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MONTGOMERY-ANDERSON-A Reference Grammar of Oklahoma Cherokee

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A REFERENCE GRAMMAR OF OKLAHOMA CHEROKEE Brad Montgomery-Anderson B.A., University of Colorado, 1993 M.A., University of Illinois at Chicago, 1996 Submitted to the Linguistics Program and the Faculty of the Graduate School of the University of Kansas In partial fulfillment of the requirements For the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Dr. Akira Yamamoto, Chair Dr. Clifton Pye Dr. Anita Herzfeld Dr. Harold Torrence Dr. Lizette Peter Date Defended: May 30, 2008 The Dissertation Committee for Brad Montgomery-Anderson certifies that this is the approved version of the following dissertation: A REFERENCE GRAMMAR OF OKLAHOMA CHEROKEE BY Copyright 2008 Brad Montgomery-Anderson Committee: ________________________________ Chairperson _______________________________ _______________________________ _______________________________ _______________________________ Date Approved: May 30, 2008 ii ABSTRACT The majority of Native American Languages are threatened with extinction within the next 100 years, a loss that will entail the destruction of the unique cultural identity of the peoples that speak them. This dissertation is a reference grammar of one such language, the Cherokee language of Oklahoma. Cherokee is the sole member of the southern branch of the Iroquoian language family. If current trends continue, it will cease to exist as a living language in two generations. Among the three federally-recognized tribes there is a strong commitment to language revitalization; furthermore, there is a large number of active speakers compared to other Native American languages. This current work aims to serve as a reference work for Cherokees interested in learning about the grammar of their language as well as for educators who are developing language materials. This dissertation also offers the academic community a comprehensive descriptive presentation of the phonology, morphology, and syntax of the language. Cherokee has a relatively small inventory of sounds, and vowels are distinguished by length and tone. One of the goals of this work is to allow the reader a better understanding of complex phonological rules involving vowel deletion, metathesis, and aspiration by using contextualized examples of these phenomena throughout this work. To this end an emphasis is based on using stem forms rather than natural citation forms. The use of tone as a syntactic device for creating subordinate clauses is also stressed throughout this work. iii The four parts of speech are verbs, nouns, adjectives, and adverbs. Cherokee is a polysynthetic language and has complex verbal morphology. Verbs are complete utterances as they always carry pronominal prefixes indicating their subject and object. Prepronominal prefixes as well as clitics add considerably to the expressive range of the Cherokee verb. Nouns and adjectives, many of which are derived from verbs, often have these prefixes as well. All of the affixes and clitics are methodically described; throughout the grammar their usage is demonstrated by numerous everyday examples accompanied by an underlying morpheme breakdown and a morpheme-by-morpheme gloss. This grammar also contains a description of the rich variety of valency-adjusting operations, including Causative, Applicative and Middle voice affixes. This dissertation uses a Romanized writing system that marks tone and vowel length; all words and sentences are also written in the Cherokee Syllabary in order that the information can be useful to those already literate or those who wish to become literate in the traditional writing system. The inclusion of both systems reflects the need to serve the linguistic community as well as the Cherokee community, for whom use of the syllabary is a powerful cultural symbol. This dissertation includes three texts in the final chapter. Two are traditional narratives involving a race between two animals; the third is a short historical narrative. Excerpts from these narratives, as well as examples from the New Testament and newspaper articles, are given throughout the grammar to underline the importance of the context is establishing word order and grammatical relations. iv DEDICATION [gGYhSU ha gO/hsd aQ[]Qv uqd dgkWscpk nsf a/Ewf a/xW #/pd gO/hsd unp]tm9i. nsf ns~ ha [gkWscpk [GYhS aQcli Elizabeth nsf /ccYszn afJscv a> afglscdsdsz nsf qPlsz ha gO/hsd. I dedicate this grammar to the efforts of the Cherokee People to pass on their language to a new generation. I also dedicate this work to my wife Elizabeth for her unfailing support and encouragement during the writing of this grammar. v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This dissertation would not have been possible without the incredible knowledge and guidance of my advisor, Akira Yamamoto. He first introduced me to the Cherokee community and gave me the invaluable opportunity to get involved with Cherokee Nation teacher training workshops in Tahlequah, Oklahoma. Once the grammar was underway he provided detailed proofreading of several drafts of the manuscript. The other members of my committee have supplied much useful feedback during the revision process, and I would like to thank Anita Herzfeld, Lizette Peter, Clif Pye, and Harold Torrence. My decision to become a linguist came later in my college career. I would like to acknowledge David Rood at the University of Colorado for first encouraging my interest in linguistics. Terrence Kaufman, Roberto Zavala, and John Justeson provided me with wonderful field work training during three summers in Mexico with the Project for the Documentation of the Languages of the Americas. This dissertation has received important financial backing from the Phillips Fund of the American Philosophical Society. The Center for Latin American Studies at the University of Kansas supported my graduate career by providing a Foreign Language Areas Studies Fellowship as well as teaching opportunities. The Department of Linguistics also supported my studies through teaching opportunities and the Frances Ingemann Fellowship. I am deeply indebted to the Cherokee speakers I worked with for more than three years. During the beginning of my work Benny Smith met with me for a few hours a week for over two years. I consider myself lucky to have had the opportunity to work with such master speakers as Rosa Carter, Marilyn Cochran, Anna Huckaby, Ed Jumper, Harry Oosahwee, and Dennis Sixkiller. (I owe a special thanks to Anna Huckaby for translating the dedication at the beginning of this work.) The field work done for this dissertation has been greatly facilitated by the Cultural Resource Center of the Cherokee Nation, in particular from the director, Gloria Sly. She allowed me the opportunity to get to know these speakers by inviting me to speak at numerous vi training conferences and workshops. Countless informal discussions with Harry Oosahwee and Wyman Kirk at the Cherokee Degree Program Office helped me to appreciate the intricacies of Cherokee grammar. Many wonderful hours of road trip conversation with Akira and Kimiko Yamamoto, Lizette Peter, and Tracy Hirata- Edds gave me fresh ideas and insights. In addition to my committee members, I owe many thanks to the individuals who have proofread all or parts of this manuscript, including Elizabeth Montgomery-Anderson, Kelly Harper Berkson, and Christopher and Anita Mann. I received invaluable technical support in the form of a surprise laptop that was a gift from Shary and Dow Walker and Jan Montgomery. My friendships with Dave McKinney and Christen Burke were a great help during the dissertation writing process. I am deeply grateful to my parents, Bob and Jerene Anderson and Bruce and Irene Rose, who have helped and encouraged me through many years of college. Most of all, I would like to thank my wife, Elizabeth. She was willing to support my graduate career by starting a new life in Kansas, and I thank her for her love and devotion during my studies. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT……………………………………………………….……….………..iii DEDICATION…………………………………………………………………...…..v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS…………………………………………………….…..vi TABLE OF CONTENTS……………………………………………………...…..viii ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS……………………………………………..xi CHAPTER 1:INTRODUCTION…………………………………………….…...…2 1. HISTORY OF THE CHEROKEES AND THEIR LANGUAGE………...3 2. CHEROKEE LANGUAGE REVITALIZATION……………...………...10 3. PREVIOUS LINGUISTIC WORK ON CHEROKEE………………..….13 4. GOALS AND FEATURES OF THIS GRAMMAR…………………..….17 5. INFORMATION ABOUT THE CHEROKEE CONSULTANTS………23 NOTES………………………………………………………………………..…25 CHAPTER 2: CHEROKEE SOUNDS AND HOW TO WRITE THEM……….31 1. INVENTORY OF SOUNDS…………………………………………..…...31 2. PHONOLOGICAL RULES………………………………………..………63 3. MORPHOPHONOLOGICAL RULES………………………...…………80 4. REPRESENTING SOUNDS IN THE SYLLABARY……………...…….93 5. SYLLABLE STRUCTURE…………………………………………..……98 6. STRESS ……………………………………………………………………103 7. SUMMARY …………………………………………...……………..……105 NOTES…………………………………………………………………………107 viii CHAPTER 3: GENERAL STRUCTURE OF CHEROKEE………………..…116 1. WORD ORDER…………………………………………….……………..116 2. CLAUSE TYPES…………………..……………………………………...125 3. INTERJECTIONS …………………………………………………..……140 4. CLITICS ……………………………………………………………..……141 5. SUMMARY…………………..……………………………………………159 NOTES…………………………………………..……………………………..160 CHAPTER 4: PRONOMINAL PREFIXES………………………………..……162 1. OVERVIEW…………………………………………………………..…...162 2. SET A…………………………………………………………………..…..168 3. SET B…………………………………………………………………..…..183 4. COMBINED…………………………………………………………….....198 5. OBJECT FOCUS ………………………………………………………....203 6. PHONOLOGICAL CHANGES……………………………………….....207 7. SUMMARY………………………………………………………………..215 NOTES……………………………………………………………………..…..216
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