Mangroves in Egypt
TCP/EGY/0168 (A)
REHABILITATION, CONSERVATION AND SUSTAINABLE UTILIZATION OF MANGROVES IN EGYPT
EGYPT
Awareness Material for the Mangroves of Egypt (Source Text)
by
Ahmad K. Hegazy
Project Coordinator & FAO Consultant (Professor of Conservation and Applied Ecology, Department of Botany, Faculty of Science, Cairo University, Giza 12613, Egypt)
MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE & LAND RECLAMATION
MINISTRY OF STATE FOR ENVIRONMENT
FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS
Cairo, July 2003 Preamble
This report is prepared in accordance to consultancy agreement with FAO office, Cairo. The duration of agreement from 1 May to 31 July 2003. This report is to be used as a source text for the preparation of awareness material for the project. The target audience cover wide range, including school and university students, and general public. The key message is to get the target audience knowledgeable of the nature, value and uses, threats and impacts, conservation, restoration and sustainable use of mangroves in Egypt. The awareness material includes posters and computer CD of fully explained short film and still shots on different aspects of mangrove ecosystems in Egypt.
Mangroves in Egypt
(1) History and Status (2) Mangrove Habitats and Adaptations (3) Environmental Aspects and Link to Food Web (4) Contemporary Value and Uses (5) Human Impacts and Threats (6) Biodiversity (7) Socio-economic Aspects (8) Conservation and Restoration (9) Management of Mangroves (10) Legislative and Institutional Framework (11) Regional Plan for Sustainable Use (12) Summary and Conclusions (13) References for Further Readings Acknowledgement
(1) History and Status
The word "mangrove" has been used to refer either to the constituent plants of tropical and subtropical intertidal and adjacent forest / vegetation communities or to the mangrove habitats / ecosystems itself. The word "mangal" has been used to refer to the community, leaving mangrove for the habitat or ecosystem and constituent species. Mangrove ecosystems are among the most productive and biologically diverse wetland ecosystems on Earth. Mangroves occur mainly in sheltered situations behind reef flats of fringing reefs, bays or creeks and khawrs in the lee of offshore islands, and on some offshore islands. Habitats are usually not subject to direct wave activities and strong sea currents. In Egypt, mangroves occupy many sites along the Red Sea shoreline inundated by the extremes of tides. Mangal vegetation, either true or associate (exclusive or nonexclusive) flourish in the habitats between land and sea. True mangal vegetation occurs only in the intertidal habitats and rarely elsewhere, while the mangal associates typically occur in a non-mangrove habitats such as salt marshes or lowland water swamps in the adjacent vegetation. They create a habitat for a rich community of other organisms and provide the energy base of the mangrove ecosystem.
Historically, the origin of mangroves in the world was first developed in the carboniferous epoch about 360 to 286 million years ago (Ma) when the salt- tolerant gymnosperms and pteridophyta appeared. However the modern mangrove genera (27 genera) were developed along the late Creataceous c. 65 Ma.
During the Palaeozoic period (600 Ma-200 Ma), the Red Sea was land. The Jurassic marine fossil deposits demonstrated that the sea margins had advanced significantly southwards by Middle of Jurrasic time (c. 160 Ma). At that time the Gulf of Suez and the Gebel El Galala el Bahariya region were submerged under the water surface. It is postulated that the origin of mangrove in the Red Sea can be "indigenous" or "exogenous".
The earliest mangrove record reported from Egypt dating back to the upper Cretaceous in Bahariya Oasis formation (Cenomanian: 93.5-99.0 Ma), where environmental succession occurred along the low-energy coasts (Bahariya system), helped mangroves migrate to the active shore faces of the Red Sea at that time. The excavated mangrove samples were rhizoliths, leaf compressions and stem of tree fern mangrove known as Weichselia reticulata (syn: Paradoxopteris stromeri). These mangrove specimens were found mixed to the recently discovered extremely large Sauropod dinosaur, from Bahariya Oasis (c. 300 km south west Cairo at 28 º 20 ´ N).
The indigenous origin of mangrove species demonstrates that mangroves in Red Sea may had developed by migration and adaptation of the Bahariya mangrove; which migrated from the low-energy coasts at Bahariya to the active open sea in Red Sea coasts. This migration probably occurred in early Miocene epoch (25.5 Ma). During Miocene the Red Sea basin was a gulf of the Tropical Palaeo-Mediterranean and had no direct connection to the Indian Ocean.
The exogenous origin of mangroves in Late Miocene epoch (25.5 Ma) and up lifting of the Isthmus of Suez region, have led to the severing of the connection between Mediterranean and Red Sea. At the nearly same age Bab el Mandab began to open to the South as the Red Sea was the first time opened to the Indian Ocean led to the migration of the Indo-Pacific fauna and flora. Many Indo-Pacific species invaded the Red Sea may be among of them some of the mangrove species.
There are no archaeological mangrove samples recovered from the "Dynastic era"- Dynasty 1 to 30. However, about 2000 years ago, Theophrastus reported that ancient Egyptians used seedling of Rhizophora mucronata in medicine as aphrodisiac. Around the same time of Theophrastus, Nearchus reported the occurrence of mangroves in the region. These reports are probably the first ever to be reported in the world literature.
Mangroves in Roman-Byzantine period (400-900 AD) was mentioned by Abu Abbas En-nabty, who wrote that at this period, mangrove trees were extensively used for boats, fuel, houses, forts, posts, poles, leather tanning in addition to its medical use to treat sore mouth. The first intact archaeological findings of mangroves were dated back to 400-900 AD at Abu Sha’ar site, 20 km northern Hurghada 27º N, Red Sea coast. The site has previously identified incorrectly as Ptolemaic—early Roman port Moys Hormos. The fort was active during this period as port for the European merchants to India and Ethiopia through the Nile crossing the desert wadis to the Red Sea. It was also the main port for the African Christian Pilgrims to Palestine. The huge amounts of excavated Avicennia marina leaves, branches and charcoal material reflect the local origin of these remains. The fort poles, fences and doors were made of Avicennia marina woody trunks. Some of these trunks were 40 cm diameter which is equivalent to about 25 m3 canopy volume. This forest-like growth can be found now in the south of Abu Sha`ar. The feeble growth of the relict A. marina trees at Abu Sha’ar region still denoting the presence of this plant in the earlier times.
Mangroves in Early Islamic era (1000-1300 AD) were neither archaeologically sampled nor excavated, however, it was reported that the Rhizophora mucronata bark was used for tanning, the wood used for furniture due to its resistance to the termites, and propagules used as aphrodisiac during this era.
The present estimates of mangroves in Egypt indicate that there are approximately 5 km2 total areas along the Red Sea coast distributed over numerous small stands. It is represented by two plant species namely Avicennia marina and Rhizophora mucronata.
(2) Mangrove Habitats and Adaptations
Mangroves colonize waterlogged soil on a variety of substrata, including silty and clayey muds, calcareous muds and sands. They may colonize coastal coral reef rubble as well as cracks and hollows on rocky substrata. They colonize the main wadi deltas, where sediments have been brought by runoff rainwater or deposited by tidal currents. Mangrove soils are generally slightly acidic. Carbon dioxide arising from the decomposition of organic matter and from an aerobic respiration lowers the pH value. The anaerobic conditions help sulphate reducing bacteria produce hydrogen sulphide, reduction of carbon dioxide to methane as well as conversion of nitrates to gaseous nitrogen, where the emission of these gases gives mangrove soils their pungent odour, soft and anoxic conditions. Soils are usually characterized by permanently water logging, high salinity and low oxygen concentrations and mostly anaerobic conditions. The characteristic gray or black colour of mangrove soils is due to the reduction of ferric compounds (insoluble) to ferrous sulphides (soluble) where iron and phosphates released into the substrate. Mangrove organisms typically occur in saline conditions between that of brackish water and sea water. The sea water comprises about 35 gram per liter salt, i.e. an osmotic potential of -2.5 MPa. In some habitat types, such as salt flats, evaporation raises the prevailing salinity to twice that of the sea, where conditions become hypersaline.
Mangrove forest plants are highly adapted to the adverse conditions of waterlogging and anoxic soil, salinity and high temperature. The two true mangrove plant species in Egypt, namely Avicennia marina and Rhizophora mucronata cope with this environment in different adaptive mechanisms.
(a) Adaptation to waterlogging and anoxic soil. The roots of Avicennia marina are shallow and horizontal that radiate outwards. At intervals of some 15-30 cm vertical pneumatophores (respiratory roots) emerge up to 50 cm above the soil surface. A single tree of 2-3 m in height may have more than 10000 pneumatophores. The lenticels on the respiratory root surface allow gas exchange with the underground tissue. Roots tend to remain close to the soil surface and enter the seriously anoxic depths as little as possible. There are no deeply anchored taproots. Alternatively, the aerial roots of Rhizophora mucronata branch off (diverge) from the trunk as much as 2 m above the soil, elongate at up to 1cm per day, and penetrate the soil some distance away from the main stem. As much as 25% of the aboveground phytomass of the tree may consist of aerial roots. Beside their normal function, they provide the main physical support of the trunk as "stilt" roots. The roots have high proportion of air spaces that may exceed 50% of the total root volume.
(b) High salt content. Coping with the salt, plants behave a variety of means including: (1) exclusion of salts by roots; (2) secretion of excess salt; and (3) tolerance of high tissue salt concentration (accumulation). More than 90% of salt is excluded at the root surface. This leads to accumulation of salt just outside the root and limits the seedling growth. High amounts of salts are deposited in the bark of stems and roots, and in senescent leaves which are then shed. This help to remove salt from metabolic tissues. The presence of salt glands in response to saline conditions on leaf surface facilitates the secretion of the excess salts. The exclusion, tolerance and secretion are used by A. marina, while R. mucronata exclude and tolerate the accumulated salts. Various mechanisms are used within the same species under different environmental conditions.
(c) High temperature. In response to high temperature, plants hold their leaves at angles to the horizontal to minimize the heat gain. The angles varies from about 75o C in leaves exposed to sun, to 0o C (horizontal) in leaves in full shade. Leaves exposed to full sunlight and heats are smaller than those that are shaded.
(d) Reproductive adaptations. Many species produce seedlings, not seeds or fruits. After pollination, the growing embryo remains on the parent tree, depending on it, for a period that may stretch to many months. The phenomenon is known as "vivipary". It is a reproductive adaptation to preserve seedlings from premature exposure to high salt levels and to enable them to establish quickly before being washed away by the tide. Vivipary is prominent in R. mucronata, where the developed seedling may reach 1 m length while still attached to the parent tree. When seedlings fall from the parent tree, they start independent life. "Cryptovivipary" is prominent in A. marina, where germination and embryonic development take place on the parent tree. Adult individual plants produce large numbers of propagules to compensate mortality, damage by insects and marine animals, and dispersal into remote unfavourable locations. (3) Environmental Aspects and Link to Food Web
Mangrove ecosystems are conspicuous and important biological feature as an ecological transitional zone between the terrestrial and marine ecosystems. In Egypt, only small areas are occupied by mangroves. This is a reflection of both natural conditions and human pressures. The presence of mangroves assumes great environmental and ecological significance. The fallen litter, via detrital pathways, often makes appreciable contribution to the coastal food web and function as “coastal food factories”.
Mangroves are associated with the maintenance of biota (flora and fauna), thereby assuming importance as a genetic reservoir. They provide a refuge and breeding area for birds and other marine and terrestrial fauna. In addition, they exert a controlling influence against coastal erosion and expected sea level rise due to global warming. Once established, mangrove forests trap sediment particles and litter, so may accelerate accretion. Conversely, their ability to trap sediment may retard erosion.
The presence of mangrove plants prevents extreme hypersalinity and plays an important role in salinity alleviation. Salinity in the soil under the mangroves may be as low as 50 part per thousand (ppt), but immediately outside the mangrove rises sharply up to four times this value. Mangrove trees remove salinity by secretion, accumulation and shedding of senescent leaves or organs containing accumulated salt. Additionally, mangrove soil is permeated by crab burrows, and water flowing through these may remove high salinity water from the area. A final possibility is that evaporation of water and concentration of residual salt from the mud surface is less in the shade of mangrove trees than on the shade of mangrove trees than on open mud.
Mud is a crucial component of the mangrove ecosystem. The mud surface is a site of significant photosynthesis by algae and blue green bacteria. Below the surface, bacteria and fungi decompose the organic components of the mud. Many burrowing animals are working beneath the surface. Mud-dwelling animals including filter-feeders, detritivores, herbivores and predators are active in space and time. In addition to the mud food web, mangrove trees provide a hard substrate on which other organisms can grow. Pneumatophores, aerial roots, low branches and even leaves are often festooned with algae, or covered with barnacles and oysters. These in turn are fed on by a host of predators. Parts of mangrove trees that lie beyond the reach of the tides represent an environment similar to the terrestrial ecosystem, occupied by an essential terrestrial fauna of insects, mammals and birds. Mangroves offer opportunities in the food web to organisms of marine origin as well as to those of terrestrial origin, providing both environmental and nutritional requirements. Roots and shoots provide a hard substrate and expand the surface area available, in contrast to the surrounding mud.
Ecosystem engineers (EEs) are species that modulate the availability of resources to other species by causing physical state changes in biotic and abiotic materials. They modify, maintain and create habitats. Mangrove plants are great EEs as they create the mangrove habitats by their physical nature and organic production, and modify the muddy soil in which they grow. Burrowing crustaceans particularly crabs, and molluscs modify the topography by processing of burrowing and extracting organic matter from the mud. They create large patches (mounds) of relatively dry mud which provide suitable microhabitats for a variety of other species. Burrowing itself increases the surface area of mud exposed more or less directly to the atmosphere. Much of microbial activity occurs within a short distance of the surface mud. This activity is enhanced by burrowing crabs as they extract food, continually exposing and redistributing fresh mud to the surface and sorting soil particles by size and composition. Mangrove mud is often honeycombed with a network of interconnecting passages of crab holes which may increase the surface area of the mud by more than 50%, an important asset for increased growth and productivity of mangrove trees due to improved soil conditions due to decreased anoxia.
Mangroves are linked to both marine and terrestrial food webs.
(A) Marine Component of the Food Web
1- Algae. Surface soil, roots and trunks provide a suitable surface for photosynthetic algae. In addition to their role as primary producers in the food web, they alter the soil texture, bind soil particles with their mucus secretions and fix the atmospheric nitrogen. Accumulation of excessive amounts of algae impedes the efficiency of pneumatophores and aerial roots by blocking the lenticels. It may reduce the chances of successful establishment of seedlings.
2- Fauna of mangrove roots. The root-fouling fauna use mangrove primarily as a hard substrate for attachment. Pneumatophores of Avicennia and aerial roots of Rhizophora host a range of animal epibionts including barnacles, snails and crustacean. Barnacles are the most conspicuous fouling organisms and include oysters, other bivalve molluscs, sponges, tunicates, serpulid, hydroids and bryozoans. At high density, barnacles block lenticels and reduce gas exchange and root growth. Barnacles are filter feeders, while snails and hermit crab are their predators. The wood-borer Sphaeroma can be destructive when they attack the living tissue of the Rhizophora trees. On the other hand, they can potentially benefit the trees when they attack the roots, as this results in branching and the number of roots reaching the soil surface is increased, making the tree more stable.
3- Invertebrates. Many invertebrates depend on mangrove productivity as a food source. They feed on shed leaves, reproductive organs, or ingest fine organic particles, while some are predators and general scavengers. The most conspicuous are crustaceans and molluscs. Many others are represented by arthropods, sipunculans, nematode, nemertean, platyhelminth and annelid worms. a- Crustacea. Crabs are common crustacean herbivores that eat leaves or leaf debris on the mud surface. A large individual crab can eat up to 0.5 g dry weight per day of mangrove leaves (equivalent to energy 10 kJ per day). Seedlings of A. marina are major food source for crabs because of their high content of simple sugars and low levels of tannins, fibre and protein. The majority of the propagules are destroyed within few days of their release from the parent tree. Away from the destructive behaviour of herbivorous crabs on mangroves, they play a very important part in the ecology of mangroves. Litter processing by crabs increase litter turnover to more than 75 times the rate that would occur through microbial decay alone. b- Molluscs. The gastropod snails are common mollusk inhabitants of mangroves. Like crustacean fauna, they include detritus feeders (on organic matter), herbivores and predators. They cruise over mud and mangrove roots, feeding on barnacles or small gastropods. They may change their diet with age. Bivalve molluscs are important component of mangrove fauna. The encrusting oysters and mussels are found attached to the roots. Burrowing filter feeding bivalves are found in the mud. Typical wood-boring molluscs are the shipworms. Despite their common name; shipworms are bivalve molluscs not worms. c- Meiofauna. These are invisible to the naked eye. Microscopic fauna includes: nematodes, copepods, turbellarians, gastrotriches, kinorhynch, protozoans, tardigrade and many others. Little is known about the food web of the Meiofauna in Egypt. As with the macrofauna, The Meiofauna operates at number of trophic levels: herbivores, predators and detritivores. Heterotrophic bacteria are probably a major food resource of most Meiofauna. The food web is relatively independent from the macrofauna unless being taken with other food resources of some macrofaunal organisms such as fish, crabs, crustacean and mollusks.
4- Vertebrates. These are mainly represented by fishes and sea snakes. Mangroves in Egypt are not used at commercial level as fisheries. However, they are rich in fish fauna as the habitat serves as a “nursery” or breeding and feeding area for the surrounding open waters. Many fishes consume significant quantities of mangrove detritus and invertebrates. Many fish and sea snakes deposit their eggs (spawn) in the mangrove habitats, e.g. shrimp, Chanos, Acanthopagrus, Crenidens, lutjanus, Lethrinus, Pomadasys, Velamugil, and Epinephelus.
(B) Terrestrial Component of the Food Web
Many terrestrial organisms occupy the mangrove habitats as permanent or temporarily residents, either seasonally or for part of their life cycle. Trees may suffer or benefit from their presence. The mangrove habitats can not be viewed in isolation from its surroundings.
1- Flora. The common terrestrial plants in the mangrove of Egypt are Lichens growing on the bark of trunks and branches of Avicennia marina and Rhizophora mucronata. Some other salt marsh plants such as Arthrocnemum macrostachyum, Halocnemum strobilaceum, Limonium axillare, Suaeda monoica, Aeluropus lagopoides and Zygophyllum album are included within the boundaries of mangrove ecosystems.
2- Fauna. The common terrestrial animals are insects and vertebrates.
(a) Insects
Mangrove insects include herbivores that feed on leaves, flowers and fruits, detritivores eating dead wood and decaying leaves, general foragers and predators. Some insects play crucial roles as pollinators. In their turn, insects represent a major food source for predators. They have great ecological significance in stability of mangrove ecosystem. Among the insect groups are termites, ants, mosquitoes, bugs and spiders. Little is known about the significance of mangrove insects in Egypt.
Termites burrow inside the dead trunks and branches and destroy huge amounts of wood. Termite impact is clear in some stands of southern mangrove areas in Egypt. Ants are often abundant in mangrove trees, particularly in the canopy. They may have both harmful and beneficial effects on the host trees.
Mosquitoes and other biting insects are common in the mangroves. They are known of their nuisance value and as vectors of diseases such as malaria and yellow fever. Mangrove habitats are suitable for their breeding. The shallow tidal pools, rot holes in trees and water retained in crab burrows provide suitable habitats for egg laying and larval development. Some mosquitoes lay its eggs on the claws of the crab and the larvae develop within the crab’s burrow.
Numerous butterfly and moth species have been recorded from the mangrove. Bees including the domestic honey bee, fed heavily on flowers and are important pollinators. Other species, such as cockroaches, certainly occur, but nothing is known of their ecological significance. Spiders are among the known arthropods inhabiting mangroves. These include the web- building spiders, kleptoparasites, wolf and jumping spiders. The kleptoparasitic spiders do not build their own web, but share the web-builders and steal some of the trapped insects. The wolf and jumping spiders descend from the trees at low tide and forage over the mud.
(b) Vertebrates
Many vertebrates of terrestrial origin occur within mangrove habitats including: amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals. In Egypt, frog or toad species are not recorded in the mangrove habitats. Alternatively, reptiles habitually occurring in mangroves and include water snake and lizard species. Many reptiles are not mangrove specialists, but enter mangroves intermittently from adjacent terrestrial habitats to forage. They forage on small fish and crabs.
Most bird species spend only part of their time in mangroves, either migrating seasonally, commuting daily or at different states of the tide. They use mangroves as feeding, roosting and nesting areas. There are some 30 resident bird species and some two million emigrant birds in mangroves of Egypt including waders, herons, egrets, kingfishers, pelicans, ospreys and cormorants.
Few mammals are found temporary in mangrove habitats, where most species occur in adjacent habitats. Some sites are periodically visited by dolphins. Terrestrial herbivores forage for mangrove seeds at low tides, for example some rodents and deers were observed in Hamata and Elba areas. Domestic camels and goats are major eaters of foliage and growing branches.
(4) Contemporary Value and Uses
Undoubtedly mangroves are useful, although “what they are worth’ is not an easy question to answer until it is quantified by “to whom” and “in what terms”. It is obvious that mangroves are of economic and environmental values. Estimating the total value must take account of the whole range of goods and services provided. Marketable commodities generally can be measured as they have cash value, while environmental values cannot be measured directly. Direct use values are often relatively straightforward to evaluate, while indirect use values sometimes elusive. In broad terms, direct use of mangroves in Egypt is limited at present, while the indirect uses, e.g. the environmental services are relatively more significant. Similarly, the non-use values are of particular significance in terms of biological, genetic and cultural conservation.
1- Environmental values.
Mangroves act as buffer zone between marine and terrestrial ecosystems, an important asset to preserve the coast and prevent erosion or flooding due to sea level rise. Through its link with other habitats, such as terrestrial, seagrass and coral reef habitats, mangroves play a key role in the environmental balance and stability. These habitats share some of their fauna and the faunal movement between these habitats represents a significant functional link.
Mangrove plants participate in coastal protection, as plants tend to retain sediment, consolidate the soil, hence they facilitate accretion, retard coastal erosion, protect and stabilize the shoreline and prevent its excessive shifting. They protect the coral reefs by trapping the marine and terrestrial solid wastes and torrential water sediments. Mangrove habitats export organic matter and nutrients (particulate and dissolved) to adjacent waters that support the marine and coastal communities and food chains.
2- Forestry
Some mangrove species produce sawn timbers with desirable qualities, e.g. high density, termite and marine borer resistance. The timber has special uses for local people in boatbuilding, making fishing poles and traps, conservation and fence posts of dwellings. Poles (unsown timbers) are the most common wood product at the local level. Fuel wood is used directly as firewood or after conversion to charcoal, and is probably the main biomass utilization at the local level. Local use of mangrove tannins and dyes is still common. The use of tan bark and sap has at times been extensive that resulted in disappearance of Rhizophora mucronata from most localities along the Red sea coast. The seedlings, seeds and buds of Avicennia marina have limited local use as medicinal products.
3- Agriculture and fisheries
The role of mangroves in agriculture and fishing is well recognized. Mangrove plant leaves are used as fodder for domestic animals such as camels and goats. Local honey production depending on bees using mangrove flowers is among the potential uses. Local people villagers need to be helped to produce honey. Some nests of wild honey bees were recorded in the isolated areas of Elba protectorate. Mangroves provide habitat and function as nurseries for many marine organisms such as shrimp, fishes, oysters and other shellfish. Mangroves protect the inshore fish habitats from sediment pollution.
4- Phytoremediation
Terrestrial and marine garbage or solid wastes are trapped in the mangroves and often not readily dispersed because of the restricting roots and stems of mangrove trees. Mangroves act as natural sewage-treatment factories as phytoremediators of polluted waters through accumulation of many water soluble inorganic or organic pollutants.
5- Ecotourism and recreation
Although ecotourism has not yet been widely developed, it does represent a significant potential source of revenue if mangroves are used as a green land/ seascape, for bird and biodiversity watching; particularly most mangrove areas are close to centers of tourist attractions. The mangroves of south Sinai are the most used areas for ecotourism in all of Egypt.
Other potential industrial uses as pulpwood, pharmaceutical resources, etc. have not developed yet.
(5) Human Impacts and Threats
The mangroves of Egypt occur over numerous sites of limited sizes. As a result of this fragmentation, all mangrove stands are susceptible to disturbance. Mangroves are retreating in the face of the relentless pressures of human activities. If the attrition continues, mangroves may be reduced to relic patches, too small to support the biodiversity of organisms characteristics of mangal ecosystems. Virtually none of the mangrove areas in Egypt are now pristine, most have been affected by human activities over a long period. The following are the major sources of human impacts on and threats to mangrove ecosystems in Egypt.
1- Overexploitation
Wood harvest for fuel, rural constructions and other purposes and browsing by livestock has been a long-standing practice by fishermen and Bedouins. The result of overexploitation is acute habitat degradation, reduction in area and ultimate loss of the flora and fauna. Habitat loss is followed by increased erosion of the shoreline, decline in fish catches and other unforeseen effects.
2- Habitat conversion
The benefits of mangroves in Egypt are often undervalued, or simply not recognized, and they are regarded as mere wastelands. This misunderstanding encourages the land use planners and decision-makers to convert mangroves to an alternative use which is seen as more beneficial. To the recent past, many mangrove areas have been subject to conversion to sea side resorts and other touristic establishments.
3- Alteration of the hydrological regime
Mangrove existence is highly dependent on periodic inputs of fresh water from terrestrial runoff. Various activities in catchment areas surrounding the mangrove ecosystems, such as sea-side resorts, road and housing constructions, dammed valleys and other developments have altered the sporadic rain-storm fresh water inflows into the mangroves. Road construction perpendicular to the surface flow patterns, and not adequately provided with appropriate culverts, have severely disrupted the mangroves in many sites. Dammed valleys for the diversion and storage of torrential water have strongly modified the quantity and quality of fresh water throughflow in the mangroves. The alteration of hydrological regime along the coast has increased salinity and sedimentation that resulted in mortality of trees in many sites, particularly in the southern part of Egyptian coast.
4- Clearance of mangroves
To avoid insect breeding and noxious mosquitoes, many sites of mangroves in the vicinity of the sea-side resorts and recreational centers were cleared. The sites escaped clearance are subject to routine spraying or application of pesticides for the control of nuisance insects, which is having detrimental impact on the natural fauna and flora.
5- Pollution
Obvious damage to mangrove ecosystems comes from pollution. Oil spills from ships or through illicit washing out of tanks at sea present major threat. Oil slicks kill the trees by coating the roots, clogging lenticels and killing roots by asphyxiation. The sites close to coastal establishments are subject to solid and liquid waste disposal or seepage, contributing to eutrophication due to nutrient enrichment. The potential toxicity and damage of wastes disrupts the food chain, regeneration processes and ecosystem structure and function. 6- Recreation activities
Pressures from recreation and tourism activities disturb the habitat and damage the vegetation. This reduces the nesting sites for birds and other wildlife, reduces the nursery value and overall biodiversity, and destabilizes the ecosystem.
7- Dredging, infilling in and sedimentation
Dredging for marine oil and gas explorations, platform and causeway constructions provide much of the infill material used for coastal reclamation. Sedimentation of dredging materials within the mangroves is detrimental due to its blocking role in the exchange of water, nutrients and gases within the substrate and between the substrate and overlying water. These materials cause reduced survival and death of the whole ecosystem.
8- Other factors
Other factors include insect and crab damage as they influence the vegetation by destruction of seedlings and prevention of regeneration. The expected global warming and concomitant sea level rise is likely to have long-term implications for mangrove ecosystems. If the figures are correct, most mangrove communities will be affected by global climate change. The geographical distribution and habitats will change, where some mangrove areas might simply disappear.
(6) Biodiversity
As a concept, biodiversity refers to the numbers, variety and variability of living organisms. This very broad definition, embraces many different levels, corresponding to ecosystems, communities, populations, species, varieties, land races, and chemical diversity. Considering the fact that Egypt is the northern most limit of Avicennia marina along the east African coast, the genetic variability and variation is likely to be significant.
Biodiversity in mangroves of Egypt is influenced by geographical position. The geographic links to neighbouring regions have a bearing on the type and distribution of the biota. The region provides a bridge between mangroves in central Asia and tropical Africa. It is also connected to the biota of the semi- closed Mediterranean, Red sea, Arabian Gulf, as well as the open waters of the Arabian Sea and the Indian Ocean. Mangroves of Egypt are not typical of mangroves world-wide. Tree species diversity is low, predominantly a single species Avicennia marina (black or gray mangrove) and few Rhizophora mucronata (red mangrove). The substrate is usually sand rather than mud with little accumulation of litter. Mangrove stands are coastal fringing rather than extending areas and most are small patches. The distances between patches of similar habitats are long. All of these factors and others are likely to contribute to the low diversity of the fauna particularly the invertebrates. The majority of the fauna may therefore be opportunists, facultative rather than obligate inhabitants of mangroves.
In terms of the number of species, biodiversity is relatively low compared to many other mangroves. But it is of exceptional value when considering the quality, where the variability of ecological, chemical and genetic characters of species (intraspecific diversity) provides a wealthy stock of biological resources that can be manipulated for agricultural, medicinal and industrial processes. The mangrove situation in Egypt may offer a system simple enough to address the question of the significance of diversity as based on the functional groups rather than being based on sheer numbers of species. The functional groups of an organism are a particular mode of exploiting resources within the ecosystem. For example, the poor flora as represented by A. marina and R. mucronata trees and associated macro- and microflora including unicellular algae, all operate at the same trophic level (producers), but in very different ways, an important asset to support rich fauna in the higher trophic levels (consumers). This mix of functional groups adds significant ecological value for the small mangrove areas and isolated patches.
Despite the fact that mangrove habitats are distinctively different from their coastal and inland surroundings, they are not isolated from those surroundings. Interchanges take place between mangroves and the marine and terrestrial vicinity, of commuting fauna and flora including: sea grasses, invertebrates, insects, fish, mammals, reptiles and birds. An understanding of these connections, places the mangrove habitats in their important ecological context.
Meiofauna are more diverse than the macrofauna, not only are their many species, but the species show higher level of taxonomic diversity. The macrofauna may be dominated by few taxa (phyla), with only few other taxa are being represented, while Meiofauna includes representatives of many phyla. Microbial diversity is high. In the top 5 cm of mangrove sediment, there may be up to 3.6 x 10 x 11 bacterial cells per gram dry sediment. Fungi occur in large numbers. Mangrove biodiversity should be viewed more than species lists. Its importance and role need to be fully analyzed.
(7) Socio-economic Aspects
The socio-economic aspects of mangroves deal with the analysis of social, cultural, economic and political conditions of individuals, groups, communities and organizations. Undertaking such analysis should ideally include the mangrove resource use patterns, stakeholder characteristics and perceptions, traditional knowledge, resource governance, market attributes for direct use and non-market attributes for indirect and non use values. In spite of the importance of mangroves to the local communities and the national income, the potential and existing range of products and services they provide has not been taken seriously. As a result, the economic investments in conservation and utilization of mangroves in Egypt have received low priority. But even as apathy and the loss of mangroves continue, the loss of the benefits they once provided free of charge is being increasingly felt. Unfortunately, the current economic system measures only what is traded, and takes no account of the degradation or loss, of the capital natural resource base. Mangrove trees for example, have no monetary value in the current system until they are cut and sold for timber or fuel wood.
A clearance or distinction must be made at this point between public and privately-owned goods and resources. Mangroves are a public good as they are not owned as private property. They therefore belong to everybody, and are not normally bought or sold. Also, mangroves are of multiple-use systems where prioritizing one use over others often cause losses or affects other uses. For example, cutting of trees for timber will affects the other uses and values such as browsing, tourism, fisheries and wildlife support. In this case the price of timber is largely determined by the investment and management costs of operations involved in tree cutting, transportation, processing and marketing. However no allowance of costs is made for the loss of other services which the tree cutting may have caused such as fisheries, browsing, recreation and wildlife. This loss, which is usually known as the “opportunity cost” of using the trees is frequently ignored. Therefore, mangroves are subject to severe losses because their full use value is not taken into account during the use planning process. The socio-economic valuation should place a financial value on the many uses, services and functions of mangroves, in order to integrate such figures into the cost benefit analysis of the local or national development programs. To make these values explicit, the monetary value of mangroves is broken down into three main components, two of which, direct use and indirect use values, are relatively easy to assimilate into current economic systems, although the third namely non- use or existence value draws more on ethical and philosophical issues concerning people's attitude to nature.
The direct use values are those benefits obtained by harvesting and selling the mangrove resources and products, such as wood, medicines, tannins, fish, apiculture, aquaculture, recreation, education, research and conservation funds. Indirect use values include all the environmental services and functions of mangroves which are not traded on the market or being used by consumers, such as biological support of habitats and species, sediment regulation and accretion, shoreline protection, support of fisheries, water quality control, and local microclimatic stabilization. Although the indirect values have an important role, they do not provide significant measurable economic values compared to the direct values, and are not assessed yet for mangroves of Egypt. The third category, the non-use value, includes all the aesthetic and cultural values of mangroves which are as much the domain of philosophy and ethics as of economics, such as social, heritage, maintenance of biodiversity values associated with mangroves, e. g. Bedouin settlements around mangrove sites. The main non-use value is sometimes considered as option value or existence value or bequest value as people are willing to pay for an un-utilized asset to avoid the risk of not having it available in the future, for the sake of the future generations.
The feasibility of promoting the direct use value of mangroves is exemplified in the following:
1. Ecotourism. The most two mangrove sites in Egypt currently used for tourism are those of Ras Mohamed and Nabq protectorate areas. According to the statistics of the year 2000/2001 where the number of visitors (non-Egyptians and Egyptians) around 150 000. Assuming that only 25% of visitors interested in mangrove visits and enjoyment, they generate income of about US$ 130 000 per hectare per year.
2. Fish resources. Small scale fishing goes on directly in and around some mangrove areas, most of which is undertaken by Bedouin and fishermen communities. The current estimated values, assuming a market value of 2 US$ per kg give total amount of about US$ 100 per hectare per year.
3. Landscape. The annual coast of restoring and keeping green mangrove landscape along the coastline amounts to US$ 15 per square meter per year.
The feasibility of indirect use values is ranged between US$ 1000 - 10 000 per hectare per year for coast erosion protection. Mangroves act as a second line of defense after the fringing reefs in some sites e. g. Nabq and Safaga, and represent the first line in some other sites.
For the value of sediment regulation and accretion as they help in protection of adjacent coral reefs from being smothered and killed by excessive sedimentation. An estimate of the value by providing an equivalent role of sediment regulation could cost around US$ 10 000 per hectare.
A wide range of stakeholders and beneficiaries are partners in mangrove utilization including Bedouin communities, fishermen, tourists, general public, education and research institutes, governmental and non-governmental organizations, agencies and ministries. The appropriate management and restoration of mangrove ecosystems is expected to provide many economic and socio-economic benefits in the future. Concerns of the long-term socio- economic implications of mangrove exploitation should be viewed at various levels, from extremes of a national economy to a local resource which probably benefits only a few individuals of local people.
(8) Conservation and Restoration
Conservation of mangroves in Egypt needs to deal with habitat, species and genetic diversity problems contributing to risk of their loss. The commonest factors affecting the outcome of mangrove resources are over-utilization and environmental changes due to habitat modification and introduction of new elemental changes due to habitat modification and introduction of new species into the environment. Mangroves are of conservation significance because of their restricted area and distribution along the Red Sea coast, and their role in understanding their evolutionary role and biogeographical processes. For Egypt, conservation of mangroves should focus on functioning natural systems (habitats or ecosystems) rather than an individual species. Setting priorities for conservation of mangroves needs the consideration of ecology and species biology and relative values from different standpoints, such as economic importance and value in maintaining the ecosystem structure and function. The genetic diversity of particular species is a critical feature that contributes directly to the persistence and success of mangrove conservation. A habitat or ecosystem approach for conservation of mangroves is generally more acceptable and successful for the situation of Egypt, as the benefits and services provided by the ecosystem are more prominent than in case of mere species. The advantage of an ecosystem or habitat approach to conservation of mangroves is that it does not require detailed knowledge of the status of all species, where many species can be protected. This is applied particularly to the situation of Egypt where all mangroves are declared protected areas, whose ecology or biology is at present under-investigated. Theoretically, a significant proportion of the species is expected to be protected merely by the protection of their habitats or ecosystems. To determine the most important areas for conservation, one must define natural and semi-natural sites exhibiting biological populations that support exceptional richness and diversity of fauna and support particular edaphic conditions. The genetic structure and the ecologically significant characters of the many small populations need to be determined and must be used as a tool for determining the success of species conservation. Considering the very specific habitat types and local environments associated with species, most are likely to have significant adaptive advantage and maintain considerable amounts of ecologically significant genetic variation. Conservation of species can be maintained either in situ (onsite) or ex situ (offsite). Conserving of species onsite (protected areas) is achieved by protecting certain sites from human interference or by managing interference and control of land-use to support the existence of natural populations. This is important because species survive gradual changes in their natural environments by continuous evolution and adaptations. Offsite conservation is financially and logistically feasible for only a few samples from genetically distinct populations, and the technology have not been developed to keep a substantial number of species alive outside their natural environments. Onsite conservation is thus the most effective way to conserve maximum diversity over the long term and over the ranges of gene pool, species and habitat or ecosystem levels. Offsite conservation seeks to establish and preserve collections of genetic resources (germplasm) away from their natural habitats, for use in species conservation. Several considerations affect the germplasm material, including the biological limitations of the species, reliability of technology (potential loss of material due to equipment failure) and cost over the long term. Preserving germplasm of offsite conservation involves different techniques including field gene bank, seed bank, cryogenic storage, pollen storage and biotechnological techniques. The field gene banks are appropriate for mangrove plants where seeds die quickly if not allowed to germinate immediately. It maintains wide range of genetic diversity to be available for breeding, research, reintroduction and other uses. Accessions are stored as vegetative plants in field collections or controlled greenhouse environments. Storing seed banks by mechanical refrigeration are efficient and effective method of conservational storage for sexually reproducing plants. Theoretically, every seed has a different constitution, so samples in seed banks cover wide range of genetic variability. Cryogenic storage extends the storage life of seeds to more than a century. The most important factors in cryptogenic storage at —150 to —180 ºC are the water content of the tissue to be frozen. Cryogenic storage almost cost about one third of the expenses of the conventional storage. Pollen storage is important for breeding purposes, particularly for crossing materials that flower at different times. There is still lack of knowledge or information on this subject. Biotechnology storage provides additional opportunities and techniques to improve offsite conservation where in vitro cultures can be raised from growing cells, tissues, organs or plantlets in glass vessels under sterile conditions. The developed embryonic structures can be transferred to the field. Developments in molecular biology and genome technology participate in storage of isolated genetic information of DNA and RNA. Restoration of degraded sites may involve the reintroduction of organisms into part of its native range from which it has disappeared or become extirpated as a result of human activities or natural disasters. The goal is the establishment of a self-maintaining, viable populations or communities existing under the pressure of natural selection. The ultimate measure of restoration success must be the reproduction and subsequent regeneration of the population or community. Restoration should aim at the conservation of as much as possible of species within the general umbrella of restoration that operates at the population, community or ecosystem levels. The major objective of restoration should be to facilitate natural regeneration and to select target areas where some assisted the generations is required. Secondary objectives may include the enhancement of growth of existing mangroves and to reintroduce species into the sites that may have been present earlier. Their have been few trials of mangrove restoration in Egypt. Some trials have achieved advances, while others failed. Much of the failures have resulted from a basic lack of understanding about the structure and function of the ecosystem and about the best restoration techniques and conditions. Restoration is expected to play an important future role in conservation of mangroves. The site selection is of primary importance for restoration, where the most suitable sites should be the initial targets. Site suitability depends on evidence of occurrence of mangroves in the past, lack of exposure to periodic high wave energy, stability of substrate, shoreline morphology and sedimentology, ease of site control and proximity to nursery facilities. There are many suitable sites for restoration along the Red Sea coast of Egypt; however, detailed ground surveys of potential sites should be carried out on a systematic basis. Materials of onsite and offsite conservation can be used beside the collected material of seeds and seedlings from natural populations in the restoration programs.
(9) Management of Mangroves
Mangroves are open systems with unique characteristics, and its management should reflect this. The habitats of mangroves in Egypt are a potential renewable resource associated with diverse use and value patterns. Like other natural systems, they are complex and influenced not only by natural processes but also by human activities. Yet despite the increasing national concern, knowledge of the best practices for management and sustainable use of mangroves in Egypt is still far from complete and poorly known. This seems to be attributed to lack of scientific research. Extensive stakeholder consultation and participation to select the management issues on which to focus on must rely on professional judgment to the various superimposed interactions of the different coastal resource users.
How should management proceed? Management clearly cannot proceed effectively through science, economics and socio-politics alone. An interdisciplinary rather than the sectoral approach is needed. Possible short-term and long-term management plans are important in determining future management needs and responses. Management as based on conservation and sustainable use enhances the value of mangroves and its potential contribution to the resource users welfare. Strategies and policies need to be developed whereby the needs of use and conservation being met. Devising a management plan for mangrove ecosystems is essential. Their existence depends mainly on its vegetation. The overriding aim is to maintain the general habitat characters in its natural status.
Management of mangroves encompasses the integrated management of natural landscapes, ecological processes, wildlife species and human activities, both within and adjacent to mangroves. The purpose of ecosystem management is to achieve cooperation among stakeholders at national level in order to maintain its values, and to ensure its contribution to the environmental, social and economic aspirations of surrounding communities and developmental activities. In response to various problems, issues and opportunities are some special tasks have been singled out for management of mangroves in Egypt. These tasks include partnership, land-use planning, information base, research, tourism and recreation.
The concept of partnership or “cooperative management” among different stakeholders must be recognized, as mangrove management requires solutions that are multi-sectoral, multi-jurisdictional and multi-disciplinary. Effectiveness of partnership depends on agreement of stakeholders on clearly identified goals, areas of cooperation and joint decision making. The maintenance of long-term ecological integrity of mangroves depends on its integration into the traditional and national land-use planning and management structure. The main purpose of mangrove management should be directed towards the guarantee of continued productivity and biological diversity. Land-use planning must consider the ecological concerns and human activities related to mangroves. The planning process needs to be flexible to satisfy all stakeholders.
Implementation of ecosystem management requires an extensive, sophisticated and up-to-date information data base. Such a data base is lacking in Egypt, where accurate inventories of ecological processes, habitats and species behaviour are unavailable or partial at best. This weakness complicates the ability to design and implement effective management plans for mangroves in Egypt. Data collection and analysis of information gathered on different aspects of mangroves will enhance and ensure the establishment of management plans. Not enough is known about the interactions among flora and fauna or the ecology of mangroves and adjacent ecosystems. Ecosystem management requires both natural (basic) and social science research to develop the understanding needed to manage ecological and human relationships and interactions.
Tourism and recreation have become preoccupied with the artificial and extrinsic alteration of the coast without fully appreciating the natural setting and the intrinsic values of the mangrove ecosystems. Pressures to develop and expand tourism and recreation related activities along the Red Sea coast will continue to increase and threaten mangrove ecosystems. Thus, restrictions on certain uses and overuse of coastal areas must be part of any management plan for mangroves. Within the inland adjacent to mangroves, specific management techniques can be employed to disperse tourism and recreation activities, and reduce impacts on mangrove ecosystems.
Major activities in mangroves such as conservation of nature, tourism, forestry, fisheries, agriculture and scientific research are in conflict. The conservation of nature may entail conservation of mangroves without any disturbance, while tourism authorities and agriculture may advocate conversion and replacement of mangroves by some putatively more profitable resources. The forestry department emphasizes utilization of woody plant resources that may cause forest degradation if not controlled, while fisheries department may emphasize conservation within a maximum of fish catch. The scientific research recommends its preservation as pristine forests for scientific and educational purposes. These diverse views and activities among different stakeholders create conflict as each claims mangroves as their domain, and the management plan or policy that is best for one authority may be detrimental to another.
To achieve the management tasks of mangrove ecosystems, it is imperative for decision-makers to: (1) formulate the institutional arrangements for the management programme; (2) formulate an integrated management policy; (3) develop initiatives for identification and analysis of beneficial and harmful activities; (4) formulation of options for legislative and regulatory structures; (5) develop a comprehensive public awareness programme; (6) encourage investment in conservation and rehabilitation of mangrove habitats; and (7) develop a coordinated strategy to ensure effective implementation of the national plan.
(10) Legislative and Institutional Framework
(A) Legislation Related to Mangrove
Legislation and legal instruments relevant to mangrove and coastal zone management are covered by Laws No. 102/83, law No. 4/94 and by Prime Ministerial Decree No. 642/1995. However, the implementation of these laws and decrees is not sufficient to ensure the conservation of mangrove forests. The majority of mangrove forests in Egypt occur within the boundaries of the Protected Area network in Egypt administered by the Nature Conservation Sector of the Egyptian Environmental affairs Agency (EEAA) and the Ministry of State for Environment. These mangroves occurring within the protected areas of Nabq, Ras Mohammed, Red Sea islands, Wadi El-Gimal and Gebel Elba are supported by an array of legal instruments that permit the EEAA and its Nature Conservation Sector to effectively manage and conserve these areas.
The primary legal instruments providing the basis for protected area management are fundamental to the conservation and management of coastal and marine resources. These are summarized below:
(a) Law 102 of 1983 concerning natural protectorates. Law 102 sets out the principles for the declaration of natural protectorates and stipulates actions aimed at developing and regulating activities in and adjacent to declared natural protectorates. The Law obliges the EEAA as the concerned administrative body to:
• Forbid actions leading to the destruction or deterioration of the natural environment, biota, or which would detract from the aesthetic standards of the protectorate. • Regulate scientific research in or adjacent to protected areas if these are likely to affect the protectorates environment and nature. • Develop management programmes for declared Protected Areas. • Provide the means to increase public awareness • Regulate recreational activities in declared Protected Areas so as to protect natural resources. • Establish surveillance and control system to enforce regulatory measures.
(b) Ministerial Decree 1067 of 1983. This Decree designates the Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency as the authorized administrative body charged with the application of Law 102 of 1983.
(c) Ministerial Decree 1068 of 1983. The Decree declares the protection of Ras Mohammed, and the islands of Tiran and Sanafir. The Decree is accompanied by a map setting the boundaries of the Protectorate.
(d) Prime Ministerial Decree 1511 of 1992. The Decree provides for the legal declaration of the Nabq and Abu Galum protectorates. The Decree is also the first to establish a management strategy for declared protectorates. A map defining the boundaries of both protectorates and including the limits of the coastal protected area fronting development zones is included with the Decree.
(e) Prime Ministerial Decree 264 of 1994. The Decree sets out the conditions, rules and procedures for the definition and regulation of activities in natural reserve (protected) areas. The Decree, based on Law 102 of 1983, Presidential Decree 631 of 1982, and Prime Ministerial Decree 1067 of 1983, provides the (Nature Conservation Sector) of the EEAA with executive administrative authority over natural protectorates. The decisions of the NCS based on this Decree are subject to ratification by the Chief Executive Officer of the EEAA.
(f) Law 4 of 1994. The Law establishes the principles and procedures required to enact measures to address all environmental issues in the Arab Republic of Egypt. The Law is comprehensive including sections to: protect terrestrial environments from pollution; protect the air from pollution; protect water environments from pollution; and a section dealing with penalties.
(g) Governor Decree of 1994. The decree provides for the protection and conservation of mangrove areas in the Red Sea Governorate. It also specifies that damaging or cutting of mangrove trees is forbidden. Mangrove areas together with buffer zones are not specified.
(h) Law 2 of 1973. The Law authorizes the Ministry of Tourism as the administrative body responsible for the supervision and exploitation of tourism areas.
(i) Law 117 of 1983. The Law provides for the protection of antiquities and is the main law in Egypt regarding the protection of archaeological and historical sites.
(j) Ministerial Decree 66 of 1983. The Decree bans the hunting of bustards and all birds of prey.
(k) Presidential Decree 374 of 1991. Establishes and regulates the General Authority for Tourism Development. (The Tourism Development Authority is responsible for the allocation and sale of land in designated tourism development areas in the ARE. This responsibility extends to designated development areas that are not contained within the recognized boundaries of urban areas. Developments within the recognised boundaries of urban areas are approved by the Governorate.)
(l) Prime Ministerial Decree No. 642/1995. Forbids damaging or polluting coastal vegetation and mangrove trees and regulates activities undertaken within or around mangrove stands
(B) Institutional Framework Related to Mangroves
The mangrove stands lie within the administrative boundary of the Red Sea Governorate and the South Sinai Governorate which are particularly responsible for the local regulation development activities (urban, tourist or industrial). Tourism also lies under the authority of the Tourism Development authority (TDA), whose responsibilities include environmentally sound regional planning and regulation. Other government bodies also have development interests in the coastal area. These include General Authority for Fish Resource Development (GADFR), the Port and Lighthouse Authority, the General Organization for Coastal Protection and the Egyptian General Petroleum Company (EGPC). Stakeholders include the private sector, urban populations, investors, developers, tourism operators, industry as well as non-governmental organizations.
(1) Ministries and national government agencies
(a) Ministry of State for Environment. Since July 1997 the EEAA has operated under the Ministry of State for the Environment. Although responsibilities for environmental protection in Egypt remain dispersed among many ministries and Government agencies, Environment Law No. 4 of 1994 and the Prime Minister's Decree No. 338 of 1995 established the mandate of the Ministry of State for Environment as the central institution concerned with environmental protection in Egypt.
(b) Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency (EEAA). EEAA's responsibilities, including administering to the provisions of Law 102 of 1983 and law No. 4 of 1994 cover the setting up of general environmental preservation policies and programs; adjusting and drafting environmental legislation; and preparation of environmental studies, standards, specifications and conditions for the control of environmental pollution. The Agency is also responsible for the preparation of the National Plan for Environmental Protection, an Emergency Environmental Plan, an Environmental Disasters Contingency Plan (includes the National Oil Contingency Plan) and for conducting environmental awareness and in-house training programs. EEAA also administrates the natural parks system, approves project funding and participates in the preparation of the Coastal Zone Management Plan.
(c) Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation. The ministry of agriculture and land reclamation is responsible for the afforestation and restoration of all forests including mangroves. This is administered through its Undersecertariat for Afforestation and the Environment and its regional management representatives in the Red Sea Governorate and the South Sinai Governorate.
(d) Ministry of Tourism. The authority of the Ministry of Tourism (MOT) to take an active role in the implementation of new tourism investments was first established by Law No. 2 of 1973. It allows MOT to designate areas for tourism growth and to arrange for provision of infrastructure. The organisation of the Ministry to fulfil its mandates was set forth in Presidential Decree No. 712 of 1981. Accordingly, the Ministry of Tourism became directly responsible for the promotion and the planning of tourism investment projects all over Egypt. Subsequently, Prime Ministerial Decree No. 933 of 1988 allocated lands and sectors for tourism projects, land reclamation and new urban centres, and established terms of collaboration between the Ministry of Tourism and the Ministries of Reconstruction and New Urban Communities.
(e) Tourism Development Authority (TDA). TDA's responsibilities under Presidential Decree No. 74 of 1991 are: • To establish and oversee the implementation of development plans for designated tourist zones. • To prepare in-house studies, to evaluate and examine submitted tourist development studies and plans, and to set up priorities for their implementation. • To develop infrastructure schemes in the designated tourist areas and recover their costs. • To supervise the implementation of the overall tourism development projects in these areas. • To exploit and dispose of desert lands designated for tourism development projects. • To follow up and monitor the application of environmental regulations.
(2) Governorates and relevant authorities
(a) Red Sea Governorate. The Red Sea Governorate controls the local administration of six municipalities: Ras Ghareb in Suez and Hurghada, Safaga, El-Qusseyr, Marsa Alam and Shalateen. Within its boundaries, it has the responsibility for co-ordinating activities of different ministries, promoting tourism development construction, for issuing building permits (including those areas managed by TDA), and for selling municipal and Governorate controlled land.
(b) South Sinai Governorate. The south Sinai Governorate has the responsibility for co-ordinating activities of different ministries within its boundaries. This includes promoting tourism development construction, issuing building permits, and allocation and selling municipal and Governorate controlled land. This local level of environmental monitoring, control and enforcement is necessary to ensure that coastal management goals are met.
(c) Other government authorities. In addition to the EEAA, there are other authorities involved in the management of the Red Sea and Egypt’s coast line, these include the General Authority for Fish Resource Development, the Port and Lighthouse Authority, the General Authority for Coastal Protection and the Egyptian General Petroleum Company (EGPC).
(d) The National Committee for Integrated Coastal Zone Management. Directly after the issuing of Law No. 4 (1994), the Egyptian Environmental Affair Agency (EEAA) has initiated the action for establishment of a National Committee for Integrated Coastal Zone Management (NCICZM). The ministerial decree establishing the committee was issued in 1994 and amended in 1996. (3) Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs)
NGOs have been developed to help protect Egypt’s environment. To combat further damage to coral reefs in the area, local diving centres formed the Sharm El Sheikh Diving Centers Union and the Hurghada Environmental Protection and Conservation Association (HEPCA). These organizations were established in 1992 and 1988 respectively and are primarily concerned with the protection and conservation of coral reefs and inter-related marine ecosystems in the Red Sea area. They help raise and provide funds to install mooring buoys along the coastline in order to deter anchoring of boats on the coral reefs, and also provided funds and assistance to train boat captains and crews to basic safety and conservation considerations and on the use and maintenance of the buoys NGOs work closely with the EEAA, Nature Conservation Sector to ensure that laws covering the protection of all offshore islands and coral reefs are enforced, and to assist the Department in developing management and monitoring strategies. Similar efforts were replicated on a smaller scale in Safaga and in Dahab with the formation of the Safaga Oceanic Society and the Dahab Dive Centers Society.
(4) Private sector
The Egyptian Federation of Tourist Chambers represents the private sector through four chambers: • Chamber of Hotel Establishments, • Chamber of Travel Agencies, • Chamber of Tourist Establishments, • Chamber of Handicraft Industries.
(5) Regional conservation initiatives
The Regional Organization for the Conservation of the Environment of the Red Sea and the Gulf Aden (PERSGA) was established in 1995 with a main objective to conserve the unique marine and coastal environments of the region from human impacts. The Habitat and biodiversity conservation component and the Marine Protected Areas component of the Strategic Action Plan (SAP) in the PERSGA region include the mangroves in Egypt in their surveys and training activities. A final draft for a Protocol concerning the conservation of biological diversity and the establishment of Protected Areas in the PERSGA region has been prepared. Activities include conservation of species, protection of special areas, integrated coastal area management, research and information exchange. A regional action plan is currently in preparation to conserve the mangroves in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden.
(11) Regional Plan for Sustainable Use
In the past, mangroves played a strong role in the coastal region of the Red Sea. They were strong element in the culture, historical discourse, social imagery, and social history, and had significant cultural and heritage value, for both indigenous and non-indigenous people. Mangroves also supported diverse cultures and social structures at the individual and community level, as well as diverse range of business and economic interests. With the benefit of hindsight there is a growing consensus and appreciation that past and current intensive and extensive human activities, in many mangrove areas in the Red Sea region, proved inappropriate. These practices have resulted in accelerated degradation and collapse of mangrove ecosystems, calling into question their conservation and long-term sustainability under current uses.
Mangrove use has changed dramatically over the past few decades and will continue to change as unique problems and challenges for the future continue to arise, and to ensure a legacy for future generations of the region. The challenge is to balance the economic and social needs of mangrove users with the maintenance of the ecosystems and conservation of biodiversity-in other words, how can we manage the mangrove ecosystems for cultural, social, economic and ecological sustainability and diversity.
There are three major challenges essential for the maintenance of mangroves as options for future sustainable use through a regional plan, viz ecological, economic and social challenges.
The ecological challenges are to integrate the conservation, sustainable use and restoration actions and ongoing management of mangroves to protect the habitat types and biodiversity, and maintain the ecological processes which provide the productive capacity of its natural resources. This challenge is made more difficult by the intensive and extensive use of mangroves and its surroundings, harsh environments, and economic pressures in the region of the Red Sea.
The economic challenges are confronted by the ecological goals and maintaining sustainable ecosystems based on self-reliance and sound economy. However, matters such as land use strategy, identification and development of economic activities, access to information and skills and services, need to be addressed if a wide array of economic opportunities is to be realized.
The social challenges are mainly concerned with indigenous peoples and some coastal residents who are the significant users of mangroves. They have deep attachment to the mangroves and have much to offer in regard to its sustainable use, conservation and rehabilitation, drawn from generations of experience. They have specific cultural values and aspirations, and also face particular economic hardships and social advantage which must be included in the consideration of the social issues facing mangrove communities.
The appropriate approach for sustainable use, conservation and restoration of mangroves need to focus on integrated, coordinate and participatory planning processes, with a regional focus and national interest, including all national and regional stakeholders. These processes, in turn, link to government policies and programs that can be utilized to meet regional objectives as appropriate.
Developing regional planning processes is central to the achievement of overarching and inter-related goals of such planning, which are: (1) conservation and management of mangrove ecosystems; (2) sustainable use and restoration; and (3) recognition and support for social, aesthetic and cultural values. Primary responsibility for the development of such processes lies with mangrove users and governmental organizations or agencies, but necessarily involves all levels of stakeholders, such as, communities and even persons. It is important that regional planning processes draw upon the knowledge and skills of the regional communities, in particular, groups with specialist expertise in environmental, business, social and cultural issues.
The development of a regional plan for the sustainable use of mangroves would involve a number of activities, for example: • Identification of national and regional objectives and how they may relate. • Identification of stakeholders and clarification of their roles and responsibilities. • Communication with communities and stakeholder groups to ensure a coordinated approach to the development of regional planning processes and to engage their involvement. • Stocktaking of natural, human and other resources. • A comparison among the region’s countries to identify potential threats and opportunities. • Development of partnership between governments and stakeholders in the region to jointly fund activities associated with regional planning processes. • Identification and development, as appropriate, investment and income generation opportunities and resource use with linkages to the planning strategies. • Assessing and promoting the information, research and development required to overcome identified information and knowledge gaps.
A critical element in the focus on regional plan is the need for funds and development programs employed by stakeholders. This would help in establishing regional planning processes and actions linked to individual country policies and programs. A regional future vision for conservation and sustainable use should be committed to achieving ecologically sustainable mangrove ecosystems, supporting diverse social, cultural and economic activities. Meeting this vision will entail capturing the opportunities for the region and improving the ecological status of mangroves to fully address the challenges and barriers. It is important to recognize that, although there is much in common across mangrove communities in the region, there are also differences that need to be addressed at national level. Regional planning should be considered as a dynamic process that should respond to shifting priorities, challenges and opportunities. Consequently any suggested actions should be regularly reviewed and modified over time to reflect strategic developments at both national and regional levels.
(12) Summary and Conclusions
1. The historical origin of mangroves in the world was first developed in the coniferous epoch (360-286 million years ago), while the earliest record reported from Egypt is dating back to the upper Cretaceous in Bahariya oasis (around 95 mya).
2. The two true mangrove species in Egypt, namely Avicennia marina (El Shoura or black or gray mangrove) and Rhizophora mucronata (El Quendel or red mangrove) are highly adapted to waterlogging, anoxic soil, salinity and high soil temperature.
3. Mangrove species modulate the availability of resources to other species (flora and fauna) and are linked to both marine and terrestrial food webs.
4. Mangroves have direct and indirect uses and environmental values. The contemporary uses need to be quantified in the light of "to whom" and "in what terms".
5. Mangroves in Egypt are subject to adverse human impacts and threats including: overexploitation of resources, habitat conversion, and pollution, tourism and recreation activities, dredging and coastal infilling in and alteration of hydrological regime.
6. Biodiversity of mangroves of Egypt is not typically of mangroves world-wide. Considering the species sheer numbers, biodiversity is relatively low, but it is of exceptional value when considering the quality of ecological, chemical and genetic characters of the species as a wealthy biological resources and functional types.
7. The socio-economic aspects and importance of mangroves in Egypt has not been taken seriously yet. To maintain the mangrove value, wide range of stakeholders and beneficiaries can be partners including: Bedouin communities, fishermen, tourists, general public, education and research institutes, governmental and nongovernmental organizations, agencies and ministries.
8. Conservation strategy needs to deal with habitat, species and genetic diversity issues contributing to risk of their loss. The task can be achieved either by in situ (onsite) or ex situ (offsite) conservation.
9. There are many legislation and institutional framework relevant to mangrove management. Mangrove areas lie within the administrative boundary of the Red Sea and South Sinai governorates.
10. Establishment of self-maintaining populations and communities is achievable through restoration, rehabilitation and conservation programmes. Reintroduction of species into part of its previous native range from which it has disappeared must be considered in the national development strategy.
11. Management of mangroves must encompasses the integrated management of landscape, ecological processes, wildlife species and human activities, both within and adjacent to mangrove ecosystems.
12. Future vision for sustainable use should be committed to achieving national and regional inter-related goals through participatory-planning processes, with a regional focus on national interest.
(13) References for Further Reading
Cabahug, D. M. and Whiteman, A. (2003). Community-based Rehabilitation and Ecotourism Development and Management of Mangroves in Egypt. Consultancy report, FAO Project TCP/EGY/0168A: Rehabilitation, Conservation and Sustainable Utilization of Mangroves in Egypt. FAO, Cairo. Edwards, A. J. and Head, S. M. (eds.) (1987). Red See. Oxford: Pergamon Press. Galal, N. S. (2003). Status of Mangrove Ecosystem information in Egypt. Consultancy report, FAO Project TCP/EGY/0168A: Rehabilitation, Conservation and Sustainable Utilization of Mangroves in Egypt. FAO, Cairo. Hamilton, L. S. and Snedaker, S. C. (1984). Handbook for Mangrove Area Management. UNESCO, Paris. Hamilton, L. S., Dizon, J. A. and Miller, G. O. (1989). Mangrove Forests: An Undervalued Resource of the Land and the Sea. Ocean Year Book 8. Chicago: Chicago University Press, USA. Hegazy, A. K. (1998). Perspectives on phenology, survival and productivity of Avicennia marina in the Qatari coasts, Arabian Gulf. Journal of Arid Environments, 40: 417- 429. Hogarth, P. J. (1999). The Biology of Mangroves. Oxford University Press. UK. IUCN Commission on Ecology (1981). Global Status of Mangrove Ecosystems. P. Saenger, E. J. Hegeral and J. D. S. Davie (eds.). Australia: Working Group on Mangrove Ecosystems. Jordan III, W. R., Gilpin, M. E. And Aber, J. D. (eds.) (1987). Restoration Ecology: A Synthetic Approach to Ecological Research. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. UK. Kairo, J. G. (2003). National Development Programme for Mangroves in Egypt. Consultancy report, FAO Project TCP/EGY/0168A: Rehabilitation, Conservation and Sustainable Utilization of Mangroves in Egypt. FAO, Cairo. Lieth, H. and Al Masoom, A. A. (1993). Towards the Rational Use of High Salinity Tolerant Plants. Volume I. Deliberations about high salinity tolerant plants and ecosystems. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers (Tasks for Vegetation Science 27). Saenger, P. (2002). Mangrove Ecology, Silviculture and Conservation. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publisher. Saenger, P. (2002). Ecological Assessment of Mangroves in Egypt. Consultancy report, FAO Project TCP/EGY/0168A: Rehabilitation, Conservation and Sustainable Utilization of Mangroves in Egypt. FAO, Cairo. Sheppaed, C., Price, A. and Roberts, C. (1992). Marine Ecology of the Arabian Region: Patterns and Processes in Extreme Tropical Environments. London: Academic Press. Spurgeon, J. (2003). Socioeconomic Assessment and Economic Valuation of Mangroves in Egypt. Consultancy report, FAO Project TCP/EGY/0168A: Rehabilitation, Conservation and Sustainable Utilization of Mangroves in Egypt. FAO, Cairo. Tomlinson, P. B. (1986). The Botany of Mangroves. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. UK. Whigham, D., Dykyjova, D. and Hejny, S. (eds.) (1993). Wetlands of the World: Inventory, Ecology and Management (volume I). Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Wilkie, M. L. (2003). Conservation and Rehabilitation of Mangroves in Egypt. Consultancy report, FAO Project TCP/EGY/0168A: Rehabilitation, Conservation and Sustainable Utilization of Mangroves in Egypt. FAO, Cairo.
Acknowledgement
The kind help and inputs to the text of Dr. Hassan Abdel Nour (RNE-FAO-Cairo), Ms. Mette L. Wilkie (Forest Management, FAO, Rome), and Prof. M. Kassas (Cairo University) are highly appreciated. I thank Dr. Mohamed Abdel Monem (UNEP, Nairobi) and Ms. Lamia Sobhy (FAO, Cairo) for their kind and continuous assistance and help. I thank Mr. Nasr Hassan (Cairo Univewrsity, Beni Suef Branch) for his assistance in the translation of the Arabic version.