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For membership information, see: http://nebraskahistory.org/admin/members/index.htm Article Title: Earth in Four Dimensions: Development of the Ideas of Geologic Time and History Full Citation: R F Diffendal, Jr, “Earth in Four Dimensions: Development of the Ideas of Geologic Time and History, Nebraska History 80 (1999): 95-104 URL of article: http://www.nebraskahistory.org/publish/publicat/history/full-text/NH1999GeologicTime.pdf Date: 3/08/2013 Article Summary: Nebraska’s geologic history extends from rocks billions of years old buried beneath the surface to sediments accumulating today. Cataloging Information: Names: John Harrison; Nils Steensen (Nicolaus Steno); Georges Leclerc, Comte de Buffon; James Ussher; James Hutton; William Smith; Charles Darwin; William Thompson, Lord Kelvin; G DeGeer; Ernest Rutherford; Frederick Soddy; John Boellstorff Place Names: Keith County, Nebraska; Sioux County, Nebraska; Greenwich, England; Lyme Regis, Dorset, England Laws of Strata Formation: superposition, original horizontality, lateral continuity, cross-cutting relationships, floral and faunal succession Dating Techniques: dendrochronology, fluorine dating, human cultural debris dating, fission track dating Keywords: perspective art, chronometer, Nils Steensen (Nicolaus Steno), James Ussher, James Hutton, William Smith, strata, Charles Darwin, natural selection, sediments, varve, radioactive decay, isotope, mass spectrometer; Carbon-14 dating, dendrochronology, volcanic ash, Ogallala Group Photographs / Images: (Fig 1) prime meridian, Royal Observatory, Greenwich, England; (Fig 2) cross sections showing Steno’s principles and Hutton’s Principle of Cross-cutting Relationships; (Fig 3) volcanic ash beds deposited in an ancient gully; (Fig 4) earthquake fault in Sioux County, Nebraska; (Fig 5) tilted strata along the Front Range, Colorado; (Fig 6) folded strata, Appalachian Mountains, western Maryland; (Fig 7) Cambrian trilobites, Nevada; (Fig 8) dinosaur footprints, Jurassic Morrison Formation near Denver, Colorado; (Fig 9) Jurassic marine ammonite cephalopod shell in shale, Lyme Regis, Dorset, England; (Fig 10) geologic bedrock map of Nebraska; (Fig 11) Varved lake sediments from Lake Diffendal, Keith County, Nebraska; (Table 1) dates of inventions and development of absolute dating techniques; (Fig 12) tree rings FOREWORD The Place ofTime Does time pass, or does it take place? This was one of a series Proustian notion of simultaneity and uses a personal experi­ of spontaneously emerging questions that led me to propose ence to peer into the essence of time, which he concludes is this exploratory theme issue of Nebraska History quarterly. spatial. He then investigates four historical visions of time, not­ Though the timing is later than originally intended-and the ing how Plains architecture either directly reflected a time­ scope somewhat different-we might now just as well allow space simultaneity, or attempted to establish such a sense the synchronous juxtaposition of this number of the quarterly through the use of "quotation" from buildings of other times. with the turn of the millennium. Whatever the fascination with His narrative establishes a context within which to review our the appearance of so many zeros in a date, this conjunction current paradigm of absolute Time as a linear progression. certainly provides an opportunity to reflect upon the concept Finally, I summarize how western culture created the artifact of Time. of linear time from the cosmic cycles- and the concept of flat On the surface, time is the special province of history. But it space from the Euclidian geometry-then attempt a non­ is also a special concern of us all. We all exist in time and our mathematical explanation of the Einsteinian concept of time becomes an intimate part of us. Wh ile we mark our per­ spacetime. I conclude by searching for ways to bring the sonal times using the same numerical system as historians, and spacetime notion "down to Earth," and find that place, as an we might even think in terms of personal histories, few us us will experiential matrix of spaces-and-times, provides an authentic probably consider our lives as history, at least in the same sense point-of-departure for further exploration of this new paradigm. as we have, say, Willa Cather's or William Jennings Bryan's. Interspersed with the major essays are two others that were But neither history nor time, as such, were the impetus for . initially conceived as sidebars. Their topics worked so well this project. One impulse is outlined in my own essay in this with the thematic question of this issue, as it developed, that collection; another came about from a realization that my they were expanded into historical articles. One by Janet memory of time past-the internal "record" of my own per­ Jeffries shows how space was used to mark time in Crete, sonal history-was set in places, not in times. At least it wasn't Nebraska, after nationwide Standard Time had replaced local set in the absolute Time that is measured by clocks and calen­ time and rendered local synchronization obsolete. Her article dars. Recognizing that there could be many reasons why I do provides a brief history of the Boswell Observatory at Doane not remember experiences in terms of dates, the question that College, the functions of its various clocks, and the use of its opens this introduction was nonetheless one that emerged. time ball. In the other, Gene Thomsen shows how time was The phrasing of the question does seem to capture two quite used by U.S. Government surveyors to establish their location different but fairly common ways of characterizing time: Is it in space. His article details how stars were used as timing sig­ just a "passing" out there somewhere that we have somehow nals, and the role that they played in laying Nebraska's west­ figured out how to measure with clocks and calendars, or is it ern borders down upon the land. instead a kind of emplacement? I want to thank all of the authors for many interesting ex­ I posed the question, "Is there a place for time?," to a few changes, and for enduring the longer-than-anticipated process people of varied perspective to see if I might elicit some inter­ of assembling this issue. Much deserved thanks is also due to est in this theme. The essays of those who were in a position my colleagues here-including individuals whose discussions to write their thoughts are presented here. They are diverse unwittingly raised the question-but primarily to those in the enough, and they raise some provocative issues. Research and Publications Division. Special appreciation Bob Diffendal recounts the evolution of western percep­ goes to James E. Potter, editor of the quarterly, and assistant tions of time in his historiographical essay on the development editor Patricia C. Gaster. Their patience with this project has of various means of measuring Earth history through geology. been extraordinary, not only in dealing with delays but in He concludes with graphic examples that show how the con­ working these articles to completion. text of history has been changed by the accumulated spatial David Murphy evidence of time in Earth. Paul Olson turns his essay on the Senior Research Architect 94 I I ' I Development of the Ideas of Geologic Time and History By R. F Diffendal, ir. Forward and backward I have gone, and ment from that dump that none of us the development of geologic history and for me it has been an immense journey. had the money to buy on our own. time concepts. Loren Eiseley One day we happened upon an in­ First is the question of the nature of 2 Th e Immense Journey verted, conically shaped mound of time Is time cyclic or is it linear? The pieces of what we took for "rock." The Greco-Oriental cultures had a world Geology is an historical science. It deals mound, as I remember it, was about view based on cosmic cycles, but the with the three-dimensional Earth and its four or five fee t in diameter and about Judeo-Christian world view was more development through time, the fourth three feet high. Th ere were many differ­ linear and reflected the historical nature dimension of this piece. I cannot re­ ent kinds of "rocks" in th e pile, an d of the Bible. Cosmic cycles had a re­ member when I was first introduced to most of these had small pieces of paper peating pattern with no beginning or the idea of geologic or deep time, but with numbers pasted to their sides. I end to the cycles. In the linear view the introduction occurred early in my thought they were very interesting and ti me, the universe, the Earth, and its childhood. I know that this was unusual took home as many different kinds as I creatures had a beginning point and are in my hometown in western Maryland, could find over the next few days. I th en moving to an end. The age of the Earth and probably was unusual in most stopped by the factory salesroom to see differed in th ese two views as well. Cos­ American hometowns in the 1940s and what I had collected. The pieces of mic cycles were multiple and repeti­ 1950s. My interest in geology and its sub­ "rock" turned out to be minerals, and tious.
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