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Tar Heel Junior Historian North Carolina History for Students Fall 2005 Volume 45, Number 1

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Pro due Si aro Tar Heel Junior Historian History for Students Fall 2005 Volume 45, Number 1

On the cover: John Locklear Jr., a Fancy dancer from the Lurnbee tribe, performs during the 2003 Contents American Indian Heritage Celebration Education Day at the N.C. Museum of History. Image Introduction: The First People of North Carolina courtesy of the N.C. Museum of History. 1 These stemmed projectile points dating by Dr. Joseph C. Porter from the Late Archaic period were recov¬ The Archaeology of Early North Carolina ered in Yadkin County. Image from 3 the collections of the N.C. Office of by Dr. I. Randolph Daniel Jr. State Archaeology Research Center. 7 A Look at the Language State of North Carolina by Ben Frey Michael F. Easley, Governor Beverly Perdue, Lieutenant Governor 10 Laying the Loundation: American Indian Education by Jejferson Currie II Department of Cultural Resources Lisbeth C. Evans, Secretary The People: Experiencing a Cultural Renaissance Staci T. Meyer, Chief Deputy Secretary 13 by Forest Hazel Office of Archives and History Communities of Laith: American Indian Churches Jeffrey J. Crow, Deputy Secretary 14 by Dr. Christopher Arris Oakley Division of State History Museums Tar Heel Junior Historian Essay Contest Winners North Carolina Museum of History 16 Elizabeth F. Buford, Director ACTIVITIES SECTION William J. McCrea, Associate Director 18 Education Section 20 The N.C. Commission of Indian Affairs; The State and Its Tribes Michelle L. Carr, Curator of Internal Programs by Gregory A. Richardson and Acting Section Chief Charlotte Sullivan, Acting Curator A Conversation with Artist Joel Queen of Outreach Programs 25 by Lisa Coston Hall Tar Heel Junior Historian Association Suzanne Mewbom, Program Coordinator 28 North Carolina’s American Indians in World War II Paula Creech, Subscription Coordinator by Dr. David La Vere/Our State Books Tar Heel Junior Historian Longtime Chief of the -Siouan: Priscilla Freeman Jacobs Doris McLean Bates, Editor in Chief 30 Lisa Coston Hall, Editor/Designer by Dr. Patricia B. Lerch (in collaboration with Priscilla Joseph C. Porter and Gregory A. Richardson, Freeman Jacobs) Conceptual Editors Indian Cabinetmakers in North Carolina Tar Heel Junior Historian 32 Association Advisory Board by Patricia Phillips Marshall Cris Crissman, Elaine Forman, Vince Greene, Lisa Inside the Contemporary Powwow Coston Hall, Tenley Long, Jackson Marshall, 33 Suzanne Mewbom, Gail O'Brien, Terri Ann by Marvin “Marty" Richardson Rouse, Charlotte Sullivan, David Wagoner 36 Celebrating Thousands of Years in a Single Day Do you need to contact the THJH editor? by Emily Grant Send an e-mail to [email protected].

THE PURPOSE of Tar Heel Junior Historian magazine (ISSN 0496-8913) is to present the history of North Carolina to the students of this state through a well- balanced selection of scholarly articles, photographs, and illustrations. It is published two times per year for the Tar Heel Junior Historian Association by the North Carolina Museum of History, Raleigh, North Carolina 27699-4650. Copies are provided free to association advisers. Members receive other benefits, as well. Individual and library subscriptions may be purchased at the rate of $8.00 per year. © 2006, North Carolina Museum of History. PHOTOGRAPHS: Unless otherwise indicated, images are courtesy of the North Carolina Office of Archives and History. EDITORIAL POLICY: Tar Heel Junior Historian solicits manuscripts from expert scholars for each issue. Articles are selected for publication by the editor in consulta¬ tion with the conceptual editors and other experts. The editor reserves the right to make changes in articles accepted for publication but will consult the author should substantive questions arise. Published articles do not necessarily represent the views of the North Carolina Museum of History, the Department of Cultural Resources, or any other state agency. The text of this journal is available on magnetic recording tape from the State Library, Services to the Blind and Physically Handicapped Branch. For information, call 1-888-388-2460. NINE THOUSAND copies of this public document were printed at an approximate cost of $5,865.00, or $.65 per copy. Introductior The First People of North Carolina by Dr. Joseph C. Porter*

The first people to inhabit the land that would Carolina directly affected European efforts to settle become North Carolina were American in the continental . The explorer Indians. The Indians have lived on this land Hernando de Soto entered the future North for at least 12,000 years. They were here during the Carolina in 1540, becoming one of the first Ice Age, a time when now-extinct mammals such Europeans to meet Indians in the state's interior. as the mammoth, giant bison, and mastodon still De Soto's expedition was just passing through, but roamed parts of . If junior historians in early 1567, could use a time machine to visit these first people, Captain Juan they would find that the Indians lived in a land Pardo led a that was much different from the North Carolina military expe¬ we live in today. The climate was cooler and drier, dition with and the environment had different types of trees 125 Spanish and plants. Archaeologists call these oldest ances¬ soldiers into tors of the American Indians who still live here the the area. He Paleo-Indians. and his men American Indians were building communities met with and making history for thousands of years before many Italian explorer Christopher Columbus reached the American Western Hemisphere in Indian chiefs. 1492. The Spanish and One village other Europeans began that Pardo vis¬ visiting the southeastern ited was Atlantic Coast soon after (state archaeo¬ Columbus's travels. logical site These visitors introduced classification ■■ diseases from Europe to 31Bk22) in Waya Dimalanta ( and Haliwa-Saponi) demonstrates the the Native peoples along present-day Hoop Dance at the 2004 American Indian Heritage Celebration. Image courtesy of the N.C. Museum of History. the coast, and epidemics Burke County spread to the interior of near Morganton. At Joara, Pardo's soldiers built the Southeast, killing Fort San Juan, the very first "European settlement thousands of American in the interior of what is now the United States," Indians and, in the according to historian Charles Hudson in his process, destroying tribes. recent book on the Pardo expeditions. The Spanish Thus many Indians felt soldiers at Fort San Juan violated the cus¬ the impact of the toms of Joara, causing the Indians to attack Europeans before actually and destroy Fort San Juan. So North meeting any of them. Carolina Indians stopped the first effort at After 1500, the native European settlement within the continental American Indians and United States. The site of Joara and Fort Europeans and Africans San Juan can be visited today. (Access from the Old World www.warren-wilson.edu/~arch/fs2004 began to make history for information.) Lloyd C. Owle, a Cherokee, carved this together here. By 1500, American Indians in the North dancing Indian from John White sketched American Indians In the 1500s, Indians Carolina region practiced sophisticated cherrywood in 1969. he saw here in the 1500s. © The Trustees Image courtesy of the of the British Museum. in what is now North agriculture that included growing crops N.C. Museum ofHistoi

*Dr. Joseph C. Porter is the chief curator at the N.C. Museum of History. He and Gregory A. THJH, Fall 2005 Richardson, executive director of the N.C. Commission of Indian Affairs, served as the concep¬ tual editors for this issue of Tar Heel Junior Historian. 1 Eastern Band of Cherokee 2 3 Occaneechi 4 Cohane 5 Lumbee 6 Waccamaw-Siouan 7 Haliwa-Sapom 9 Mehemn

The map at the left shows the locations of many of the American Indian tribes present in North Carolina in the 1700s. The map at the right shows the locations of today's state-recognized tribes. Images courtesy of the North Carolina State Archives and the N.C. Museum of History.

such as corn, beans, and many varieties of squash, as well as hunting, fishing, and gathering. Extensive Native trade networks connected the Indians of the Coastal Plain, Piedmont, and Mountain regions to one another and to Indian peoples farther away. By the time of Pardo's explo¬ rations, many of the historic tribes that Tar Heels know today had created their own communities, including the Tutelo, Saponi, Occaneechi, Keyauwee, Eno, , Waxhaw, Waccamaw, Sugeree, Sissipahaw, Shakori, Catawba, Cape Fear, , , , Hatteras, , Weapemeoc, , Moratac, , Croatan, , Tuscarora, and Cherokee. Nearly three dozen tribes have lived in North

-- Carolina at one time or English colonist John White made this draw¬ another. Many of them ing of American Indians fishing in the 1500s. © The Trustees of the British Museum. disappeared due to war¬ fare, dislocation, disease, and absorption into other tribes. Today, the state officially recognizes eight tribes, and North Carolina has the largest American Indian popula¬ tion of any state east of the Mississippi River. Modern American Indians dress, eat, and live in much the same ways as other North Carolinians. (Clockwise, from toy left) Rep Ronnie Sutton (Lumbee), of Robeson County, a seven-term The arrivals of de Soto and Pardo began the member of the N.C. House of Representatives. Charlene Martin and Emily Stewart of interaction between the native American Indians the Sappony tribe at the 2005 N.C. Indian Unity Conference in Raleigh. Dixon (Cherokee) in fall 1942, when she was stationed at Walter Reed Medical Center as an and the new settlers from Europe and Africa. army nurse. Daniel Patrick (Waccamaw-Siouan) performing the Grass Dance at the 2005 Together all of them created, and continue to create, Indian Unity Conference. A woman and her child on the Eastern Band of Cherokee reservation in 1908. Priscilla Freeman Jacobs, former chief of the Waccamaw-Siouan a truly New World. tribe. A postcard, mailed in 1943, depicting Chief Standing Deer on the Cherokee reser¬ In this issue of Tar Heel Junior Historian, read vation and offering an example of that area's tourist trade. A drum group singing at a powwow held at Wake County's Optimist Park in April 1978. Tom Oxendine of the fed¬ about some of the history, traditions, accomplish¬ eral and Chief W. R. Richardson of the Haliwa-Saponi speaking at one of that tribe's powwows in the 1970s. Images courtesy of the N.C. General Assembly's ments, and challenges of American Indians, the Web site; Sue Vaughan for the N.C. Commission of Indian Affairs; Merritt Youngdeer Jr.; the state's first people.; N.C. Museum of History; Priscilla Freeman Jacobs; the News and Observer Collection, North Carolina State Archives; and Gregory A. Richardson. TH/H, Fall 2005 Time Line: The Archaeology of American Indians in North Carolina Circa 40,000-15,000 BC: People Early North Carolina migrate to North America from Asia at irregular intervals by way of the Bering Land Bridge. by Dr. I. Randolph Daniel Jr. * 10,000-8,000 BC: Paleo-lndian- ost North Carolina citizens are in parts of eastern North America and period American Indians are M nomadic and hunt large animals familiar with the early English even South America challenge this view. for food. They also eat small game and wild plants. They leave settlement of our state, as marked Some archaeologists believe that the peo¬ behind little evidence in what is now North Carolina. by the fabled "Lost Colony" in the late pling of North America may have hap¬ pened several thousand years earlier than 8,000-1,000 BC: Archaic-period 1500s. The story is known because first¬ Indians move from big-game hand accounts of the earliest English originally thought. These claims remain hunting to small-game hunting, fishing, and collecting wild plants. efforts to settle here still exist. very controversial, however, and They change their patterns of liv¬ ing because of North America's Historians, for example, use what they might mean for North changing climate.

Thomas Hariot's writings to Carolina is unclear. Circa 3,000 BC: American describe English life on the coast In any case, the state's first Indians begin to use certain sites for permanent habitation, develop more than 400 years ago. But what inhabitants, these early American interregional trade, and increase significantly in population. of the state's earliest settlers—the Indians, likely arrived in what is 1,000 BC-AD 1600: In an egali¬ American Indians—who had now North Carolina from the tarian, clan-based society, Woodland-culture American arrived more than 10,000 years north. They would have seen a Indians settle in permanent loca¬ earlier? No literary accounts of much different landscape than we tions, usually beside streams, and practice a mixed subsistence that story remain for historians to see today. Vast ice sheets covered lifestyle of hunting, gathering, and some agriculture. Two main crops, describe. Rather, the task largely a large portion of the northern corn and gourds, become staples. Woodland Indians create cord- falls to archaeologists. continent. Although the ice sheets and fabric-marked pottery and Archaeologists reconstruct the never touched North Carolina, develop elaborate funeral proce¬ dures to honor their dead. state's unwritten history through their presence did influence the carefully recovering and thought¬ state's environment. The weather, fully explaining the meaning of the for instance, would have been cooler material remains left behind by the and drier than it is now. Significantly state's earliest residents. lower sea levels would have exposed Most archaeologists divide the much of what is now the continen¬ Stone spear points like state's prehistory into four major this one, called "fluted tal shelf, extending the state's points/' can show us shoreline several miles to the east. time periods: Paleo-Indian, where Paleo-Indians Archaic, Woodland, and Contact. might have lived thou¬ Rather than the oak and pine for¬ sands of years ago. (The Mississippian culture that Image courtesy of I. est that dominates the region became prominent in the Randolph Daniel Jr. today, a mixed hardwood forest A net-impressed pottery vessel, Early Woodland period, recovered from Lake Southeast influenced Indians in existed. Beech and hickory would Phelps, located in Washington and limited areas of North Carolina, overlap¬ have been most common, with a mix of Tyrrell counties. Image from the col¬ lections of the N.C. Office of State ping the Late Woodland period.) The other hardwood trees. Archaeology Research Center. Paleo-Indian period is generally regarded Archaeologists have found precious lit¬ AD 1000-1600: Mississippian- culture Indians create large politi¬ as marking the earliest widespread pres¬ tle evidence of Paleo-Indian settlement in cal units called chiefdoms, uniting North Carolina. In fact, no Paleo-Indian people under stronger leadership ence of humans in North Carolina, or than the Woodland cultures do. North America for that matter, between sites have ever been excavated in the state. Towns become larger and last longer. Indians eat a corn- around 13,000 and 10,000 years ago. The archaeological remains of this period dependent diet and begin creating more sophisticated pottery Exactly when humans first entered North occur mainly as an easily recognized form (including burnishing and stamp¬ ing). Flat-topped, pyramidal America is the subject of much debate of stone spear point called a "fluted point." mounds serve as foundations for among archaeologists. The conventional Fluted points are finely flaked into a lance temples, mortuaries, chiefs' homes, and other important struc¬ view is that the first Americans walked shape, usually three to five inches in tures. Towns are usually built by streams and surrounded by from Asia to Alaska across a "land bridge" length. A "flute" at the point's base is its defensive structures. The culture created by worldwide lower sea levels at distinguishing characteristic. This flute is limited in North Carolina. the end of the last Ice Age. But recent finds forms a channel, or groove, that runs the 1492: Italian explorer Christopher Columbus leads expeditions for

*Dr. I. Randolph Daniel Jr. is an associate professor in the Department of Anthropology at THJH, Fall 2005 East Carolina University. His research interests include the archaeology of the earliest 3 North Carolinians. length of the base. Such a flute probably Fluted Point Distribution by County served to thin the spear point, making it easier to attach to a spear shaft. These artifacts are recovered in small numbers, mostly from the surface of plowed fields across the state. Similar spear points have been found across North America. In the Southwest, for example, archaeologists have recovered fluted points at sites dating roughly between 13,000 and 13,500 years old. Archaeologists believe these sites are

former hunting locations, since fluted points —•———t——^—i—■— have been recovered with the bones of now- 04 -82 -80 -78 76 Longitude (degrees) extinct Ice Age mammals such as mammoth,

mastodon, and bison. No such “kill sites" Studying the places where fluted points have been found can help scientists understand how have been found in North Carolina. But the Paleo-Indians might have moved around and lived in what is now North Carolina. Image courtesy of /. Randolph Daniel Jr. fluted points found here are much the same as those found at kill sites elsewhere, suggesting points have been found—cover the state. One cov¬ that Native groups lived in the state at the same ers the eastern Piedmont and inner Coastal Plain. A time that Paleo-Indians were hunting Ice Age mam¬ smaller concentration is located in the Mountains. mals elsewhere. These two areas are separated by a string of coun¬ The rareness and context of fluted points provide ties in the western Piedmont where no fluted points limited information about prehistoric daily life dur¬ have been found. ing this remote period in North Carolina. But this is Studying the distribution of these points and the a common archaeological pattern across almost the stone type from which they were made suggests entire Southeast. Some scholars suggest that Paleo- that Paleo-Indian groups ranged over large portions Indian folk moved across the landscape in such of the state and adjacent regions. For instance, many small groups and stayed in one place such a short points in the Piedmont/Coastal Plain concentration time that they left little behind for archaeologists to are made from a certain type of stone that geologists find. We might imagine that they lived in small call rhyolite. While North Carolina contains many bands composed of a few families. These bands sur¬ different stone types, rhyolite is one of the few rocks vived by hunting wild game and gathering plant that can be worked by chipping away small pieces foods. As hunter-gatherers, their way of life proba¬ until a desired shape is achieved. This process took bly involved frequent group movements in search much work and skill, but it seems clear that Paleo- of food and other materials they needed. Indians looked for this stone to make tools. Beyond this, what can be said about the Paleo- Archaeologists have discovered likely places (called Indian period here? Some understanding of Paleo- quarries) where this special stone can be found in Indian settlement comes from noting the distribu¬ Stanly and Montgomery counties. Rhyolite fluted tion of fluted points across the state in both private points have been found anywhere from a few miles and institutional collections. To date, I have re¬ to about one hundred miles away from these quar¬ corded more than 250 points recovered from sixty- ries. This fact suggests that Paleo-Indians likely car¬ five coun¬ ried points and other tools made from this stone as ties. My they hunted and gathered throughout the region. analyses Such movement over large areas would not be suggest unusual, given anthropological accounts of recent that two hunter-gatherers that cover hundreds of square point con- miles every year. The distribution of points around centra- these quarries may mean that Paleo-Indian settle¬ rhese projectile points (Hardaway Si ed, Hardaway Blade, tlOIlS Or ment in what is now North Carolina required regu¬ and Hardaway Dalton) were found at the l latdaway archaeological areas site in Stanly County. Such points exhibit traits that differ from lar use of these stone resources. In fact, I interpret dian fluted points and help mark the transition where the this concentration to represent a portion of a former between the later Paleo-Indian and earlier Archaic periods. Image , ri , 1 from the collections of tlw N.C. Office of Shite Archaeology Research Center. ITlOSt tlUteCl Paleo-Indian settlement range. The Mountain point

4 THJH, Fall 2005 Spain to seek new trade routes in the western Atlantic Ocean. This BiiaiaiaiziElgrali mmMsssMmmisisisssssssmmmEmMsmmmmmmMsssMsmismassssm results in the first European con¬ concentration probably represents a small tact with Native peoples in the portion of another settlement range related Caribbean and South America, What Was That Word? creating a continuing and devas¬ to stone sources in Tennessee. tating impact on their cultures. Archaeologist: A person who studies the material The Paleo-Indian period remains the At the time of the beginning of remains of past human life and activities, including Contact, many groups of Indians least understood of any prehistoric period tools or other artifacts. live in the area now called North Artifact: Something made and used by people in the Carolina. These include the in the state. Much more archaeology needs Chowanoke, Croatoan, Hatteras, past, or resulting from a human time period, trend, to be done. After the end of the Ice Age, Moratoc, Secotan, Weapemoc, individual, or institution. Examples could include Machapunga, Pamlico, Coree, modern climate conditions emerged that food preparation items, clothing, books, or even Neusiok, Tuscarora, Meherrin, toys. Cherokee, Cape Fear, Catawba, brought an end to the Paleo-Indian period. Shakori, Sissipahaw, Sugeree, Culture: The beliefs, special behavior, knowledge, Waccamaw (Woccon), Waxhaw, Modern plant and animal communities values, way of life, and material traits of a racial, Cheraw, Eno, Keyauwee, appeared, and sea levels rose nearer their social, or religious group in a certain place at a spe¬ Occaneechi, Saponi, and Tutelo. The tribes can be grouped into cific time. Ways that groups of people adapt to their present levels. three language families: environment and live their daily lives. Much of cul¬ Iroquoian, Siouan, and Native North Carolinians adapted too. ture is passed on to younger generations as learned Algonquian. By the mid-1700s, behavior. some tribes disappear for reasons Over the next 10,000 years, significant including disease and fighting changes occurred in Indian cultures. Excavate: Dig up or remove from the ground. brought on by Europeans. Material remains or material culture: Things left (Indians began to adopt pottery. Farming behind by a group of people, including bone relics, 1524: A Spanish expedition com¬ missioned by Lucas Vasques de artifacts, and monuments. Scientists and historians and settled communities largely replaced Ayllon meets American Indians in can study such items to learn about people's every¬ a place the Indians call Chicora, hunting and gathering. Such was the case day lives and cultures. between the Cape Fear and when Thomas Hariot arrived on the North Prehistory: The time before people began leaving Santee rivers in what is now i North Carolina. A Spanish colony Carolina coast—more than 10,000 years written records. called Rio Jordan is established but abandoned within a few years.

after the first inhabitants. 00 JaMfcLTI'cL ct CJAOclITL di d dJcll rdl die! di d Tift?.! cZT Also during this time, Italian Giovanni da Verrazzano meets Indians in the Cape Fear and Outer Banks regions.

1540: A Spanish expedition led by Hernando de Soto explores western por¬ tions of pres¬ ent-day North Studying the Remains Carolina, seeking gold. De Soto and of the Past** his men visit Indian com¬ munities, "TTmagine looking at layers of past events through probably introducing a special set of lenses called a timescope. You Hernando de Soto. I smallpox and Image from the M might focus the timescope on the American other dis¬ eases, Young Peoples' Revolution or on a time when dinosaurs roamed Cyclopedia of 1566: In the Persons and Places Town Creek Indian Mound on Little River in Mt. Gilead is the only across North America. Through it, you could see summer, (1881). state-owned historic site dedicated to American Indian heritage. Spaniard messages that people accidentally left behind. What Excavations began there in 1937, and the ongoing investigations led to Pedro de Coronas explores the can the messages tell you about the people who the reconstruction of several structures that the public can visit. The site Currituck River region. provides an example of the Pee Dee culture, a regional expression of lived in the past, about the way the land and sea Mississippian. Learn more by accessing Web site www.ah.dcr.state 1566-1567: Spanish explorer Juan Pardo, seeking gold, leads .nc.us/sections/hs/town/Main.htm. Image courtesy of the N.C. Division looked, or about long-ago animals and plants? an expedition through what is now of Tourism, Film, and Sports Development. western North Carolina. Pardo is Such a timescope exists. It is called archaeology, well-received by the Cherokee, and it is a branch of anthropology. Anthropology is are limited in what they can explain, because of and visits the Catawba, Wateree, and Saxapahaw as well. the study of humans, including their physical char¬ variations in object preservation, modem destruc¬ 1584: Sir Walter Raleigh of acter, environment, social relationships, and culture. tion of sites, and the simple fact that many parts of sends explorers Philip Amadas and Arthur Barlowe to By excavating objects—such as tools or parts of culture leave no direct traces behind. But their skills North America in search of colony dwellings—that have been left behind in the earth, and curiosity often offer our best window into the sites. At , the explorers meet Indian chief and studying these artifacts' shapes, sizes, arrange¬ early past, and our best chance at recovering and find the place excel¬ lent for settlement. They return to ments, and geographic placement, archaeologists glimpses of Indian culture displaced in the seven¬ England with Manteo and Wanchese, Indians who learn can even leam about prehistoric people who left no teenth through nineteenth centuries. English and are used to create written records. They use careful methods as well About 100 million years ago, scientists believe, publicity for Raleigh's colony. as skills from other disciplines such as geography, dinosaurs lived on the earth along with other ani¬ 1585: The first English settlement is established at Roanoke Island, zoology, chemistry, botany, and math to help them mals. Dinosaurs became extinct by 65 million years with Ralph Lane appointed gover¬ nor. Roanoke Indians, some of explore the environments and cultures surrounding ago, and by 10 million years ago, many mammals whom initially welcome the known today (such as elephants, horses, cattle, colonists, begin to see them as a our ancestors and their behaviors. Archaeologists drain on resources.

THJH, Fall 2005 5 bison, and monkeys) lived. chronicle of American Indians Object Lessons** Humans' ancestors probably to at least 12,000 years ago. The did not appear until about 3 earliest aboriginal groups million years ago, likely first in reached North Carolina not Africa. Sometime around long after people first crossed 13,000 BC, people (and ani¬ into the New World. Distinctive mals) moved from Asia into the projectile points used by early Americas during the Ice Age, Indians show many similarities when sea levels were lower across the American continents. and land bridges were in places The places they are found sug¬ that water now covers. gest rapid population growth A little more than 400 years and movement of bands of ago, English colonists began to people through Canada and the meet many Native inhabitants Great Plains, and into the

These triangular projectile points dating from the Middle Woodland period along the coast of what would Eastern Woodlands, including were recovered from a Yadkin County archaeological site. Image from the collec¬ become the state of North North Carolina. Archaeologists tions of the N.C. Office of State Archaeology Research Center. Carolina. Even earlier, Spanish studying the prehistory of the The N.C. Office of State There, he found an unusual site explorers "discovered" Indians Eastern United States consider Archaeology Research with the records of human life Center maintains a collection of preserved in many levels of soil in the Mountain and interior four general cultural periods: more than five million speci¬ several feet deep—resembling a Paleo-lndian (roughly 10,000-8,000 mens, the Research layer cake. regions. Within a short time BC, or earlier; all dates vary slightly by Laboratories of Archaeology at Coe’s landmark 1964 book after those first contacts, a few location), or “old Indians." The vegetation UNC-Chapel Hill have more The Formative Cultures of the and animals were very different from than seven million, and some Carolina Piedmont, with infor¬ decades, early European explor¬ today’s, and the climate was wetter and three million more are in other mation from sites including cooler. Paleo-lndians preyed on animals, collections across the state. Doerschuk, will be reprinted for ers had met, interacted with, using their meat, skins, and other parts for Where did all of these archaeo¬ the seventh time in 2006 by the food and other uses. They may, in large logical artifacts come from? North Carolina Office of and begun the process of cultur¬ groups, have forced animals into swamps or They came from the work of Archives and History and the ravines by use of fire or spears. They gath¬ many archaeologists, such as nonprofit Coe Foundation for al displacement of all major the late Joffre L. Coe Archaeological Research Inc. Native groups in the state. ered wild plant foods and likely fished and (1916-2000), who did much at The book was groundbreaking gathered shellfish in coastal and river areas. sites involving American Indian in discussing clear evidence of We possess surprisingly little Archaic (roughly 8,000-1,000 BC). artifacts. Coe is known as one a continuous cultural sequence These Indians improved ways of hunting of the fathers of modern archae¬ spanning up to 12,000 years. knowledge about the earliest and gathering food. The climate and forests ology. In 1948, for example, at The Office of State became more like today’s. Archaic people the site of a planned parking lot Archaeology has information on American Indians. Tantalizing developed a larger variety of stone and at Morrow Mountain State Park more than 40,000 archaeologi¬ bits of information can be wood tools, basketry, and items such as in Stanly County, Coe discov¬ cal sites in North Carolina. An soapstone bowls. Archaic camps and vil¬ ered a large number of artifacts artifact inventory and digital drawn from early exploration lages, which were probably used by sea¬ ranging over thousands of years database project is under way. son, occur as archaeological sites through¬ of history. Morrow Mountain was Laws govern Indian artifacts accounts, but when the actual out the state. a popular place to get rhyolite, a and archaeological sites. What Woodland (roughly 1,000 BC-AD type of granite that early Indians should you do if you find an diversity and complexities of used for spear points and other arrowhead or other artifact? Be 1600). Gradually and in piecemeal fashion, tools. Coe also made major, far- a responsible collector. Look for "Indian" culture are consid¬ Indians adopted bows and arrows (which ranging discoveries at what is the amateur reporting form at ered, we must conclude that allowed a single hunter to harvest animals known as the Doerschuk site on www.arch.dcr.state.nc.us/ like the white-tailed deer), pottery making, the floodplain of the Yadkin siteform.htm or call 919-733- explorers thought more about and settled agriculture. Hunting and gather¬ River in Montgomery County. 7342 for information. ing during times of seasonal abundance of geography, treasure hunts, or resources such as deer, turkeys, shad, and acorns continued, but some clearing of their own daily problems. The fields, planting, and harvesting of crops later colonial period of North including squash, gourds, beans, and maize took place using tools like hoes and digging Carolina history, despite its offi¬ sticks. These Indians settled in larger, semi¬ permanent villages along stream valleys, cial documents, likewise sometimes with defensive walls or pal¬ exhibits an unfortunate lack of isades. Woodland cultures dominated most of the state well into the Contact period. interest on the part of white set¬ Mississippian (roughly AD 1000-1600). This culture prevalent in the tlers to leam details of Indian Southeast influenced a few areas of North (Clockivise, from bottom left) Stone pendant. life. We read little about Indians Carolina—including the Pee Dee and some Early Woodland, found in Yadkin County; Mountain groups. It featured more orga¬ full-grooved axe. Late Archaic, found in except in the writings of a few nized and powerful political chiefdoms, Yadkin County; stone platform pipe, more elaborate pottery and religious prac¬ chlorite schist. Middle Woodland, found men. None of the state's earliest tices, and the building of town centers that in Yadkin County; clay disk of undeter¬ Native cultures had written usually included flat-topped, earthen ’tem¬ mined function (probably ornamental), ple” mounds, public areas, council houses Late Woodland, found in Halifax County language. People relied on oral used for religious and political assemblies, near the . Images from the traditions for their origins, and defensive structures. Mississippians collections of the N.C. Office of State became agriculturally oriented. The oldest Archaeology Research Center. myths, and histories. archaeological evidence of corn agriculture (ca. AD 1000) in the state has been identi¬ Archaeologists trace the fied with the Pee Dee in Anson County.

THJH, Fall 2005 **This material has been adapted from an article written by Stephen R. Claggett, state archaeolo¬ gist, and from information provided by the N.C. Office of State Archaeology Research Center The latter includes portions of Timescope: The North Carolina Archaeology Discovery Kit, which 1586: Ralph Lane leads an expe¬ dition into the interior of the state to seek gold and other precious metals. The Roanoke warn inland A Look at the tribes about the colonists, but Lane makes an alliance with the Chowanoke, who hope to use the English against their enemies, the by Ben Frey* Tuscarora. Chief Wingina plots to get rid of the settlers. Lane has herokee is a fascinating language. family. Today, the are a group of him killed, breaking an uneasy C peace. The language is interesting because six tribes living in the Great Lakes region of the United States and Canada. Linguists Sir Francis Drake arrives at it is so incredibly different from Roanoke Island and takes most of European ones. Although many European say that at some time, around 3,500 years the colonists back to England. He leaves an exploring party and languages—French, Spanish, and Italian, ago, the Cherokee people lived there as possibly Africans and South American Indians captured from for example—relate in some way to each well. For some reason, they moved south. the Spanish. A relief ship arrives at Roanoke Island and, finding no other, Cherokee has no basic relationship By the time the Spanish encountered the colonists, leaves fifteen men to to these languages at all. Cherokee in the 1500s, the tribe was living hold the area for England. One of the things that is so different in parts of what are now North Carolina, 1587: Raleigh sends explorer and artist John White to Roanoke about Cherokee is the way it forms sen¬ South Carolina, , Virginia, West Island as leader of a new group of settlers, in the second English try tences and expresses ideas. In English, for Virginia, Tennessee, Georgia, and Alabama. at settling there. The colonists find Firmly established in their new home, the the bones of the men left behind example, we say sentences such as “I see a in 1586. White enlists the help of bear." In this type of sentence, the subject, Cherokee represented the only group of Manteo to build relationships with the Roanoke and Croatoan I— the one doing the action—comes first. Southern Iroquoian speakers. When Indians. Most of the Native peo¬ ples decide to let the colonists Next, we tell what sort of action is happen- Europeans arrived, American Indian tribes fend for themselves. in what is now North Carolina spoke lan¬ White leaves Roanoke Island ing. In this sentence, we've used the verb for England to get supplies. With see. Finally, the last part of the sentence is guages from three main groups: Southern England and Spain at war, he cannot return right away. the part that receives the action of Iroquoian, Algonquian, and Siouan. 1590: White finally returns to the verb, the object: a bear. Many Today, about 22,000 people speak Roanoke Island to find the colony deserted, with little evidence of European languages work in this Cherokee. Because of their ancestors' what happened. He attempts to order—first the subject, then the removal from their homes in North sail to Croatoan Island in hopes of finding some of the colonists, verb, and then the object. In Carolina and other states in the late but bad weather prevents him from reaching the island, and he Cherokee, however, it is common to 1830s on the , many of these never returns. The Roanoke set¬ tlement is known afterward as the say: Yo-na tsi-go-ti-ha, or "A bear, speakers now live in Lost Colony. Oklahoma. Before the I see it." In Cherokee, the first To see more of John White's draw¬ thing to be expressed is the Trail of Tears, the lan¬ ings of early American Indians, used to illustrate a book by Thomas object! After the object comes guage experienced a peri¬ Hariot, access the collections of the subject, I, and then the od of great growth and Documenting the American South, based at the University of North verb, see. Some elders claim development. Through the Carolina at Chapel Hill Libraries, that this is because in efforts of a man named at http://docsouth.unc.edu/nc/ hariot/illustr.html. Cherokee, we focus first on (1776-1843), things outside of ourselves, Cherokee began learning for 1608: In what is now Virginia, Jamestown leader John Smith and only secondly on the first time to read and sends expeditions to the Roanoke Sequoyah invented the in 1821, ., • . i ,1 Island area for information about ourselves and our giving the tribe its own written language. A syllabary Write in UTCIT OWn lan- the Lost Colony. His men find actions. Whatever the is a set of written characters, or symbols, each repre- gUclfJC. SeQUOVah in.VGIT.t- nothing conclusive. senting a syllable of spoken language. . . . , reason, it is clear that ed the Cherokee syl¬ 1611: Because of their rivalry with England, the Spanish government Cherokee differs fundamentally from labary in 1821. The syllabary divides up develops an alliance with the the sounds of the language into eighty-five Tuscarora tribe to monitor the many other languages. Jamestown colony. Although Cherokee is not related to symbols. Each symbol represents a single 1650: White settlers begin to European languages, linguists (people who syllable—most often one consonant and move into Indian lands along the coastal sounds and rivers. study languages and how they work) have one vowel. (Six symbols, however, repre¬ sent only vowels, and one represents only 1653: Virginia legislator Francis observed that it does seem to be related to Yeardly hires fur trader Nathaniel a consonant, s.) In 1828, Cherokee began Batts to explore the Albemarle some other American Indian languages. Sound region for possible settle¬ Far from all being alike, American Indian using the syllabary to publish a newspa¬ ment. Yeardly agrees to buy land from the Roanoke Indians but languages can be grouped into families, or per, the , which was dis¬ dies before his settlement is established. Batts settles along groups of languages that are related to tributed throughout the . the in a building Unfortunately, the success of the lan¬ that serves as his home and a each other but not to other groups. trading post. He trades with local Cherokee is part of the Iroquoian language guage was not to last as long as it might Indians and becomes the area's first permanent white settler.

*Ben Frey is a graduate research assistant in the Department of Cherokee Studies at THJH, Fall 2005 7 Western Carolina University. He is a member of the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians. The Cherokee Syllabary

• Da Re T (&o Ou lv

S ga ©ka Ke 1 Jgu Egv

*\r ha ?he tdhi Ko Thu tfirhv

Wla (Pie Pi, Gio Miu ^Liv

ma Cl™ Hm, 5mo ^mu

Ona ^fhnaCxnah *^Vne J\m Zno Onv

iXqua i^que TPqui C©quu £quv Usa «)s 4^se bs ^ so rc Rsv Lda W.a SdeTtte •Idi It Vdo Sdu (Tdv

<&dla Xjtla _L t le C„, tlo ^P„u Ptlv

G"tsa Ptse It tsi Ktso (Ttsu C.sv

Cl wa (£$we ©w, eu ^wu 6wv o Ct)ya 3 ye >• GTyu By v Image courtesy of Ben Frey. have. Many speakers died along the Trail of Tears, children. during a time when many American Indian tribes In recent years, both the Cherokee Nation of were forced to travel on foot from their homes to Oklahoma and the Eastern Band of Cherokee reservations, or areas set aside by the federal gov¬ Indians in North Carolina have taken steps to ernment, in the West. People were allowed to take reclaim their language. With the help of documents only what they could carry Most of the rest of their from anthropologists (scientists who study human possessions were stolen, sold, or destroyed. In the beings and their ancestors over time, including time after the Trail of Tears, the United States gov¬ physical traits, environment, social relationships, ernment placed many Cherokee in Oklahoma, as and other factors) such as James Mooney and lin¬ well as those who had stayed behind in North guists such as , William Pulte, Carolina, into boarding schools in an attempt to William Cook, Duane King, and Janine Scancarelli, "civilize" them. During this period, much of the lan¬ and efforts by both tribes' cultural resource depart¬ guage's strength was lost. Teachers at boarding ments, progress is being made toward that goal. schools would wash out Cherokee children's Because most speakers today are older, the Eastern mouths with soap if they caught them speaking Band has created a classroom for infants in which their native language. They taught that the language only Cherokee is spoken. This way, the tribe hopes was wrong and immoral, and that the only lan¬ to raise a new generation of people who will speak guage that American Indians should speak was Cherokee as a first language. Many older speakers English. Because of the mental and emotional trau¬ are rising to the challenge of teaching the language ma these children went through, most grew up to other adults and to children who are no longer believing that the Cherokee language could only able to learn it as a first language. Small informal cause harm, and they did not teach it to their own language classes have been forming recently in

8 THjH, Fall 2005 many community centers on the —land held in trust today for the Cherokee by the federal government—in western North Carolina. In order to be suc¬ cessful as new speakers, students need to Since its 1937 debut, the outdoor drama understand the grammar and structure of The Lost Colony annually has por¬ trayed the mysterious disappearance of the language, but they also need to be able 120 English colonists. Image courtesy to use it to communicate in everyday life. of the N.C. Division of Tourism, Film, and Sports Development.

One of the biggest early supporters of 1661: On March 1, King the importance of grammar in teaching the Kilcocanen of the Yeopim grants land on the Albemarle Sound in Cherokee language was Robert H. southern Perquimans County to George Durant, who later holds Bushyhead, who died in 2001 at age several state offices, in the earli¬ eighty-six. Bushyhead—who was born and est grant on record in the colony. raised in the Qualla Boundary community 1675: Chowanoke Indians attack white settlements in what is now of Birdtown—worked with Cook, a lin¬ northeastern North Carolina. The uprising is quelled with the “loss guist from Yale University. Together they of many men." tried to discover how Cherokee sentences 1690s: Cherokee traders estab¬ are formed and how Cherokee words lish trade agreements with the English at Charles Towne (now mean what they mean. Bushyhead empha¬ Charleston, South Carolina). sized the importance of the particular 1700: The Chowanoke and Weapemeoc peoples have gradu¬ sounds of the language, its pronunciation, ally abandoned their lands in the and its unique rhythm. To preserve these Albemarle region. Some have become slaves or indentured ser¬ qualities, he worked with his daughter The late Robert H. Bushyhead, shown on this early 1990s poster vants. Others have migrated wearing Native dress that includes a bearclaw necklace, was born southwest to join the Tuscarora. Jean and son Eddie to create recordings of in 1914. He grew up speaking Cherokee's Kituhwa dialect at home There are only about 500 Indians but was punished for speaking the language when he went to the left in the region. Explorers of the the language and of the lessons he 1580s found the Chowanoke, government-run Cherokee boarding school. He became the princi¬ occupying a large settlement on designed with Cook. Close to the same pal founder, linguist, and historian for the Cherokee Language the west side of the Chowan time, Cherokee speaker and language Project, as well as a passionate advocate for preserving his culture. River in the area of present-day He also acted in the outdoor drama for nearly Bertie and Hertford counties, to teacher Laura Pinnix was working with twenty years and worked as a preacher. In 1996 the N.C. Arts be well-established and friendly. Council gave Bushyhead a N.C. Folk Heritage Award. Image cour¬ But by about 1820, the tribe King—a linguist from the University of tesy of the N.C. Museum of History. apparently was extinct.

Georgia—toward similar goals. Through An escaped slave serves as an the efforts of these teams, much was writ¬ so that anyone can use and understand it. architect in the construction of a large Tuscarora fort near the ten and recorded about the language and In time, these efforts should enable the Neuse River. its grammar. One of the tribe's goals today Cherokee to teach and preserve their lan¬ 1709: Surveyor John Lawson, who began a thousand-mile jour¬ is to find a way to present that information guage in the best way possible. JyQ ney through the colony in late 1700, publishes A New Voyage to Carolina. The book describes flora and fauna and groups of Indians he visited over a decade. ‘Try It cYourse(f! Lawson also publishes a map. 1710: Baron Christoph von Graffenried, a leader of Swiss and The following are Cherokee words for animals. Try making sentences using the rules that go with them! (Vowels are German Protestants, starts a pronounced as follows: “a,” as in “father”; “e,” as in “weigh , “i,” like the “ee” in “sheet”; “o," like the “au” in “caught”; “u colony in Bath County. The town, like the “oo” in “shoot”; and “v,” as in “uh-huh") New Bern, is founded at the junc¬ tion of the Trent and Neuse rivers, Yo-na (bear), We-sa (cat), Gi-hli (dog), So-gwi-li (horse), A-wi (deer), Wa-lo-si (frog) displacing an Indian town named Chattoka. tsi—I hi—you + -qo-ti-ha (to see somethinq) June 8: Tuscarora on the a—he/she/it Roanoke and Tar-Pamlico rivers a-ni—they send a petition to the government of Pennsylvania protesting the Examples: Yo-na tsi-go-ti-ha (Bear, I see it); So-gwi-li hi-go-ti-ha (horse, you see it) seizure of their lands and enslavement of their people by Carolina settlers. Fast fact: When European settlers came to North Carolina, they found American Indians of different tribes who spoke many different languages. The languages can be grouped into three families: Algonquian, spoken mainly by 1711: In September, Tuscarora Natives living near the coast and north of the Cape Fear River; Siouan, spoken mainly by tne Indians in the capture John Lawson, Baron von Piedmont region; and Iroquoian, spoken mainly by American Indians living in the Coastal Plain between the Graffenried, and two African Algonquian and Siouan groups and by those in the Mountains. Within each language family, Indians spoke many slaves. After arguing with the different languages and could not understand one another; one language might even have had several dialects. chief, Cor Tom, Lawson is exe¬ Numerous tribes did communicate for trade or for other reasons by using interpreters or by using a few specific, cuted. The others are spared. simple words. Later in the month, the opens when Catechna Creek Tuscarora begin

THJH, Fall 2005 9 Laying the Foundation: American Indian Education in North Carolina by Jefferson Currie II*

In 1971 the State of North Carolina proposed tear¬ other places in the United States mandated that stu¬ ing down the Old Main building at Pembroke dents of different racial groups attend separate State University (now the University of North schools. The Croatan Normal School trained addi¬ Carolina at Pembroke). Old Main, built in the 1920s, tional Indian instructors who were hired to teach at is the oldest surviving building at the school, which segregated Indian schools. began as a place to educate American Indian stu¬ The Sappony tribe in Person County, North dents and opened through the efforts of Waccamaw- Carolina, and Halifax County, Virginia, also Siouan educator W. L. Moore in 1887 as the Croatan founded a school in 1887, holding classes in a Normal School. The building for many years served church building. In 1888 the school moved to a new as a gathering place for plays, meetings, building on land donated by tribal member Green SAVE OLD MAIN RALLY and funerals for the Lumbee Indian com¬ Martin. A later school, the High Plains Indian munity. Lumbee educator Danford Dial School, located in Person County, took in students protested the idea of destroying the build¬ from Halifax County, Virginia, when that state ing by picketing with a large stop sign, refused to support a school for the Sappony. The starting a petition, and appealing to school High Plains Indian School closed when the Person and state administrators. Dial wanted the County school system desegregated in 1962. building preserved because “our modern Some schools in smaller Indian communities in

7 30 P M. January 17 1972 THE STABLE education among the Lumbee Indians eastern North Carolina did grant high school diplo¬

Image courtesy of started with Old Main graduates . . . these mas, but many did not. The law required that Jefferson Currie II. people really did lay the foundation for Indian education in the segregated system be equal Indian education all over the county, in the various to that of the white community, but, in reality, the Indian communities, and Indian centers. And to me, local, county, and state governments often under¬ I thought this had a reason for making Old Main a funded Indian education. To help Indian students historical building and a historical site." Eventually, gain a full high school education, the state opened many outside the Lumbee community came to the East Carolina Indian School in 1942 in the understand the importance of Old Main as a symbol Indian community of Sampson and Harnett of the history of Indian education in North Carolina, and the building was restored. The academic Department of American Indian Studies, organized later, is currently housed in the building. American Indians felt the importance of preserving Old Main as a symbol of educa¬ tion far beyond the Lumbee community, in communities such as the Coharie, Haliwa- Saponi, Sappony, and Waccamaw-Siouan. The school opened as a place to train Lumbee teachers, but those who graduated with normal (or teaching) degrees after 1928 also went out to teach in other Indian communities. Although these other com¬ munities had schools, in many instances beginning in the mid-1800s, the schools often had had no Indian teachers. The sys¬ Croatan Normal School opened in 1887 to educate the Indians of Robeson County. It eventually evolved into the University of North Carolina at Pembroke. This photograph is believed to have tem of segregation in North Carolina and been taken between 1890 and 1910. Image courtesy of the N.C. Museum of Histone

10 TH/H, Fall 2005 *Jefferson Currie 11 is an assistant curator at the N.C. Museum of History. He is a mem¬ ber of the state's Lumbee tribe and has done much research on American Indian history. A NEW VOYAGE CAROLINA

Dcfcrifticn and Nnurd Hiflarj j COUNTRY: Together with the Pnfint Suit thereof. I

A JOURNAL Of aThoufand Miles, TravelM tluo' (cveral Nations of INDIANS. Giving a particular Account of their Cuftoon, Manners, £r<-

By John Lawson. Gent. Surveyor- Cencral of Nortb-Carolind.

LONDON, Printed in the Year 1709. I I

John Laivson wrote a hook that describes the natural environment, as well as the American Indians he met. To read some of his writings, access Documenting the American South, based at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Libraries, at http://docsouth.unc.edu/nc/lawson/ menu.html. attacking colonial settlements near New Bern and Bath. Tuscarora, Neuse, Bear River, Machapunga, and other Indians kill more than 130 whites. Virginia refuses to send troops to help its neighbor colony but allocates £1,000 for aid in October.

1711-1715: In a series of upris¬ ings, Tuscarora attempt to drive away white settlers, nearly destroying the settlements between the Neuse and Pamlico rivers. The tribe is upset over the practices of white traders, the capture and enslavement of Indians by whites, and the contin¬ uing encroachment of settlers onto their hunting grounds. Other tribes side with the whites. Old Main, shown here before the University of North Carolina at Pembroke was renamed as such in 1996, is the most recognizable symbol of the university and the oldest brick building on campus. Built in 1923, gutted by fire in 1973, and restored in 1979, it is listed on the National Register 1712: South Carolina sends help of Historic Places. The building today houses the Multi-Cultural Center, the campus television station and student newspaper, the Native to her sister colony in January. American Resource Center, the departments of American Indian Studies and Mass Communications, and other offices. To learn more about Old John Barnwell, a member of that Main, the arrowhead that stands in front of it, and other UNC-P landmarks, access Web site www.uncp.edu/uncp/about/landmarks.htm. state's Assembly, leads about thir¬ ty whites and 500 “friendly” Indians, mostly Yamassee, to fight counties. This school was proposed as a pushed to establish a school in a system the Tuscarora. A battle takes place at Narhantes, a Tuscarora boarding school where students from the where there were only schools for black fort on the Neuse River. Coharie, Sappony, and Waccamaw-Siouan Barnwell’s troops win but are sur¬ and white students. Under the leadership prised that many of the fiercest tribes could earn a high school diploma. of Chief W. R. Richardson, the Haliwa- Tuscarora warriors are women, who do not surrender “until most The money that the state provided to build Saponi started a private school using the of them are put to the sword.” In April, Barnwell’s force, the school did not include funds for a dor¬ Pearsall Plan. The school was eventually joined by 250 North Carolina mili¬ tiamen, attacks the Tuscarora at mitory to house students, so families in the merged into the Warren County school Fort Hancock on Catechna Coharie community boarded the students system, and closed following countywide Creek. After 10 days of battle, the Tuscarora sign a truce, agreeing in their homes. This school graduated stu¬ desegregation in 1969. to stop the war. That summer, the tribe rises again to fight the dents from seven North Carolina counties By the early 1970s, education in North Yamassee, who, unsatisfied with their plunder during earlier battles, until 1965, when the schools in Sampson Carolina was no longer segregated by race, remain in the area looting and pil¬ County desegregated. and the American Indian schools closed. laging. The Tuscarora also fight against the continued expansion The U.S. Supreme Court ruled in 1954 in Indians lost these community centers, as of white settlement.

Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka local control of schools passed to the coun¬ 1713: Another force from South Carolina, consisting of 900 [Kansas], that segregation was unconstitu¬ ties. The Cherokee in the Mountains main¬ Indians and thirty-three whites, on March 20 begins a three-day tional and must end “with all deliberate tained their federally supported school on siege on the Tuscarora stronghold speed." North Carolina used a school the Qualla Boundary reservation, while of Fort Neoheroka. Some 950 Tuscarora are killed, or captured choice program called the Pearsall Plan to Cherokee students living in outlying com¬ and sold into slavery, effectively defeating the tribe and opening avoid real desegregation. This program munities attended local public schools. the interior of the colony to white settlement. Although a few rene¬ allowed communities to start schools with Today, many former Indian school build¬ gades fight on until 1715, most state money if their local school desegre¬ ings have been transformed into commu¬ surviving Tuscarora by 1820 will migrate to to join the gated. During the wrangling over segrega¬ nity centers and tribal offices, but the Iroquois League as its sixth and smallest nation. tion and desegregation, the Haliwa-Saponi Haliwa-Saponi school building in Hollister 1715: A treaty with remaining tribe in Halifax and Warren counties is being used as a school again. The tribe Tuscarora is signed. They are

THJH, FaU 2005 11 Indians in the United States. In 1954 the school A HOOK AT desegregated completely, INC-PEMBROKE and in 1972, as Pembroke Founded: In 1887 as Croatan Normal State University, it became School. That March, the General Assembly enacts legislation, sponsored part of the new University by Rep. Hamilton McMillan, of Robeson County, to open the school in response of North Carolina System. to a petition from the area's American The General Assembly Indians. The legislature establishes a Board of Trustees and gives $500 for passed a law in 2005 that salaries. Local people build the school. Fifteen students enroll the first fall, with designates the university instruction at the elementary and sec¬ as "North Carolina's ondary levels. Historically American Other key dates: 1905: The first diploma is awarded. Indian University." The 1909: The school shifts about a mile east to its present location in Pembroke. It first Lumbee leader of the goes through several name changes over tne next few years. (Today the school is college was English E. just off Interstate 95 and Highway 74, Jones, president 1962-1972 about fifteen minutes from Lumberton.) 1926: Elementary education is phased and chancellor 1972-1979. out, with a two-year “normal" program beyond high school added. Two years Indian education in later, the first ten diplomas of that pro¬ gram are granted, and the state accredits North Carolina has come a now-Cherokee Indian Normal School of Robeson County as a “standard normal long way since the Coharie school.” began a subscription 1940: The first four-year college degrees are awarded. The next year, the General school—where parents paid tuition to Assembly changes the school's name to Pembroke State College for Indians. In the teacher for educating their chil¬ 1942 a few nonteaching college degrees are added, and in 1945 enrollment opens dren—in their Sampson County com¬ beyond Robeson County to members of munity in 1859. There are now many all federally recognized Indian groups. Until 1953, now-Pembroke State College more American Indian professionals, is the only state-supported four-year school for Indians in the nation. many of whom attended segregated 1953: The Board of Trustees approves admission of white students; the next schools, including Dorothy Stewart year, following the U.S. Supreme Court's school desegregation decision, the col¬ Crowe (Sappony), a member of the lege opens to qualified applicants without N.C. Advisory Council on Indian regard to race. Enrollment grows quickly. 1969: The General Assembly changes Education; Dr. Louise C. Maynor the school's name to Pembroke State University and makes it a regional univer¬ (Lumbee), the chairperson of the N.C. sity with a wider range of programs. 1972: The General Assembly establishes Advisory Council on Indian the sixteen-campus University of North Education; and Dr. Ruth Dial Woods Carolina System, with Pembroke State as one of tne campuses. Six years later, (Lumbee), a former member of the a number of master’s programs and more undergraduate ones are approved. University of North Carolina Board of 1996: On July 1 the school officially (Top) New Bethel Indian School in Sampson County opened becomes the University of North Carolina Governors. at Pembroke. Programs of study continue in 1911 to serve Coharie children. to expand. UNC-P today is the state's (Above) Students pose on the steps of the "boys house" at American Indians in North fastest growing university. the Cherokee boarding school on Qualla Boundary in 1908. Carolina remain concerned about edu¬ Image courtesy of the N.C. Museum of History. By the numbers, fall 2005: 55 under¬ cation in their communities and con¬ graduate degree programs, and 16 graduate programs in business and in August 2000 opened a state charter tinue to remember the hard-fought education. Total enrollment of 4,962 undergraduate and 670 graduate stu¬ school that integrates Indian culture battles won so that Indian youth dents (including 21 percent American into the basic curriculum. could receive a good education. The Indian, 23 percent African American, 3 percent Hispanic, and 2 percent Asian). Croatan Normal School is now Old Main building still stands, a Sixty-five percent of students are female. There are 237 full-time faculty members. known as the University of North reminder of that history of education. Athletics: NCAA Division II, Peach Belt Carolina at Pembroke. The school As Lumbee activist Janie Maynor Conference began granting four-year college Locklear has said, "This building is School colors, etc.: Since the 1940s, degrees for Indian students in 1940. very definitely a part of our heritage, the official colors have been black and gold, though gold has been associated Prom 1940 to 1953, it was the only our culture, our very being, and our with the school since the 1920s. The nickname (dating to the 1940s) is Braves. state-supported four-year college for very beginning."£0 The mascot is the red-tailed hawk, added in 1991 as a companion to the Brave, and indigenous to Robeson County.

Source: www.uncp.edu

12 THJH, Fall 2005 placed on a reservation along the . The Coree and Machapunga Indians, Tuscarora allies, settle in Hyde County near Lake Mattamuskeet. The land will be granted to them in 1727, and a The Occaneechi People: reservation will be established.

The General Assembly enacts a Experiencing a Cultural Renaissance law denying blacks and Indians the right to vote, which the king by Forest Hazel* will repeal in 1737. Some free blacks continue to vote until dis¬ enfranchisement in 1835. The Occaneechi hybrid chestnuts to assist in community economic develop¬ Band of the ment. 1717: The few Tuscarora remain¬ Saponi Nation, With fewer than 700 enrolled tribal members, the ing in the colony, led by Chief Tom descended from the Occaneechi are working to improve economic and educa¬ Blount, are granted land on the Siouan-speaking tional opportunities for tribal members, particularly in view Roanoke River in Bertie County, tribes who greeted of the decline of tobacco as a cash crop, one on which the near present-day Quitsna. They John Lawson and community once depended greatly. had left their reservation on the other early explorers Plans for the Heritage Tourism complex include a mu¬ Pamlico River because of raids by of the Carolina seum, which will tell the story of the Occaneechi-Saponi tribes from the south. Piedmont, has come people from Pre-Contact times up to the present; a recon¬ a long way in a rela¬ structed Occaneechi Village modeled on the one John 1721: The Cherokee give up land tively short time. Forest Hazel demonstrates how early Lawson visited in 1701; and an 1880s-era reconstructed northwest of Charleston to the Since formally reor¬ colony of South Carolina, the first American Indians made dugout canoes farm, complete with log cabin, tobacco barns, smokehouse, ganizing in 1984, of many land cessions the tribe during a recent American Indian the tribe has: and corn cribs. Visitors from across the region will be able to visit the facility and learn about how the Piedmont makes to Europeans. The treaty Heritage Celebration. Image courtesy of the • written a tribal also regulates trade and sets a Siouan peoples lived, led by trained Occaneechi guides N.C. Museum of History. constitution; boundary between the tribe and dressed in historically accurate clothing. The facility also • achieved official European settlers. state recognition in will include nature trails, a garden, and picnic areas, as 2002 as North Carolina’s eighth and smallest tribe; well as administrative office space and a meeting area for • purchased twenty-five acres of land in the tribal commu¬ the community. nity in northeast Alamance County for a Tribal The Occaneechi tribe has constructed a permanent Center/Heritage Tourism complex; powwow ground in Pleasant Grove—its first in more than • conducted a study of the Tutelo/Saponi language; 250 years—where it holds a yearly festival as well as a • prepared a nearly complete petition for federal acknowl¬ school-day program for area students. edgment; * implemented a successful annual benefit golf tournament; To learn much more about the tribe, access its Web site • planted orchards utilizing heirloom apples, pawpaws, and at www.occaneechi-saponi.org. £•.

A few years ago, remains were found that belonged to a -woman from a Siouan-speaking Indian group tlwt lived in an area along the Dan River (now Stokes County) about 300 hundred years ago. An interdisciplinary team was able to make a reconstruction of this "Sauratown Woman," her clothing, and jezvelry. Image courtesy of the N.C. Museum of History. (Clockivise, from left) Students pose at the Crawford School, which once stood on N.C. 49 in Little , in about 1914. In the 1930s, men gather outside 1726-1739: The Cheraw (Saura) Jeffries Store in the Little Texas community of Indians incorporate with the Alamance County. Sam Martin is the namesake of Catawba living near present-day Martin's Chapel Church. Henry Bowden, pictured at Charlotte. a tobacco seeding machine, is the grandson of Andy 1730: Cherokee leaders visit Jeffries (next picture), and the sixth generation of his London and confer with the king. family to farm. (Bowden's nephews and great-nieces They pledge friendship to the also farm.) Agriculture has long been important to English and agree to return run¬ the tribe. Images courtesy of the Occaneechi Band of the away slaves and to trade exclu¬ Saponi Nation and Forest Hazel sively with the British.

1736: The North Carolina colony establishes an Indian Trade Commission to regulate trade with Native peoples.

1738-1739: A smallpox epidemic decimates the Indian population in North Carolina, especially in the east. The epidemic also decreases the number of Cherokee by 50 percent.

1740: Waxhaw Indians, deci¬ mated by smallpox, abandon their lands in present-day Union County and join the Catawba. The vacated lands are taken over by

*Forest Hazel serves as the federal acknowledgment officer and the tribal historian for the THJH, Fall 2005 Occaneechi Band of the Saponi Nation. Communities of Faith: American Indian Churches in Eastern North Carolina by Dr. Christopher Arris Oakley* After the Civil War ended in 1865, the South Ferguson, that racial segregation was constitutionally entered a period that historians sometimes fine as long as the facilities were “separate but refer to as the era of the “New South." But equal." In North Carolina, however, “equal" was in some ways, the New South was very similar to rarely the case. White facilities, such as restrooms the Old South of the pre-Civil War years. North and schools, were usually much nicer than "col¬ Carolina was no exception. In the Tar Heel State, ored" facilities. conservative whites asserted their political, social, In general, racial segregation meant “white" and and economic authority in the late 1800s. The Civil "colored." But what did the term colored mean? War had ended slavery, but some Southern whites Most people in North Carolina at the time assumed wanted to maintain control over the nonwhite pop¬ that the term referred to . ulation. Consequently, the North Carolina General However, there were more than two racial groups Assembly passed a series of new laws that denied living in North Carolina in the late 1800s and early nonwhites political equality. For example, the state 1900s. In the western part of the state, the Cherokee government took away this group's right to vote. lived on a federal reservation in the Great Smoky The North Carolina government also passed laws Mountains. In eastern North Carolina, several thou¬ that divided all citizens into two racial categories: sand more American Indians lived in small isolated white and “colored." Known as "Jim Crow" laws— communities in several counties—Robeson, which were named for a stereotypical black man in Sampson, Halifax, and Columbus, among others. a song-and-dance show of the time—these new Under segregation, which divided all North rules made racial segregation legal in North Carolina residents into two racial groups, American Carolina. All public facilities, such as restrooms, Indians living in the eastern part of the state faced a restaurants, theaters, train cars, and schools, had to problem. They could not use white public facilities, be racially segregated, or divided. For example, yet they did not want to use colored facilities. Jim white citizens would use one restroom, while col¬ Crow allowed for only those two choices. American ored citizens had to use a different one. White chil¬ Indians worried that if they used colored facilities, dren would go to one school, and colored children they might lose their separate racial and cultural would go to another one. In 1896 the U.S. Supreme identities. To them, the category of colored was Court ruled in a famous court case, Plessy v. much too large and ignored the diversity among North Carolina's nonwhite citizens. Rather than accept this segregation, American Indians in eastern North Carolina fought against the system by trying to create their own racial and cul¬ tural category. One way of achieving this was to start Indian-only churches. Before the arrival of Europeans in the late 1500s, most Indians in the region practiced their own traditional religions. After being influenced by missionaries and preach¬ ers, however, many Indians living in the eastern part of North Carolina had converted to Christianity by the late 1800s. Most became Baptists or Methodists. American Indians were barred from attending white churches, though, and they did not want to attend African American churches. They The Shiloh Indian Sunday School, Dismal Township, Sampson County. Image began building their own Protestant churches. For appeared in the 1916 book The Croatoan Indians of Sampson County, North Carolina: Their Origin and Racial Status, by George Edwin Butler. example, Indians in Robeson County founded

TH/H, Fall 2005 "Dr. Christopher Arris Oakley is an assistant professor in the Department of History at East Carolina University. In 2005 the University of Nebraska Press published his book Keeping the Circle: American Indian Identity in Eastern North Carolina, German, English, Scottish, and Welsh immigrants.

Methodist churches also formed their own 1750s: Armed conflicts arise religious group. After an internal dispute, between the Cherokee and The (Burnt Swamp colonists, who continue to expand it split into the North Carolina Conference areas of settlement farther into the colony's west. Baptist Association of the Methodist Church and the Holiness 1754: Governor Arthur Dobbs Methodist Conference. receives a report from a Bladen The Burnt Swamp Baptist Association, which has Naturally, American Indian churches in County agent of about fifty Indian its office in Pembroke, North Carolina, celebrated families living along Drowning its 125th anniversary in October 2002. The associa¬ eastern North Carolina served a variety of Creek (present-day Lumber tion started with four member churches, and it now River). The communication also includes sixty-four churches and four missions. The religious purposes. But these churches also reports the shooting of a surveyor churches have mostly American Indian members. who entered the area “to view These churches are affiliated with the N.C. Baptist played important social roles in most vacant lands.” This is the first writ¬ State Convention and the Southern Baptist ten account of the tribe from Convention. Most of the pastors are American Indian communities. In fact, churches were which the modern-day Lumbee Indian. The association’s goals are to help churches often the only public buildings in the com¬ descended. strengthen program organizations; promote missions and local ministries; develop Christian leadership; munities. Churches hosted numerous secu¬ 1754-1763: England and France and nurture fellowship among member churches. fight the French and Indian War Burnt Swamp Baptist Association is involved in sev¬ lar, or nonreligious, events such as family all along the frontier of North eral outreach programs to help those with needs America. North Carolina troops such as food, clothing, and medicine, as well as to homecomings and picnics. In addition, the serve both in the colony and in address problems like substance abuse. The associ¬ buildings were often used as Indian-only other colonies. The French ation provides ministry training and supports mis¬ encourage Indians in deadly raids sionaries and evangelists. It works in partnership schools during the week. Churches also against British colonies. with several American Indian tribes and organiza¬ tions. The Reverend Mike Cummings leads the served as social safety nets in Indian com¬ 1755: The Indian population in group. For more information, access the associa¬ eastern North Carolina is estimat¬ tion’s Web site at www.burntswamp.org. munities. If individuals or families fell ed at around 356. Most of these upon hard times, they could go to their are Tuscarora who have not moved north. local church and ask fellow members for The colonial governor approves a Union Chapel, Thessalonica, Saddletree, help. This aspect was very important for proposal to establish an Indian academy in present-day Prospect, and Sandy Plains churches. In many Indians in the early 1900s, since they Sampson County. Sampson County, Indians opened New had few other choices for assistance. Bethel Baptist and Beaver Dam. This idea By the year 2000, around 100,000 quickly spread to other communities. American Indians lived in North Carolina. American Indians founded, financed, and Most remained Baptists and Methodists. built these churches themselves. Indians in eastern North Carolina largely As the number of American Indian still worship in small- and medium-sized churches in eastern North Carolina began community churches, though these church¬ to grow, the two most numerous sects, the es are also open to non-Indians. Several of Methodists and the Baptists, began to form the churches are very old, dating back to The Oconaluftee Indian Village re-creates a Cherokee milage of 1750, religious groups. In the 1870s, several the early 1900s. Such churches helped until traditional crafts, Indians in Indian churches in the Robeson County American Indians in eastern North Native costume explaining their history and culture, and more. Image courtesy area formed the Burnt Swamp Baptist Carolina protect their unique identities of the N.C. Division of Tourism, Film, Association. Burnt Swamp was the first during a time when Jim Crow racial segre¬ and Sports Development. documented Indian religious organization gation threatened to destroy a culture and 1758: North Carolina militia and in North Carolina. In the late 1800s, Indian a people older than the state itself.gj Cherokee help the British military in campaigns against the French and Indians, including in Virginia. The Cherokee decide to change sides after ill treatment by the English, and they return home, where they eventually A LOOK AT STICKBALL attack North Carolina colonists.

Stickball has been played by many American Indian groups in 1759: The French and Indian War the Southeast. A precursor to lacrosse, the sport traditionally intensifies as Cherokee raid the was played with two sticks (made of wood, with nets made of western Piedmont. Refugees textiles or animal hair) and a small ball (often made of animal crowd into a fort built by hide and stuffed with animal hair). Usually two communities Moravians at Bethabara. Typhus kills many people there. The same within a tribe faced off in a game, with the number of players year, another smallpox epidemic varying. The Cherokee played by a creek or a river because sev¬ devastates the Catawba, reducing eral rituals involved in the game required the the tribe by half. players to go to water. Often, ceremonies and dances took place the evening before a game. 1760: An act of assembly permits (Top left) This Cherokee stickball game took North Carolinians serving against place in the 1920s. (Far left) Stickball sticks made Indian allies of the French to of split oak and woven wire. Written on them enslave captives. are the names of Soco team members and the In February, Cherokee attack Fort user, Robert Crow, along with the date August Dobbs—built near the Yadkin 25, 1916. (Left) These men were on the Wolftown River north of present-day stickball team, on the Qualla Boundary, in 1888. Statesville as a refuge for settlers Images courtesy of the N.C. Museum of History.

THJH, Fall 2005 lar Heel Junior Historian Essay Contest 2005: Elementary Division W inner A LOOK AT On the ‘Trail of Tears’ THE TRAIL OF TEARS by Samantha Chandler* She knew that, if caught, we would defi¬ During the eighteenth century hen I was an Ayasha (little one), my nitely be killed by the soldiers. Our best and the first half of the nine¬ chance for survival was to go on the quest, teenth century, dozens of treaties family and I lived a happy life. My gave up American Indian lands to name is Running Deer, and this is my story which we now know as the Trail of Tears. the U.S. government, which wanted to open the lands to white settle¬ about our journey on the "Trail of Tears." Unfortunately, the journey was plagued ment (and gold mining) as well as from the start. Tire White Man wanted to to provide a protective buffer Tire journey was hard and full of pain. between its citizens and the Before the White Man came, we lived in take us by boat, but sadly the harsh Spanish and others in the West. In his 1829 inaugural address, what we called a clan. There were seven droughts forced them to take us by land. President Andrew Jackson set a Soldiers bed us together to keep us from policy of relocating eastern tribes. clans in our system of kinship. Each clan The federal of had a special name, such as wolf, deer, or rumring. Little Blue Water fought to be 1830 called for all tribes east of the free; a rope was wrapped around his neck. Mississippi River to move. Starting bird. We had a seven-sided council house. in 1838, the U.S. government ana All clans came there He soon joined the spirit world; he was military forced more than 16,000 Cherokee from their homes in to discuss any issues only four in White Man's years. Our hearts North Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, were filled with pain. We stood there, and Tennessee, sending them west we had. This was to Indian Territory (present-day our government. We watching life leave his body. All hope for Oklahoma). Thousands died—per¬ haps a fourth or more of the tribe. all worked together, freedom was gone; it was only a memory When the first European and the land on at that point. colonists arrived, the Cherokee controlled a large area, living in which we lived was The journey was long and packed full of parts of eight present-day states. tragedy. The contractors hired to lead us (To learn more, access www.nc- shared, not owned cherokee.com/images/Lands- or destroyed for thought of all the money to be made; how¬ Oriqinal.JPG.) By 1830 the tribe hacl given up most of its land. Image courtesy of the N.C. profit or pleasure. ever, so did all of the merchants along the The majority of Cherokee, Museum of History. However, this all way. Supplies and food were scarce or rot¬ including the tribe’s chief, John Ross, opposed removal, but some changed when the White Man began to ten, and our blankets often were resold to felt that fighting the process served make up for lost profits by the contractors. no purpose and believed their sur¬ move in. They looked down on me and my vival depended on another treaty. family. [We] Indians were to just move over I remember being so sick from eating rot¬ In December 1835, a few hundred Cherokee—none of them officially and let them take what they wanted. It was ten meat that Silent Bird carried me for elected representatives of the days. Soon every stop we made was tribe—gathered in , unbearable and demeaning to be treated Georgia, then the capital of the that way. We were like the animals they marked with death; thus, the Trail of Tears Cherokee nation, to sign a treaty giving the tribe's lands east of the trapped, and held in their corrals. got its name. Silent Bird joined the spirit Mississippi River to the federal gov¬ Nevertheless, my father. Raging Wolf, world quickly; she had gotten the White ernment, in exchange for five mil¬ lion dollars and new western home¬ was a strong man. He always told me and Man's smallpox. Only Raging Wolf and I lands. Despite the protest of thou¬ were left, and he was not well. The loss of sands of Cherokee, the U.S. Little Blue Water, my brother, to stay close Senate ratified this Treaty of New to our home. He knew that the White Man Silent Bird left me heartbroken, for I knew Echota in May 1836 by one vote. Two years later, with Martin Van would hurt us if they caught us. We once that my life's journey would be incomplete. Buren as president and under the ran free in the woods and swam in the No one was safe. Diseases like smallpox, direction of General Winfield Scott, federal and state troops rounded river, but those days were no more. Father tuberculosis, and cholera took manv lives. up Cherokee into stockades and We were underfed and underclothed, and then internment camps, sending warned us daily until we finally became them on land and water journeys of too afraid to even leave our home. our weakened bodies began to give in to more than a thousand miles. By March 1839. the survivors of this The White Man wasted no time taking our spirits. "Trail of Tears" (named from the Cherokee “Nunahi-duna-dlo-hilu-l." everything from us. They began hoarding Finally, our new land was in sight. We or “Trail Where They Cried") had us up, pushing us into their forts, locking were all horrified to see that about one- arrived in Oklahoma. Talequah became the new Cherokee capital. us together. Our family and friends lost fourth of us had not survived the danger¬ The tribe elected Ross principal everything. Some were only allowed to ous journey. Over 14,000 Cherokee had chief a few months later. About a thousand Cherokee in keep the clothes on their backs. The condi¬ begun the journey. Although the White North Carolina and eastern Tennessee escaped the roundup. tions we suffered by the White Man's Man threw us onto a new land mixed with In 1868 a new tribal government hands were causing some families to fight other Indians, I had survived! The reserva¬ was established in the town of Cherokee. Today, the descendants for survival, turning us against one another. tions were small, and the land was not fer¬ of this group are recognized as the In 1830 the White Mari's new president, tile; there was no green grass or rolling Eastern Band of Cherokee. The National Park Service main¬ Andrew Jackson, signed an act, the Indian hills; the land was dry, but we prevailed. tains a Trail of Tears National Historic Trail. To learn more, access Removal Act. This was the White Man's Raging Wolf was never the same. The www.nps.gov/trte. These Web sites solution to us "INDIANS." You see, this act White Man had broken his spirit. My name offer related information: www.cherokeemuseum.org; placed us on a new land, far away. Raging is Running Deer, for my body may be www. untothesehills. com; Wolf wanted us to plan an escape, but trapped, but my spirit will always remain http://oconalufteevillage. com; and www.pbs. org weta/thewest Silent Bird, my mother, wouldn't allow it. free. £3 program episodes two trailtears.htm

16 THJH, Fall 2005 ’Samantha Chandler won first place in the elementary division of the Tar Heel Junior Historian Essay Contest 2005. She was a fourth-grade member of the junior historian Bald Creek History Club at Bald Creek Elementary School in Burnsville, J. Sunshine Williams, adviser. and “friendly" Indians—and white Tar Heel Junior Historian Essay Contest 2005: Secondary Division Winner settlements near Bethabara and along the Yadkin and Dan rivers. In June an army of British regu¬ lars and American militia led by JVcdim (Zm&ucam: MatceU ox TeapCe? Colonel Archibald Montgomerie destroys Cherokee villages and by Sarah Boswell* saves the Fort Prince George gar¬ and using them in ways that are offensive to rison in South Carolina but is Native Americans. Take the eagle feather, for defeated by the Cherokee at Imagine this. You are a Native American and Echoe. Two months later, have been asked to an Atlanta Braves game by instance. Mascots put them all in their hair and on Cherokee capture Fort Loudoun their costume and think it's funny. The eagle (in present-day Tennessee) and one of your friends. Why not? I mean, it will be massacre the garrison. fun, right? Well, that's what you think until the feather represents courage, spirit, and bravery. Many tribes consider the eagle the creature closest 1761: An army of British regulars, day of the game. Then you notice the mascot. He American militia, and Catawba to the Creator. Eagle feathers are also considered and Chickasaw Indians led by is dressed in what Native Americans would call Colonel James Grant routs the finery, and he is dancing a tribal dance that he to hold powerful medicine. People in our society Cherokee, in June destroying fif¬ use these things to mock Native Americans. The teen villages, burning stored made up. He then starts chanting wildly. Soon the grain, and ripping up fields, end¬ pro football team the Washington Redskins also ing Cherokee resistance. The tribe crowd, including your friend, joins in. You, how¬ signs a treaty in December to end ever, are offended. It's good that this doesn't hap¬ offends the Native Americans, just because of its its war with the colonists. team name! In earlier times, the English would pen, isn't it? Well, unfortu¬ 1763: English King George III nately, it happens every skin the Indians' scalps so they could trade them issues a proclamation that defines for valuables. In 1992 seven Native Americans the western edge of settlement. day. It might not be at a pro This “proclamation line" through filed a lawsuit against the Washington Redskins western North Carolina is meant game but in a nearby to separate Indians and colonists. school. [Are] this mockery organization. As you can see, more than just being used as a mascot can offend Native Americans. The ends the and stereotyping right? I Seven Years' War in Europe and can answer in one word, I will end with a poem by Lori Wautier, who is the French and Indian War in North America. and it's not yes! an Oneida tribe member. This poem clearly expresses my feelings about Native American 1775: The Treaty of Sycamore For centuries, Native Shoals (now Elizabethton, mascots. It is called "We Are Living People." image courtesy of the N.c. Americans have been used Tennessee), between Richard Henderson of the Transylvania Museum of History. for some kind "I don't understand ... Why should anyone's iden¬ of entertain¬ Company and the Cherokee peo¬ ment. Some of the Indian mascots I've heard of tity be defined by your games? We are living peo¬ ple, is signed. It opens for settle¬ ple. Why must we, a living people, be singled ment the area from the Ohio are the Atlanta Braves, the Washington Redskins, River south to the Watauga settle¬ out? Why must we, a living people, be stereo¬ ment. The Shawnee, who inhabit the Cleveland Indians, and many more. People the lands, refuse to accept the say that by using these mascots they are honoring typed? Can't you tell who we, a living people, terms of the treaty. are? Why doesn't what we say matter? We are a Native American heritage, but all they are doing is 1747-1776: The Coharie, living people. Why don't our voices count? We are Catawba, and ancestors of the making fun of sacred traditions of the Native Lumbee join the Patriot cause. Americans. You don't see us trying to imitate a living people. How can you say that 'all men are created equal ... ' but not create the Mishicot 1776: Starting in May, Cherokee African Americans on the ball field. Native village councils discuss going to Americans are no different. In fact, currently 2,500 Caucasians or the Gale-Ettrick Blackmen? Why do war against the American you treat us, a living people, as relics? Why is our colonists. The Cherokee decide to schools around the country use Native Americans fight to protect the existence of culture for sale? We are a living people. Why must their society, ignoring the conse¬ as their mascots, and only 600 have changed theirs quences and the overwhelming to something less demeaning. In April 2001 the we fight, for that given to others? We are a living odds against them. The tribe raids people. I don't understand ... Respect should be white settlements in Watauga U.S. Commission on Civil Rights recom¬ County and South Carolina in mended that all non-Native American schools such a simple thing? Respect should be such a June. The British have promised simple thing! Why do you make it so hard? Why to protect the tribe from encroach¬ drop their Native American name or mascot. On ments by colonial borders. do we make it so hard?" Starting in late July, General Indian reservations, 33 percent of Indians were Griffith Rutherford with 2,400 men bothered by this constant mocking. Some things So the next time you are at a ball game or invades Cherokee country, watching TV thinking it's OK to see people make destroying thirty-two towns and have also changed so as not to offend the Native villages. He is joined by Colonel Americans. The Portland Oregonian won't allow fun of Native Americans, ask yourself this one Andrew Williamson with South question: "What if it were me?" 03 Carolina troops and Colonel racist words in their newspaper. A radio station in William Christian with Virginians. This expedition breaks the power Washington won't use racist words on the air. of the Cherokee and forces them Some people to sue for peace. There was a big dispute in Asheville over such a may not matter. A school, known as Erwin High, used the realize that 1777: By the Treaty of Long American Island of Holston, signed July 20, Warrior and the Squaw as its mascot. Some want¬ Indians are the Cherokee cede territory east ed to change the mascot, while others wanted the alive and of the Blue Ridge Mountains and along the Watauga, Nolichucky, same mascot to represent them, like it had for well today— and not just Upper Holston, and New rivers (an area east of present-day over forty years. The dispute is in fact still going as mascots Kingsport and Greenville, or costumed on, but not just in Asheville. It's happening all Tennessee). characters. over the country. Image reprint 1783: Despite the boundary at Imitating Native Americans is not only hurtful, courtesy of the foot of the Blue Ridge Richard Mountains set by the treaty of because you are making fun of their heritage, but Crowson, 1777, the assembly declares also because you are taking things sacred to them The Wichita lands open for settlement as far west as the Pigeon River. Eagle.

*Sarah Boswell won first place in the secondary division of the Tar Heel Junior Historian THJH, Fail 2005 Essay Contest 2005. She was an eighth-grade member of the Tar Heel Junior Historians at 17 Forest Hills Middle School in Wilson, Carol N. Brugh, adviser. ACTIVITIES SECTION

CMTTJNTGERLKOHJEKO Finding THTBJUNEOKCRUBYHNC UOOFEPNAEUOLWYOGAO American CRHCIKNATKHCNJZLTN KYBHOOOILASNANZ IOA Indian ACMJKWRNTU I UWRMVUL SUAEERITAPSAMECCQU Place-Names ELGPUCENAPHKEAAOSF Wanchese is one of many places in GLUCQRHUIAASATTBAT North Carolina with an American merican Indians have made their Indian name. Image courtesy of the N.C. A EOAIAFQYPTSHACNTPE mark on the North Carolina map. Division of Tourism, Film, and Sports EWTSPNKAQAYWCCEOAE Development. Several dozen towns, bodies of water, SHAWIAXHWJBNIHUWGM and other geographic features have According to William S. names that originated with American NEWHTAMIXAMDLOSHJJ Powell's The North Carolina Indian words or groups. Can you find BECRSRHERCAVQWEQAV Gazetteer, Wanchese is a south¬ some of them in the word search puzzle UZYEOPIMZFNDUAENOG ern Roanoke Island commu¬ to the right? SNAMIUQREPTOYNCLOS nity named for one of the two American Indians taken to And can you mark these places on the HALAHATNANEOXUHFGA England in 1584 by explorers state map above? (Some names apply to STORMQNIENOFEPCSBI more than one place—both a county and Philip Amadas and Arthur a river, for example.) Want to learn more Barlowe. about where such place-names come Words to find: from? Check out William S. Powell's CATAWBA HATTERAS OCRACOKE book The North Carolina Gazetteer, pub¬ CHAPANOKE HIWASSEE PASQUOTANK lished by UNC Press. CHINQUAPIN PERQUIMANS Many states in the United States also CHOCOWINITY MANTEO ROANOKE have names with American Indian ori¬ CHOWAN MATTAMUSKEET SAXAPAHAW gins. Can you name any of them? CULLOWHEE NANTAHALA TUCKASEGEE CURRITUCK NEUSE WATAUGA Word search puzzle solution on page 37. ENO OCONALUFTEE YEOPIM 18 THjH, Fall 2005 North Carolina’s Fast Facts American Indians By the numbers: According to the U.S. Census Bureau, as of July 1, 2004, there were approximately 4.4 million American Indians/Alaska Natives in the United States. They made up 1.5 percent of the total popula¬ tion. According to the 2000 Census, the largest tribal groups nationwide included the Cherokee, Navajo, Choctaw, Sioux, and Chippewa. More than 729,000 people claimed at least some Cherokee ancestry. The esti¬ mated number of residents age five or older speaking a Native North American language at home at that time was 381,000. (The most common language: Navajo.) See pages 21-23 for some North Carolina data.

What’s in a name? “Indian” was the name that fifteenth-century Italian explorer Christopher Columbus wrongly gave to the people he encountered when he arrived in what he believed was the “Indies,” or part of Asia, but actually was the Americas. In the 1960s, the name “Native American” was intro¬ duced to eliminate confusion between people from the country of India and the native peo¬ ple of the Americas. “American Indian” has been used for the same purpose. Some have viewed the use of “Indian” in any form as insulting and related to stereotypes. Native American, seen as more respectful by some, became seen as too generic, bureaucratic, or tied to the government by others. Other terms Crossword puzzle such as “indigenous people of North America” and “Amerindians” have been used. solution on page 37. In 1995 a U.S. Census Bureau survey of preferences for racial and ethnic terms indicat¬ ed that 49 percent of Native people preferred You can find all the answers for the Down being called American Indian (the term used crossword puzzle by reading this by the N.C. Commission of Indian Affairs); 37 1. Early American Indians sometimes carved percent preferred Native American; 3.6 per¬ issue of Tar Heel Junior Historian. wooden_that they then pressed into cent preferred another term; and 5 percent had no preference. Good luck! pottery to make designs. 2. During the Civil War, Henry Berry_ On the menu: American Indians introduced Across many food items to early European settlers, led a resistance group in Robeson County. including pumpkin, succotash, corn, chili, 4. Weaving these is just one example of a 3. The University of North Carolina at squash, several kinds of beans, peas, and sunflower seeds. They taught settlers the dry¬ traditional American Indian craft. _began as Croatan Normal School. ing process used to preserve foods and make 6. Legends of the "Three Sisters" refer to 5. When European colonists arrived in things such as raisins, and taught them new _, beans, and squash. North Carolina, the three language groups ways to hunt and fish, as well as medicinal cures for some illnesses. To catch prey such 8. The Town Creek Indian_in Mt. of American Indians were Iroquoian, as deer, bears, wild turkeys, rabbits, and Gilead is part of the North Carolina State Algonquian, and_. squirrels, early American Indians in what is now North Carolina used methods like hunting Historic Sites Division. 6. The N.C._of Indian Affairs is with spears, bows and arrows, or blowguns, 9. The inventor of the Cherokee syl¬ involved in many programs. and trapping. They fished in many different ways. Most lived in longhouses made of mate¬ labary. 7. Several American Indian churches in the rials such as wood ana reeds, rather than 11. Instead of tipis, American Indians in Robeson County area founded the_ tipis. Today, of course, Indians get their food, live, work, and dress like other Americans do. North Carolina were more likely to live Swamp Baptist Association in 1877. in these structures. 10. The number of state-recognized Ready to wear: American Indians introduced American Indian tribes in North Carolina in colonists to clothing such as moccasins and 13. In 1838 Cherokee were forced west¬ ponchos, as well as to cotton, which is used to ward on the Trail of_. 2005. make many clothes today. Much of early 15. Explorer John_published his 12. For centuries, American Indians have Indians’clothing was made from deer skins. (Indians in different areas at varied times had book A New Voyage to Carolina in 1709. created these beads from shells and woven different ways of dressing. In the eighteenth 18. By the early 1800s, most of this tribe them into items such as capes and necklaces. century, for example, many Cherokee women wore skirts made from the inner bark of mul¬ had left North Carolina to join the Five 14. Army Pfc. Charles_, a member of berry trees.) Women and men often wore ear¬ Nations of the Iroquois in New York. the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians, after rings, necklaces, and bracelets fashioned from copper, shells, bone, and stone beads. 19. From 1986 until 2004, Priscilla his death received the Congressional Medal Freeman_served as chief of the of Honor for bravery in the Korean War. The word: Many common English words have American Indian origins. These include bayou, state's Waccamaw-Siouan tribe. 15. The largest American Indian tribe in chipmunk, hickory, hominy, pecan, squash, 20. Henry Ward_in 1973 became North Carolina today toboggan, and tomahawk. the first American Indian to serve in the 16. Archaeologists study fluted points, arti¬ Devastating effects: By some estimates, in North Carolina General Assembly. facts once at the ends of hunters'_. the span of about 150 years after the arrival of 21. The tribe centered in Person County. 17. The_-Saponi tribe takes part of its Europeans, as much as 95 percent of the American Indian population died out from dis¬ 23. Several American Indians worked name from Halifax and Warren counties. eases for which they had built up no immuni¬ with African American furniture maker 22. An event celebrating American Indian ty-such as smallpox and measles. Thomas_in the 1800s. culture through dance, song, and more. THJH, Fall 2005 19 The N.C. Commission of Indian Affairs by Gregory A. Richardson* In the mid-1900s, American Indian communities in North Carolina were struggling for survival, facing many adversities, and without a voice in local or state government. These communities were, for the most part, extremely low-wealth areas, where few educational or economic opportunities existed. The national Civil Rights era and the American Indian Movement (AIM) of the 1960s and 1970s helped to change things. A big step forward happened in 1971, when the General Assembly cre¬ ated the N.C. Commission of Indian Affairs at the request of tribal leaders in the state. Let's learn more about this special organization. Representatives of state-recognized tribes and groups are introduced at the start of the 2004 American Indian Heritage Celebration at the N.C. Museum of History. The creation of the commission provided the first The N.C. Commission of Indian Affairs helps sponsor this annual event. To chance for the state to work directly with Indian learn more about the commission, access www.doa.state.nc.us/cia/indian.htm. Image courtesy of the N.C. Museum of History. leaders to address issues of concern and to set the stage for positive socioeconomic change for Indian The program includes study skills and test-taking communities. Through the commission, the state workshops, college campus tours, assistance in find¬ could bring together a group of hard working and ing financial aid for college, leadership opportuni¬ dedicated leaders, staff, and volunteers who could ties, cultural field trips and events, and more. Other apply old-fashioned teamwork to meet common work areas for the commission include job develop¬ goals. The commission began by preparing grant ment, services for the elderly and disabled, and proposals and submitting them to state and federal health awareness and prevention of substance agencies for funds. Through that process, resources abuse. The commission works with other groups to became available to address the needs of the state's coordinate and sponsor events that include the N.C. Indian communities and Indian citizens. Indian Unity Conference, the N.C. Indian Youth Today, the commission coordinates and helps Unity Conference, Indian Heritage Month activities with many programs and events. For example, it such as the American Indian Heritage Celebration sponsors an Educational Talent Search Program, (see page 36), and the N.C. Indian Senior Citizens which offers education and career counseling to Conference. The commission helps to make the pub¬ youth ages eleven to twenty-seven in several coun¬ lic more aware of Indians in North Carolina. It pro¬ ties where test scores are low, many students drop motes and protects understanding and pursuit of out of school, and unemployment levels are high. Indian traditions and cultures.

Since 1971, the N.C. Commission N.C. Commission of Indian Affairs of Indian Affairs has offered sup¬ port and pro¬ Chairs grams for the Mr. Dalton Brooks, state's American Lumbee; Chief W. R. Richardson, Haliwa- Indian commu¬ Saponi; Mr. Jim R. nity. This photo¬ Lowry, Lumbee; Mr. graph was taken Lonnie Revels, at a commission Lumbee; Mrs. Patrick meeting in Clark, Lumbee; Mr. September 1978. Paul Brooks, Lumbee Image courtesy of (June 1993-present). the Nezus and Observer Executive directors Collection, North Mr. Earlie B. Maynor, Carolina State Lumbee; Mr. A. Bruce Archives. Jones, Lumbee; Mr. Gregory A. Richardson, Haliwa- Saponi (February 1995-present).

20 THJH, Fall 2005 *Gregory A. Richardson is the executive director of the N.C. Commission of Indian Affairs, as well as a member of the Haliwa-Saponi tribe. He served as one of the conceptu¬ al editors for this issue of Tar Heel Junior Historian. 1791: The Cherokee sign the Treaty of Holston, by which they cede a hundred-mile tract of land west of Asheville in exchange for goods and an annuity of $1,000.

1798: By the , the Cherokee cede a triangular area with its points near Indian Gap, east of present-day Brevard, and southeast of Asheville.

1808: The Cherokee, who already have a national council, establish a law code and “Light Horse Guards” to maintain law and order. Two years later, they abol¬ ish clan revenge as a mechanism for social control.

1814: Cherokee aid General Andrew Jackson in defeating the Creek Indians in the Battle of Horseshoe Bend in Alabama on March 27. Afterward, Jackson tells Chief Junaluska: “As long as the sun shines and the grass grows there shall be friendship between us, and the feet of the Cherokee shall be toward the East.” As president, Jackson later plays a major role in the effort to move the tribe and The purpose of the N.C. Commission of Administration, the chairman of the N.C. others west.

Indian Affairs is to advocate for (or sup¬ Employment Security Commission, the I817. jpe Andrew Jackson. Cherokee give Image courtesy port and promote) Indian communities, secretary of the N.C. Department of up land in of the N.C. tribes, and organizations, and to bring Environment and Natural Resources, the exchange for Museum of land on the History. together local, state, and federal money secretary of the N.C. Department of Health Arkansas River. Two thousand tribe mem¬ and other resources that can help. It works and Human Services, and the commis¬ bers move west. with government agencies and other sioner of the N.C. Department of Labor. 1819: The Cherokee agree to a groups. The commission paved the way treaty by which a large amount of Two youth groups are represented by ex their land in present-day for tribally administered programs and for officio, or nonvoting, members: the chair¬ Henderson, Transylvania, and Jackson counties is ceded to the the delivery of services into Indian com¬ person of the N.C. Native American Youth federal government. Cherokee are allowed to receive land grants as munities by tribes and the commission Organization and the chairperson of the individuals and can resell the land itself. Since 1971, tribal governments have N.C. Native American Council on Higher to white settlers to earn money. evolved from having very limited Education. A paid commission staff coordi¬ 1820: The Cherokee establish a judicial administration and eight resources into being able to provide much- nates programs and services. judicial districts. needed services and job opportunities. The General Assembly provides money 1821: Sequoyah completes his work establishing the Cherokee They have greater influence at all govern¬ for staff salaries and other administrative syllabary, making the tribe the ment levels. costs. Most programs are funded through only group of American Indians with a written language. The eight state-recognized Indian tribes grants and by organizations such as the U.S. 1822: The Cherokee National and four state-recognized urban Indian Department of Education, U.S. Department Supreme Court is established. associations all hold membership on the of Housing and Urban Development, U.S. 1827: The Cherokee approve a N.C. Commission of Indian Affairs by Department of Labor, N.C. General new tribal constitution. statute, or state law. Tribes and Assembly, and N.C. Department of Health 1828: The first edition of the Cherokee Phoenix, a newspaper organizations elect their representatives to and Human Services. printed in Cherokee and English, is released. the commission through procedures each Through the commission, appointments The state sells the Bertie County has established. The General Assembly are made to some related organizations: tract of land called Indian Woods, appoints two commission members, one • N.C. Indian Housing Authority—The set aside for Tuscarora after the war of 1711-1713. by the Speaker of the House of commission gets nominations from mem¬ 1830: President Andrew Jackson Representatives and one by the president ber tribes and organizations and forwards signs the federal Indian Removal Act, calling for Indians to be of the Senate. Five people serve on the them to the governor for appointment. The forced from their homes to lands commission by virtue of their appointed General Assembly, at the request of the west of the Mississippi River. positions in state government: the secre¬ commission, created this group in the late The first independent church in the High Plains Indian Community tary of the N.C. Department of 1970s for the purpose of developing hous- (Sappony tribe) is formed.

THJH, Fall 2005 21 The primary North Carolina statutes related to the N.C. ing programs and initiatives Commission of Indian NCIEDI as part of its year States with the Largest Affairs are found in in Indian communities. Chapter 143B-404 2000 strategic plan. Its pur¬ American Indian- through 411, and • N.C. Advisory Council on Chapter 71 A. Do you pose is to study the econom¬ Alaska Native Populations know how to look up Indian Education—The com¬ statutes, bills, and ic development needs of Persons reported as American Indian- other information Alaska Native in combination with other mission gets nominations American Indian communi¬ races, or alone, 2000 U.S. Census related to the General from member tribes and Assembly? Access ties, conduct surveys, and California 627,562 333,346 www.ncga.state.nc.us. organizations and forwards develop plans to create job Oklahoma 391,949 273,230 them to the State Board of Education opportunities as well as create or 292,552 255,879 Arizona for appointment. At the request of expand businesses. Texas 215,599 118,362 the commission, the General • N.C. Indian Cultural Center—The New Mexico 191,475 173,483 Assembly created this council. It commission gets nominations from New York 171,581 82,461 reviews and studies the educational member tribes and organizations and

Washington 158,940 93,301 needs and concerns of American appoints members to this center's

North Carolina 131,736 99,551 Indian students in North Carolina; board of directors. State statute makes recommendations to the State authorizes a nonprofit organization Michigan 124,412 58,479 Board of Education as needed; and to manage the center, located in Alaska 119,241 98,043 publishes an annual report. Pembroke, and to plan programs and • N.C. Indian Economic activities focused on the state's A total of 4,119,301 people were counted as American Indian and Alaska Native Development Initiative (NCIEDI)— Indian culture. alone or in combination with other races; 2,475,956 of those were counted as The chairperson of the commission's The commission meets every three American Indian and Alaska Native alone. Along with Florida, these 10 states include Economic Development Committee months to address needs and con¬ 62 percent of the nation's Indian population. serves as the chairperson of NCIEDI, cerns. Through all of these efforts, Source: a nonprofit development organiza¬ the state's American Indian citizens www.census.gov/prod/2002pubs/c2kbr01 - 15.pdf and related sites tion. The commission created the keep moving forward. 00 The State and Its Tribes by Gregory A. Richardson

ased on my experience as executive director of • Waccamaw-Siouan (Columbus and Bladen coun¬ the N.C. Commission of Indian Affairs, I have ties) found that many of our state's citizens are North Carolina also has granted legal status to unaware that North Carolina has the largest four organizations representing and providing ser¬ American Indian population east of the Mississippi vices for American Indians living in urban areas: River and the eighth-largest Indian population in the Guilford Native American Association (Guilford United States. As noted by the 2000 U.S. Census, and surrounding counties), Cumberland County 99,551 American Indians lived in North Carolina, Association for Indian People (Cumberland making up 1.24 percent of the population. This total County), Metrolina Native American Association is for people identifying themselves as American (Mecklenburg and surrounding counties), and Indian alone. The number is more than 130,000 when Triangle Native American Society (Wake and sur¬ including American Indian in combination with rounding counties). other races. The State of North Carolina recognizes The Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians is the only eight tribes (see map, page 2): North Carolina tribe officially recognized by the fed¬ • Eastern Band of Cherokee (tribal reservation in the eral government. The federal Lumbee Act of 1956 Mountains) recognized that tribe in name only. • Coharie (Sampson and Harnett counties) Let's explore the relationship between North • Lumbee (Robeson and surrounding counties) Carolina and its tribes. You may think of treaties • Haliwa-Saponi (Halifax and Warren counties) involving land as the only example of government • Sappony (Person County) relationships with Indians over the years. But the • Meherrin (Bertie and surrounding counties) General Assembly's creation of the N.C. Commission • Occaneechi Band of Saponi Nation (Alamance and of Indian Affairs in 1971 offers strong evidence that surrounding counties) the state has a positive relationship today with its

A gourd was used to make this Loretta Oxendine, a Lumbee, created Cherokee Booger Dance mask in this sewing basket in 2000 using pine Images courtesy of the N.C. 1900. The dance can include many needles, tobacco twine, and tradition¬ Museum of Histon/. human and animal characters. al methods. 1832: The Supreme Court rules that the Cherokee Nation consti¬ tutes a sovereign nation within the Indian heritage; and others. To learn more, state of Georgia, subject only to access www.doa.state.nc.us/cia/legal.pdf. federal law. The ruling remains the basis for Indian tribal sovereignty. The creation of institutions such as 1835: North Carolina’s state con¬ Pembroke Normal School and East stitution is extensively revised, with voter-approved amendments Carolina Indian School offers an example that provide for the direct election of the historic relationship that Indians of the governor and more demo¬ cratic representation in the legis¬ have had with this state. The reservation lature. However, new laws take voting rights from American lands currently held in trust for the Eastern Indians and free blacks.

Band of Cherokee Indians and the Historic A small, unauthorized group of Tuscarora in Bertie Cherokee men signs the (Left) Aerial Bryant and Joyce Locklear present the banner of the Treaty in New Coharie tribe during a ceremony at the thirtieth annual N.C. Indian County are examples of formal relation¬ Echota, Georgia. The Cherokee Unity Conference, held in March 2005 in Raleigh. (Right) Roy protest the treaty. Chief John Maynor and Helen Cook present the banner for the Cumberland ships between Indians and the federal gov¬ Ross collects more than 15,000 County Association for Indian People at the same event. Images by signatures, representing nearly ernment. Today, because 10,350 American the entire Cherokee population, Sue Vaughan for the N.C. Commission of Indian Affairs. on a petition asking the United Indian students attend public schools in States Senate to withhold ratifica¬ American Indian citizens, tribes, and the county, the Public Schools of Robeson tion. In 1836, the Senate approves the treaty by one vote. groups. The relationship between North County administers one of the largest 1838-1839: Approximately Carolina and its tribes is well documented Indian education programs in the nation, 17,000 Cherokee are forcibly in statutes; in rules and regulations that removed from the state to the funded by the U.S. Department of Indian Territory (present-day govern state-funded programs; and in rules Education. Statewide, 19,416 American Oklahoma). This event becomes known as the Trail of Tears. An associated with historic Indian schools, Indian students attend public schools. The estimated 4,000 Cherokee die during the 1,200-mile trek, includ¬ court rulings, and faith organizations. The Haliwa-Saponi tribe has reestablished the ing Chief Ross’s wife Quatie. A few hundred members of the tribe modern federal government has likewise old Haliwa Indian School in Warren refuse to be rounded up and recognized North Carolina's rich American County, which I attended through the transported. They hide in the mountains and evade federal sol¬ Indian heritage and history. ninth grade. The new Haliwa-Saponi Tribal diers. Eventually, a deal is struck between the army and the The benefits of state recognition range School is a charter school, attended by remaining Cherokee. One of the leaders, , agrees to surrender from being eligible for membership on the about 150 students. Such arrangements, or himself to General Winfield Scott Commission of Indian Affairs and for pro¬ to be shot if the army will allow ongoing government-to-government rela¬ the rest of his people to stay in gram funding, to securing a rightful place tionships, offer examples of modern-day North Carolina legally. The federal government eventually establish¬ in history. Since 1979 the commission has treaties with American Indians. es a reservation for what becomes the Eastern Band of coordinated procedures for recognition. A The situations of Indians differ from state Cherokee Indians. committee of members from recognized to state. The United States has more than 1839: , eighty-year-old tribes and groups reviews applications. 550 federally recognized tribes and forty to chief of the Eastern Band, dies. His adopted white son, William Tribes and groups must meet certain orga¬ fifty state-recognized ones. In North Holland Thomas, becomes chief and pushes for reservation land. nizational requirements. Criteria that then Carolina and nearby states, most Indians 1840: The General Assembly may be used to support an application for are members of state-recognized tribes and passes a law prohibiting non¬ recognition include traditional North whites from owning or carrying do not live on reservations. The latter is weapons without a license. Carolina Indian names; kinship relation¬ much the case nationwide, according to the 1842: Cherokee who avoided ships with other recognized tribes; official 2000 U.S. Census, which found that more forced removal and remain in North Carolina are given citizen¬ records that recognize the people as than 62 percent of Indians live off reserva¬ ship. In 1848 Congress grants Indian; anthropological or historical them a small amount of money to tions. In Virginia there are three reserva¬ use for the purchase of land. accounts tied to the group's Indian ances¬ tions, none of which is recognized by the 1859: The Coharie community try; documented traditions, customs, leg¬ Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA); BIA does not establishes subscription schools for American Indian children. ends, and so forth that signify the group's provide the tribal members services or 1861-1865: Approximately funding for such things as health care, 42,000 North Carolinians lose To [earn more... schools, police, or fire protection. The tribes their lives in the Civil War. • Many individual American Indian tribes have Web sites. To read a resolution from a Joint • To learn more about the numbers of tribal members liv¬ are not authorized to establish casinos or Committee of the Legislature of ing in North Carolina, as counted by U.S. Census 2000, other gaming enterprises that federal recog¬ North Carolina related to the access www.census.gov/population/cen2000/ Cherokee and their lands, given to phc-t18/tab048.pdf. This data does not reflect tribal rolls nition allows as an economic development the Twenty-third Congress, First but lists the number of people identified in the census as Session, House of Representatives, American Indian who then identified themselves with one tool. In North Carolina, only the Eastern or more tribes. (Note that the Occaneechi Band of Saponi January 1834, access the collec¬ Nation had not yet achieved state recognition in 2000 and Band of Cherokee tribe is eligible to receive tions of Documenting the thus is not counted; the census counts only state and fed¬ BIA services and to operate a casino. In American South, based at the erally recognized tribes. The Sappony were counted in University of North Carolina at 2000 as ‘Indians of Person County.”) South Carolina, only the Catawba tribe has Chapel Hill Libraries, at http://docsouth.unc.edu/nc/ cherokee/cherokee.html. This large gourd, used by the This clay communal "peace Lumfaee tribe in Robeson County, pipe," with incised decorations, is The N.C. Museum of History maintains a collec¬ 23 is typical of the kind sometimes believed to have been used by the tion of more than 150,000 artifacts. Learn more at used for dipping water. Catawba shortly after 1900. http:llncmuseumofhistory.orglncalindex.html. this status. Eastern Woodland Indians often get overlooked. We know that In North Carolina, before the Civil Rights era, American Indians have Indians experienced discrimination and different long been studied and forms of racism. At one time, some were discour¬ researched, especially by aged to even admit that they were Indians. In sev¬ the academic community; eral counties, separate schools were established for however, for many years, American Indians. These schools, built by volun¬ little of that information teers and paid for by the Indian community, were found its way into history small, mostly of one or two rooms. In some of these books. There are volumes same counties, separate dining and other public of information on file facilities for the races were common before the Outside a traditional longhouse built on the grounds of the State Capitol in about American Indians 1960s; often, there were no "Indian" facilities—only Raleigh, Denyce Hall and Chief Thomas at North Carolina's col¬ "white" and "colored." For a long time, limited Lewis of the Meherrin tribe demonstrate traditional American Indian practices such lege campuses; only employment opportunities existed for American as cooking over fire during the 2005 recently has much materi¬ Indians. American Indian Heritage Celebration. Image by Sue Vaughan for the N.C. al begun to be included Today's American Indians enjoy more opportuni¬ Commission of Indian Affairs. in textbooks used in pub¬ ties. Their culture, heritage, and accomplishments lic or private schools. Indians constantly question are shared more often in and outside their commu¬ the common practice of focusing on Plains Indians nities. And the North Carolina government contin¬ in books and in popular media such as movies or ues to increase its support of the many efforts of the television programs. The history and culture of state's first inhabitants, c ’ j

Legends and Myths: (Ihe “Three Sisters” as told by Shelia Wilson*

r — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — n When Native people speak of the could only crawl at first, and she was "Three Sisters," they are refer¬ ! rThinkJl6out It dressed in green. The second sister wore ring to corn, beans, and • Can you think of any stories that have a bright, sunshine yellow dress, and she squash. Known as the "sustainers of life," been passed down in your family, your would spend many an hour reading by community, or your religious or ethnic these are the basic foods of sustenance. roup? Can you think of any stories you herself, sitting in the sun with the soft They are seen as three beautiful sisters, now that explain things in nature? Write wind blowing against her face. The third these stories down, illustrate them, and was the eldest sister, standing always because they grow in the same mound in practice telling them. a garden. The corn provides a ladder for • To learn more about American Indian very straight and tall above the other sis¬ storytellers, access www.ibiblio.org/ ters, looking for danger and warning her the bean vine. The squash vines shade storytelling. the mound and hold moisture in the soil sisters. She wore a pale green shawl and for the corn and beans. The well-being of had long, dirty-yellow hair. There was each crop planted is said to be protected others. The next morning while cooking one way the sisters were all alike, by another. Many a legend has been breakfast, she cooked each daughter an though. They loved each other dearly, woven around the Three Sisters—sisters egg, but each was different: one hard- and they always stayed together. This who should be planted together, eaten boiled, one scrambled, and one over-easy. made them very strong. together, and celebrated together. She told her daughters of her dream and One day a strange bird came to the Legends vary from tribe to tribe. Here are said to them, "You are like these eggs. field: a crow. He talked to the horses and two versions. Each is still an egg but with different tex¬ other animals, and this caught the atten¬ The legend of "Three Sisters" tures and flavors. Each of you has a spe¬ tion of the sisters. Late that summer, the 05 originated when a woman of cial place in the world and in my heart." youngest and smallest sister disappeared. medicine who could no longer The daughters started to cry and hugged Her sisters were sad. Again the crow bear the fighting among her three daugh¬ each other, because now they would cele¬ came to the field to gather reeds at the ters asked the Creator to help her find a brate their differences and love one water's edge. The sisters who were left way to get them to stop. That night she another more because of them. From that watched his trail as he was leav ing, and had a dream, and in it each sister was a day on, Native people have planted the that night the second sister, the one in the different seed. In her dream, she planted three crops together—Three Sisters help¬ yellow dress, disappeared. Now the el¬ them in one mound in just the way they ing and loving each other. dest sister was the only one left. She con¬ would have lived at home and told them A long time ago, three sisters tinued to stand tall. When the crow saw that in order to grow and thrive, they 05 lived together in a field. These how she missed her sisters, he brought would need to be different but depend¬ sisters were quite different from them all back together, and they became ent upon each other. They needed to see one another in their height and in the stronger together again. The elder sister that each was special and each had great way they carried themselves. The little stands tall looking out for the crow to things to offer on her own and with the sister was so young and round that she this day.

TH/H, Fall 2005 'Shelia Wilson is a member of the Sappony tribe. She has told the tale of the "Three 24 Sisters" at the American Indian Heritage Celebration, held each November at the N.C. Museum of History. American Indians have varying experiences. Many Cherokee sup¬ port the Confederacy. Thomas's Legion, a well-known fighting unit, A Conversation with Artist includes two companies of Cherokee soldiers. The Lumbee in eastern North Carolina are forced to work on Confederate Joel Queen fortifications near Wilmington, such as Fort Fisher. Many flee and form groups to resist by Lisa Coston Hall* impressment by the army. Henry Berry Lowry leads one such band, which continues to resist hen most people look at a lump family, including his great-grandmother the actions of the Home Guard— W a group supporting the of clay or a piece of walnut, they Ethel Bigmeat, had been potters for eight Confederacy and maintaining “law and order"—and white domination see just that—a simple, unmov¬ generations before he took up that art. The long after the war's end. ing object. Joel Queen, though, looks at family also has a tradition of basketweav¬ such raw material and sees something ing. Growing up on the Qualla Boundary— waiting to be turned into a long-lasting about 57,000 acres in western North thing of beauty Carolina held in trust for his tribe by the "For me, there's fascination to see a federal government—Queen was creating blank piece come into being something something most of the time. In 1901 these members of the Sixty- else, to know you did that," Queen said. "I never found a medium that I couldn't ninth Regiment, N.C. Troops, which "It is a thrill to get to walk into a gallery work in. Every time somebody introduced fought for the Confederacy during the Civil War, reunited on the Cherokee and see people looking at my work and something to me. I'd take off with it for a reservation in Swain County. They were commanded by Col. William H. saying This is good.' Of course, I also can while," he said. Thomas. Image courtesy of the N.C. hear valid criticism, which I try to learn During his years at Cherokee Eligh Museum of History. from." School, he became inspired to use different 1865: The March 3 killings of The thirty-eight-year-old Queen is an materials—silver, paint, pottery, and even Allen and William Lowry, the father and brother of Henry Berry enrolled member of the Eastern Band of leather—to keep from getting bored with Lowry and members of a promi¬ nent Indian family, spark what Cherokee, who, after a lifetime of interest art. In the 1980s, while working as a lec¬ becomes known as the Lowry in arts and crafts, has worked full-time as turer at Oconaluftee Indian Village—the War in Robeson County. an artist for about four years. In January re-creation of a 1700s Cherokee settlement 1865-1874: The Lowry band employs guerrilla tactics in its war 2005, he opened his own gallery outside visited by many tourists—Queen spent against Robeson County's power structure, robbing prominent citi¬ the town of Cherokee, showing and selling some time with older wood-carvers. They zens and killing law work that includes traditional Cherokee sparked an interest in carving. enforcement pottery, black pots, raku, wood and stone "One of them gave me a piece of stone, officers. Indians, sculpture, and more. Members of Queen's and I took it home and knocked out a blacks, and poor whites piece, which I think I sold for unite in sup¬ port of the $250 or so. I was hooked," group. Henry Berry Queen said. Lowry, hid¬ Still, it took years to travel ing in nearby swamps, becomes known as the road to full-time artist. something of a Robin Hood: a folk hero to some and a terrorizing vil¬ Queen worked in fields such as lain to others.

construction and printing, creat¬ 1868: In the wake of Reconstruction, the new North ing art on the side. Ele briefly Carolina constitution gives adult opened a gallery in the late males the right to vote. The General Assembly is required to 1980s, but he was not old or provide “for a general and uniform system" of free schools for chil¬ wise enough then to make it dren ages six through twenty-one. North Carolina ratifies the 14th work, he says now. Earlier this Amendment, which grants citizen¬ year, after taking college classes ship “to ail persons born or natu¬ ! R ralized in the United States.” periodically, he completed a 1870: Under a tribal government, bachelor of fine arts degree at members of the Eastern Band of the Cherokee elect a chief and Western Carolina University. write a constitution. Today, having different artistic 1872: Henry Berry Lowry vanish¬ interests helps Queen to earn es in February, leading to years of speculation about his death. In Joel Queen, a member of the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians, has been working enough money to live on. 1874, after another of his brothers full-time as an artist for about four years. He has been creating art for most of his life. dies at the hands of bounty Image courtesy of Lisa Coston Hall. Many people have come to hunters, the Lowry War ends.

*Lisa Coston Hall is a historical publications editor at the N.C. Museum of History. She THJH, Fall 2005 edits the Tar Heel Junior Historian and other materials. 25 know him for his tradition¬ "For me, there’s fascination Hair Clan. He also made al Cherokee pottery. What to see a blank piece come some extremely large GIVE IT is "traditional"? Not into being something else, Overhill-style pots, of a A TRY the commonly seen wed¬ to know you did that." type that may not have The earliest American ding vases. Those are a —Joel Queen been seen for some 200 Indians in what is now fairly modern idea, in North Carolina decorated years, for a traveling many things: clothes and jew¬ Queen's opinion. For cen¬ C# exhibit that opened this elry, pottery, and even their bodies. They attached beads turies, the Cherokee created pottery for autumn at the Museum of the Cherokee of shell and wampum to clothing and accessories practical uses: grain or water storage ves¬ Indian. The exhibit—Emissaries of Peace: such as shoes. They carved designs on shell pendants, or sels, cooking pots, bear-fat lamps, medi¬ The 1762 Cherokee and British Delegations— gorgets. cine bowls, and funeral urns. They added contrasts cultural perspectives of the eigh¬ They some¬ times designs by stamping pieces with carved teenth-century Cherokee and British painted their bodies wooden paddles or other natural objects. through the eyes of Lieutenant Henry and cloth¬ ing. Trade By the late 1800s, however, with less need Timberlake, who visited the Overhill with new to use pottery except as decoration, and region, and three Cherokee leaders, who European colonists influenced by other American Indians and visited London. When Europeans arrived brought more Europeans, many potters changed their in what is now North Carolina, the choices and changes. American Indians work in order to sell items to outsiders. Cherokee lived in parts of eight current started to use glass beads, copper and brass gorgets, "To me, 'traditional' means it has to be states, roughly divided into three regions and even metal pots, but they handbuilt, with no electricity, no wheel— that included the Overhill area of eastern still decorated many of them. As long ago as 4,000 using the coil method and so forth—and Tennessee and western North Carolina. years, Indians in North Carolina began making pot¬ fired in an open pit. You can learn the Often, Queen spends sixteen hours a tery. They would make the vessels from clay, using the basics pretty quickly, but firing can take a day on art. In addition to using different hand-coiling method. Carved lifetime to learn," Queen said. "It means media, or materials, he likes to experiment wooden paddles could press designs into the clay. Sticks or using clay that I've dug and screened. Old- with things such as metallic glazes for other natural objects could create patterns. Sometimes style Qualla pottery means thin-walled raku. (The raku process involves firing people used different designs to tell their pottery apart. They vessels with stamping, engraving, and pottery at a relatively low temperature, fired, or baked, pottery in a pit usually folded-down rims. I'm pretty strict and then moving it while hot to a closed with wood. Today, archaeologists can in my views of what traditional Cherokee container with materials that will ignite use the decorations on such objects (or pieces of them) to pottery is—it's something done 250, 300, or and cause a reaction. This creates surface determine when Indians lived at a place or tell which cul¬ 3,000 years ago." colors and patterns.) A key to his tradi¬ tural group made the objects. If you want to experiment He adds, "To see a fire with a traditional tional pottery is patience—something he with some of the early pot in it being fired, it's frustrating, it's needed to develop over the years. He may American Indians'techniques for decorating pots, first roll a exciting, and it's a very hot job. On aver¬ work on a piece for two weeks, so he must iece of clay, polymer clay, or laydough into a ball. Flatten age, I can get a pot up to 1,300 degrees, pace himself to avoid losing concentration it using your hand, a rolling pin, or a similar object. and it can take a good eight hours to fire a and making mistakes. His three children Smooth the top of the clay, nice pot, although it can be quite depend¬ are interested in pottery but still learning and then try different ways to decorate it: ent on the weather and a lot of idiosyn¬ that kind of patience. (Queen's wife, Kelly, Incising— Cut lines into the surface with a pencil, crasies. Every runs the business stick, or even your fingernails. Cord Marking—Wrap time I do that, side of his string or cord around a gallery, so art spoon, stick, or dowel, and it's a challenge press it into the clay. that still keeps continues to be a Impressing —Press a dried corncob, peach pit, or me on my toes." family affair.) similar item into the clay. Fabric or Net Queen's recent Queen has Imprinting—Wrap fabric (burlap, cotton, or anything work includes been part of the with texture) or net (such as wooden sculp¬ Cherokee Potters the kind that fruit sometimes comes in) around a spoon, tures, with sim¬ Guild, a group stick, or dowel, and press it into the clay. ple, flowing trying to pre¬ Stamping—Press designs into the clay using a lines, of women serve traditional fork or something similar. from one of the ways. He does To retain the design, let the clay dry. seven Cherokee Joel Queen carves wooden paddles (usually from pine) with both traditional and demonstrations You can also try creating modem designs. He then uses the paddles to impress designs into his pottery. your own pottery. clans, the Long linage courtesy of Lisa Coston Hall. and lectures.

26 TH]H, Fall 2005 1875: The state constitution is IraditionaCCherokee (Pottery changed, establishing separate schools for different races and for¬ ecently, some Cherokee potters have revived the art of stamped R bidding racial intermarriage. The pottery in a style that was used in the southern Appalachian latter ban stands until 1977. Mountains more than 1,900 years ago. Fragments of old American Indian pottery in museum or other collections have even inspired some 1882-early 1900s: Three schools new pieces. Traditional pots are made using native clay dug up by the open in Halifax and Warren coun¬ artists and handbuiiding techniques, adding coils of clay to a base. ties to serve Haliwa-Saponi chil¬ Artists “paddle” clay, which can be tempered with mica or crushed dren. shells. They carve paddles, made of wood such as pine or cherry, with ancient or modern designs. The paddles can shape the day and drive 1885: The state recognizes the out air bubbles and water, as well as impress designs. Pots—textured Croatan Indians, now known as or patterned on the outside and smooth on the inside—are double-fired, the Lumbee, as an official or baked, in an open fire. Differences in temperature and smoke (oxy¬ American Indian tribe on gen and carbon levels), as well as in firing time, lead to different colors. February 10. With recognition Round pots originally were used for cooking, while traditional Cherokee come separate schools. “effigy” pots are shaped like people or fish, birds, and other animals. Early uses for such pottery also included making hominy, carrying 1887: Croatan Normal School for water, and storing seeds. Indians opens in Pembroke, Robeson County. W. L. Moore (Waccamaw-Siouan) serves as and sometimes teaches art to displayed Indian and natural the first principal and teacher. The school will evolve into UNC- individuals. history objects sent or brought Pembroke. Its first high school He is proud to have his art back by members of that expedi¬ diplomas are awarded in 1905. displayed at places such as the tion. In his sculptures, now part 1888: Hamilton McMillan pub¬ lishes Sir Walter's Lost Colony. Smithsonian Institution, in of the permanent Monticello col¬ which claims that the Lumbee descended from the ill-fated Washington, D.C.; the British lection, Queen re-created burial Roanoke Island settlers. Museum, in London; and figures found in an American Fifty-four Croatan Indians in Monticello, the Virginia home of Indian grave in the 1800s in Joel Queen's work includes Robeson County petition the fed¬ traditional Cherokee pot¬ eral government, requesting President . In Tennessee. The originals date to tery (top of page and facing money for schools. page) and raku (above), 2002 he made two soapstone about 1400-1600. The project The Indians of Person County among other media. Images helped to establish Queen as a build a school on land donated by sculptures for a Monticello exhi¬ courtesy of Lisa Coston Hall. Green Martin; another school will bition marking the two hun¬ serious artist. be built within a few years. dredth anniversary of the Lewis “To see my work displayed at 1889: The Eastern Band of Cherokee, which gained federal and Clark Expedition. The show a place with that much prestige recognition in 1868, is incorpo¬ rated and recognized under North was designed to look like was just unbelievable. It was Carolina law. In 1893 the federal Jefferson's Indian Hall circa like, 'I can really do this.' It has government will open a Cherokee boarding school. 1807-1809, when the president spiraled since then," he said.^^ 1900: In an effort to take away the Cherokee’s right to vote, l 4 some local elections officials take advantage of an 1895 federal A LOOK AT OTHER court ruling that they are wards of the government. Also this year, AMERICAN INDIAN ARTISTS the “Suffrage Amendment” to the state constitution institutes a liter¬ acy requirement tor voting. It American Indians today pursue arts and crafts that have long traditions includes a grandfather clause that within their tribes—beadwork, basketry, and pottery, for example—as allows illiterate white men to vote well as any other art that you could name, from oil painting to computer but effectively disenfranchises graphics. The Guilford Native American Association Art Gallery in most men of color. Greensboro, which has hosted a juried American Indian art show for fif¬ teen years, is one of the places that regularly showcases Indian arts. 1904: Diotrion W. and Mary Epps Access www.guilfordnative.org/pages/gnnagallery.htmf. deed land for a school for Indians in Person County, North Carolina, and in southern Virginia. The school will be rebuilt in 1925 by (Clockwise from top) Fruit, vase, planter, and sewing Person County, North Carolina, baskets made by modem Cherokee women in tradi¬ and Halifax County, Virginia. tional style. Image courtesy of the N.C. Museum of History. 1910: Shiloh Indian School is established in Dismal Township, Sampson County, to serve Cherokee (Basketry Coharie children. Women in the Eastern Band of Cherokee 1911: A state law changes the made these baskets by hand a few years name of the Croatan Indians to ago for the Qualla Arts and Crafts Mutual Inc., a Cherokee-owned and operated cooperative. Traditionally, there have been four main stages Cherokee carver of basketrnaking. First, the artist gathers mate¬ rials--usually overcame, white oak, honey¬ Senora Lynch (Haliwa-Saponi) Amanda Crowe, suckle, or maple—found in nature. Bark is is best known for her pottery, who received a N.C. removed, and wood pieces are split and especially its contrasting red Folk Heritage trimmed down. The basketmaker separates and white clay. She uses tradi¬ Award from the Pat Richardson, of the the splints, the pieces to be used in baskets, tional hand-coiling methods, N.C. Arts Council in Coharie tribe, creates in a process called stripping, and scrapes and her work often tells a 2000, created this beautiful beadwork them smooth with a knife. Splints can be left story. Images of nature bear out of walnut natural or colored with dyes drawn from jewelry, purses, and other abound. In 2004 she created a in 1969. Crowe has objects. Image courtesy of leaves, roots, or bark. Common dyes include Croatonn (the tribe now called Lumbee) butternut, walnut, and bloodroot. The basket- piece called The Gift for the taught many other the N.C. Museum of maker then finally begins weaving. In basic UNC-Chapel Hill campus. artists. Image History. women garden between 1895 and 1915. checkerboard construction, a series of side- Image courtesy of the N.C. courtesy of the N.C. Image courtesy of the N.C. Museum by-side splints create a warp. Weft splints are Museum of History. Museum of History. of History. woven one at a time under and over warp THJH, Fall 2005 splints. Other techniques create diagonal or 27 twilled patterns, or designs. Families may pass down dye methods, patterns, and techniques. North Carolina’s American Indians in World War II by Dr. David La Vere/Our State Books*

As its Pacific Fleet settled onto the bottom of Indians often Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, on December 7, 1941, got the most and the United States prepared to enter dangerous World War II, one of the many unknowns facing the combat assign¬ country was whether its American Indian citizens ments. By the would support the war effort. There was good rea¬ war's end, son to believe that they would not. After all. North eleven North Carolina Indians, as did the majority of Indians Carolina across the United States, lived in a separate, but cer¬ Cherokee had tainly not equal, world. Most were denied the right died in action— to vote and were segregated from white society, but five in Europe they still were expected to pay taxes and be drafted and six in the to fight. Would they contest their draft status? Pacific—while a Would they support efforts such as war bonds? twelfth died state¬ German leader Adolf Hitler imagined that Indians side. Seven more might even rise up against the United States if it were wounded in went to war against his country and its allies. But in action. Besides a number the long run. North Carolina need not have had of Purple Hearts, North concerns about the loyalty of its American Indian Carolina Cherokee earned two citizens. Distinguished Flying Crosses and two Silver Stars. On the Qualla Boundary reservation in the On the home front, the Cherokee tribe was Mountains of North Carolina, every eligible young equally active. Eastern Band officials offered to buy man in the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians regis¬ $150,000 worth of war bonds, but the federal Bureau tered for the draft. Eventually, 321 North Carolina of Indian Affairs refused the offer over a bureau¬ Cherokee served in the military, with 123 enlisting cratic tangle. The tribal council donated $500 to the and 198 getting drafted. Unlike African Americans, reservation's chapter of the American Red Cross. who served in segregated units, Indians served in Individual Cherokee, as Americans everywhere, did integrated units throughout all branches of the mili¬ their part for the war effort by purchasing bonds, tary. While Cherokee got along well enough with collecting scrap metal, and growing Victory gardens their comrades, white stereotypes about Indians of vegetables that the government promoted to often worked against them. Commanders imagined guard against food shortages. that Indians possessed some ingrained warrior abili¬ In eastern North Carolina, the Lumbee and other ty that enabled them to shoot straighter, walk qui¬ smaller Indian tribes supported the war effort with eter, and fight braver than other soldiers. This per¬ just as much fervor. Back then, the Lumbee tribe ception meant that was not officially recognized by the

THJH, Fall 2005 ‘Dr. David La Vere is a professor in the Department of History at the University of North 28 Carolina at Wilmington. He recently contributed to North Carolina's Shining Hour: Images and Voices from World War II, published by Our State Books. the Indians of Robeson County. The Coharie receive state recog¬ nition, but this recognition is Robert S. Youngdeer (pictured at left) enlisted in the U.S. Marine rescinded two years later. Corps in 1940 at age eighteen. He was wounded in action at Guadalcanal on September 13, 1942, and earned a Purple The state recognizes a group of Heart and three Battle Stars. He was discharged from the Indians descended from the Marines in July 1948 and enlisted in the U.S. Army that Saponi, Tutelo, and Occaneechi December. Youngdeer, a master parachutist and expert rifleman, tribes as the Indians of Person served tours of duty in Cuba, the southwest Pacific, China, County. This recognition will be Japan, Germany, and elsewhere before being discharged in rescinded in the 1970s. December 1960 with the rank of first sergeant E-8. Today, at age eighty-three, Youngdeer—principal chief of the Eastern Band of New Bethel Indian School opens Cherokee Indians from 1983 until 1987—continues to give public in New Bethel Township, talks about his war experiences. Sampson County, to serve Coharie children. High Plains (Facing page, bottom, from left) Youngdeer with other MPs in China in 1947; Indian School opens in Person receiving his Purple Heart from Lieutenant Colonel David Mooy at the County for Sappony children. Naval Ammunition Depot in McAlester, Oklahoma, in July 1943; marry¬ ing Geneva Alene Stafford on November 6,1943, at First Baptist Church 1913: The Indians of Robeson in McAlester; and at Parris Island (S.C.) Boot Camp with another soldier County are renamed Cherokee in summer 1940. Images courtesy of Merritt Youngdeer Jr., grandson of Robert Indians of Robeson County. S. Youngdeer. Merritt Youngdeer is working with a group of young people through the Cherokee Youth in Radio program at the Cherokee Youth Center to 1914: The Cherokee in western interview Eastern Band of Cherokee veterans. The recordings of these interviews North Carolina hold the first will be sent to the State Archives, and a National Public Radio program and a Cherokee Fall Fair to encourage CD/DVD project are planned. Access www.cherokeeyouthcenter.com. tourism in their region.

1917: Eastern Carolina Indian federal government or even the state. School is established in Herring Township, Sampson County. The While Lumbee exploits thus might have school operates until desegrega¬ been little recognized, they were consider¬ tion in 1965, eventually serving children in grades 1-12. able indeed. Hundreds of Lumbee, 1919: Local officials deny voter Waccamaw-Siouan, Coharie, and other registration to Cherokee veterans of World War I. The next year, Indians either volunteered for duty or Carolina; and others. On when the 19th Amendment gives April 3,1954, she married David W. Dixon at the post chapel at women nationwide the right to were drafted. They served in every branch vote, Cherokee women are turned Fort Benning, Georgia. She was a captain at that time. (Top photo) of the service, in every theater of opera¬ away by local officials when they Dixon poses next to an army ambulance in Korea in 1951. (Above) try to register. tions. In 1942 Thomas Oxendine, a Lumbee She poses at the 361 Station Hospital in Tokyo, Japan, also in 1951. Images courtesy of Merritt Youngdeer Jr. 1924: Federal law declares all from Pembroke, became the first American Indians to be citizens; application Indian to graduate from the U.S. Naval Robeson County died in the line of duty. varies a bit by state. Academy and the first to be commissioned North Carolina's American Indian 1925: Cherokee lands are placed in trust status with the federal as a navy pilot. He served on the USS women also volunteered. Many served as government. Five years later, fed¬ eral law grants citizenship to Mobile as an observation pilot, rescued a nurses, and at least one Lumbee woman Cherokee in the state. downed flier, and was awarded the served as a WASP—Women Airforce Distinguished Flying Cross. Eastern North Service Pilots—and performed the danger¬ Carolina Indians fought in countless bat¬ ous duty of towing air gunnery targets for tles, were some of the first Americans to men in training. And Indian women's cross the Rhine River in Germany, and work on the home front was incalculable.

helped liberate the Nazi concentration We can truly say that American Indians Women hold the "prize-winning camps. At least twenty-five Lumbee from helped to win World War II. A babies" at the 1924 Cherokee fair. Image courtesy of the N.C. Museum of History.

The ultimate sacrifice: Three American Indians who served 1934: Wide Awake Indian School during the Korean War received the Congressional Medal of opens in the Waccamaw-Siouan Service in 'War Honor, the highest award given to a member of the U.S. mili¬ community of Buckhead in Bladen tary for valor in action against an enemy force. One of them County, with Welton Lowry, a Lumbee, as teacher. Wide Awake, uring World War II, about 44,500 American Indians— was North Carolina native Charles George. Private First D Class George, born in August 1932 in Cherokee and a mem¬ serving grades 1-8, follows the more than 10 percent of the total Indian population at that tradition of Doe Head School, time, including one-third of all the able-bodied men ages ber of the Eastern Band of Cherokee, was in Army Company C, 179th Infantry Regiment, 45th Infantry founded in 1885; Long Boy eighteen to fifty—served in the U.S. military’s various branch¬ School, founded in 1901; and St. es. In some tribes, 70 percent of men served. Indians Division. On November 30, 1952, he was part of a raiding party near Songnae-dong, Korea. Mark's School, founded in 1920. It received numerous Purple Hearts, Air Medals, Distinguished closes in 1952. Flying Crosses, Bronze Stars, Silver Stars, and Distinguished The group facea heavy machine gun and mortar fire and then hand-to-hana combat Service Crosses, as well as three Congressional Medals of 1935: A federal memorandum Honor. American Indian women servecfin many support before beginning to withdraw after completing its assignment of capturing a prisoner for allows Indians in Robeson County organizations, such as the WAVES and the Army Nurse to organize under the Wheeler- Corps. Soldiers from several tribes worked as “code talkers.” questioning. Three soldiers remained at the rear to cover the withdrawal, when the enemy Howard Indian Reorganization Act Communicating using their own Native languages, they could of 1934. To receive recognition, transmit sensitive information in a way that foreign spies hurled a hand grenade in between them. George shouted a warning to one man, individuals must be at least one- could not understand. half Indian. * About 12,000 American Indians served in the U.S. armed pushed the other out of danger, and threw himself upon the grenade. He died from his wounds in a field aid station. “Pfc. forces during World War I. 1938: Only twenty-two of 209 * About 42,000 American Indians served in the U.S. armed George’s indomitable courage, consummate devotion to duty, and willing self-sacrifice reflect the highest credit upon him¬ Robeson County Indians qualify forces during the Vietnam War. for recognition under the Wheeler- * Today, there are about 185,000 American Indian military self and uphold the finest traditions or the military service,” his citation read. Overall, 131 Medals of Honor were given for Howard Act. Qualification is based veterans in the United States. service in the Korean War, 94 of them to people who had on “race” testing to determine a Sources: U.S. Department of Defense and U.S. Bureau of the Census died. Approximately 804 North Carolinians died in the war. person's Indian blood.

THJH, Fall 2005 29 by Dr. Patricia B. Lerch* (in collaboration with Priscilla Freeman Jacobs)

Priscilla Freeman Jacobs (b. 1940) led the Waccamaw-Siouan, a state-recognized American Indian tribe, from 1986 through early 2005. During that time, she represented her tribe at many civic affairs and presented educational programs about the traditions and culture of her people. When the position of chief came open fol¬ lowing the death of her father Clifton Freeman (1919-1985), Jacobs's brothers encouraged her to accept this leadership role, since she had worked alongside their father for many years. Thus she became the first woman in the twentieth century to hold the position of chief in her tribe. How did she learn the skills and values of leadership? Jacobs grew up in a traditional Indian family in the Ricefield area of the modern Waccamaw-Siouan Priscilla Freeman Jacobs's inauguration as chief of the Waccamaw-Siouan took community, which is situated on the edge of the place in 1986 at Frontier Fort. Pictured with her are Chief James Jacobs of the Green Swamp about thirty-seven miles from Cumberland County Association for Indian People and James D. Brewington of the Coharie tribe. Image courtesy of Priscilla Freeman Jacobs. Wilmington. For five generations, the men of her family made a living in the "woods work" of log¬ 1961 she married Welton Jacobs, who is also ging and forestry. The women kept house, tended Waccamaw-Siouan. They have two children, four the gardens, and helped their menfolk raise cows, grandchildren, and three great-grandchildren. pigs, and chickens to feed their Priscilla Jacobs's inauguration as chief was held families. The rural lifestyle at Frontier Fort near Wilmington in 1986. She fol¬ promoted the values of co¬ lowed in the footsteps of her grandfather, great- operation, hard work, respect uncle, and father when she accepted this duty. And for elders, and obedience. preserving Indian heritage involved many sacrifices Jacobs was educated in the and hours of hard work. When still a small child, American Indian schools that Jacobs listened to community elders assembled at her grandfather W. J. Freeman her grandfather's house on Sunday afternoons dis¬ and great-uncle R. T. Freeman cussing issues of Indian education. Although some convinced Columbus County counties in North Carolina did fund separate officials to open during their schools for Indians, Priscilla's county did not. Many years as tribal chiefs Indians wanted separate schools in order to educate (1920s-1960s). The Indian their children about their heritage. Priscilla's grand¬ schools taught basic literacy, fathers—W. J. Freeman and Alec Patrick—and great- mathematics, history, and uncle R. T. Freeman and others worked hard to respect for Indian heritage. attain these schools for their children. By 1949 they After graduation from the sought federal support and asked the U.S. Congress Waccamaw Indian School, she to pass the Waccamaw Bill, which would grant completed a secretarial course them federal acknowledgment as an Indian tribe. at Miller Mott Business Jacobs, who was only nine years old at the time,

Priscilla Freeman Jacobs and her College of Wilmington and journeyed to Washington, D.C., with the community father attend a Coalition for Eastern put her skills to work in her delegation to present the case to Congress. The Native Americans event in 1973. Image courtesy of Priscilla Freeman Jacobs. father's logging business. In Congress favored terminating federal responsibili-

THJH, Fall 2005 *Dr. Patricia B. Lerch is a professor in the Department of Anthropology at the University of North Carolina at Wilmington. In 2004 the University of Alabama Press published her book Waccamaw Legacy: Contemporary Indians Fight for Survival. She has worked with the Waccamaw-Siouan as a researcher, while the tribe has fought for recognition. pESirSEJu7 Indian Nicknames and the Origin helping American Indians. Jacobs was the of My Name ‘‘Coo Coo” first secretary of the commission's board of directors; later she worked for the commis¬ "/ was born at my grandfather Alec sion as a community developer. With her Patrick's house. They always said that the father, she represented her tribe at meet¬ bedroom that I was born in was ‘cross $©wbTob«eo ings of the Coalition for Eastern Native the line’—/ was born half in Columbus Americans, an organization active between This paper product label, made by the and half in Bladen County. When I was American Tobacco Company in about 1971 and 1973 that offered assistance to born, I made this cooing sound like the 1918, includes a fidl-color lithograph of tribes in the East. She participated in the an American Indian riding a horse. pigeons that were around my grand¬ Indian images or mines (many of them N.C. Indian Unity Conference and offered father's home. They would sit on the stereotypical) have often been used to many educational programs for Indians sell things, including products related to rooftop and make cooing sounds. That is tobacco, which has had sacred uses for throughout the state. To help her commu¬ many tribes. Can you think of other why my grandparents and parents nity develop economically, she joined her examples? Image courtesy of the N.C. started calling me ‘Coo Coo,’ because I Museum of History. father and others from the tribe in forming was making the sounds of a pigeon. the Waccamaw-Siouan Development 1940: Indian Normal School (now When I was little, it was always ‘Coo UNC-Pembroke) in Robeson Association (WSDA). WSDA continues to County grants its first college Coo,' but as I grew up, I became ‘Coo ’ degree. In 1941, the General work on projects of education, economic Assembly renames it Pembroke to everybody. So that is where my name State College for Indians. development, and culture. came from." Jacobs is also a spiritual person. In fact, North Carolina establishes a poll —Priscilla Freeman Jacobs tax, which can be used to limit her leadership combines both her social- minority voting. political role with her spiritual life. She 1942: East Carolina Indian OS School in Sampson County was one of the first women in her tribe to admits Indian students from ties to tribes in 1950, so the bill did not seven counties. Families in the pass into law as hoped. In these formative become a pastor, and her ministry has Coharie community board them. The school will close in 1965. years, Jacobs became aware of the wider included television broadcasts and leader¬ ship in various small churches. She has 1945: Calvary Baptist Church Indian world and issues facing Indian peo¬ replaces Mayo Chapel, founded in been a pioneer for women of her genera¬ 1878, in the High Plains Indian ple. When her father, Clifton Freeman, Community (Sappony). tion by breaking out of stereotypical roles became chief in 1964, he worked to secure 1946: Qualla Arts and Crafts jobs, improve roads, and network with to pursue goals for her community in the Mutual, a Cherokee crafts cooper¬ ative, forms. Indians throughout the United States. She wider American Indian world. Today, Jacobs is the pastor of Life Changing Cherokee veterans of World War traveled with her father to meetings II begin registering to vote. Community Church in Riegelwood. around the country, learning about the 1947: The first Indian mayor of The Waccamaw-Siouan people hold the town of Pembroke is elected. important challenges facing Indian people. Previously the governor appointed elections to select their tribal board. In the mayors, all of whom were Long before she became chief, Jacobs non-Indian. labored hard for her people. She played a March 2005 a decision was made to elect the chief, too. Priscilla Freeman Jacobs 1950: The Cherokee Historical central role in bringing the popular Indian Association begins producing the outdoor drama Unto These Hills. powwow to her community (around 1969). decided not to be on the ballot. Today, Roscoe Jacobs, the new chief, represents 1952-1954: Waccamaw Indian She taught the children Indian dances and School opens in Columbus educated them about their history. At first, the community and works with the tribal County. The school will close in 1969 following desegregation. powwows were small family affairs held board and the WSDA. y 3 on church grounds or at Lake Waccamaw, but they grew larger as time passed. With Legend of the her father's support, Priscilla approached International Paper Company asking for a Lahe of the Laden Star donation of five acres of land that could Countless years ago, a huge meteor appeared in the sky toward the southwest, ft flamed in the atmos¬ serve as a center of tribal life, and her phere to a brilliance of many suns as it sped earth¬ request was granted. Since 1974, powwows ward. As suddenly as it appeared, it struck and buried itself deep in the alluvial mire. The waters of have been held on the tribal grounds next the surrounding swamps and rivers flowed into the Since the outdoor drama Unto These crater and cooled it, creating a gem of blue in a set¬ Hills debuted July 1,1950, more than 5 to the day care, office, and ball field. ting of verdant green. This is the American Indian leg¬ million people have seen its story of the end of the creation of Lake Waccamaw in southeast¬ (Today, the Waccamaw-Siouan tribe owns Cherokee in western North Carolina ern North Carolina. from 1540 through 1838. For many people, the Eagle Dance is one of the thirty acres in Buckhead.) In 1971 the state From a 1950 article by James Evan Alexander, play's highlights. Image courtesy of formed the N.C. Commission of Indian “Waccamaw—The Fallen Star.” The American Indian 3 (30): 30-39. the N.C. Division of Tourism, Film, Affairs as a government office devoted to and Sports Development.

THJH, Fall 2005 31 Indian Cabinetmakers in Piedmont North Carolina by Patricia Phillips Marshall* Many students of history know about the bondsman was usually a close family member (such as career of Thomas Day, a free African a father, brother, or uncle) who assured the court that American who, by 1850, had built North the couple should be married, and that the groom Carolina's largest cabinetmaking shop in Milton, would not change his mind and leave the bride at the Caswell County. Day designed and handcrafted furni¬ altar. Uriah Jeffreys must have been a close friend of ture and architectural elements for the white elite of Thomas to agree to be his bondsman. Historic records the Dan River region. Cabinetmakers rarely work make it clear that both men were cabinetmakers, and it alone, and Day operated a shop unlike any other in the is possible that Uriah and his brother Nathan worked state. He employed with Day for a short time. In 1828 Uriah decided to white, black, and move. He advertised in the Hillsborough Recorder that he mixed-race woodwork¬ had a variety of furniture from his cabinetmaking busi¬ ers of all ages. What ness for sale, including "Bureaus, Bedsteads, Tables." many people do not Uriah moved to Ohio with two of his brothers, realize is that some of Parker and Augustus. Unfortunately, they experienced the men that he the same type of prejudice in the North that they had worked and socialized tried to leave behind. The law required free blacks with came from the entering Ohio to pay a bond of $500 to county officials. American Indian com¬ Whites thought this would guarantee that only free munity. blacks of "good character" would settle and be able to Before the Civil War support themselves. Parker Jeffreys refused to pay, in the 1860s, white insisting that his blood was a mixture of Indian and society viewed white, and not black. The case went to the county William Bill Jeffries carried on his family's furni¬ American Indians as court, where he lost. Jeffreys persevered, and the Ohio ture-making tradition in the twentieth century. Image courtesy of Patricia Phillips Marshall. "people of color." Supreme Court heard his case in 1842. In Porker Jeffreys Many—those who had v. Ankeny et nl, the supreme court justices ruled that he intermarried with African Americans and whites—are was an Indian with no African ancestry and did not listed in official records as "," meaning that have to pay the bond. Members of the Jeffreys family they were of "mixed race." For many years, Indians continued to make furniture near Xenia, Ohio, well enjoyed the same legal rights as free blacks. In 1835 the into the twentieth century. new state constitution took away voting rights from Nathan Jeffreys lived the rest of his life in North people of color, including Indians, regardless of Carolina. It seems that he continued to work as a jour¬ whether they had intermarried with other races. Free neyman cabinetmaker, because in 1834 he is listed as people of color had to follow many of the same restric¬ such in a court document. However, in the 1850 and tions placed upon slaves. However, they could buy 1860 censuses, he is listed as a farmer owning $500 in and sell property. property. Many cabinetmakers supplemented their Day—who was born in 1801 in Greensville County, incomes by farming. Day clearly considered Nathan a Virginia, to mixed-race parents, John and Mourning close family friend, because in 1851 in a letter to his Day—moved with his family to Warren County, North own daughter, Mary Ann, he mentions the death of Carolina, in 1817. When he moved to Hillsborough in Nathan's daughter, Safroney. the early 1820s, it appears that he became friends with Fine furniture made by Nathan Jeffreys between members of the Jeffreys family who, although listed as 1845 and 1855 is known to exist in a private collection. "" in official records, were actually of Indian The construction techniques that he used are similar to origin. The Jeffreys were part of a larger group of those found on the bureaus made in Day's Milton Occaneechi people from Virginia who had settled in shop, indicating that the two men probably worked the northwest section of Orange County, which became together at one time. Jeffreys and other members of the Alamance County in 1849. As with the Day family, the Indian community passed on their woodworking Jeffreys family had originated in Greensville County, skills. His great-great-grandson, William Bill Jeffries, Virginia. In 1830 Uriah Jeffreys served as a bondsman learned woodworking from his father. He built houses for Thomas Day when he married Aquilla Wilson. A as well as chairs during most of the twentieth century. > 32 THJH, Fall 2005 'Patricia Phillips Marshall is the curator of furnishings and decorative arts at the N.C. Museum of History and the coauthor of a soon-to-be-published book on Thomas Day. She notes that current descendants of the Jeffreys family spell their names as "Jeffries," but she uses "Jeffreys" because that is how the name appears in the historical record. She thanks Forest Hazel for sharing his research on the family. recognizes the Lumbee (formerly called the Cherokee Indians of Inside the Contemporary Robeson County). 1954: The Supreme Court's ruling in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka [Kansas] starts the process of school desegregation POWWOW nationwide. 1955: The Hickory Hill School in by Marvin “Marty” Richardson* the Waccamaw-Siouan Indian community of St. James, Columbus County, closes after magine a series of circles or rings, filled identity for most of North Carolina's perating since at least 1927. Indians. On any given day, even if no gath¬ with action—sights, colors, tastes, 1956: Congress passes the smells, and sounds—all connected to ering is in progress, Indians are participat¬ Lumbee Bill. It recognizes the Lumbee as an Indian tribe but and celebrating the American Indian her¬ ing in powwow-related activities such as denies them services from the federal Bureau of Indian Affairs. itage of the event's participants. This making new drums, practicing songs or dance moves, 1957: The Haliwa School opens image describes in Warren County, serving chil¬ a modern creating new dren in grades 1-12. The school is tribally controlled and state-rec¬ American Indian regalia or out¬ ognized under the county school system. It closes in 1969 as a powwow. At the fits, and plan¬ result of desegregation. center of a pow¬ ning the next Congress begins passing a series powwow or of laws to ensure that everyone wow are the can exercise their right to vote dancers, scat¬ powwow trip. (culminating in the 1965 Voting Rights Act). In 1964 the poll tax tered through¬ Along the way, will be outlawed and a new Civil Rights Act will outlaw discrimina¬ out a circular young people— tion in employment, public facili¬ arena, wearing watching, listen¬ ties, and education. regalia (special ing, or joining in 1958: A large group of Lumbee, angered by racist agitation and dress or finery) the work—learn threats of cross burnings, descend on a Ku Klux Klan rally in beautiful hues to take pride in January 18 near Maxton, scatter¬ their heritage. ing the Klan. Two Klan members of blue, red, are later indicted on charges of black, white, Just as impor¬ incitement to riot. yellow, orange, tantly, people 1962: English E. Jones becomes the first Lumbee president of and other colors Powwows are one way that modern American Indians learn about their heritage from different Pembroke State College (now and share with members of other tribes. Here, Wayasti Richardson performs at Indian nations UNC-Pembroke). of the rainbow. the Haliwa-Saponi's annual powwow in 2004. Image courtesy of Marty Richardson. meet, interact, 1965: The Haliwa-Saponi tribe The dancers receives state recognition. move to the beat of the drum and the song, and learn about and from one another as 1970: The General Assembly, in making various movements according to they enjoy the social atmosphere that the removing obsolete laws from the books, inadvertently rescinds the their individual styles. The men's bells and modern powwow brings. Natives from the state recognition of the Indians of the women's jingles offer a constant back¬ four compass points take pride in their Person County. ground of sound. Singers sit on the edge of heritage. 1971: The state recognizes the Coharie and Waccamaw-Siouan the arena around a cow or buffalo hide An intertribal gathering, the modern tribes. drum, providing music for the dancers. American Indian powwow features danc¬ On July 2 the General Assembly establishes the N.C. Commission Outside the arena, spectators sit on ing in many styles, including Men's and of Indian Affairs. bleachers or lawn chairs, watching with Women's Traditional, Women's Jingle, The Lumbee Guaranty Bank is excitement throughout the intertribal, Men's Grass Dance, Men's and Women's established in Pembroke on December 22. It is the first bank social, exhibition, and competition dances. Fancy, and Men's Southern Straight. An in the United States owned and operated by American Indians. In yet another circle are artist and vendor emcee announces the dances and other 1972: The Department of booths filled with American Indian arts powwow activities. The drum—the instru¬ American Indian Studies at and crafts such as pottery, flutes, and jew¬ ment and the drum group—is central to Delano Cummings, a Lumbee elry. Within this area, powwow visitors can the powwow, providing the music for the from Robeson County, has writ¬ ten two books based on his expe¬ smell the frybread, corn soup, buffalo dances, honor ceremonies, and other activ¬ riences as a member of the U.S. burgers, Indian stew, and other foods ities within the circle. An arena director, or Marine Corps during the Vietnam War: Moon Dash Warrior, pub¬ made by talented Indian chefs. "whip man," makes sure that the arena lished in 1998, and River Dreams, The modern powwow is arguably the and activities are orderly, and that the published in 2001. Cummings served three tours totaling slight¬ dominant, and most culturally relevant, dancers and singers are taken care of. ly more than three years in Head dancers, a male and a female, lead Vietnam, the first starting in 1965. event and symbol of American Indian Much of the time, he was part of a special reconnaissance group.

*Marvin "Marty" Richardson is a member of the Haliwa-Saponi American Indian tribe THJH, FaU 2005 33 and serves as its tribal planner. The tribe maintains its headquarters in Hollister, North Carolina. the dances within the circle, and are usually the first dancers in the arena. Today, most powwows start with the parade of dancers, or Grand Entry. Dancers line up in dance categories and by age, with older dancers entering the arena first. American Indian veterans lead the Grand Entry and bring in the United States flag, state flag, tribal flag, and American Indian eagle staff. After the Grand Entry, a local pastor or a tribal leader from the sponsoring tribe or group usually leads an invocation, or prayer. Next, the host drum or another attending drum is asked to render a flag song, often called the American Indian national anthem. Veterans post the flags near the stage, and one of the attending drums renders a song to honor all veterans, both American Indian and non-Indian. After these ceremonies, the emcee usually announces intertribal, social, and exhibition danc¬ ing. At competition powwows, dancers try to win prizes in individual style and age categories. In the early 1970s, North Carolina's Indians began to adopt the Plains (or midwestern) Indians' dance, regalia, and singing styles, as well as the Plains-style powwow structure. Different tribes, though, may maintain North Carolina's Haliwa-Saponi tribe established its annual powwow tradition certain traditions. A tra¬ beginning in 1965. These photographs were taken at the tribe's 1969 event. dition is a story, custom, or belief passed down tion of sharing. Each of North Carolina's state-rec¬ and continued by a fami¬ ognized tribes has had "Indian only" institutions ly, village, or other group and activities, such as the Indian school, Indian of people. For example, church, and "Indian only" gatherings. Among the the Haliwa-Saponi—a Haliwa-Saponi, annual tribal activities such as the tribe centered in Halifax May Day Festival, Fourth of July celebration, and and Warren counties in church homecomings were Indian-only social events northeastern North that promoted community solidarity, Indian pride, Carolina—still include and interaction. By 1957 the tribe had built and some traditional tribal opened the Haliwa Indian School, the only non¬ dances such as the reservation, tribally supported Indian school in Canoe Dance in pow¬ North Carolina. As part of the school's extra activi¬ wows and performances. ties, the tribe started a Boy Scout troop, through Although many ele¬ which the students learned more about, and became ments of the modern more confident in, making traditional regalia, drum¬ powwow are not strictly ming, and publicly practicing other parts of tradi¬ traditional to the tional American Indian culture. Southeast or North Starting in the 1920s and particularly in the early Carolina's Indians, the 1960s, through periodic contact with Virginia and This blue, yellow, and white Jingle Dance dress with an eagle design powwow remains an North Carolina Indian tribes of similar and connect¬ belongs to Brenda Silva, a Haliwa- Saponi powwow dancer. The dress fea¬ institution built on the ed backgrounds—especially the Chickahominv of tures more than six hundred cone- old values, activities, and Charles City County, Virginia—the Haliwa-Saponi shaped jingles, formed from snuff can lids, that constantly rustle with sound. spirit of community, the gained more cultural knowledge and experience. The Jingle Dance began as a healing struggle for Indian iden¬ The Virginia Indians had their own story of racial dance. Image courtesy of the N.C. Museum of History. tity, and the Indian tradi- and ethnic prejudice; intolerance from state and

34 TH]H, Fall 2005 In April 1978, this young local governments and their white con¬ the public. Tribal Chief W. R. Richardson man par¬ stituents; and cultural decline and change. reached out to other tribes in the state and ticipated in a pow¬ These encounters with other Indian people nation, inviting them to attend and offer wow at Wake stimulated the Haliwa-Saponi, because speeches to the crowd. County’s they knew they were not alone in the fight In the late 1960s and early 1970s, the Optimist Park. for Indian recognition. tribes of North Carolina worked together Image The Haliwa-Saponi celebrated their state to push for the N.C. Commission of Indian courtesy of the News and Observer recognition as a tribe, which came in April Affairs, which was established in 1971. Collection, N.C. State Archives. 1965, by instituting the powwow as a new During this interaction, the Haliwa-Saponi Pembroke State University (now symbol of public Indian identity and eth¬ shared their dances and culture with the UNC-Pembroke) begins offering nic distinctiveness. With the help of the Waccamaw-Siouan, Coharie, Lumbee, and courses. The university becomes part of the new sixteen-campus Chickahominy and other tribes along the others, who started their own powwows. UNC system. eastern seaboard, they gained and shared Today, all eight state-recognized tribes and The Carolina Indian Voice, an American Indian-owned news¬ knowledge about Indian dance, song, and the urban Indian organizations hold one or paper, begins operation. regalia, starting a new tradition of culture more powwows each year in their own In September, Horace Locklear, a that has only grown and developed. After communities. University groups and other Lumbee, becomes the first Indian to pass the State Bar exam and two years of holding private powwows for organizations, as well as individuals, also practice law in North Carolina. themselves and invited Indian guests, the sponsor powwows. Tuscarora from Robeson County join other American Indians from Haliwa-Saponi held their first public pow¬ Dancers, vendors, and singers from across the nation in occupying the wow on Saturday, April 16, 1967, on the tribes throughout the United States and Bureau of Indian Affairs building in Washington, D.C.. during the grounds of the Haliwa Indian School in Canada—including the Sioux, , Trail of Broken Treaties protest in October. The Tuscarora steal Hollister. To raise awareness of the tribe Cree, Pawnee, Kiowa, Seminole, and oth¬ 7,200 pounds of records and take and the event, they invited the press and ers—regularly visit several North Carolina them to Robeson County. powwows. In the same way, members of 1973: Old Main, the oldest build¬ ing on the campus of Pembroke North Carolina's tribes have visited other State University (now UNC- Pembroke), is gutted by fire (Powwow: The Heartbeat tribal groups such as the Six Nations of March 18. The building is rebuilt.

Ontario, Canada; the Morongo Band of Henry Ward Oxendine, a Lumbee of a (PeopCe Mission Indians of California; the Saginaw from Robeson Chippewa Indians of Michigan; and the County, becomes Coushatta Indians of Louisiana. This cul¬ the first American tural exchange has led to an understand¬ Indian to serve in ing of tribal histories and cultures, as well North as to an understanding of the similarities Carolina's General and differences between Indian nations Assembly. Henry Ward Oxendine. throughout the continent. >' 7 1975: The Guilford Native American Association incorporates in Greensboro.

1976: The Metrolina Native American Association incorpo¬ rates in Charlotte in January.

The Waccamaw-Siouan tribe begins governing by tribal council and tribal chief. Powwow: The Heartbeat of a People is an exhibit at the The outdoor drama Strike at the N.C. Museum of History, cur¬ Wind, the story of Lumbee legend rently scheduled to run Henry Berry Lowry, opens in through June 11,2006. It fea¬ Robeson County. tures posters, dance regalia, music, and photographs 1979: The American Indian associated with North Religious Freedom Act guaran¬ Carolina powwows. Included tees religious freedom to Indians are more than thirty original nationwide, including the right to silkscreen posters created by hold traditional ceremonies. Joe Liles, a member of the 1980: Governor James B. Hunt American Indian drum group Shallow Water, pictured performing at one of the tribe's powwows Southern Sun. Two of his Jr. proclaims Indian Heritage in the mid-1980s, was one of the first Haliwa-Saponi drum groups. Images courtesy of Joe posters are shown here. Week, which later becomes a Liles and the N.C. Image courtesy of Marvin "Marty" Richardson. monthlong observance. Museum of History. 1981: The General Assembly passes new laws regarding

THJH, Fall 2005 35 Celebrating Thousands of Years in a Single Day by Emily Grant*

Andrew Hunter picks up a rough, dull-col¬ anniversary of American Indian Heritage Month in ored clamshell, leans over a machine that North Carolina and in the United States. The looks like a cross between a power sander museum commemorated this special occasion in and a blowtorch, flips a switch, and disappears several ways: (1) displaying artist Freeman into a cloud of shell dust and smoke. When the Owle's stone carving of the Cherokee creation dur¬ dust settles, he reveals a now-lustrous purple-and- ing the month of November; (2) constructing and white shell to the crowd gathered around him. He interpreting a traditional longhouse on the State explains that for centuries, American Indians on the East Coast have transformed shells like this one into wampum beads, which are woven into belts, capes, earrings, necklaces, and other items. Hunter, a member of the Meherrin tribe, uses wampum to craft beautiful, one-of-a-kind pieces of jewelry. He is just one of more than a hundred musicians, dancers, artists, storytellers, scholars, and elders who present at the N.C. Museum of History's annual American Indian Heritage Celebration. North Carolina's American Indian population ranks eighth nationally and is the largest of any state east of the Mississippi River. Each November since 1996, the Museum of History, in part¬ nership with the N.C. Andrew Hunter of the Commission of Indian Affairs, Meherrin tribe burnishes clamshells to make wampum. the Wake County Indian Image courtesy of the N.C. Education program, and the (Below, left) Shawl dancers move gracefully across the stage during a recent Museum of History. Education Day. (Below, right) Ray Silva (Pueblo-Navajo) plays the flute at the Triangle Native American main stage during a recent American Indian Heritage Celebration. (Above) Society, has hosted the American Indian Heritage Dancers of all ages and dance categories participate in the celebration's Grand Entry ceremony. Images courtesy of the N.C. Museum of History. Celebration. The goal is to build awareness of Indian history and culture through storytelling, craft demonstrations, hands-on activities, perform¬ ances, and food. The celebration is the only free daylong family event in the state honoring North Carolina's Indian culture and is the museum's most popular annual event, attracting more than 7,000 visitors in 2004. All presenters are members of the eight state-recognized tribes: Coharie, Eastern Band of Cherokee, Haliwa-Saponi, Lumbee, Meherrin, Occaneechi Band of the Saponi Nation, Sappony, and Waccamaw-Siouan. The year 2005 marked not only the tenth cele¬ bration at the museum but the twenty-fifth

TH)H, Fall 2005 ‘Emily Grant serves as the youth programs coordinator for the N.C. Museum of History. She works with the rest of the planning committee to oversee the annual American Indian Heritage Celebration. archaeological and skeletal remains that have application to Capitol grounds adjacent to the museum American Indian artifacts. the week prior to the annual celebration, 1986: The state recognizes the Meherrin tribe. held in 2005 on November 19; and (3) 1988: Two American Indians, opening an exhibit on powwows in North Eddie Hatcher and Timothy Jacobs, hold seventeen people Carolina. The addition of these activities to hostage in the offices of the Robesonian newspaper in an already-packed day of presentations Lumberton on February 1. The equaled an event not to be missed. One of two demand to speak with Governor Jim Martin, hoping to the strengths of the American Indian publicize corruption and drug dealing within Robeson County Heritage Celebration is the museum's com¬ law enforcement. They will be acquitted of federal charges but mitment to working with and representing convicted on state ones. all of the state-recognized tribes. "What 1997: The General Assembly makes this event successful is the involve¬ passes a bill restoring state Quilters from the Coharie tribe help visitors put their own stitches recognition, rescinded in the ment of Indian people in the planning, in a quilt at the celebration. Members of the state-recognized tribes 1970s, to the Indians of Person organizing, and imple¬ participate in a range of activities at the event. Image courtesy of the County. By statute, the tribe is N.C. Museum of History. now known as the Sappony. menting of it," one pre¬ Harrah’s Cherokee Casino opens senter remarked. A plan¬ participants to an event serving thousands. on Qualla Boundary, with 175,000 square feet of space and 1,800 ning committee made up In 2002 the museum expanded the celebra¬ video gambling machines.

of representatives from the tion to include an Education Day for 2000: The N.C. Commission of Indian Affairs recognizes the eight state-recognized grades K-12 students. The day brings chil¬ Triangle Native American Society. tribes, staff from the N.C. dren from across the state together with Lorna McNeill, a Lumbee, is Commission of Indian American Indian artists and performers. crowned Miss North Carolina while a senior at UNC-Pembroke. Affairs, and museum Teachers whose groups are signed up also The Haliwa-Saponi Tribal School employees evaluates and receive curriculum-based activities for in Hollister opens as part of the plans the celebration. The their classrooms. As with the public event, State Board of Education's char¬ ter school program, with sixty-nine event includes presenta¬ American Indian Education Day has students in grades K-5 and Indian studies in its curriculum. tions of historical informa¬ grown. It now operates at capacity—host¬ 2002: The Occaneechi Band of tion and traditions, as well ing approximately 2,000 students. the Saponi Nation receives state as contemporary So what are you waiting for? Mark your recognition as a tribe. American Indian culture calendars for the next American Indian Fine in the World: Lumbee Language in Time and Place is and arts. Heritage Celebration. Don't miss the published.

The American Indian chance to experience 10,000 years of his¬ 2005: Governor Mike Easley signs a bill designating UNC- Heritage Celebration has tory in one day. Watch the museum's Web Pembroke as North Carolina’s evolved from a two-hour site at http://ncmuseumofhistory.org for Historically American Indian University. program for preregistered details on future celebrations. CO Later in the year, Easley signs into law “An Act to allow members of state-recognized Indian tribes to hunt, trap, or fish on tribal lands without obtaining a license issued by the Wildlife Resources Commission.’’

Kelvin Sampson, a Lumbee, a Laurinburg native, and a graduate of Pembroke State University, is the head men's bas¬ ketball conch at the . Entering the 2005-2006 season (his tivelfth there), he had a 259-100 record at the school, and had led the Sooners to eight straight 20-win seasons, a berth in the 2002 NCAA Final Four, and a berth in the 2003 NCAA Elite Eight. Sampson is a former president of the National Association of Basketball Coaches. Image courtesy of the University of Oklahoma Athletics Department.

THIH, Fall 2005 37 Tar Heel Junior Historian Association North Carolina Museum of History 4650 Mail Service Center Raleigh, NC 27699-4650 r a- p PS p r-t y -R 0 7 performances took place as part of annual American

Indian Heritage Celebration activities held at the 8S$SSSS museum. Images courtesy of the N.C. Museum of History.

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