Regional Project for Promotion of Forest Rehabilitation in and through Demonstration Models and Improvement of Seed Supply System:

Lessons Learned

Table of Contents Executive Summary ...... iii Acronyms ...... vi 1.0 Introduction ...... 7 2.1 Global Policy Development on Forest Restoration ...... 7 2.2 Policies, Laws and Regulations on Forest Restoration in Cambodia ...... 9 4.0 Project Interventions and Lessons Learned ...... 11 4.1 Models for Forest Restoration and Lessons Learned ...... 11 4.1.1 High Density Planting of Mixed ...... 11 4.1.2 Direct Seeding to Restore the Grasslands ...... 15 4.1.3 Direct Seeding Plots on Former Agricultural Land ...... 18 4.1.4 Direct Seeding in Kbal Chhay Watershed...... 22 4.2 Seed Sources Establishment and Lessons Learned ...... 23 4.2.1 Identification of Seed Sources in the Natural Forests ...... 23 4.2.2 Establishment of Seed Production Area ...... 28 4.3 Establishment and Operation of the Cambodia Seed Laboratory (TSL) ...... 37 5.0 Seed Production and Supply Analysis ...... 38 References ...... 48

List of Figures Figure 1. Basal diameter (cm) of three-year old Mixed-planted species ...... 13 Figure 2. Total height (M) of three-year old mixed planted species...... 14 Figure 3. Basal diameter (cm) of two-year old direct seeding ...... 15 Figure 4. Total height (M) of two-year old direct seeding trees ...... 16 Figure 5. Diameter (DBH) of the 10 species planted using direct seeding at 7 years old (cm) ...... 19 Figure 6. Total height of the 10 species planted using direct seeding after seven years (m) ...... 20 Figure 7. Diameter of the different species/planting materials ...... 20 Figure 8. Total Height of different species/planting materials ...... 21 Figure 9. Average DBH (cm) of nine-year old direct seeded trees in Kbal Chhay ...... 22 Figure 10. Average total height (M) of nine-year old direct seeded trees in Kbal Chhay ...... 23 Figure 11. Diameter at breast height (cm) of different species planted in Kbal Chhay watershed ...... 36 Figure 12. Total height (M) of the species planted in Kbal Chhay watershed SPA (m) ...... 36 Figure 13. Overall model structure ...... 41 Figure 14. Total Seed demand and export demand of seeds ...... 42 Figure 15. Total seeds supplied and demand ...... 43

List of Tables Table 1. Tree species planted in the demonstration plot ...... 12 Table 2. Result of ANOVA for diameter of indigenous species ...... 18 Table 3. Result of ANOVA for total height of indigenous species ...... 19 Table 4. Seed source classification ...... 24 Table 5. List of seed sources in natural forests with contact persons (updated in 2019) ...... 26 Table 6. DBH and Total Height of two-year-old A. auriculiformis and A. mangium ...... 30 Table 7. DBH and Total Height of planted three-year old indigenous species ...... 32

List of Photos Photo 1. Direct seeding planted Syzygium cumini planted in 2017 ...... 17 Photo 2. Plantation of Acacia auriculiformis after two years of planting ...... 29 Photo 3. Stands of Acacia mangium after two years of planting ...... 30 Photo 4. Removal of Acacia mangium trees manifesting undesirable traits (epicormic branching) ...... 31 Photo 5. Seed production area of Eucalyptus camaldulensis in Kampong Chnnang ...... 31 Photo 6. Planted sureni with galls developed at the shoot tips injured by shoot borers ...... 33 Photo 7. Some standing Toona sureni trees not attacked by shoot borers ...... 34

[Date] i Photo 8. Replacing the empty spot of Toona sureni plantation with Heritiera javanica seedling ...... 34

Map Map 1. Location of Seed Sources in natural forests in 2016 ...... 25 Map 2. Location of Dalbergia oliveri mother trees in Kampong Chnnang Province ...... 53

Annex Annex 1. List of Seed Production Area ...... 50 Annex 2. Case Study of a Seed Collector in Kampong Chnnang Province ...... 51 Annex 3. Issues and lessons learned ...... 54 Annex 4. Formula for the Systems Dynamics Model ...... 57

[Date] ii

Executive Summary

A sustainable supply of germplasm or planting material is crucial for restoration project which defines the future of the condition of the forest stands of Cambodia. The benefit of using good quality seeds from selected parent trees assures successful forest development and improved quality of forest stands. Globally, several policies have been adopted in support of the forest and genetic conservation. Several Cambodian laws and polices also support the restoration and genetic conservation of Cambodian forests. These include the Forestry Law of 2002, Sub-Decree on Community Forestry Management of 2003, National Forest Programme 2010-2029; National Strategic Development Plan (NSDP) 2014-2018; Cambodia Energy Sector Strategy; and National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP) of 2002. The Institute of Forest and Wildlife Research and Development (Cambodia) and the Research Institute for Forest Ecology and Environment (Vietnam) has jointly implemented a Regional Project: “Promotion of forest rehabilitation in Cambodia and Vietnam through demonstration models and improvement of seed supply system” that aims to promote reforestation and rehabilitation of degraded forests in Cambodia through demonstration of good practice of forest restoration and improvement of tree seed supply. Several interventions were implemented which include identification of seed sources of priority species in natural forest, tree species and seed suppliers. Early works on the conservation of genetic resources of Cambodia can be credited to the Danida’s Cambodia Tree Seed Project (CTSP). Some seed sources were established and currently became the sources of planting materials. These include seed sources of Dalbergia cochinchinensis in Banteay Srei, seed production area in Kbal Chhay watershed, and seed source in Phnom Kravanh district. Guidelines on the selection of mother trees and the collection of seeds have been well established. However, the proper seed collection is often compromised during seed actual seed collection. There are indications that many seeds used in Cambodia for restoration are improperly collected from mother trees of dubious traits.

The project conducted demonstration of restoration using high density planting and direct seeding trials in the selected sites. The preliminary result of high density planting showed promising result for species like Khaya senegalensis, Delonix regia and Lagerstroemia speciosa. Dense planting showed to effectively colonize the planted area and suppress the grasslands. Cassia siamea, Cassia javanica, Albizia lebbeck, Delonix regia and Xylia xylocarpa provided promising results in reforesting a degraded land using direct seeding. The project established Seed Production Areas of two fast growing species: Acacia auriculiformis and Acacia mangium. These two species are in demand by the private companies for their reforestation projects. Aside from the two fast growing species, the project also established SPAs for three indigenous species: Albizia lebbeck, Toona sureni, and Fagraea fragrans. Each species was planted in a one Hectare plot. These indigenous species, planted in the SPAs, are rare and have populations that are considered critical in Cambodia. These species also have limited distribution in Cambodia and the population is dwindling. In the established SPAs, several planted T. sureni were attacked by shoot borers, although most have recovered. There are also planted T. sureni that exhibit resistance to shoot borers.

The project established the tree seed laboratory (TSL) to serve as a center for tree seed storage, seed testing and coordinating the tree seed distribution as part of the seed supply chain in Cambodia. The main function of the TSL includes: Seed testing of all tree and shrub seeds in Cambodia; as seed bank; provide technical assistance; and as seed technology center. The TSL will be responsible in Native Tree Protocol Development; Training and Technology Transfer; Genetic Conservation; and It also provides training on seed technology.

[Date] iii

The project aims to support the seed suppliers/entrepreneurs of the tree seed supply chain. To encourage the entrepreneurs, the project provided them information of the tree seed market, training on seed collection, and seed collection equipment. Two demand surveys were conducted by the project in 2015 and a follow up in 2019. The demand survey identified 38 indigenous tree species and only 3 species are exotic tree species that were planted in Cambodia. Among indigenous tree species, Dalbergia cochinchinensis seedlings were mostly produced in 2015 followed by Hopea odorata and Afzelia xylocarpa. It was estimated that the demand of seeds in 2015 reached 15,203 kg. Exotic species are mostly planted by private companies. The government has no long-term planting plan. Only 4 species have been planted by companies, namely: Acacia spp., Eucalyptus sp., Tectona grandis and Aquilaria crassna. Most of the seeds used in tree planting program of private companies are imported from , Australia, Lao PDR, , and . In the follow up demand survey, it was noted that there was a shift of the priority species that were planted nationwide. Instead of fast growing species, there is a shift to Dalbergia cochinchinensis, Pterocarpus macrocarpus and Hopea odorata but the companies still use the fast growing species such as Acacia spp. and Tectona grandis. The prices of seeds significantly vary among species. A kilogram of processed D. cochinchinensis seed sells for US$150 whereas a kilogram of Dipterocarpus alatus fetches only US$1.25 (on site price). D. cochinchinensis seeds are sometimes sold by the middlemen at US$200–250 per kg. The price of D. cochinchinensis seed is even higher when seeds are scarce. The second demand survey noted that there are fewer companies who are involved in tree planting compared in 2015.

The project supported some seed collectors in Cambodia who received assistance such as seed harvesting equipment and training. The seasonality of some species is among the main problem of the seed collectors. Most of the seed collectors collect seeds of Dalbergia cochinchinensis from the private lots of some farmers. But the limited number of trees may be of concern since this will promote a narrowed genetic source material of the seedlot. To sustain the seed business of the seed collectors, there is a need that the key actors in the value chain will be organized to facilitate the trading of tree seeds. So far, there is no existing registration and certification of seedlots in Cambodia. This situation significantly constrained the developing of the seed industry, and has constrained the export of seeds.

Lessons Learned

. Seed Sources Information and Traceability. There is still very limited documentation on the information of the seed sources which made it difficult to trace the seedlots. Many nursery managers are collecting seeds from unreliable mother trees/seed sources. . Seed Production Areas. Seed Production Areas can provide a way of conserving the remaining mother trees. The project has experienced challenges in the establishment of seed production areas. One species, Toona sureni was attached by shoot borers when this species was planted outside its natural habitat. . Forest Restoration. The project has demonstrated the viability of high density direct seeding as an approach of low cost restoration. High density planting has effectively suppressed the grasses under a short period of time. . Establishment and Operation of the Tree Seed Laboratory. The Tree Seed Laboratory (TSL) conducted testing of seed quality and performs clonal propagation of important species such as Dalbergia cochinchinensis. The planning of seed procurement is quite difficult due to the absence of a long range planting plan in Cambodia. . Tree Seed Supply Chain. The seed supply chain is still not well established and need to be strengthened. There is weak link between suppliers, TSL and the nursery managers. Despite the presence of the project, some nursery operators are still collecting seeds on their

[Date] iv

traditional way. As more plantations of Dalbergia cochinchinensis were planted in Cambodia, more seeds become available and the trained suppliers were bypassed in the supply chain. . Toona sureni is not indigenous to the planting area. Wildings were collected from its natural habitat in Mondul Kiri province (about 400 km away). This is a reminder that it is safer to use locally available planting materials. . Tree seeds can provide alternate livelihoods to the farmers. Training on seed collection and handling is indispensable component to make the seed supply business successful. . The tree seed collection equipment provided by the project has greatly improved the seed collection productivity of seed collectors. . The cost of forest restoration can be reduced using direct seeding. . Grasses are controlled in a short period of time using high density planting. . Mass propagation of planting materials using tissue culture remains a challenge and have not achieved it purpose. While there is significant success for producing orchids, there is still limited for the production of timber species. . Fires are usual threats in established plantations. Some fire management techniques were found to be ineffective. . The asexual propagation protocols (i.e. tissue culture) of some economically important species like Dipterocarpus intricatus and Ptercarpus macrocarpus are not yet established. Growing some of the seedlings in the nursery also take time before these will attain plantable size. . Connecting with the seed suppliers are not easy since some of the seed suppliers are located in the remote areas. The communications are poor and have no signal. . Procurement of laboratory equipment is time consuming and requires careful planning. The procurement may take time due to limited number of suppliers in Cambodia.

Some of the issues and lessons learned are also reflected in Annex 3.

Recommendations

. Seed Production Area. The Seed Production Areas (SPAs) should be expanded, particularly, in the CF areas. The SPAs should be registered or documented by the TSL and the information will be stored in a database to facilitate retrieval of information. Controlled pollination should be conducted to develop hybrids of good varieties. . Forest Restoration and Plantation Establishment. Direct seeding should be promoted and piloted in the government’s reforestation program as a low-cost approach to plantation establishment. . Tree Seed Laboratory. In the future, the TSL should be tasked as one for the authorized seed distributer. The TSL and seed collectors should have a complementary role in the seed supply chain. The TSL may act as the final dispensing agent of tree seeds to the final consumers. The TSL should be tasked in the procurement and distribution of seeds to assure the quality of seedlots that will be sued in the reforestation program of the government. The TSL should include the Phytosanitary certification and the genetic variability of seedlots. . Institutional Capacity of Tree Seed Management. IRD should continue building the capacity of the IRD staff and nursery managers and seed collectors. Capacity building will include seed storage and handling, and disease screening.

[Date] v

Acronyms

ADB Asian Development Bank AFoCo ASEAN – Korea Forest Cooperation ANOVA Analysis of Variance CBD Convention on Biological Diversity CBNRM Community-Based Natural Resource Management CF Community Forestry CIFOR Center for International Forestry Research TSL Cambodia Tree Seed Project DBH Diameter at Breast Height FA Forestry Administration FAO Food and Agriculture Organization FSC Forest Stewardship Council IFW Initiative Zur Foderung Nachhaltiger Waldbewirt – Schaftung IRD Institute of Forest and Wildlife Research and Development ITTA International Tropical Timber Agreement ITTO International Tropical Timber Organization IWGF Inter-governmental Working Group on Global Forests IUCN International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources MoE Ministry of Environment NBSAP National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan NFP National Forest Programme NGO Non-Governmental Organization NSDP National Strategic Development Plan PCR Polymerase Chain Reaction QUANGO Quasi Non-Governmental Organizations RCB Randomized Complete Block Design SD System Dynamic SPA Seed Production Areas SPS Sanitary and Phytosanitary UNCCD United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Chang

[Date] vi

1.0 Introduction

Large quantities of tree seeds are used every year in Cambodia’s reforestation program (Koy et al., 2019). A sustainable supply of germplasm or planting material is crucial for restoration project and tree farm developments (Whittet et al., 2016; Hong and Sim, 2006; Nyoka et al., 2014). The use of quality germplasm is fundamental for successful tree breeding and planting and is directly linked to the production of high quality trees and tree products (Hong and Sim, 2006). In 2018, about 12,099 kg of tree seeds were procured for the government’s restoration program in Cambodia. The volume of seeds produced is lower compared to the volume purchased in 2015 which was 14,470. About 32 indigenous species are widely used in tree planting in 2019 (Koy et al., 2019). Tree germplasm is obtained from a variety of sources which include seed stands, plantations and seed orchards (Koskela et al. 2010). In natural forests, germplasm is collected from seed zones based on geographic factors (Nyoka et al., 2014). The benefit of using good quality seeds from selected parent trees assures improved survival and greater product yield (ITTO, 2005; Thomas et al., 2014). The Royal Government of Cambodia has implemented the National Forest Gene Conservation Strategy to ensure that seed and planting materials of desired tree species will be available when a planting need arises in the country (Hong and Sim, 2006). Different mechanisms have been put in place, including forest restoration and tree planting program. From 2009 to 2013, more than 86,668 hectares were planted using different tree species while more than 40,000,000 seedlings were produced and distributed to local people for tree planting (Koy, 2015).

2.0 Global and Local Policies Governing Forest Restoration and Conservation

2.1 Global Policy Development on Forest Restoration

There are a considerable number of legal instruments which directly and indirectly relate to the forests of any one country (Lesniewska, 2005) and there is no single legally-binding global instrument that deals exclusively with forests (Schneider, 2006). There are four basic institutional approaches to global regulation of forestry practices (Lipschutz, 2000):

1. Public Agreements and Conventions, which are primarily interstate and intergovernmental regimes or organizations that seek harmonization of international standards (e.g. Kyoto Protocol to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, the International Tropical Timber Organization and the International Centre for Forestry Research. The resulting regulations are expected to be legislated domestically, where they will apply to both public and private actors. 2. Quasi Non-Governmental Organizations (QUANGOs) are organizations with public, semi-public and/or private memberships, charged with state-authorized functions, such as the International Organization for Standardization. 3. Semi-Private Initiatives involve organizations that are either non-governmental organizations or coalitions or include NGOs, social groups and corporate representatives Regulations are voluntary and intended to apply to corporate activities, in either public or private realms, but are not subject to state vetting or rejection. 4. Private Initiatives involve organizations that are either corporate associations (IFW) or individual companies (Scientific Certification Systems).

[Date] 7

Some of the legally binding agreements include the following (Lesniewska, 2005):

International Tropical Timber Agreement (ITTA) The International Tropical Timber Agreement (ITTA) is a global commodity agreement with an environmental aspect which applies to timber from tropical forests only. The Agreement promotes international trade in tropical timber and the sustainable management of tropical forest industries through international consultation cooperation, policy work and project activities.

Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). The objectives of Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) does not directly address forests for ‘the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources’ (Article 1), which is obviously relevant to forests.

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The UNFCCC’s objective is to achieve stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere within a time-frame sufficient to allow ecosystems to adapt naturally to climate change, [and] to ensure that food production is not threatened’ (Article 2).

Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The Protocol outlines a number of financial incentives for afforestation and reforestation projects to address climate change. These include the Joint Implementation and the Clean Development mechanisms.

United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD). The UNCCD recognizes the important role that other conventions will play in realizing the objective of combating desertification and mitigating the effects of drought. The UNCCD’s solution to desertification is an integrated approach, using participation based on respect for all peoples and no discrimination, restoration and conservation including forestry, and equitable, sustainable business initiatives. International Treaty on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. The objectives of this Treaty are the conservation and sustainable use of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture and the fair and equitable sharing of benefits derived from their use, in harmony with the Convention on Biological Diversity, for sustainable agriculture and food security. This Treaty is increasingly important with the growth of biotechnology in science and forestry. Non-Legally Binding Authoritative Statement of Principles for a Global Consensus on the Management, Conservation and Sustainable Development of All Types of Forests. These Principles provided the foundation of the future IFF/IPF Proposals for Action. The Principles seek to combine the objectives of sustainable forest management and conservation. Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations National Forest Programme. NFPs are an important source for civil society organizations to observe whether legal obligations of forest related treaties are being incorporated into national forestry policy developments. World Conservation Strategy. In 1980, the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), a group of experts, prepared the World Conservation Strategy. The three principles of conservation outlined in the World Conservation Strategy include (Hooker, 1994): the maintenance of essential ecological processes and life-support systems; the preservation of genetic diversity; and sustainable utilization of species and ecosystems.

[Date] 8

2.2 Policies, Laws and Regulations on Forest Restoration in Cambodia

Cambodia passed several laws and made some policy statements aimed at conserving the forest and genetic resources.

Forestry Law (2002). The objective of the law is to ensure the sustainable management of the forests for social, economic and environmental benefits, including conservation of biological diversity and cultural heritage (Article 1). The law prescribes areas in the forestland to be reforested and enjoins the citizens of Cambodia to plant trees and develop tree plantations.

Sub-Decree on Community Forestry Management (2003). The Guideline prescribes: (1) restoring the original indigenous or naturally growing forest; and (2) establishment of Forest Plantation Block within the community forest. The Sub-Decree recommends the planting of species (like Tectona grandis and macrophylla) that have longer rotation (50 years). The Sub-Decree on Community Forestry Management encouraged adopting the Agroforestry to promote the planting of planting of multi-purpose trees or fast growing and nitrogen fixing on farms within the community forest boundaries.

National Forest Programme (2010-2029). The National Forest Programme (NFP) 2010-2029 sets objectives and goals in developing and managing forests to improve livelihoods, environmental services and overall economic development. The NFP aims to increase the current level of forest cover to 60% of the total land area as its strategic indicators. It also sets a target of 500,000 hectares of high value commercial plantation established and 10 million tree seedlings distributed per year and two million hectares of forest land allocated for Community Forestry (approximately 1,000 CF). The NFP also targets the establishment of 25,000 hectares of forests a year.

National Strategic Development Plan (NSDP) 2014-2018. Among others, the NSDP sets a national target of 60% forest cover with an annual area to be reforested of 25,000 hectares from 2014 to 2018.

Cambodia Energy Sector Strategy. The Strategy identified tree planting along the road sides and other public places to contribute in addressing fuel deficit in the agricultural areas. The Strategy recommends (1) Organizing tree planting in schools, pagodas and villages, to increase awareness to the people. (2) Planting of fast growing fuelwood species that adapts to Cambodia’s environment as an important component of wood energy strategy; establishment of Village Woodlot for the production of fuelwoods that can become an important source of income for villages.

National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP) 2002. NBSAP provides a framework for action at all levels that will enhance ability to ensure the productivity, diversity and integrity of natural systems resulting to the ability of Cambodia to reduce poverty and improve the quality of life of all Cambodians. The NBSAP promote reforestation and rehabilitation of degraded forest areas in all provinces (area reforested). The areas that can be targeted for restoration will be the following:

. National botanical gardens and buffer zones of the protected areas (Theme 1). The natural botanical gardens can serve as in-situ and ex-situ conservation site. . Mining area (Theme 8) . Natural and cultural sites (Theme 9)

[Date] 9

. River banks, lake shores and riparian areas (Theme 12) . All degraded sites (Theme 5)

NBSAP provides the planting of native species for reforestation (Theme 1 - Protection of Natural Resources). Theme 5 also provides that a policy and guidelines promoting the use of native species in cultivation and restricting the use of exotic species.

3.0 Promotion of forest rehabilitation in Cambodia and Viet Nam through Demonstration Models and Improvement of Seed Supply System

The Institute of Forest and Wildlife Research and Development (Cambodia) and the Research Institute for Forest Ecology and Environment (Vietnam) jointly implemented a Regional Project: “Promotion of forest rehabilitation in Cambodia and Vietnam through demonstration models and improvement of seed supply system”. This project covers a five-year period, from 2015 to 2019 (Ho, undated). The project aims to promote reforestation and rehabilitation of degraded forests in Cambodia through demonstration of good practice of forest restoration and improvement of tree seed supply. In order to achieve this goal, several interventions were implemented which include identification of seed sources of priority species in natural forest, tree species and seed suppliers. The identification of seed sources and seed suppliers aims at establishing the seed supply chain that could facilitate access to tree seeds, and promote wider participation of stakeholders in reforestation programmes (So, 2016).

The project aims to support the seed suppliers/entrepreneurs of the tree seed supply chain. To encourage the entrepreneurs, the project provided them information of the tree seed market, training on seed collection, and provided seed collection equipment. Nyoka et al. (2014) emphasized that to enhance the uptake and use of high quality germplasm, there is a need to quantify and demonstrate the importance of germplasm quality and raise awareness among the farmers and policy-makers. There is also a need to develop effective germplasm production and supply strategies that result in win-win situations for the farmers, suppliers and the environment. The activities performed by Cambodian counterpart include the following:

. Identify seed sources of priority tree species in natural forests resulted in the list of seeds sources, tree species and seed suppliers (Activity 1.1) . On-the job training on one FA personnel on tree improvement in Vietnam [Activity 1.2] . Establish, maintain and monitor two seed production areas of two fast-growing tree species, one Ha, each [Activity 1.3] . Establish, maintain and monitor three seed production areas of three priorities, indigenous tree species, one Ha. Each. [Activity 1.4] . Maintain and monitor the existing seed production areas in Kbal Chhay Watershed Protected Area [Activity 1.5] . On-the job training of two FA personnel on tree seed technology in Korea [Activity 3.1] . Established tree seed laboratory [laboratory space] [Activity 3.2] . Procurement and installation of equipment and tools for the seed laboratory [Activity 3.3] . Collection and purchase of seeds [Activity 3.4] . running of tree seed laboratory [seed testing and storage] [Activity 3.5] . Running the existing tissue culture laboratory [Activity 3.6] . Conduct a demand survey [Activity 4.1] . Conduct trainings/workshops on seed collection, handling and seed storage to selected seed suppliers [Activity 4.2]

[Date] 10

. Identify and equip potential seed suppliers with basic equipment and tools for startup seed distribution system [Activity 4.3] . Produce/reproduce training and marketing materials [booklets, leaflets and posters] [Activity 4.4] . Marketing of tree seeds [distribution of materials, organize field visits to seed sources, workshops and upload list of seed catalogs onto the IRD website] [Activity 4.5] . Establish, maintain and monitor a demonstration plot on forest restoration by high-density planting of mix, indigenous tree species in province [Activity 5.1] . Establish, maintain and monitor a demonstration plot on forest restoration by direct seeding of mixed species in Siem Rap province [Activity 5.2] . Maintenance of the forest restoration plots established under individual AFoCO project I [Activity 5.3] . Compiling of lessons learned on forest restoration in Cambodia and Vietnam (Activity 5.7) . Organize field visits of relevant stakeholders to the models forest restoration (Activity 5.8) . Inception, establishment of the PSC and orientation of staff and inception workshop (Activity 6.1) . Completion workshop (Activity 6.2)

4.0 Project Interventions and Lessons Learned

The prevalent use of low quality tree germplasm in reforestation in the developing countries is widespread despite many recommendations to produce and grade tree seed and use of high quality seeds (Nyoka et al., 2014). To mobilize the genetic potential of indigenous species requires skilled collection of relatively large amounts of seed. Extending business training to enterprising seed dealers including the networks of producers and distributors of seed and seedlings is needed (Lillesø et al., 2011). There is a need to create awareness, among germplasm suppliers and users on tree germplasm quality. Germplasm of native tree species are mostly collected in the most accessible sections of forests without consideration of quality of the trees resulting in reduced productivity of woodlots and agroforests that were established based on those collected germplasms. The limited awareness on the importance of germplasm quality coupled with absence of policy regulating germplasm quality result to indiscriminate collection of germplasm (Nyoka et al., 2014). Faced by these issues, building knowledge and capacity of the germplasm collectors and suppliers are very important to avert the widespread use of genetically inferior germplasm.

4.1 Models for Forest Restoration and Lessons Learned

Three restoration models tested. The restoration models involve testing direct planting techniques and the use of high density planting. High density planting aims to determine the ability of the high density planting method of effectively controlling the grasses.

4.1.1 High Density Planting of Mixed Species

The area for high density planting was once dominated by Imperata grassland. Vegetation cover in this site was dominated by small Acacia tree species sparsely scattered across the site and few naturally regenerated seedlings of lesser known indigenous tree species such as

[Date] 11

Xanthophyllum colubrinum and Cratoxylon prunifolium. In general, the tree density was very low. The ground cover was dominated by Imperata cylindrica and Rousey Prich (a kind of small bamboo). The total area of the demonstration plot is 2 ha including the buffer zones. Twenty-six indigenous tree species were selected for this high-density planting of mixed indigenous tree species consisting of high-value timber, pioneer species, fruit trees, resin trees and early flowering trees. The seedlings were planted at 5,431 per Ha.

Table 1. Tree species planted in the demonstration plot Species name Local name Number of Total number of seedlings planted seedlings per sub-plot planted Albizia lebbeck Chres 87 348 Anisoptera costata Pdeak 100 400 Aquilaria crassna Chann crassna 37 148 Azadirachta indica Pdau 37 148 Cassia grandis Ouy Muoy 50 200 Dalbergia cochinchinensis Kranhoung 100 400 Dalbergia oliveri Neang Nuon 100 400 Delonix regia Kangaok 25 100 Diospyros sp. Troyeung 100 400 Dipterocarpus alatus Chheuteal 100 400 Dipterocarpus intricatus Trach 75 300 Dipterocarpus obtusifolius Tbeng 37 148 Fagraea fragrans Tatrau 75 300 Hopea odorata Kokir 100 400 Khaya senegalensis Kinean 100 400 Lagerstroemia speciosa Antanel 100 400 Mitrella mesnyi Rumdoul 75 300 Pterocarpus macrocarpus Thnong 100 400 Shorea roxburghii Popel 37 148 Shorea siamensis Phchek Reang 37 148 Shorea vulgaris Choh Chheaung 12 48 Sindora cochinchinensis Kokor 125 500 Sterculia plantanifolia Samrong 37 148 Syzygium cumini Pring 62 248 Tamarindus indica L. Ampel 50 200 Xylia dolabriformis Sok Krom 75 300

Weed control was carried out twice a year. In the first two years, weeding was done manually to minimize disturbance to the seedlings. The following years weeding were done using weed cutter and spraying with herbicide. The growth and survival of the planted trees (total height, root collar diameter, crown diameter) were monitored once a year. Only 10–20% of the planted seedlings of each species were monitored. The result after three years shows that Khaya senegalensis, Delonix regia and Lagerstroemia speciosa have better performance compared to the other species in terms of diameter growth (Figure 1).

[Date] 12

Shorea vulgaris Dalbergia oliveri Molodorum fruticosum Dipterocarpus obtusifolius Tamarindus indicus Shorea roxburghii Dalbergia cochinchinensis Diosphyros spp. Cassia grandis Pterocarpus macrocarpus Dipterocarpus intricatus Shorea siamensis Hopea odorata Albizia lebbeck Sindora cochinchinensis Syzygium cumini Dipterocarpus alatus Aquilaria crassna Xylia dolabriformis Anisoptera costata Azadirachta indica Fagraea fragrans Lagerstroemia speciosa Delonix regia Khaya senegalensis 0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 DBH (cm)

Figure 1. Basal diameter (cm) of three-year old Mixed-planted species

In terms of height, Khaya senegalensis shows to be significantly higher compared to other species. Next to K. senegalensis are Lagerstroemia speciosa and Delonix regia (Figure 2). The result indicates that these three species (Khaya senegalensis, Lagerstroemia speciosa and Delonix regia outperforms the other planted species. The dominance of the three species conforms to their performance in terms of diameter growth. In the plots where Delonix regia were planted, some grasses beneath the canopy were observed. This could be due to the fine leaves of the species that allow sunlight to penetrate.

[Date] 13

Shorea vulgaris Dalbergia oliveri Dipterocarpus obtusifolius Molodorum fruticosum Diosphyros spp. Cassia grandis Tamarindus indica Shorea roxburghii Dipterocarpus intricatus Shorea siamensis Pterocarpus macrocarpus Dipterocarpus alatus Dalbergia cochinchinensis Syzygium cumini Anisoptera costata Hopea odorata Albizia lebbeck Sindora cochinchinensis Aquilaria crassna Azadirachta indica Fagraea fragrans Xylia dolabriformis Delonix regia Lagerstroemia speciosa Khaya senegalensis 0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 Total Height (M)

Figure 2. Total height (M) of three-year old mixed planted species

Lessons Learned

The result indicates that the effectiveness of very dense planting technique (spacing 1.2 x 1.6m) in suppressing grasses. Some species do not readily decompose their leaves and has accumulated in the forest floors. Weeding is conducted twice to thrice a year and continues until the tree crown fully shades the ground. High-density planting of trees can be an option in controlling imperata grass. Results from the demonstration plots showed that Khaya senegalensis, Lagerstroemia speciosa, and Delonix regia are dominant species in terms of total height and diameter. Shorea vulgaris, Dalbergia oliveri, Dipterocarpus obtusifollius and Molodorum fructicusum did not perform well in the group planting.

The restoration using mixed planting will be advantageous in rehabilitating the degraded site since it will increase the chances that the species in the group will be able to survive a particular site condition. The different species may also thrive in successional stages of development or generate an “assisted succession” that allows the development in a few decades of late- successional stages to realize. A natural selection of species will ensue mimicking a natural plant succession (Miyawaki, 2014).

[Date] 14

While the mixed planting technique increases the chances of success in site restoration, the method may be expensive since it requires high number of seedlings. For example if we plant 2 seedlings per sq.m., and the cost of US$1 per seedling, the cost for seedling alone will escalate to $20,000/ha.

4.1.2 Direct Seeding to Restore the Grasslands

The most widely used method of establishing native plants is transplanting nursery-grown seedlings. Establishment of native plants using direct seeding is a potentially cost-efficient alternative approach to forest restoration. However, its adoption remains limited due to inadequate supply of viable seed, lack of technical knowhow, unreliable germination and grass competition. Direct seeding was piloted in a demonstration plot in a former dry evergreen forest. At the time when the demonstration plot was established, the area was covered by imperata grasses with a few trees of Dalbergia cochinchinensis. The demonstration plot was established in late May 2017. There were 14 tree species, mostly leguminous, that were selected for direct seeding. The species were selected based on availability of seeds. Direct seeding was done by rows with the spacing of 1m between two adjacent rows and 1m between two adjacent planting spots in the row. This equivalent to 10,000 seeding spots per ha. Direct seeding was done by randomly mixing species in rows. Two to three seeds of the same species were buried twice the seed thickness in a seeding spot. Under high density planting, the canopy is expected to close and shade the grasses within 2–3 years after planting. The result of the demonstration planting showed that there are species that perform well using direct seeding like Cassia siamea, Cassia javanica, Cassia garretina, Albizia lebbeck and Pterocarpus macrocarpus. The good performance of Cassia siamea and Cassia javanica in terms of diameter and height was observed (Figure 3 and 4).

Dalbergia cochinchinensis Syzygium cumini Afzelia xylocarpa Sindora cochinchinensis Albizia lebbekoides Adenanthera pavonina Cassia grandis Lagerstroemia speciosa Delonix regia Pterocarpus macrocarpus Albizia lebbeck Cassia carretina Cassia javanica Cassia siamea

0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 Basal Diameter (cm)

Figure 3. Basal diameter (cm) of two-year old direct seeding trees

[Date] 15

Sindora cochinchinensis Afzelia xylocarpa Syzygium cumini Delonix regia Lagerstroemia speciosa Adenanthera pavonina Dalbergia cochinchinensis Cassia grandis Albizia lebbekoides Pterocarpus macrocarpus Cassia carretina Albizia lebbeck Cassia javanica Cassia siamea

0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 Total Height (M)

Figure 4. Total height (M) of two-year old direct seeding trees

Lessons Learned

Non-leguminous species such as the Syzygium cumini (Pring) (Photo 1) can be planted by direct seeding with limited attention in seed handling. The promising results from the demonstration plot makes this species ideal for restoration using direct seeding. The species bear tasty fleshy fruit which popular among Cambodian. However, another species with fleshy fruit, Melodorum fruiticosum (Romduol), the species producing Cambodia’s national flower, did not germinate by direct seeding although large amount of seed was used. It is a potential species for direct seeding because seeds are always available in large quantity at the onset of tree planting season. The failure of the species to germinate could due to seed dormancy. It was also noted that the direct seeded plants were not attacked by rodents, a common problem in some direct seeding plantations.

[Date] 16

Photo 1. Direct seeding planted Syzygium cumini planted in 2017

High-density direct seeding will provide a good alternative in restoring the landscape, since it is relatively cheaper compared to containerized seedlings. If restoration will be conducted using Miyawaki method (high density planting of different species) the approach can be used in combination with seedlings (for species that are not suitable for direct seeding). This will significantly cut down the cost of restoration. Further investigation on seed germination method is needed.

The project has demonstrated the feasibility of using direct seeding as a method for forest restoration. Many tree species, especially those with hard seed coats like legume were found to be very successful in the restoring the sites using direct seeding. The method is cheaper compared to planting nursery-raised seedlings. The savings on the cost of planting materials are readily felt for high density planting. However, some challenges were reported by forest restoration practitioners in using the technique. One of which is the need for careful maintenance in the first year of seeding since the newly-emerged seedlings have to competing with weeds for space and nutrients. There is also a need to use more than one seed in each planting spot (normally 1 – 3 seeds) to compensate for the seeds that may fail to germinate or successfully

[Date] 17

grow. In addition, the technique has some limitations in applying to species belonging to Dipterocarpaceae that have very short seed longevity (i.e. seeds lost their viability within one week after collection), and those with fine seeds, such as Fagraea fragrans, as these are easily washed away by rain.

4.1.3 Direct Seeding Plots on Former Agricultural Land

Two experiments were carried out to determine the suitability of the 10 species for direct seeding. The experiment was carried out using a RCBD plot. The second experiment was conducted for the 12 species using direct seeding and containerized pots. The second experiment compared the performance of direct seeding to potted seedlings.

4.1.3.1 Experiment 1: Suitability of 10 Indigenous Species for Forest Restoration Using Direct Seeding

In this experiment, 25 seedlings were planted in a plot measuring 12m x 12 m or a planting density of 1,736 seedlings per Ha. The final measurement was conducted in 2019. The result of ANOVA indicates that there is a significant difference in terms of diameter among the planted species (Table 2). Comparing each species, the result shows that Albizia lebbeck Cassia siamea, Peltophorum dasyrachis and Cassia javanica perform better compared to other species (Figure 5).

Table 2. Result of ANOVA for diameter of indigenous species Source of Variation SS df MS F P-value F crit Between Groups 307.15 9 34.128 44.441 0.000 2.423 Within Groups 14.591 19 0.768

[Date] 18

Erythropeum succirubrum Sindora cochinchinensis Afzelia xylocarpa Cassia grandis Dalbergia cochinchinensis Cassia fistula Cassia javanica Cassia siamensis Peltoforrum dasyrachis Albizia lebbeck

-5.00 0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 DBH (cm)

Figure 5. Diameter (DBH) of the 10 species planted using direct seeding at 7 years old (cm)

The result of the ANOVA for total height also shows that there is a significant difference among the planted species (Table 3). The three species, Albizia lebbeck, Cassia siamea and Peltophorum dasyrachis, showed the best performance (Figure 6). This is consistent with the result of measured diameter. The result also showed that Albizia lebbeck, Cassia siamea and Peltophorum dasyrachis have potential for direct seeding. These three species can be piloted for pilot planting in other areas to confirm their performance.

Table 3. Result of ANOVA for total height of indigenous species Source of Variation SS df MS F P-value F crit Between Groups 125.832 9 13.981 7.465 0.000 2.423 Within Groups 35.587 19 1.873

[Date] 19

Erythropeum succirubrum Sindora cochinchinensis Afzelia xylocarpa Cassia grandis Dalbergia cochinchinensis Cassia fistula Cassia javanica Peltoforrum dasyrachis Albizia lebbeck Cassia siamensis Total Ht (M)

Figure 6. Total height of the 10 species planted using direct seeding after seven years (m)

4.1.3.2 Experiment 2: Performance of Direct Seeding and Nursery-Grown Seedlings

This experiment compared the performance of direct seedling and nursery-raised seedlings. Comparatively, Albizia lebbeck, Xylia xylocarpa and Dalbergia cochinchinensis seedlings performs better in terms of diameter growth. Direct-seeded Albizia lebbeck and Xylia xylocarpa also showed good performance although nursery-grown seedlings perform better (Figure 7).

Afzelia xylocarpa, Direct Seeding Afzelia xylocarpa, Seedling Dalbergia oliveri, Seedling Sindora cochinchinesis, Direct Seeding Sindora cochinchinesis, Seedling Dalbergia cochinchinensis, Direct Seeding Dalbergia cochinchinensis, Seedling Xylia xylocarpa, Direct Seeding Xylia xylocarpa, Seedling Albizia lebbeck, Direct Seeding Albizia lebbeck, Seedling

-5.00 0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 DBH (cm)

Figure 7. Diameter of the different species/planting materials

[Date] 20

In terms of height, the nursery-grown Albizia lebbeck, Dalbergia cochinchinensis and Xylia xylocarpa perform better compared to other species and planting material. Direct seeded Albizia lebbeck and Xylia xylocarpa showed good performance in terms of height and is comparable with the seedling-planted (Figure 8).

Afzelia xylocarpa, Direct Seeding Afzelia xylocarpa, Seedling Dalbergia oliveri, Seedling Sindora cochinchinesis, Direct Seeding Sindora cochinchinesis, Seedling Xylia xylocarpa, Direct Seeding Xylia xylocarpa, Seedling Dalbergia cochinchinensis, Direct Seeding Dalbergia cochinchinensis, Seedling Albizia lebbeck, Direct Seeding Albizia lebbeck, Seedling

-2.00 0.00 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00 Toal Ht. (M)

Figure 8. Total Height of different species/planting materials

Lessons Learned\

The result showed that the alternative approach to restoration using direct seeding can possibly reduce the cost of reforestation. While nursery-grown seedlings perform better than direct- seeding, some species such as Albizia lebbeck and Xylia xylocarpa can be successfully used for restoring the landscape using direct seeding. A large number of tree species, especially legumes that have hard seed coats are suitable for direct seeding. This method is cheaper compared to planting nursery-raised seedlings, especially when there is a need to plant trees in high density. There is a need for careful maintenance in the first year of seeding as the newly-emerged seedlings have to start competing for space and nutrients with weeds. In direct seeding, there is a need to place more than one seed in a seeding spot (normally 1–3 seeds) to make sure that at least one seedling emerges from the spot. Species from the dipterocarp family, whose viability significantly decline within one week, and those with very small seeds, such as Fagraea fragrans that can be easily washed away by rain, are not suitable for direct seeding.

[Date] 21

4.1.4 Direct Seeding in Kbal Chhay Watershed

The nine-year-old plantation in Kbal Chhay established using direct seeding was revisited to assess their performance. There were four species that were evaluated in terms of diameter and height growth: Sindora siamensis, Dalbergia cochinchinensis, Xylia xylocarpa and Afzelia xylocarpa. The result shows that there are differences in performance in terms of growth parameters. Sindora siamensis followed by Dalbergia cochinchinensis performs better in terms of diameter growth (Figure 9). However, in terms of height, Dalbergia cochinchinensis performs better compared to the other three species followed by Xylia xylocarpa (Figure 10). Afzelia xylocarpa exhibits the slowest growth among the four species.

25.00

20.00

15.00

DBH DBH (cm) 10.00

5.00

0.00 Sindora siamensis Dalbergia Xylia xylocarpa Afzelia xylocarpa cochinchinensis

Figure 9. Average DBH (cm) of nine-year old direct seeded trees in Kbal Chhay

[Date] 22

10.00 9.00 8.00 7.00 6.00 5.00

4.00 TotalHt (M) 3.00 2.00 1.00 0.00 Dalbergia Xylia xylocarpa Sindora siamensis Afzelia xylocarpa cochinchinensis

Figure 10. Average total height (M) of nine-year old direct seeded trees in Kbal Chhay

Lessons Learned

The experience demonstrated the possibility of establishing plantation of indigenous species using direct seeding. The species planted, despite being leguminous, their performance varies. It was noted that in the direct seeding trial (4.1.2), Dalbergia cochinchinensis’ performance is moderate. In Kbal Chhay, the species has outperformed the other three. This will indicate that D. cochinchinensis could be “late performer”. Another possibility is that the species may be more suitable in Kbal Chhay.

4.2 Seed Sources Establishment and Lessons Learned

There is a growing importance to consider the establishment of seed sources to supply good quality seeds to seedling producers so that better yield from tree planting programme could be achieved (Koy, 2015b). Despite several years of tree planting, most of tree seeds used for seedling production came from unmanaged seed sources (Koy, 2015b). When collecting tree seeds from natural forest, a rule of thumb is to collect seeds from at least 25 seed trees (Nyoka et al., 2014). But farmers, nursery managers or commercial collectors sometimes collect germplasm from a small number of trees that reduces the variability of genetic composition of seedlots and contribute to accumulation of relatedness and inbreeding of subsequent generations (Boshier and Dawson, 2014).

4.2.1 Identification of Seed Sources in the Natural Forests

Seed sources can be classified based upon the genetic quality of seeds produced and the intensity of management of the seed sources (ITTO, 2005). Dhaka et al. (2005) identified four types of tree seed sources: (1) seeds sources from the farmlands or individual standing trees; (2) seeds from the natural forests that are selected by its positive traits; (3) seeds from plantation or

[Date] 23

seed production areas; and (4) seeds from seed orchards (Table 4). There are a total of 20 seed sources in the natural forests in Cambodia located in 11 provinces (Table 5).

Table 4. Seed source classification Seed Source Brief Description Type Farmland Trees on farms, planted or remnants of natural vegetation, may be local or non- local (often unknown) origin Seed sources in Natural vegetation, ranging from high forest to woodlands, material of local origin natural forests Plantations/seed Trees planted in a plantation or woodlot, origin not always known production area Seed Trees planted in a plantation or woodlot specifically, for seed production, offspring orchards generally from carefully selected trees Source: Dhakal et al., 2005

The Forest Restoration and Development Area of Banteay Srey (referred to as Khun Ream throughout the text) is the most important source of D. cochinchinensis seed in the country. The area has been expanded from a former seed source for Dalbergia cochinchinensis, established in 2004 by Cambodia Tree Seed Project (CTSP) covering a total area of 50 hectares. The area is relatively flat area with an altitude of 90 m asl. The seed source remains under the management of Kantout Khnar Krao Forestry Administration Cantonment (Koy, 2015). The seed source was expanded to 250 ha by the local Forestry Administration in 2006 and then to 1,888 ha in 2010. On 23 September 2016, Declaration No. 602 was issued by the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries designating an area of 2,835 ha, covering the seed source and adjacent plantation areas of D. cochinchinensis, for forest restoration and development named “Forest Restoration and Development Area of Banteay Srey”. The seed source is composed of about 500 mature D. cochinchinensis trees, with an estimated average diameter at breast height (DBH) of 25 cm (Koy, 2015). The combined list of all seed sources in natural forests identified under the CTSP and current project are shown in Map 1 and Table 5.

Aside from the seed sources, the Forestry Administration also established 6 hectares of seed orchards in Siem Reap (3 hectares in Khun Ream and 3 hectares in Chansor) established under the AFoCO Landmark project. The seed orchards will be source of seeds for the three species: Dalbergia cochinchinensis, Pterocarpus macrocarpus and Diptercarpus intricatus. Right now, the planted P. macrocarpus (grafted) started to bear fruits. However, the fruits are not yet collected for mass distribution pending the completion of the progeny study.

[Date] 24

Map 1. Location of Seed Sources in natural forests in 2016

[Date] 25

Table 5. List of seed sources in natural forests with contact persons (updated in 2019) Location (Province, Species Ownership Name of District, Commune, Contact person Village) 1. (1 Site) Por commune, Dalbergia oliveri Por Chhork Mr. Bun Samboo Kompongleng District Pterocarpus macrocarpus Chhomrokrithysen’s Sindora cochinchinensis community forestry 2. Kampong Speu (1 Site) Tang commune, Phnom Dalbergia cochinchinensis Leap Kuy community Mr. Ouk Khnim Sruoch district Canarium album forestry

3. Kampong Thom (2 sites) Tumring commune, Sandan Anisoptera costata O’ Khru Nhung Mr. Chea Dun district Dipterocarpus costatus community forestry Mr. Deun Ra Tarrietia javanica Sindora cochinchinensis Kompong Thom province Dipterocarpus obtusifolius O’sam community Ms. Sorn Fagraea fragrans forestry Sopheap

4. Koh Kong (1 site) Ou Korki Village Chhiphat Terrietia javanica Mr. Teu Ratana commune, Thmor Bang Shorea guiso District Fagraea fragrans Sterculia lychnophora 5. Mondul Kiri (1 site) Toona sureni Keo Sima wildlife Mr. Kim Saveun Dalbergia cultrata sanctuary Mr. Navan Pom

6. Oddar Meanchey (1 site) Anlong Veng and Chongkal Dipterocarpus alatus Mong community Venerable Bun District Dipterocarpus intricatus forestry Saluot Mr. Preab Sam Ol 7. Preah Vihear (4 sites) Chheb 2 commune, Chheb Anisoptera costata Chheb wildlife Mr. Pheun Soa District Canarium album sanctuary Phorn Dipterocarpus intricatus Mr. Chab Sok

Tbeng MeanChey district Dalberia oliveri Forestry Administration, Mr. Bo Kimleng MAFF Tabos village, Sdav Dalberia oliveri Phnom Thnaot Mr. Ben Davis commune Sang Komthei Sindora cochinchinensis community forestry Mr. Sam Sang district Xylia xylocarpa Shorea roxburghii

[Date] 26

Location (Province, Species Ownership Name of District, Commune, Contact person Village) Dipterocarpus alatus Community protected Mr.Kong Vannak area of Phnom Tbeng Sindora cochinchinensis Thormcheat

8. (2 sites) Prongeul commune, Pterocarpus macrocarpus Phum Veal community Mr. Marady Phnom krovanh district forestry

Phnom Krovanh District Pterocarpus macrocarpus Phum Vea Community Mr. Sut Sok Em Forestry Mr. Sieng Sophal

9. Siem Reap (5 sites) Terrietia javanica Preah Cheyvaraman- Mr. Sok Chu Dalbergia Norodom Phnom Kulen Mr. Vat Reuy cochinchinensis National Park Fagraea fragrans Angkanh Village, Svayleu Pterocarpus macrocarpus Forestry Administration, Mr. Men Vuthy commune, Svay leu district Sindora cochinchinensis MAFF Mr. Po Len Shorea roxburghii Haldinia cordifolia Xylia xylocarpa

Khun Ream commune, Dalbergia Forestry Administration, Mr. Seng Lorn Banteay Srey District cochinchinensis MAFF

The area around Angkor Dipterocarpus alatus Apsara Authority Mr. Kong Thom temple Boravuth Siem Reap province Diospyros pilosanthera Prey KbalTek Mr. Mao Nga community forestry 10. Stung Treng (1 site) Chormka Leu commune, Heritiera Javenicq, Chherteal brers Horn Chhert Thalaborivat district Sindora cochinchinensis, Community Forestry Shorea vulgaris Dipterocarpus costatus 11. Takeo (1 site) Tropang Sab commune, Pterocarpus macrocarpus Phnom Tamao Wildlife Mr. Aok Kroy Xylia xylocarpa Rescue Center, FA Mr. Long Pich

Total Sites = 20

Lessons Learned

. Many seed sources identified by Cambodia Tree Seed Project (CTSP) are not adequately protected resulting to the significant loss of mother trees. Therefore, the current project opted

[Date] 27

to identify suitable areas under the management of local communities for seed sources in natural forests. These areas are better secured because they are always protected by communities. Establishment of seed sources in community forests provide additional sources of income for local communities (please see Case Study in Annex 2). . There is so far no well documentation of the seed sources as to the mother trees present, annual production, and destination of seedlots, seed collectors and volume or quantity collected. . Although there are identified seed sources, some nursery managers still collect/buy seeds from unreliable sources (Koy 2019). The survey in 2019 indicates the change in seed sourcing toward using seeds from reliable sources. However, the change between 2015 and 2019 is modest indicating the challenge in changing the traditional practice in seed collection. High cost can be a reason preventing seed users to source seeds from the identified seed sources. Another reason is that the available seed sources do not have the species in need by the nursery managers . The majority of identified seed sources in natural forests are mostly located in Community Forests which have secured land tenures. The adequate protection of seed trees ensures a sustainable supply of seeds in the future. . Due to remote locations of seed collectors, some seed suppliers cannot be easily contacted by seed buyers or users due to limited phone signals which constrained the marketing of tree seeds. . Seeds must be from at least 15-25 of good quality parent trees (ITTO, 2005) and should be located at least 50 m apart. But due to degraded conditions of most remaining natural forests, this criterion is difficult to achieve for several tree species like Afzelia xylocarpa, Dalbergia cochinchinensis, D. oliveri, Hopea odorata, and Pterocarpus macrocarpus.

4.2.2 Establishment of Seed Production Area

Seed production area (SPA) (also called seed stand) is a stand of trees that is improved for seed production. Seed production areas may be established by converting the existing good stand into seed production area through progressive thinning of poor quality and unhealthy trees and to achieve optimal spacing for seed production. Seed production area can also be a stand specifically planted for the production of good quality seed (ITTO, 2005). The project established a total of 5 seed production areas (2 for fast growing species and 3 for indigenous species).

4.2.2.1 SPA Establishment for Fast Growing Species Acacia auriculiformis and Acacia mangium are fast-growing tree species with multipurpose uses and are widely planted by industrial tree planters and farmers. There is no reliable seed source for this species in the country. Except for commercial planters and companies, tree planters collect or purchase seeds from unreliable sources which could result to poor growth performance and inferior phenotypes.

Improved seeds of A. auriculiformis and A. mangium were purchased from the Vietnam Administration of Forestry and used for the establishment of Seed Production Areas. The plantations were fenced with barbed wire to fend off cattle and firelines were constructed at the boundary of the plot. Weeding was conducted two to three times per year to effectively control competing grasses.

The SPA for A. auriculiformis was planted with 2,200 seedlings (Photo 2). The plantation of A. mangium is located adjacent on the East to that of F. fragrans covering one Hectare (Photo 3).

[Date] 28

The grasses were cut to ground level using a grass cutter and the area was disc-ploughed twice before planting the 1,660 seedlings. The area was fenced with barbed wire and firelines were made on four sides. Three monitoring plots were established consisting of 30 seedlings. These were marked with wooded poles. Annually, total height and basal diameter were measured to monitor the growth.

The diameter and height of A. mangium and A. auriculiformis were measured in 2018. The growth of A. auriculiformis and A. mangium are shown in Table 6.

Photo 2. Plantation of Acacia auriculiformis after two years of planting

[Date] 29

Photo 3. Stands of Acacia mangium after two years of planting

Table 6. DBH and Total Height of two-year-old A. auriculiformis and A. mangium DBH (cm) Total Ht (M) A. auriculiformis Mean DBH = 6.43, sd=0.97 Mean Ht = 5.39, sd =0.9 A. mangium Mean DBH = 10.49, sd=0.63 Mean Ht = 8.16, sd=0.25

Although the SPA were souced from established certfied and managed seed orchard, trees with undesirable stem form were still observed. These trees has to be thinned out (Photo 4) as part of standard practices in managing a Seed Production Areas.

[Date] 30

Photo 4. Removal of Acacia mangium trees manifesting undesirable traits (epicormic branching)

Lessons Learned from Establishing SPA of Fast Growing Species

Currently, Cambodia depends from imported seeds of fast growing species (e.g. Acacia mangium, Acacia auriculiformis, and Eucalyptus camaldulensis) (Photo 5). It will be more practical if SPAs for fast growing species will be established in Cambodia to supply the local needs. The A. mangium and A. auticuliformis Seed Production Areas (SPAs) in Siem Reap and Eucalyptus camaldulensis in Kampong Chnnang intends to make Cambodia self-reliant in terms of producing seeds to support the forest development sector.

Photo 5. Seed production area of Eucalyptus camaldulensis in Kampong Chnnang

[Date] 31

Considering that the good traits of the mother trees will manifest on the later stage, there is a need for a continuous monitoring of the growth of the plantation. Inferior trees will be continuously thinned out until an ideal stand number of stands composed of plus trees are left as mother trees.

4.2.2.2 Establishment of SPA for Indigenous Species

Under this activity, three indigenous plants, Albizia lebbeck, Toona sureni, and Fagraea fragrans was planted in a one-ha plot in Khun Ream for seed production: All the species are particularly important of their valuable . Toona sureni was considered for SPA because of its limited distribution. Each species was planted in a one-hectare plot. The diameter and total heights of the three species are shown in Table 7. Toona sureni is observed to be performing well in terms of diameter and height growth compared to the other two species (Table 7).

Table 7. DBH and Total Height of planted three-year old indigenous species Species DBH (cm) Total Ht (M) Albizia lebbeck Mean DBH = 2.45, sd = 0.69 Mean Ht = 1.19, sd = 0.39 Fagraea fragrans Mean DBH = 3.14, sd = 0.52 Mean Ht = 1.32, sd = 0.08 Toona sureni Mean DBH = 6.55, sd = 1.80 Mean Ht = 2.82, sd = 1.29

4.2.2.2.1 Seed Production Area of Albizia lebbeck

Albizia lebbeck is a high-value timber species that are used for construction. The tree is one of the fast growing species with high potential for plantation forestry. There are patches of stands of A. lebbeck scattered all over Cambodia with very few individual trees in each stand and it is hard to find suitable seed sources for this species in natural forests. The plantation of A. lebbeck was established along the main road. The plantation was formerly a grassland area with patches of deciduous trees. Small canals were established before planting since some parts of the plantation are waterlogged. A total of 1,600 seedlings were planted in the area on June 2017 and weeding was conducted three to four times per year. Three monitoring plots each consisting of 30 seedlings is marked with wooden poles and the plants were measured annually for basal diameter and height growth. The area was fenced with barbed wire and firelines were constructed around the plantation.

4.2.2.2.2 Seed Production Area of Toona sureni

Toona sureni is a high-value timber species that widely used as a construction material. The distribution and ecology of this species in Cambodia has not been well-documented. T. sureni naturally grows in the evergreen forest in Keo Seima Wildlife Sanctuary. Propagules of T. sureni were unavailable when the project started. Thus, the project resorted to using wildlings. A total of 2,048 seedlings were planted in 2016 and weeding was conducted two to three times per year.

It was noted that most of the planted Toona sureni were attacked by shoot borers started in the third year. It is suspected that the species was susceptible to insect attack being an introduced species to the area (i.e. outside from Keo Seima Wildlife Sanctuary). Gall formation and necrosis were observed at the shoots injured by shoot borers (Photo 6). Interestingly, there are few healthy

[Date] 32

trees that was not been attacked by shoot borers (Photo 7) which may be a good indicator of resistance to pests.

Photo 6. Planted Toona sureni with galls developed at the shoot tips injured by shoot borers

[Date] 33

Photo 7. Some standing Toona sureni trees not attacked by shoot borers

Many of the infected trees have managed to produce new shoots. Thief observed insect-resistant trees will be monitored further. The project team replanted 800 seedlings of Heritiera javanica (a timber tree from the 1st Grade Class under FA’s classification) (Photo 8). The replanted species are observed not being attacked by insects.

Photo 8. Replacing the empty spot of Toona sureni plantation with Heritiera javanica seedling

[Date] 34

4.2.2.2.3 Seed Production Area of Fagraea fragrans

Fagraea fragrans is a high-value timber species belonging to the Luxury Group under Cambodian timber classification. There are very few small populations of this species, each containing few individuals and are isolated from each other. The remaining trees are distributed in the provinces of Siem Reap, Koh Kong, Kampong Thom, Preah Vihear, and Rattana Kiri. It is quite difficult to find suitable seed sources for this species.

The plantation was established in June 2017. It is located in the southern part of the Forest Restoration and Development Area of Banteay Srey. Seedlings were obtained from three different sources. Half of the planted seedlings were from Preah Vihear province and the remaining seedlings were collected as wildings from a natural habitat in Thmar Bang district, and the reset were purchased from a local nursery of unknown source. The mixture of seedlings from different sources was intended to increase genetic diversity of the plantation. However, inferior trees will later on be rogued out leaving only plants exhibiting good traits.

Lessons Learned from Establishing SPA of Indigenous Species

The Seed Production Areas can provide a way of conserving the remaining mother trees that are in danger of being cut by planting them in the secured seed production areas thru ex situ conservation. Also, existing plantations or natural stands may be developed for in-situ gene conservation by removing inferior trees. Buffer zones, however, should be established to isolate the good mother trees from pollen contamination coming from other mother trees that have inferior quality.

Ex-situ conservation may sometimes face risks considering that some species planted outside its natural habitats may not perform well. In the case of Toona sureni, the species are susceptible to shoot borers when it planted outside its natural habitat (i.e. in Keo Seima). Some plants of T. sureni, however, exhibit resistance to shoot borers which can be indicator of resistance and a potential mother tree in the future. For the injured plants, the ability to recover is a good parameter for mother tree selection. The experience of using T. sureni that is not indigenous to the planting area (wildings collected from its natural habitat in Mondul Kiri province, about 400 km away from the planting site) shows the value of using planting materials that are available locally.

The susceptibility of planted T. sureni to shoot borers raises the need to conduct a study on the ecology and distribution of the shoot borers in Cambodia. Mapping should be conducted on the distribution of shoot borers to provide guidance on future reforestation program (i.e. identifying provinces that must be avoided for the planting of T. sureni).

4.2.2.3 Seed Production Area in Kbal Chhay Watershed

Kbal Chhay watershed seed production area is located in Preah Sihanouk province. These areas were established in 2004 and 2010 with a total area of about 10 hectares. The SPAs composed of indigenous tree species (Xylia xylocarpa, Heritiera javanica, Sindora siamensis, Shorea vulgaris, Hopea odorata, Dalbergia cochinchinensis, Pterocarpus macrocarpus, and Afzelia xylocarpa). Weeds and undergrowth were cleared and data on growth (DBH and total height) were measured once a year. The result of the measurements showed that Shorea vulgaris,

[Date] 35

Heritiera javanica, and Hopea odorata performed well compared to the other species. The performance is consistent for DBH and total height (Figures 11 and 12).

18.00 16.00 14.00 12.00 10.00 8.00 DBH DBH (cm) 6.00 4.00 2.00 0.00

Figure 11. Diameter at breast height (cm) of different species planted in Kbal Chhay watershed

14.00 12.00 10.00 8.00 6.00

TotalHt (M) 4.00 2.00 0.00

Figure 12. Total height (M) of the species planted in Kbal Chhay watershed SPA (m)

Lessons Learned from maintaining the SPA in Kbal Chhay

[Date] 36

Although the majority of species were planted in 2004, none of them has produced seeds. These SPAs will provide a valuable source of germplasm that can support the reforestation program in the future. Alternative way of establishing SPAs of indigenous species through grafting technique should be adopted as the grafted trees will produce seeds in a shorter period.

4.3 Establishment and Operation of the Cambodia Tree Seed Laboratory (TSL)

The success of plantation programs depends on availability of high-quality seedlings coming from high quality seeds. Successful germplasm distribution and management requires knowledge of seed development, cleaning, germination, and storage procedures. The Tree Seed Laboratory (TSL), housed at the IRD, was established to serve as a center for tree seed storage, seed testing and coordinating the tree seed distribution. It will be part of the seed supply chain in Cambodia that facilitates access to tree seeds by forestry stakeholders. The TSL is envisioned to serve as primary national strategic resource for forest restoration, gene conservation, and center for seed tree science and technology. The mission of the TSL is to assist in providing a quality start for domestic and global reforestation (Ho, Undated). Specifically, the TSL will be responsible in:

. Native Tree Protocol Development: Protocol on seed handling, germination and storage will be developed to a wide range of native tree’s seeds. . Training and Technology Transfer: The TSL will provide training materials, workshops, and customized individual training programs and collaborates with research and production facilities nationwide. . Genetic Conservation: Seeds from indigenous species can be conserved for several years. Samples are provided for domestic and international research, and data can be maintained in an online data base. . International Work: Certification of seed quality and genetic identity is needed for seeds traded between countries. The TSL will be accredited as member of ISTA and represents the Kingdom of Cambodia government at the Forest Reproductive Materials Scheme of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). Technical assistance should be provided and workers from other countries can visit the TSL for training on seed technology. . Seed Testing Services: Seed tests for private industry, state governments, and international agencies can be provided by the TSL. Results will be used in forest and conservation nurseries to make efficient use of seeds.

The TSL will play a very important role for the sustainable supply of seeds in the country. While the primary task of the TSL is seed testing of tree species and supply of qualified seeds, it is also expected to store seeds and conserve genetic materials. Standardized seed tests for public, private and corporate agencies are expected to be conducted at the TSL such as:

. Germination testing using various analysis . Purity analysis . Determining seed per kilogram (weight per 1,000 seeds) . Moisture content analysis . Viability testing

[Date] 37

The TSL has collected and distributed seeds to various seed users. The TSL also conducted some experiments on cuttings, seed evaluation (purity, germination capacity and other tests). Among the species that were disposed include seeds of Dalbergia cochinchinensis, Dalbergia oliveri, Afzelia oliveri and other species.

Lessons Learned from Establishment and Operation of the Tree Seed Laboratory

Seed suppliers get some of their seeds from private lands and from nearby forests. There is no way of ascertaining whether indeed the seedlots supplied have diverse parent materials or comes from a genotypically superior, or if not, at least phenotypically superior mother trees. The weak traceability of seedlots will limit the certainty of predicting the yield of plantations coming from these seedlots. The asexual propagation protocols (i.e. tissue culture) of some economically important species like Dipterocarpus intricatus and Ptercarpus macrocarpus are not yet established. Existing tissue culture laboratory cannot serve its original purpose of mass propagating valuable species such as Dalbergia cochinchinensis since the process is less practical and more expensive to produce plantable seedlings. The project team has developed the tissue culture laboratory into a training hub for other stakeholders such as training centers run by local and International Organizations and academia. These stakeholders are more interested in mass production of agricultural crops and flowers. The technician has conducted research on cutting propagation for Dalbergia cochinchinensis for conservation purpose. The technician has gained lot of experience on propagation of orchids through tissue culture for commercialization and conservation purposes.

5.0 Seed Production and Supply Analysis

Forecasting germplasm needs, establishing effective, low-cost, sustainable, community-based germplasm production and distribution systems is important in the supply chain of tree germplasm. While seed production and trade statistics are readily available for agricultural crops, such information is generally not available for tree seeds making planning difficult for tree germplasm collectors, producers and traders (Nyoka et al., 2014).

The main demand of seeds comes from the government’s seedling production and reforestation programs. In 2015, more than 40 tree species have been planted in Cambodia. There were 38 indigenous tree species and only 3 species are exotic tree species that were planted. The increase of number of indigenous species that were planted was due to increased awareness and interest to indigenous tree species. Among indigenous tree species, Kranhoung (Dalbergia cochinchinensis) seedlings mostly produced in 2015 with a total of 1.3 million seedlings followed by Koki (Hopea odorata) and Beng (Afzelia xylocarpa) with the total of 845,194 seedlings each (Koy, 2015b). In 2015, Acacia sp. was the major tree species (accounting 19.8% of total seedlings) that were planted followed by Kranhoung and teak (Tectona grandis) accounting for 9.8% and 9.0%, respectively (Koy, 2015b). It was estimated that the demand of seeds in 2015 reached 15,203 kg. An estimated 72.2 kg of acacia seed was used followed by Kranhoung (31.1 kg of seeds) and Tectona grandis (1,170.8 kg). Exotic species are mostly planted by private companies (Koy, 2015b).

The concession company is also an important player in tree planting programme and has planted around 3 million seedlings or more than 1,125 kg of seed. Only 4 species have been planted by

[Date] 38

companies, namely: Acacia (Acacia spp.), Preng Kjol (Eucalyptus sp.), teak (, and Chankrisna (Aquilaria crassna). Most of the seeds used in tree planting program of private companies are imported seeds such as Acacia sp., Eucalyptus sp., and Tectona grandis. In the follow-up demand survey, it was noted that there was a shift of the priority species that were planted nationwide. Instead of fast growing species, there is a shift to Kranhoung, Thnung (Pterocarpus macrocarpus) and Korki (Hopea odorata). The private companies are still using fast growing species such as Acacia spp. and Tectona grandis. The demand survey indicates that seeds of some indigenous species are not been widely distributed across the country due to the lack of seed dealers (Koy, 2015b).

The prices of seeds significantly vary among species. A kilogram of processed D. cochinchinensis seeds sells for US$150 whereas a kilogram of Dipterocarpus alatus fetches only US$1.25 (on site price). D. cochinchinensis seeds are sometimes sold by the middlemen at US$200–250 per kg. The price of D. cochinchinensis seed is even higher when seed supply is low (Koy et al., 2019). The second demand survey noted that there are fewer companies who are involved in tree planting compared in 2015. The export market of seeds also exists. Seeds traded online and the values vary considerably. The website of Alibaba.com, a well-known online trading, indicates that seeds of commercially important fast growing tree species fetches from $6 to more than $100 per kilo or per bag depending on the type of seeds.1 It is very interesting to note that the trading value of agarwood (Aquilaria crassna) seeds in the said website fetches from $100-200/kilogram.2 Stable tree germplasm markets are important in providing income opportunities to farmers and other germplasm suppliers. The seed and seedling business provides seasonal job opportunities for local communities in the area Koy et al., 2019).

The importance of forecasting germplasm was noted including the need to have an understanding on the relationship of elements of the supply chain. Due to the complexity of the seed supply chain, a Systems Dynamics (SD) model was developed to simulate the behavior of the components and influencing factors of the supply chain. Figure 13 shows a SD model using Insight maker on the relationship of the different elements (in Insight maker, these are called Primitives).

The ongoing forest degradation and encroachment posed a main challenge of forest gene conservation and management (Hong and Sim, 2006). Even if Cambodia is left with few remaining natural forests, many species are still being exploited to the extent that they are becoming endangered. Cambodia had lost 22 % of its forest cover from 73.1% (13.2 million ha) in 1973 to 57% (10.3 million ha) in 2010 (Ho, undated). The seed production of some species is not continuous. In the case of Dalbergia oliveri, the seeds are available once every three years (see case study in Annex 2).

Seed Demand. The seed demand model is linked with the local seed demand (government’s reforestation program, individual tree planters, private companies and CBNRM) and expected

1https://www.alibaba.com/showroom/tree+seeds.html?fsb=y&IndexArea=product_en&CatId=&SearchText =tree+seeds&isGalleryList=Ghttps://www.alibaba.com/showroom/tree+seeds.html?fsb=y&IndexArea= product_en&CatId=&SearchText=tree+seeds&isGalleryList=G 2 https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/2018-Fresh-Bulk-Agarwood-tree- seeds_60151160211.html?spm=a2700.7724857.normalList.225.171f7c4dWAy2ej

[Date] 39

export of seeds. The export of seeds is still limited. Due to the complexity of the factors that may affect the expected demand behavior, and its relationship with the supply of seeds, a Systems Dynamics model was constructed to see the trend of the seed demand in relation to the different factors.

A Systems Dynamics Model (SD) is an approach to understanding and modeling the behavior of complex systems over time. It deals with internal feedback loops and time delays that affect the behavior of the entire system. What makes using system dynamics different from other approaches to studying complex systems is the use of feedback loops and stocks and flows. These elements help describe how even seemingly simple systems display baffling nonlinearity. System dynamics is also a computer simulation modeling technique for framing, understanding, and discussing complex systems and problems. Originally developed in the 1950s to help corporate managers improve their understanding of industrial processes, system dynamics is currently being used throughout the public and private sector for policy analysis and design.3 Figure 13 shows the conceptual framework of the supply and demand for tree seeds using Insightmaker. The different assumptions and equations used for the different variables are shown in Annex 4.

3 http://diamond-head-associates.com/articles/systems-dynamics-important/

[Date] 40

Figure 13. Overall model structure

Using an SD model shows that there is an expected increase of the seed demand (Figure 14). The demand of seed export is expected to remain low within the 20-year period and the bulk of seed demand will most likely come from the government’s reforestation program.

[Date] 41

Figure 14. Total Seed demand and export demand of seeds

The SD model also shows that there is an initial big gap between the volume of seeds supplied by the seed supplied and the total seed demand (Figure 15). Initially, seeds will most likely come from existing plantations and natural stands. Tapping the accredited seed suppliers should be done to supply the seeds needed of reforestation projects to ensure viability of seed supply chain.

[Date] 42

Figure 15. Total seeds supplied and demand

Seed Suppliers. Currently, there are 15 seed collectors all over the country. Farmers can earn a living from selling seeds and seedlings. One of the farmer seed suppliers identified by the project continued supplying seeds and seedlings focusing on three indigenous tree species (Dalbergia cochinchinensis, D. oliveri and Pterocarpus macrocarpus). He attended trainings and workshop organized by the project to enrich his knowledge and received a set of seed collection equipment. He started his business as a seed collector, and as his business grow after five years, he purchased a farmland where he set up a private tree nursery. Although he is a rice farmer, like many rural Cambodian, the income from sale of seeds and seedlings has exceeded from his rice farming income.

The project provided training to the different actors in the seed supply chain. The target participants were local community members who are currently involved in the tree seed supply, local NGOs, representatives of reforestation companies, large-scale nursery managers (as seed users), and local and central FA officials who facilitate the tree seed demand and supply chain (IRD, 2018). The trainings were focused on raising awareness on the important role of tree seed in reforestation/plantation activities, seed demand and supply, information and network for seed marketing, concept on how to define a good seed, providing realistic and affordable techniques for seed collection and seed storage, and exchanging experience among participants on seed supply (IRD, 2018).

The project supported several seed collectors. Mr. Suth Sok Em is one of 12 seed suppliers in the country who received seed harvesting equipment from the project. The equipment includes an extendable ladder, safety harness, hard hat, long- and short-handled pruning saws and some bags. Having seed collection equipment significantly reduces the time spent collecting seeds and ensures the collector’s safety in climbing trees. Because Mr. Suth Sok Em is a trained seed collector, he knows how to select good seeds and the seeds he supplies usually have high germination rate (Koy et al., 2019). Mr. Sok Em employs up to 10 villagers to collect seeds, tend to seedlings in the nursery and sell seeds and saplings (Koy et al., 2019).

[Date] 43

In Kampong Chnnang, Mr. Bun Samboo also received support from the project in the collection and trading of Dalbergia oliveri seeds. His seed source is in Por Commune, Kampong Leaeng District. His seed source is of interest since it is the only known stand of D. oliveri in Cambodia (Annex 2).

The business of collecting tree seed and growing saplings faces some challenges. In general, trees alternately produce fruits one every 3 years (Annex 2) which disrupts the seed supply. In Mr. Sok Em’s area, fruiting of Dalbergia cochinchinensis occurs every second or third year. Rains and storms in the pre-ripening period causes significant damage to seeds or blow off the fruits before maturity. Winged seeds like those of D. cochinchinensis are easily blown from the trees (Koy et al., 2019). For the past 10 years D. cochinchinensis has been promoted in tree planting programs, and some of the trees are already producing seeds. Mr. Sok Em is worried that sale of seeds will decline because some nursery managers may opt to collect seeds from the plantation (Koy et al., 2019).

Lessons Learned from Tree Seed Supply

Seed and seedling sales provided significant income for farmer seed supplier. One of the seed suppliers indicates that the timber seed supply business even exceeded the income from rice farming. Since the biggest user of seeds is the government, the seed suppliers are concerned of government nurseries directly collecting seeds from government plantations instead from accredited seed collectors.

It was noted that some seeds are traded in the online market. Some seeds of valuable species, like Aquilaria crassna, command a high price in the online trading. It is anticipated however, that seeds traded online are most likely certified.

The seed collection equipment (which include long- and short-handle pruning saws, extendable ladder, secateurs, safety helmet, etc.) distributed to seed suppliers has improved the productivity of the seed collectors. Without the equipment, the seed collectors usually spend 1- 2 days collecting seeds from a seed tree. Using the equipment, the time has reduced to only half day.

6.0 Outcome and Impacts of the Project Activities

In Cambodia, two project components, seed sources and demonstration models of forest restoration have been put in place by the end of 3rd year. The remaining period of the project time frame will be focusing more on encouraging stake holders to make use of these. A significant outcome is that seed users have started using the identified seed sources. We have now identified more than 10 active, grassroots seed suppliers across Cambodia, the majority of them are local communities managing community forests. They all know how to collect good seeds and distribute them to seed suppliers, because they have the knowledge and means to collect seeds, and been showcased to potential seed users. We have learnt that this year one of the outstanding suppliers has supplied a significant amount of the tree seeds used in Cambodia. Seed sale constitutes the main source of income for his family. This example is highly relevant with the current AFoCO Strategic Priority 4: “Local livelihood improvement and community-based small enterprise development”.

[Date] 44

The forest restoration models in Siem Reap province (Cambodia) has become a priority area for field visits of local and foreign participants attending conferences and workshops in the province. In addition, the tissue culture laboratory has become a training hub for other stake holders such as training centers run by local and International Organizations and academia.

As recommended from the AFoCO monitoring team and report in May 2018, the impacts of this project is more visible and measurable after a few more years when the trees reached their seed production or harvestable age. An ex-post project evaluation was recommended applying the criteria of relevance, effectiveness, efficiency, impact and sustainability. Such evaluation criteria could cover the impacts of the technical aspect on the establishment of seed production areas in Cambodia as well as the impacts from economic, social and environmental aspects on 4 models established in collaboration with local farmers in Vietnam. This project would be highly relevant under the AFoCO’s Strategic Priority 1 (Initiating customized restoration and reforestation models) and Priority 4 (Local livelihood improvement and community-based small enterprise development).

7.0 Recommendations

Some set of recommendations are drawn based on the foregoing analysis and to further improve the supply chain of quality germplasm in the country. The recommendation includes improving the management of the seed production areas; innovations of forest restoration and plantation establishment; improving the operation of the Cambodia Tree Seed Laboratory; improving the tree seed supply chain; and improving the institutional capacity of tree seed management.

Seed Sources and Seed Production Areas

There is a need to identify more seed sources, particularly in the CBNRM sites (CF and CPAs). The identification of seed sources from natural forests should be expanded to other provinces and target the CFs. The seed production areas can be concurrently developed as ex-situ and in- situ gene conservation areas, where germplasm from various provenances can be planted. The SPAs should be registered or documented by the TSL and the information will be stored in a database to facilitate retrieval of information. The geographic location will also be stored in the GIS to facilitate sharing of information with land developments. For example, areas that are identified as SPAs should be excluded for land developments.

Forest Restoration and Plantation Establishment

Direct seeding should be promoted and piloted in the government’s reforestation program as a low-cost approach to plantation establishment. Further trial of direct seeding should be expanded to other species. The use of clonal propagated planting materials will also be tested if the purpose is for production. However, clonally propagated seeds should not be encouraged in seed source areas to avoid a narrow genetic base unless the purpose is to preserve a mother tree with population that is already critically low.

[Date] 45

Organizing Seed Collectors and Suppliers

It is important that the different seed suppliers will exchange germplasm in order to increase diversity of the germplasm that are supplied to final consumers. There is still no linkage among germplasm suppliers and most of them operate individually. There is greater chance that the seedlings supplied will come from only few mother trees. Due to low volume of trading, potential seed suppliers are ambivalent to engage in the seed tree business.

There is still a limited supply of quality germplasm from the community due to limited premium placed on quality seeds. Despite the growing need of quality seeds, the seed supply mechanism is not institutionalized. The main actors involved on tree planting in Cambodia, include the public sector (such as Forestry administration), concession company, community forestry (including farmers) and NGOs (Koy, 2015b). Small-scale entrepreneurs have the potential to become important producers and distributors of tree seed and seedlings (Lillesø et al., 2011). But in most countries, smallholder farmers are widely dispersed, making the distribution process expensive (Nyoka et al., 2014). Organizing the seed collector into networks through which germplasm could be mixed and exchanged as a way of increasing the genetic diversity within species will increase the distribution of genetically diverse germplasm (Nyoka et al., 2014). There is a need for suppliers to organize to facilitate exchange of germplasm and avoid the use of germplasm from a single source. Due to the small volume needed, the farmers often resort to collecting seeds from few or single mother trees to save labor in seed collection instead of collecting from at least 25 trees (Nyoka et al., 2014).

Linkage of Seed Collectors, Local Buyers and Export Market

Planting and successful establishment of diverse germplasm for a range of species and provenances requires well-functioning tree seed/seedling production and distribution systems to reach large numbers of scattered farms and relatively remote areas. This requires appropriate combination of formal and informal, market and non-market channels, to stimulate and efficiently meet the varied and evolving demands of the range of clients (e.g. farmers, industrial, restoration, conservation) for quality seed (Boshier and Dawson, 2014). Seed dealers and nursery operators face almost similar challenges: lack of markets, lack of technical information and capacity and limited access to high quality germplasm (Nyoka et al., 2014).

Cambodia’s tree seed supply and distribution system draws on the strengths of village seed supply systems, and private and central government partnership. The communities manage seed sources, and collect and sell seeds; the private sector links the seed communities to users through the market; and the government’s Forestry Administration provides the relevant legal framework and certification role. The development of public–private collaborations to support smallholders’ inputs should start by embedding seed from improved sources into the supply chains. The government has to act as knowledge brokers of technical information to existing entrepreneurs and other producers on all aspects of seed quality, production and procurement (Lillesø et al., 2011).

Currently, the individual farmer collectors/suppliers and traders operate individually and have limited market coverage. The government should support the farmers in forming a cooperative and work in managing the seed source areas. It is important to form a cooperative of seed suppliers to better manage the seed distribution.

[Date] 46

To maintain a diverse source, the suppliers should be allowed access to government’s seed source areas to collect seeds from plus trees. This will enable the collector to select several mother trees (at least 25 mother trees). Hong and Sim (2006) suggested in allowing the community to manage local resources. Mr. Sok Em, the farmer who was assisted by the project in his seed collection, normally pays 50,000 riels (US$12.5) to the landholder for each fruiting tree of D. cochinchinensis before he collects seeds. He does not pay for other species, such as Dipterocarpus alatus and Anisoptera costata, which are still commonly available in the area, but he must obtain the landholder’s permission before he collects seed. In 2018, he collected and sold 1,300 kg of seeds of seven species (Koy et al., 2019).

To increase the demand, the following must be pursued:

Promote Awareness to the Public on the Importance of Using Good Quality Germplasm

Awareness on seed quality and genetic diversity should be promoted among the seed collectors and suppliers. There should be a massive campaign on the importance of using quality genetic materials of germplasm among consumers, particularly to the government nursery operators and farmers.

Institutional Capacity of Tree Seed Management IRD should continue building the capacity of the IRD staff, nursery managers and seed collectors. Capacity building will include active breeding and pollination of trees, seed storage and handling, and phytosanitary screening of seeds.

Strengthen the Role of Tree Seed Laboratory (TSL) for the Distribution of Quality Seeds The TSL so far have no long range seed procurement plan or projection as to how much to purchase or collect seeds. In 2019, the TSL purchased 22 kilograms of seeds from trained farmers as part of the project’s target. It is noted that this does not came from consumer demand particularly from government nurseries that is the main users of seeds (i.e. not a demand driven seed procurement). TSL have not established plan of dispensing the seeds rather seed inventory is disposed based on ad hoc demand. So far marketing was made through posters, leaflets and posting in the IRD website. This has not yet drawn significant response from buyers. The marketing of seeds by the seed suppliers are done by themselves. They were able to get clients through word of mouth and advertisement in their Facebook accounts. The Tree Seed Laboratory should model the dynamics of seed supply using a Systems Design model or econometric tools to anticipate seed requirements from the public.

[Date] 47

References

Boshier, D and Dawson, I. 2014. Tree seed supply chains: Introductory notes for teachers. In: Boshier, D.; Bozzano, M.; Loo J.; Rudebjer, P. (eds.). 2014. Forest Genetic Resources Training Guide. Diversity International, Rome, Italy. http://forest-geneticresources-training-guide.bioversityinternational.org/

Dhakal, L.P.; Lillesø, J.P.B.; Kjær, E.D.; Jha, P.K.; Aryal, H.L. 2005. Seed sources of agroforestry trees in a farmland context—a guide to tree seed source establishment in . In: Lillesø, J. B. L.; Graudal, L.; Moestrup, S.; Kjær, E.D.; Kindt, R.; Mbora, A.; Dawson, I.; Muriuki, J.; Ræbild, A.; and R. Jamnadass, R. 2011. Innovation in input supply systems in smallholder agroforestry: seed sources, supply chains and support systems. Agroforest Syst (2011) 83:347–359

Evans, Bryan. 1996. Technical and Scientific Elements of Forest Management Certification Programs. Paper prepared for the conference on Economic, Social and Political Issues in Certification of Forest Management, University of Pertanian, Malaysia, May 12-16, 1996.

Fortmann-Roe, S. 2014. Insight Maker: A general-purpose tool for web-based modeling & simulation. Simulation Modelling Practice and Theory 47 (2014) 28–45.

Ho, S.K. Undated. Final Report of Consultation on Establishment of Tree Seed Laboratory in the Kingdom of Cambodia.

Hong, L.T. and Sim, H.C. editors. 2006. Forest Genetic Resources Conservation and Management; Proceedings of the Asia Pacific Forest Genetic Resources Programme (APFORGEN) National Coordinators Meeting and International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO) Project PD 199/03 Rev.3 (F) Update, Dehradun, , 15–16 April 2006

Hooker, A. 1994. The International Law of Forests, 34 Nat. Resources J. 823. Available at: http://digitalrepository.unm.edu/nrj/vol34/iss4/3

IRD. 2015. Report on Identification of seed sources of priority species in natural forests resulted in the list of seed sources, tree species and seed suppliers. June 2015.

IRD. 2018. Report Training course on seed collection, handling, and seed marketing, 04 to 08 June 2018, Angkor Paradise Hotel, Siem Reap, Cambodia.

ITTO. 2005. Final Technical Report: Guidelines for Tree Improvement and Seed Production of Panggal Buaya (Zantoxyllum rhetsa), Sawo Kecik (Manilkara kaukl), Pulai (Alstonia scholaris) and Bentawas (Wrightia pubescens). ITTO Project PD 137/02 Rev.2 (F) Demonstration Plantation of Zantoxyllum rhetsa, Manilkara kauki, Alstonia scholaris and Wrightia pubescens to Promote Sustainable Bali Natural Forest. Denpasar, July 2005

Koy, R. 2015. Report on Identification of Seed Sources of Priority Species in Natural Forests Resulted in the List of Seed Sources, Tree Specs and Seed Suppliers. June 2015. Koy, R. 2015b. Report on Tree Seed Demand in Cambodia, November 2015.

Koy, R. 2019. Report on Tree Seed Demand in Cambodia, May 2019.

Koy, R.; So, T.; So, T. Sreng, S.; and Sing, K. 2019. Selling seeds and seedlings for livelihood development, Feature story of a farmer in .

Long, B. and Phann, P. 2005. Participatory seed source management in Cambodia. In: Editors H.C. Sim, S. Appanah and N. Hooda. 2005. Proceedings of the Workshop. Forests for Poverty Reduction: Changing Role for Research, Development and Training Institutions, 17 - 18 June 2003. Dehradun, India. Bangkok: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific. 2005

[Date] 48

Lesniewska, F. 2005. Laws for forests: An introductory guide to international forest and forest related legal materials that shape forest ethics and practice. International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED).

Lillesø, J. B. L.; Graudal, L.; Moestrup, S.; Kjær, E.D.; Kindt, R.; Mbora, A.; Dawson, I.; Muriuki, J.; Ræbild, A.; and R. Jamnadass, R. 2011. Innovation in input supply systems in smallholder agroforestry: seed sources, supply chains and support systems. Agroforest Syst (2011) 83:347–359

Lipschutz, R.D. 2000. Why Is There No International Forestry Law?: An Examination of International Forestry Regulation, both Public and Private. UCLA Journal of Environmental Law and Policy, 19(1). https://escholarship.org/uc/item/11m1m76d

Miyawaki, A. 2014. Miyawaki method. In: Bozzano, M., Jalonen, R., Thomas, E., Boshier, D., Gallo, L., Cavers, S., Bordács, S., Smith, P. & Loo, J., eds. 2014. Genetic considerations in ecosystem restoration using native tree species. State of the World’s Forest Genetic Resources – Thematic Study. Rome, FAO and Biodiversity International.

Nyoka, B.I.; Roshetko, J.; Jamnadass, R.; Muriuki, J.; Kalinganire, A.; Lillesø, J.B.; Beedy, T.; and Cornelius, J. 2014. Tree Seed and Seedling Supply Systems: A Review of the Asia, Africa and Latin America Models. Small-scale Forestry. 29 October 2014. DOI 10.1007/s11842-014-9280-8

Pruyt, E., 2013. Small System Dynamics Models for Big Issues: Triple Jump towards Real-World Complexity. Delft: TU Delft Library. 324p.

Schirpke, U., Scolozzi, R. 2015. Software for assessment and quantification of ecosystem services. Part 3: Qualitative dynamic models. Report of the project Making Good Natura (LIFE+11 ENV/IT/000168), EURAC research, Bolzano, p. 35.

Schneider, T.W. 2006. A non-legally-binding Instrument as an Alternative to a Forest Convention. Work Report of the Institute for World Forestry. Institute for World Forestry. 2006/4. Hamburg, October 2006

So, T. 2016. Consultancy Report on Preparation of training materials on seed collection, handling, and seed storage to selected seed suppliers. Nov 2016)

Thomas, E.; Jalonen, R.; Loo, J.; Boshier, D.; Gallo, L.; Cavers, S.; Bordács, S.; Smith, P.; and Bozzano, M. 2014. Genetic considerations in ecosystem restoration using native tree Species. Forest Ecology and Management 333 (2014) 66–75.

Whittet, R.; Cottrell, J.; Cavers, S.; Pecurul, M.; and Ennos, R. 2016. Supplying trees in an era of environmental uncertainty: Identifying challenges faced by the forest nursery sector in Great Britain. Land use policy. 2016 Dec 15; 58: 415–426. doi: 10.1016/j.landusepol.2016.07.027

[Date] 49

Annex 1. List of Seed Production Area Location Species Area Ownership Name of contact (Province, (ha) person District, Commune, Village) 1. Kampong Chhnang (Meanork commune, Sammaki Meanchey district)

Eucalyptus camaldulensis 3 Forestry Mr. Kim Sobon Eucalyptus urophylla, Administration, Eucalyptus sp. MAFF 1. 2. Preah Sihanouk province (Kbal Chay Watershed Area)1

Site 1 Afzelia xylocarpa, 7 Forestry Mr. Dy Sophy Dalbergia cochinchinensis, Administration, Heritiera javanica, MAFF Pterocarpus macrocarpus, Hopea odorata, Shorea vulgaris Site 2 Sindora cochinchinensis 2 Forestry Mr. Dy Sophy Xylia xylocarpa Administration, MAFF 2. Siem Reap province (Khun Ream commune, Banteay srey district)*

Site 1 Acacia auriculiformis 1 Forestry Mr. Seng Lorn Administration, Mr. Seab Kimsrim MAFF Site 2 Acacia mangium 1 Forestry Mr. Seng Lorn Administration, Mr. Seab Kimsrim MAFF * Trees are not producing seeds yet as of 2019

Annex 2. Seed Orchard Location Species Area Ownership Name of contact (Province, (ha) person District, Commune, Village) 1. Chansor Dalbergia cochinchinensis 3 IRD-Forestry Dr. Sokh Heng (Siem Reap) Dipterocarpus intricatus Administration, Seab Kimsrim Pterocarpus macrocarpus MAFF Kong Voravuth 2. Khun Ream Dalbergia cochinchinensis 3 IRD-Forestry Dr. Sokh Heng (Siem Reap) Dipterocarpus intricatus Administration, Seab Kimsrim Pterocarpus macrocarpus MAFF Kong Voravuth

[Date] 50

Annex 2. Case Study of a Seed Collector in Kampong Chnnang Province

Mr. Bun Samboo is one of the seed collectors who received support from the project. He attended training on seed collection and seed tree business, and received tools for seed collection. He collected his seeds at Pouthichrok Chumrok Puthjisaen CF located in Por commune, Kampong Leaeng District, Kampong Chnnang Province. The community forest covers an area of 974 hectares and relatively isolated or not readily accessible. The site can be reached by crossing a river by a barge from the wharf of Kampong Chnnang. The site is very important since it is the only known stand of Dalbergia oliveri in Cambodia. Mr. Bun Samboo in front of one The communities collect honey, poles, Mother trees in the area mushrooms, potato, medicinal plants and construction materials from the forest. It is estimated that the homey collectors collect approximately 30-40 liters of honey from the forest. The community forest also serves as grazing area for the cattle of community members.

The site is a mix of second growth forests. It is estimated that there are around 500 mother trees of Dalbergia oliveri and approximately 10,000 mother trees of Pterocarpus macrocarpus in the community forest. Mr. Samboo collect mostly seeds of D. oliveri, P. macrocarpus, Sindora cochinchinensis, Shorea roxborghii and Shorea siamensis. The collected seeds are mostly bought by a big nursery operator.

Mr. Bun Samboo is very happy of the project since it provided him alternative income. The seeds of Dalbergia oliveri are bought at $75/kilo while the fruits of Pterocarpus macrocarpus are sold at $2/kilo. Usually, they have to mix the seeds from different mother trees, based on what they learned from the training. For 10 kilos of seeds, he usually collected it from approximately 40 mother Stands of D. oliveri in the community forest trees. Mr. Samboo usually has to cut the collected seeds and observe the kernel to check if the collected seeds are viable. Due to the training on the processing and drying of collected seeds, he did not receive any complaints from the buyers of his seeds. Mr. Samboo received trainings on the seed collection, using the tree climbers’ harness and other tools for the collection of fruits.

[Date] 51

The seed collector donning the safety harness before climbing the tree

A seed tree collector climbing a tree and collecting seeds wearing a safety harness

Usually, Mr. Samboo got an order of at least 20 kilos of Pterocarpus macrocarpus and a minimum of 1 kilo for D. oliveri. He sold about 60 kilos of S. roxborghii and the same amount for S. siamensis at $2/kilo. Approximately, he can collect from a D. oliveri mother tree approximately 2 kilos per tree. Mr. Samboo also buys seeds from other members of the CF. Usually, 2 members of the family collect fruits of around 10-20 kilos per day of D. oliveri and 10 kilos of P. macrocarpus fruits in a day. For 10 kilos of D. oliveri fruits, can produce about 1.5 kilos of seeds.

One of their problems in the seed supply business is that the fruiting season of D. oliveri is only once every 3 years. He could not collect seeds in between fruiting season unlike P. macrocarpus

[Date] 52

that will bear fruit annually. So, they have to collect seeds as much as possible and stock it waiting for any orders.

The community members do some voluntary patrol work in the area. They conduct patrolling and at the same time collecting NTFPs. At present the CF have no major problems. What worries him are the land speculators who may encroach the CF. Recently, they noticed paint markings in some of their trees which indicate that somebody made a survey in their area without their knowledge. What worries them further is the planned bridge to be constructed from Kampong Chhnang town as they may increase influx of people from the town to their area. Mr. Samboo also reported that they have problems with the occasional forest fires. He hopes that the government will assist them in the establishment of firebreak and the construction of road around their community forest. They also need to demarcate the boundary of their forest to fend off any outsiders encroaching their community forest. The road surrounding the community forest will also serve as a fireline and a boundary marker.

Map 2. Location of Dalbergia oliveri mother trees in Kampong Chnnang Province

[Date] 53

Annex 3. Issues and lessons learned Description of Issues Actions Taken and Lessons Learned Shoot borers attacked the  The project team removed the infected parts of the trees planted Toona sureni in early and burned them at the site. The trees were then sprayed 2018 (February or March) with insecticide. The method was not so effective since one and a half year after pruning all the infected parts of the trees was avoided to planting. The attack is very prevent killing the trees. There are 26 indigenous trees that severe affecting almost all were not attacked by insects. planted trees. The insects  Many of the infected trees managed to produce new shoots. attacked the succulent These resilient trees are marked for monitoring of their shoots that retarded height resistance to insect attack. growth and even death of  The project team has refilled 800 seedlings of Heritiera planted trees. javanica (a timber tree from the 1st Grade Class under FA’s classification) in the last two years. No insect attack to the replaced species.  T. sureni is not indigenous to the planting area. Wildings were collected from its natural habitat in Mondul Kiri province (about 400 km away). This is a reminder that it is safer to use locally available planting materials. Seed and seedling sales One of the farmer seed supplier supported by the project has a provided significant income strong commitment in supplying seeds and seedlings. The for farmer seed supplier. farmer is working with three indigenous tree species (Dalbergia cochinchinensis, D. oliveri and Pterocarpus macrocarpus) that have high demand for tree planting. He attended trainings and workshops organized by the project and received a set of seed collection equipment. He started his business as a seed collector, and when the business prospered after five years, he purchased a farm land and set up a private tree nursery. Although he is a rice farmer, like most rural Cambodian, he receives meager income from rice farming compared to that sale from seeds and seedlings. The need for seed collection The collection of seeds is very tedious and risky. To motivate equipment and training on its the seed collectors, the project provided seed collection use equipment (long- and short-handle pruning saws, extendable ladder, secateurs, safety helmet, etc.). The assistance has significantly improved their seed collection productivity. Without the equipment, the farmers spent 1- 2 days collecting seeds. The time has reduced to only half day with the use of the equipment. Direct seeding of indigenous The project has demonstrated the feasibility of using direct tree species is very feasible seeding as a method for forest restoration. Many tree species, as alternative means for especially those with hard seed coats like legume were found reforestation. to be very successful in the restoring the sites using direct seeding. The method is cheaper compared to planting nursery- raised seedlings. The savings on the cost of planting materials are readily felt for high density planting. However, some challenges were reported by forest restoration practitioners in using the technique. One of which is the need for careful maintenance in the first year of seeding since the newly- emerged seedlings have to competing with weeds for space

[Date] 54

Description of Issues Actions Taken and Lessons Learned and nutrients. There is also a need to use more than one seed in each planting spot (normally 1 – 3 seeds) to compensate for the seeds that may fail to germinate or successfully grow. In addition, the technique has some limitations in applying to species belonging to Diptercarpaceae that have very short seed longevity (i.e. seeds lost their viability within one week after collection), and those with fine seeds, such as Fagraea fragrans, as these are easily washed away by rain.

It is recommended to use hard-coated seeds for direct seeding. Seed pretreatment must be applied before sowing in the field. Direct seeding can be complementary to planting seedlings in forest restoration. Imperata grasses pose a The common practice of controlling grass is by applying challenge in forest herbicides, using grass cutter, and disc plowing which the restoration. project also applied. Weeding was conducted twice to thrice a year until five to ten years after planting or until such time when the trees can withstand weed competition. High-density planting of trees to eliminate imperata grass provided a feasible option. Results from the demonstration plots show that Khaya senegalensis and Lagerstroemia floribunda fully covered the ground in the third year after planting (planted at 1.2 x 1.6 m), and Xylia xylopcarpa and Fagraea fragrans cover the ground on the fourth year.

A high density plantation was established by planting of 26 species in four subplots of equal size and individual species were planted either by rows (two adjacent rows) or random mixture. Grass (mainly Imperata) infestation is severe in areas where trees are small (slow-growing species), but less of a problem under the canopy of the fast- growing species (such as Lagerstroemia floribunda, Khaya senegalensis and Dolenix regia). Actions that have been taken by the team include as follows:

Weeding was conducted in three steps. First, weeds were cut near to the ground level using grass cutter, then the weeds were uprooted using hoes. The litters were taken out from the plantation. The last action was spraying newly emergent Imperata with herbicide. Spraying with herbicide was done regularly (every 2 – 3 months as necessary) until the crown of the planted trees fully covered the ground. Replacing the dead seedlings by a fast-growing tree species (Cassia siamea) was also conducted to rapidly close the crown. Existing tissue culture The project team has developed the tissue culture laboratory laboratory cannot serve its into a training hub for other stakeholders such as training original purpose of mass centers run by local and International Organizations and propagating valuable academia. These stakeholders are more interested in mass species such as Dalbergia production of agricultural crops and flowers. The technician has

[Date] 55

Description of Issues Actions Taken and Lessons Learned cochinchinensis since the conducted research on cutting propagation for Dalbergia process is less practical and cochinchinensis for conservation purpose. The technician has more expensive to produce gained lot of experience on propagation of orchids through plantable seedlings tissue culture for commercialization and conservation purposes. Some of the demonstration Firelines are usually constructed by clearing of grasses in sites are located in the areas bands measuring 4 – 5-meter-wide around the plantation. which are prone to forest Instead of band clearing of grasses, the project built dikes fires especially during dry measuring 4 – 5 m wide and 0.3 m height around the plantation. season. It was expected that the soil can suppress the grass and weeds and then reduce the frequency of weeding. After one year, however, it was concluded that the method is not the best option as grasses and weeds have overgrown the newly built dikes within a few months after construction. As a result, frequent weeding has to be implemented in the demonstration plots since there is no other method is available to effectively control the weeds. Germination and production Seed pretreatment was done by soaking seeds in tap water of seedlings of Fagraea overnight and allowed to germinate in fine sand. It takes almost fragrans posed a challenge one month for the seeds to germinate. The seedlings were to the project team. The observed to grow very slow in the nursery. It takes fully one species is not widely planted year for seedlings to reach the planting size (height) of about so that the methodology for 50 cm. The project team collected some wildings from natural seed germination and forest and acclimatized them in the nursery for a few months seedling production are not before planting in the field. well known. A few seed sources in The project identified at least 2 contact persons per seed natural forests are located in sources. In addition, administrative locations, such as village, remote areas with limited commune and district names, and UTM coordinates were also telephone coverage put in the leaflets and poster on seed sources. therefore contacting potential seed suppliers is a challenge. Procurement of laboratory Cambodia has few specialized suppliers of laboratory equipment is time equipment. The project teams have to sit down with the consuming contractors and check with the internet together with the potential suppliers to make sure that the right equipment is purchased. Activities related to procurement of equipment require ample time in planning but need to be carried out as early as possible.

[Date] 56

Annex 4. Formula for the Systems Dynamics Model Primitive FORMULA NOTES Base Seed 25 Price CBNRM Converter 580 Annual Report for Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries 2016-2017 and Direction 2017-2018 Climate Scale This variable is a scale (1-10), 1 being less Impact significant and 10 very significant. Can be derived through consultations with the experts or stakeholders. The initial value is given at 7. This value can be changed depending on the result of consultation. Credibility Scale Seed credibility (SPS compliance and breed certification) (0.1 for Very Low to 1 for Very High). Current 15203 Seed Demand Current 2 Currently there are 2 suppliers organized by IRD Seed who are CF members. Suppliers Deforestatio 0.013*[Mother Tree Protection Site: Global Forest Watch n Rate Programmes] Tree Cover Loss (Cambodia) #current deforestation rate Dry Months min(6,(max(3,(Randnormal(4,1.25) )))) Converter Enabling Scale Effectiveness of enabling laws (0.1 for Very Laws Ineffective to 1 for Very Effective). Estimated [Credibility]*[Enabling Laws]*[Seed Seed Export Export Demand]*[Marketing] Existing 90704 These are mother trees from seed source areas. Seed However, lumped together with the seed orchard Production areas. Areas The Royal Government of Cambodia have established 449.2 Hectares of seed source areas and 4.32 hectares of seed orchard as of 2003 (Source: Long Boung and Phann Phoeun. 2005. Participatory Seed Source Management in Cambodia. All in all, there are 453.52 Has. of Seed Production area/Seed Orchard. It is assumed that there will be 200 mother trees per ha. after in the Seed Orchard and Seed Production area after rouging out undesirable progenies or after selecting good plus trees in the SPA. The total mother trees will then be 200 x 453.52 = 90,704 mother trees. Link: http://www.fao.org/3/af349e/af349e0t.htm). Government Converter Koy Ra. 2015. Report on Tree Seed Demand in Seed Cambodia. . Demand Link: http://www.irdfa.org/wp- Target content/uploads/2015/12/Technical-Report-Tree- seed-demand-survey-2015.pdf

[Date] 57

Primitive FORMULA NOTES Local Seed ([Private Planters Demand Demand]+[Government Seed Demand Target]) Marketing Scale Effectiveness of seed marketing (0.1 for Very Ineffective to 1 for Very Effective). Mother Tree Scale Effectiveness of mother trees protection Protection programmes (0.1 for Very Ineffective to 1 for Very Programmes Effective). The Forest Cover in 2010 = 10,363,789 Has. Based on NSDP 2014-2018. It is assumed that for every 50 Has. There will be at least 1 mother trees that can be identified. This will be equivalent to 207,276 mother trees. Mother Tree [Total Mother Trees]*[Seed Seeds Production] Mother [Wild Mother Trees]*[Deforestation Trees Loss Rate] New Seed Converter IRD have established about 30 hectares in Khun Source Ream and Chansor. Another 100 hectares of seed production areas will be established by APFNet in Chansor. All in all, the seed orchard and seed production areas will be 130 Has. It is assumed that there will be 200 mother trees per ha. after in the Seed Orchard and Seed Production area after rouging out undesirable progenies or after selecting good plus trees in the SPA. The total mother trees will then be 200 x 130 = 26,000 mother trees. It is assumed that the mother trees will have a modest increase of 2% annually due to reforestation activity. The established seed orchard however will be productive after 5 years. Hence, a delay of 5 years is introduced for the new seed orchard. New [Potential Suppliers]*[Seed Suppliers Attractiveness] Potential 0.5*([CBNRM]-[CurrentSeed Assumptions: Suppliers Suppliers]) 1. Out of the more than 500 CBNRM, only 50% have the potential to supply seeds. Predicted Converter The seed price. Seed Price Private Converter Koy Ra. 2015. Report on Tree Seed Demand in Planters Cambodia. Phnom Penh. Demand Link: http://www.irdfa.org/wp- content/uploads/2015/12/Technical-Report-Tree- seed-demand-survey-2015.pdf Quit Factor If [Total Seed Demand]<[Current The seed price. Seed Demand] Then Abs([Total Seed Demand]-[Current Seed Demand])/[Current Seed Demand] Else If [Predicted Seed Price]<[Base Seed Price] Then abs([Predicted Seed Price]-[Base Seed Price])/[Base Seed Price]

[Date] 58

Primitive FORMULA NOTES Else 0 End if Seed [Seed Demand Factor]*[Seed Price Attractivenes Factor] s Seed ([Total Seed Demand]-[Current Demand Seed Demand])/[Current Seed Factor Demand] Seed Export Converter Demand Seed Price ([Predicted Seed Price]-[Base Factor Seed Price])/[Base Seed Price] Seed delay([Tree Seed Production],1) Production Seed 50 Production Capacity Seed min([Total Seed Supplied Demand],[Supplier-Sourced Seeds],[Mother Tree Seeds]) Seed [Current Seed Suppliers Suppliers]*[QuitFactor] Quit Supplier- [Current Seed Suppliers]*[Seed Sourced Production Capacity] Seeds Total Mother [Wild Mother Trees]+delay([New Trees Seed Source],5)+[Existing Seed Production Areas] Total Seed [Local Seed Demand]+[Estimated Demand Seed Export] Tree Seed [Tree Yield]*(3/[Dry Estimated amount of seeds that a mother tree Production Months])*(ifThenElse([Climate can produce. It is assumed that one mother tree Impact]>9, (1-(9/10)), can produce only 0.75 kg. of seeds. The value (1-([Climate Impact]/10)) )) will be affected by the magnitude of impact of drought period. The magnitude will be a scale of 1-10. However, to avoid a non-zero impact, the equation sets that the maximum impact will be 9. For scale = 10, it will be assigned a value of 9. The normal dry spell = 3 months. Beyond the dry spell, it is assumed that there will be an effect to the fruiting of trees, the magnitude. Tree Yield 1.5 The average seeds a tree can produce. The yield will be affected by the drought episode. It is estimated that the minimum drought period = 3 months. Wild Mother 261,923 These are mother trees from natural stands. An Trees assumption of 1 mother trees per 50 Ha. can be identified from the forest. The 2014 forest cover is estimated to be 13,096,148 Hectares. This means, approximately 261,923 existing mother trees from the natural forests.

[Date] 59

Primitive FORMULA NOTES

Link: https://opendevelopmentcambodia.net/profiles/for est-cover/)

[Date] 60