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View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by SHAREOK repository UNIVERSITY OF OKLAHOMA GRADUATE COLLEGE NEGOTIATING ACCEPTANCE: A SOCIOCULTURAL ANALYSIS OF SECOND LANGUAGE USERS’ CONSTRUCTIONS OF SPEAKERHOOD IN CHEROKEE NATION LANGUAGE REVITALIZATION A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE FACULTY in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY By CANDESSA TEHEE Norman, Oklahoma 2014 NEGOTIATING ACCEPTANCE: A SOCIOCULTURAL ANALYSIS OF SECOND LANGUAGE USERS’ CONSTRUCTIONS OF SPEAKERHOOD IN CHEROKEE NATION LANGUAGE REVITALIZATION A DISSERTATION APPROVED FOR DEPARTMENT OF ANTHROPOLOGY BY ______________________________ Dr. Mary Linn, Chair ______________________________ Dr. Daniel C. Swan ______________________________ Dr. Sean O’Neill ______________________________ Dr. Gus Palmer, Jr. ______________________________ Dr. Barbara Hobson © Copyright by CANDESSA TEHEE 2014 All Rights Reserved. Dedicated to my children Acknowledgements I would like to acknowledge the support of the Department of Anthropology, the Sam Noble Oklahoma Museum of Natural History, the American Indian Graduate Center, the Cherokee Nation, the Cherokee Nation Foundation, and Liana Marquis in making my graduate studies possible. This endeavor was also motivated and spurred forward by my committee, Chair Dr. Mary Linn, Dr. Daniel Swan, Dr. Sean O’Neill, Dr. Gus Palmer, Jr., and Dr. Barbara Hobson. Dr. Linn has been a guide, a friend and a mentor through this long process and I couldn’t have accomplished this without her warmth, generosity and expertise. Dr. Swan has offered advice, motivation and honesty along with his academic knowledge and has been an invaluable ally. Dr. O’Neill provided me with valuable theoretical tools and enriched my work through his teaching. Dr. Palmer has served as a touchstone and has always found words of encouragement when needed. Words cannot express what Dr. Hobson’s support and guidance have brought me through many trials. I would be remiss if I did not also thank my former Chair, Dr. Circe Sturm, for her invaluable assistance in the beginning of my graduate career in anthropology and for her continued support. Dr. Jason Jackson has been a constant source of friendship, leadership, motivation, and inspiration. He is a dear friend and exceedingly generous with his time and wisdom. My adopted cohort, especially Dr. Jessica Blanchard, who has offered invaluable advice and support during this process, Dr. Michael Jordan, Dr. John Lukavic, Dr. Abby Wightman, and Amber Neely have shared the trials and tribulations of graduate school. iv Dr. Neil Morton has been incredible and has given me invaluable motivation and moral support. Wyman Kirk has been a seemingly neverending source of information about the Cherokee language, Cherokee history and unfailing in his friendship. Although not interviewed for this project, multiple Cherokee speakers have contributed to my well being and my linguistic knowledge, Christine Armer, Charles Foster, Edna Jones, John Ross, David Crawler, Dennis Sixkiller, Anna Sixkiller, Ed Fields, Peggy Sawney, Thelma Soap, Nora Birdtail, Helena McCoy, Kathy Van Buskirk, Dora Dunn, Bonnie Kirk, and Mary Pettit. Words are not enough to thank the incomparable Roy Boney, Jr. He always reminds me of what is important, is unfailingly kind and understanding, and introduced me to new ways to rock. My mother, Faye Tehee, always encouraged me to reach for the stars and her unflagging support helped me to reach this point. My sister, Amy, has been a devoted friend and listener. My brothers, Houston and Sam, have provided endless laughs and entertainment to lighten my journey. My uncle, Herman, and cousin, Monte, have helped to see me through life events and convinced me of my strength to carry on. My late aunt and uncle, Susan and Clay Morris, would have been so proud of me as the biggest Sooner fans I’ve ever known and I miss them both immensely. In everything I do and everything I am, I am first and foremost a Cherokee mother. My children, ᏆᎳᏳᎦ, ᎦᎵᎶ, and ᏓᏯ give light to my life and meaning to my world. It is for them that I endeavor to be a better person and to fulfill the teachings of what it means to be ᎩᏚᏩᎩ. It is likely that I will always fall a little short of my target but these wonderful children inspire me to keep trying every day. v Table of Contents Acknowledgements .............................................................................................................................. iv List of Figures ....................................................................................................................................... viii Abstract ...................................................................................................................................................... ix Chapter 1: Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 1 Project and Goals ............................................................................................................................. 2 Defining Speakerhood ................................................................................................................... 4 Relationships and Social Power ................................................................................................ 6 Expression of Cultural Capital ................................................................................................... 7 Digital Domains ................................................................................................................................ 9 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................ 10 Chapter 2: Methodology .................................................................................................................... 12 Research Setting ............................................................................................................................ 13 Fieldwork in My Home Community ...................................................................................... 16 Choosing this Research Setting ............................................................................................... 22 Community Participation ........................................................................................................... 26 Data Analysis ................................................................................................................................... 36 Chapter 3: Speakerhood in Endangered Language Communities ................................... 39 Language Revitalization Initiatives ....................................................................................... 39 Defining Speakerhood ................................................................................................................. 41 Speaker, Learner, User: Terms of Proficiency ................................................................... 50 Language Endangerment and Speakerhood ...................................................................... 54 Cherokee Revitalization Initiatives and Measurements of Proficiency ................. 57 vi Chapter 4: Negotiating Speakerhood ........................................................................................... 63 Language and Social Power ...................................................................................................... 64 To Be Cherokee, You Must Speak Cherokee ...................................................................... 70 Toward Claiming Speakerhood and Acceptance ............................................................. 90 Chapter 5: Cultural Capital and Speakerhood .......................................................................... 96 Exploring the Link Between Language and Culture ....................................................... 98 Language, Land, Religion, History ....................................................................................... 102 Speakerhood Matrix .................................................................................................................. 104 L2 Users’ Constructions of Speakerhood ......................................................................... 113 Limited Access to Speakerhood ........................................................................................... 128 Chapter 6: Tsalageeks: Digital Negotiations of Speakerhood ......................................... 132 Cherokee Language Technology .......................................................................................... 133 Literacy and Digital Spaces .................................................................................................... 139 Applying the Speakerhood Matrix to Tsalageeks ......................................................... 142 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................... 149 References ............................................................................................................................................ 154 Appendix A: Interview Questions ............................................................................................... 167 Appendix B: Example of Cherokee Nation Language Proficiency Certification ...... 169 vii