence outline and, 160–167 No Child Left Behind Act, 317–318 review and analysis, 294–295 ideas and information, 10–11, 163–164 Noise, 15, 17 Pervasive communication environment, 15 parts of speech and, 146, 244 Nomination speeches, 183, 339 Pew Internet & American Life Project, 22, transitions and, 158–160 Non-classroom audiences, 87 100, 301 The Oregonian, 132 Nonprint resources, 103 Pew Research Center, 82, 95 O’Reilly, Bill, 302 Nonsexist language. (See Gender-neutral/ Phones, 6, 15, 16f, 17, 52 Outcomes, Monroe’s motivated sequence, 154 nonsexist language) Photographs, 50, 101, 102, 104t, 215t Outline/outlining, 161 Nonverbal communication, 16, 239 Physical barriers, 237–238 Overanalyzing, 34 Nonverbal messages, 16, 20, 54, 115, 196, 239 Physical disabilities/impairments, 233–234 Overhead transparencies, 215–216 Noor (Queen), 93 Physiological needs, 10, 309–310 Overload, information, 53 Norms, cultural, 52 Pitch, 127, 197, 232, 235 Oxford Art Online, 103 Notes/note cards, 33, 48–49 Place(s) boldface, use of, 48 defined, 149t font color, 48 P for speech, 66 Paige, Ron, 188 highlighting, 49 speeches about, 251–252, 257t Palin, Sarah, 233 presentation outline and, 242 topic and, 66 Panel discussions, 120, 343 Novogratz, Jacqueline, 171–172 Plagiarism, 18, 47–51 Parallelism, 202 NPR. (See National Public Radio (NPR)) citing sources, 49, 50–51f Paraphrase, 49, 50t NSA. (See National Speakers Association notes and, 48–49 Parenting/guardian responsibilities, 81 (NSA)) online resources, 59 Parsons, Richard D., 90 Numbers, for digital slides, 221 overview, 47–48 Pathos, 8 126, 309–311. (See also Emotion) Nussbaum, Martha C., 203 paraphrasing, 49, 50t Pattern, 256t. (See also specific types) 374

Index.indd 374 07/10/10 7:00 PM Planning, speech anxiety and, 31–32 Problem-solution pattern, 10, 150t, 153–154, for interview, 111 Platner, Jan, 174 157t introduction and, 111 Plato, 7, 9 Problem-solving skills, 13f leading, 111 Podcasting/podcasts, 63, 84, 99, 217 Processes, 15–16, 133, 253–254, 257t neutral, 111 Podium, 53, 90 Pronunciation, 235 on-topic, 56 Policy, 62, 281–287 Proofs, 7–8 open-ended, 56, 86 Popular media, 138–139 ProQuest, 102, 104t primary, 111 Positive audience, 27, 30t, 35, 80, 204, PRPSA. (See Personal Report of Public rhetorical, 176 289 Speaking Anxiety (PRPSA)) secondary, 111 Post hoc fallacy, 321t, 323 Psychographic data, 82f, 84–85 speech anxiety and, 26t Poster, 214t, 215, 225 Psychographic information, 82–85 tag, 194 Post-interview conversation, 113 Psychographics, 82 topics and, 346 Posture, 237 Public communication, 15 types, use of, 111, 112t Powderburn, 334 Public communication contexts, 12–14 Question-and-answer session, 82 Powell, Colin, 275 classes, 12, 42 anxiety and, 35 PowerPoint, 4, 11, 217, 220, 22, 223 workplace, 12–13 audience and, 35, 77, 82, 176, 240 Practice communities, 13 delivery and, 240 presentation media and, 34, 224 social events, 13–14 demographic stereotyping, 82 speech anxiety and, 31–32 online, 14 feedback, 46, 77 stages for, 244 Public speaking/speaker forum, 343 version of speech, 242–244 broadening/improving, 317 panelists, 343 Premise, 190 , 303, 304t defined, 4 presentations and, 345 Preparation outline, 161. (See also dialogue and, 44–47 revisions and, 196 Complete-sentence outline) elements of, 15–18 other speakers and, 34 Preparation/preparing as evolving art, 4–7 Questionnaire for group speeches, 344–345 foundations of, 7–9 audience research, 85–87 for your introduction, 32, 332 human communication and demographic information, 82 key steps in, 61 (See Human communication) distributing, 87 small groups, 346 influences on, 6–7 language and audiences, 199 speech anxiety and, 32, 34 key issues for, 18–19 for non-classroom audiences, 87 Presentation media, 212–227. (See also as life skill, 9–14 research, 85–87 Visual design) listening and, 53–55 Questions of fact, 275–278 advantages of, 214t–215t overview of, 20–21 Questions of policy, 281–287 avoidance of, 336–337 successful, 19, 28, 30, 77, 78, 79 Questions of value, 278–280 for apathetic audience, 291–292 volume of, 232, 234–235 Quotes/quotation, 88 attention getters, 176, 181 Public testimony, 339–340 use of boldface for, 48 audience and, 224, 225 Publisher, 101, 117t, 118, 119 ending with, 180 computer technology and, 219–223 PubSub, 108t use of font color for, 48 defined, 213 Purpose, 61–62, 110–111 use of highlighting for, 49 environment, 224 conclusion and, 180 to inform, 266 delivery and, 7, 8, 84 R limitations of, 214t–215t determining, 61–62 Race, 7, 81–82 overview of, 225 general, 61, 62, 67t, 69 Radio, 139 practice with, 224 informative speeches, 256 Rania (Queen), 263 tips for, 224–225 introduction and, 177 Rate, 197, 235 traditional visual and audio media and, moving with, 237 Real-time web access (RWA), 223 215–219 on questions of policy, 282–283 Reasoning by example, 316. (See also uses for, 214–215 on questions of purposes, 275–276 Inductive reasoning) Presentation outline, 241–243f on questions of value, 279–280 Reasoning/reason, 313–320 Presentation software, 19, 220 researching and, 110–111 analogical, 318–320 Presentations, 214, 215t, 216, 220, 222, 223, specific (See Specific purpose) causal, 317–318 24–225 and topic, 61–75 deductive, 313–316 of ideas and information, 11 thesis and, 177 inductive, 315–317 Preview working outline and, 70–72 overview, 313 conclusion, 113 types of, 313t main points, 178 Q Receivers, 15 statement, 68, 69 Qualifier, 305–306 Recency effect, 179 Preview of main points, 46, 68–69, 146, 173f, Queen Noor of Jordan, 92 Red herring, 341t, 327 178 Question(s) Redundancy, 195, 206 Primacy effect, 173 begging the, 320, 321t Reeve, Christopher, 135 Primary questions, 111 closed-ended, 85–86 Reference materials/works, 102–103 Primary sources, 100 combining types of, 86 References, 49, 139, 165, 214t Print indexes, 102 develop, 110, 111 Relabeling, 29, 30f Print magazines, 17f direct, 56 defined, 29 Print resources, 99 for evaluating information, 117t Relationship status, 81 Problem-cause-solution pattern, 10 group, 112 Relationships, 14, 80, 149, 159t Problem, Monroe’s motivated sequence, 154, hostile, 287–288, 344 Relaxation, 29–30, 38 285–287 information requests, 56–57 Relevance, 103, 147–148 375

Index.indd 375 07/10/10 7:00 PM Reliability, 116 Satisfaction, in Monroe’s motivated Sotomayor, Sonia, 182–183, 334–335 Religion/religious affiliation, 52, 199 sequence, 154 Sound recordings, 219 Remembering, 53 Schramm, Carl J., 308–308 Sources, 99–100, 117–119 Repetition, 9, 203 Scirus, 196t acknowledgment of, 117–119 Report, oral, 28, 342 Search engine Colossus, 107t citing, 49–51 Research, 97–123 Search engines, 107 databases, 105t on audience, 85–87 Search tools, 109 documentation of, 118t, 190 on brainstorming, 63 variety of information and, 109–110 as evidence, 223 on communication skills, 13 SearchEdu, 106t identification of, 99–101 on digital slides, 223 Seaton, Edward, 132 information, 138–139 on listening, 55 Seattle Times, 83 list, 165 on plagiarism, 47 Seau, Junior, 204 primary, 100, 105t, 218 on practicing, 31 Secondary questions, 111 secondary, 100 on speech anxiety, 15, 27 Secondary sources, 100 variety of, 109 stem cell, 135, 136 Self-actualization needs, 309–310 visual, 218 on television, 138–139 Self-confidence, 13f written, 218 on topic, 31, 97–123 Senders, 15 Space, 18, 26t, 28, 139, 199. (See also Research data, using in speeches, 87–89 Senses, 56 Speaking space) Research guidelines, 119 Service learning Spatial pattern, 149t, 151, 156t, 258–259 Research interviews, 110–116. (See also attention and, 176 Speaker credibility, 10, 92, 127t, 204, 308–309 Interviews) speech orgainization, 158 Speaker, defined, 16 Research materials, 116–117 Sessions, Mike, 13 Speaker-audience connection, 78–79, 181, 333 Research/researching topic, 97–123 Setting, 27–28, 65–66, 89–92 Speakers, concentrating on other, 34 acknowledging sources, 117–119 location, 89–90 Speaker’s role, 27 guidelines for, 119 occasion, 90–91 Speaking information, finding, 100 time, 91–92 ethical (See Ethical speaking/listening) internet resources and, 103, 106–108, Sex/sexism, 52–53, 195t. (See also Gender) extemporaneous, 195, 231 109–110 Sexual orientation, 52, 81, 82, 200 impromptu, 21, 122, 230 interviews for, 110–116 Shakira, 340 informative (See Informative speech/ knowledgeable sources and, 99–100 Shriver, Maria, 338 speaking) library resouces for, 101–105t, 109–110 Signpost, 159 manuscript, 205, 231 materials for, 101–108, 116–117 Similes, 133, 202 mediated, 154, 341–342 overview, 121 Smith, LeRoy, 77–78 memorized, 195, 231 phases in, 97, 98t Simon, Raymond, 317–318 persuasive (See Persuasive speech/ preparing to, 31, 98–100 Simpson, O.J., 202 speaking) resources for, 122 60 minutes, 135, 138 Speaking abilities, 27 sources and, 109–110, 122 Slang, 192 Speaking event, 65–66 speech, review and analysis, 119–121 Slides, 11 Speaking space, 18, 26t, 28, 139, 199, 238 Resources. See Online resources Slippery slope fallacy, 320, 321t, 327 Special occasion speeches, 62, 133, 331–351 Respect, 44, 45, 50t, 208 Small group presentations, 342–348 acceptance, 333–336 Responding coordination, 346 after-dinner, 336–337 fallacies in, 321t defined, 13, 342 mediated speaking, 341–342 listening and, 54 effective listening and, 346–347 of introduction, 332–333 Responses evaluating, 346–348 of nomination, 339 audience’s, 27, 66–67 forum, 344 overview, 331 erroneous, 43t goals, 348 public testimony, 339–340 Review of main points, 180 group preparation, 346 roasts and toasts, 340–341 Revisable language, 196 oral report, 342 tributes and eulogies, 337–339 Rhetoric, 7–8 panel discussion, 343 Specialized search engines, 106t, 107 Rhetorical questions, 176 preparation and practice, 344–345, 346 Specific examples, 131 Rhymes, 202–203 references to, 347 Specific purpose, 66–68 Rhythm, 127, 197–198 review and analysis, 348–349 defined, 66 Roasts, 340–341 round table discussion, 343 link with general purpose and topic, 67t Rocky Mountain Institute, 132 symposium, 343–344 on questions of fact, 275–276 Roehl, Laura, 202 videoconferencing, 344 on questions of policy, 282–283 Rogers, Chase T., 338 Small-group communication, 14 on questions of value, 279–280 Room, for presentation media, 27–28, 224 Sociability, 93 Specter-Harkin “Pro-Living” Stem Cell Roosevelt, Franklin, D., 6 Social class, 81, 82 Research Bill, 136 Round table discussions, 343 Social events, 13–14 Speech Buddies Rowling, J. K., 176 Social Science Full Text, 102 arguments, 327 Russert, Tim, 61, 338 Socioeconomic level, 52, 81 audience data, 89 RWA. (See Real-time web access (RWA)) Socioeconomic status, 52, 82, 93 avoiding plagiarism, 51 Socrates, 7 building confidence and, 37 S Software, 19, 220 conclusions, ending, 181 Safety needs, 309, 310 Solidarity movement, 130 delivery, 246 Sasakawa, Yohei, 335–336 Songs, 47, 50, 105t, 173, 219 digital slides, 223 Satellite radio, 15, 17f Sony Online Entertainment, 263 engaging the audience, 205 Sophists, 7 ethical speaking, 58

376

Index.indd 376 07/10/10 7:00 PM group presentations, 347, 350 Straw man fallacy, 321t, 324. (See also attention getters, 174 informative speeches, 270 Caricature fallacy) audience’s, 239 introductions, 179, 184 Stress, 29–30t, 33, 145, 278 current events, 65, 92 language choices, 207 Stuttering, 233 limits, 65 media credibility, 139 Style, as an art, 8 settings and, 91–92 patterns of organization, 149–157 Subordinate, 163 of speech, 244 presentation media, 225, 226 Subpoints, 162–163, 164 Time Warner Inc., 90 public speaking, 21, 37 Succinctness, in speeches, 334–335 Toasts, 340–341 research, 122 Summary statistics, 87 Tolerance of dissent, 43t special occasion, 350 Superman, 135 Tone, 190 speech anxiety and, 30 Superpages, 100 Tong, Shen, 125–126, 136 supporting ideas, 141 Supporting materials/ideas, 125–143 Topical pattern, 150t, 151–152, 156t, 259–260 supporting materials, 137 audience and, 73, 84, 152, 160, 167 Topic guide, 102, 262–266 topics and, 74 defined, 126 Topic(s). (See also Setting; Topical patterns) Speech/communication anxiety, 9–10, 12t, identification, 119 argument and, 214 26, 30, 36. (See also Confidence) organizing, 33 audience and, 64–65 Speeches of introduction, 332–333 overview, 125–127 brainstorming, 62– 63, 71 Speeches of nomination, 339 references, 165 choosing, 31 Speeches of tribute, 152, 198, 337–339 selecting, 137 controversial, 55 Speech/speeches. (See also Confidence) substance of speech, 126 defined, 62 acceptance, 333–336 topics and, 190 evaluating/selecting, 64–66 after-dinner, 336–337 types of, 127t guide, 102, 262–266 audiences, researching, 31, 85–87 Syllogism, 314–315 ideas for, 71 conclusions, 32, 303, 304t Symbols, 164, 188 informative, 62 entertaining, 62, 180 Sympathetic audience, 289. (See also Positive interest and, 64 extending, 218 audience) language and, 190 to inform, 62, 180 Symposium, 343–344 online resources, 74 free, 43 overview, 73 hate, 43 T researching (See Research/researching informative (See Informative introduction; Tag questions, 194 topic) speech/speaking) Takanishi, Ruby, 101 resource availability, 65 media credibility and, 139, 141 Target audience, 79 speech anxiety and, 31 negative feedback and, 27 Teamwork skills, 13 thesis and, 68–70 nomination, 339 Technical language, 192–193, 205 time and, 65 parts of, 146, 244 Technology, 28 working outline and, 70–73, 163t persuasive (See Persuasive speech/speaking) computers, 219–223 Trade publications, 102, 104t planning and preparing for, 31–32 information, 15 Transferable skills, 9–12t practicing, 31–32 preparation for using, 33 Transmission/linear model of review and analysis of, 119–121, 182–183 uncertainty about, 28 communication, 15, 20 special occasion, 62, 133 Technology, Entertainment, and Design Transitions, 158–160 subsequent events, referral to, 181 (TED) conference, 171 conclusion, 160 topics, 31, 263–264 Technorati, 108t defined, 158 Speech anxiety TED conference. (See Technology, main points, 159–160 causes of, 26 Entertainment, and Design (TED) types of, 158–159 commenting on, 34 conference) Transparencies, overhead, 215–216 defined, 25 Television, 6, 62, 138–139, 266–268 Tributes, 198, 337–339 managing, 35 Tension-release breathing, 30 Trustworthiness, 92 overanalyzing, 34 Testimony, 134–135, 339–341 Truthfulness, ethical communication and, as productive energy, 35 Text, for digital slides, 221 42, 43t, 44 strategies for, 35 Text messaging, 12, 16f, 17 Turbo10, 107 Spielberg, Steven, 151 Thankfullness, in speeches, 334 Turner, Pamela S., 334 Spoken language, 195–197, 205, 209 Theme, after-dinner speeches and, 336 TV. (See Television) Spontaneity, 197, 220, 237 Thesis, 68–70 Spotlight effect, 28, 38 defined, 68 U Springsteen, Bruce, 334 emergence, 70 UCP. (See United Cerebral Palsy (UCP)) Standpoint, 82–83 informative speeches and, 256 Uelmen, Gerald, 44 Stanton, Elizbeth Cady, 5 phrasing, 68–70 UFOs, 322 Startling statistics, 176 preview statements, 68, 69 Ultimate Visual Dictionary 2000, 102–103 Static language, 195 on questions of fact, 275–276 Uncertainty, 26–28 Statistics, 87, 136–137 on questions of policy, 282–283 audience’s response, 27 Statistics South Africa, 136 on questions of value, 279–280 your ideas, 27 Stem cell research, 135, 136 statement examples, 68–69 role as a speaker, 27 Stereotyping, demographic, 82, 200 working outline, adding to, 72f, 163t speaking abilities, 27 Stewart, Jon, 351 writing, 72–73 the setting, 27–28 Stone, Biz, 334 Thinking, 9 about technology, 28 Støre, Jonas Gahr, 332 Thomas Cook, 202 Uncertainty reduction theory, 26 Stories/storyboarding, 128–130 Time magazine, 139 Underlying assumptions, 117t Storytelling, 8–9 Time/timing Understanding, 53 377

Index.indd 377 07/10/10 7:00 PM UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 136 Visual media, 34, 215–219. (See also audio; Winfrey, Oprah, 173, 174f Unethical communication, 41, 43t design) Wired/land-line phones, 17f Uninformed audience, 81, 290–291 audio, 215, 219 The Wizard of Oz, 324 United Cerebral Palsy (UCP), 135 document cameras, 217 Women United Nations, 136, 196 flip charts, 216–217 delivery and, 232–233 University of Texas at San Antonio, honor handouts, 218 language and, 194–195 code, 48 models, 219 as public speakers, 25, 53 USA.gov, 109f, 136 overhead transparancies, 215–216 sexism and, 52–53, 195t U.S. News & World Report, 139 traditional, 215–219 voice strategies, 232f USA Today, 138 use of design, 215 Woodruff, Judy, 351 video, 217–218 Woods, Tiger, 192 V whiteboards and chalkboards, 217 Word Spy, 191 Validity, 116 Visualization, 28–29, 30t Working outline, 70–73 Value(s), 83–83 defined, 28 brainstorming for, 71 defined, 82 in Monroe’s motivated sequence, 154–155 complete-sentence outlines, 163f questions of, 278–280 Vocal variety, 235 ideas, grouping for main points, 71–72 Variety, vocal, 235 Vocalized pauses, 235 limiting, 71 Vfinity, 126 Voice, 33, 234–236 types of, 70t Video, 58, 74, 141 Voice-recognition software, 4 Workplace, speaking in, 12–13 ethical speaking, 58 Volkow, Nora D., 307–308 Written communication skills, 12 introductions, 184 Volume, 34, 197, 232, 234–235 Written language, 50t, 195–197 presentation media, 217–218 Voluntary audiences, 90 public speaking, 21, 37 X supporting ideas, 141 W XM Satellite Radio, 15 topics and, 74 Wallace, George, 46 Video recorders, 17f Washington, George, 136 Y Videoconference/videoconferencing, Weak analogy fallacy, 321t, 323 Yahoo!, 78, 100, 106t 90, 344 Web directories, 106t, 107 Yahoo! Local, 100 Villaraigosa, Antonio, 273–274 Web logs, 108. (See also Blogging/blogs) Yasin, Zayed Muhammed, 191 Visco, Fran, 174 Webcam, 17 Yellow Pages, 100 A Visual Dictionary of Chinese Webcast, 4, 90 99 YouTube, 14, 334 Architectrure, 103 Webidence, 223 Visual design, 215–219 Websites, 103, 106–107, 136, 189 Z Visual impairments, 234 Webster’s Revised Unabridged Dictionary, 189 Zakaria, Fareed, 351 Visual language, 198t, 201–201 White boards, 217 ZapMeta, 106t Visual materials, 4, 215, 217 Wikipedia, 97 Zogby Poll, 82, 95

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Index.indd 378 07/10/10 7:00 PM