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Healing, Health, and Horticulture: Introduction to the Workshop

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Healing, Health, and Horticulture: Introduction to the Workshop Healing, Health, and Horticulture: Introduction to the Workshop Jules Janick1 Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907-2010 Kim Hummer U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, National Clonal Germplasm Repository, 33447 Peoria Road, Corvallis, OR 97333 The present-day emphasis of horticulture Middle East, a Sumerian tablet from 2100 of man—infancy, youth, adulthood, and old and health is an extension of ancient and BCE contains a dozen prescriptions and pre- age (Fig. 1). medieval traditions. The relationship of heal- scribes plant sources from the ancient Nile The medical concepts of Hippocrates were ing and the horticultural arts predates written Valley. Historical fragments of documents further developed by Galen (129 to 200 CE) history and relates to ancient wisdom, custom, from ancient Egyptians such as the Ebers who proposed six causes (called ‘‘non-natu- and folklore. The use of herbs as medicine Papyrus and the Edwin Smith Papyrus contain rals’’ in the Latin translations) that influence may be part of animal instinct. Sick animals descriptions of the use of herbs as medicine health: food and drink, ambient air, move- tend to forage plants rich in secondary metab- (Scholl, 2002). The Ebers Papyrus (1550 ment and rest, sleep and wakefulness, elimi- olites such as tannins and alkaloids. Because BCE), a 110-page scroll 20 m long, lists more nation and retention, and psychological states. these phytochemicals often have antiviral, than 700 formulae and remedies, although These concepts, adopted, elaborated on, and antibacterial, antifungal, and antihelminthic it is primarily a medical treatise on the heart. further developed by Byzantine and Arab properties, these wild animals may be self- Herbal remedies for asthma and bowel prob- physicians, dominated medicine until the medicating (Engel, 2002). The uses of herbal lems are included. The Edwin Smith Papyrus, 18th century. For a sick patient, the physi- medicine may predate the evolutionary devel- a fragment of a textbook on trauma surgery cian’s role was to diagnose the elements re- opment of Homo sapiens based on the discov- from 1800 BCE, includes the prevention and sponsible for the loss of balance and design ery of pollen of common herbs in Neanderthal curing of infection with honey and bread a treatment with elements having opposite graves at Shanidar Caves in Kurdistan, Iraq mold. characteristics to those of the defecting humor (Solecki, 1975; Solecki et al., 2004). The Greek medicine. Asklepios, the Greek god according to the compensation principle con- prehistoric discovery that certain plants cause of medicine and healing [his daughters were traria contrariis (Ullmann, 1978). harm and others have curative powers is the named Hygieia (health), Laso (medicine), The school of Hippocrates stressed that origin of the healing professions and its practi- Aceso (healing), Egle (healthy glow), and diet influenced health and recommended tioners (priest, shaman, physician, and apoth- Panaceae (universal remedy)], became associ- moderation. Food was incorporated into the ecary) as well as the professions devoted to ated with healing temples that incorporated humoral tradition and each item was associ- plants (botany, pharmacy, and horticulture). medicinal herbs (Arikha, 2007). Knowledge ated with one of the four humors as well as The Iceman, a Bronze Age man from 5300 of plants that cured was practiced by root dig- with the four qualities (hot, cold, wet, and years ago murdered in the Italian Alps, carried gers (rhizotomoi), which led to the ancient dry). Remnants of this classification persist as a birch fungus attached to a leather thong Greek tradition of herbal medicine. Drug we consider hot peppers, cool cucumbers, and probably for medicinal use. merchants (pharacopuloi), derived from the dry wines. Foods associated with one given Greek word for remedy or drug, gave rise humor were assumed to balance the defecting HEALTH AND HORTICULTURE to the word pharmacy. The great botanical humor responsible for sickness. treatise Enquiry into Plants of Theophrastus, Eastern medicine. The amount of ancient The relationships between plants and written in the fifth century BCE, devotes medical scholarship was greater in the East health have been and continue to be of great Book IX to the medicinal value of herbs. than in the West. In the East, there are two concern for humankind considering both diet The school of the Greek philosopher Hippo- dominant traditions, Chinese medicine and and medicinal uses. crates (460 to 377 BCE), now considered the Indian medicine, known as Ayurveda, ‘‘the Antiquity. Plant cures as well as nutrition Father of Medicine, mentions almost 400 science of life.’’ In prehistoric China, people became part of ancient medicine based on the medicinal herbs (Collins, 2000). of the Hsia and Shang dynasties used prayer in philosophical concepts in ancient civilizations, Hippocrates proposed that health was treating the sick (Hsu et al., 1996). Of 180,000 including those of Sumer, Babylonia, Greece, based on a balance of humors—three observ- separate oracle bones (chia-ku-wen), 36 China, and India (Galambos, 1996; Hsu et al., able entities, phlegm, blood, and yellow bile, pieces recorded the names of diseases but 1986; Janick, 2003). Each of these medical and a theoretic entity, black bile (Arikha, 2007) mention only prayers for healing with no systems developed a strong nexus with nutri- The concept of the humors was based on ob- reference to herbal cures. tion and medicinal plants. Health was found servational experience related to observation The Chinese developed a legendary history to be promoted by the consumption of vege- of symptoms (Bates, 1995; Collins, 2000). For and dates are suppositions (Galambos, 1996). tables, fruits, and herbs; well-being was ratio- example, phlegm was a general term for bodily The founder of Chinese agriculture and med- nally based on nutrition. fluids such as cerebrospinal fluid, saliva, nasal ical botany is the mythical emperor Shen- The earliest medicobotanical treatises of the mucus, gastric juices, semen, and menstrual Nung (traditional dates 2737 to 2697 BCE). West date to antiquity (Janick, 2003). In the blood. The concept of humoralism was that Cited in the first millennium, he is known their disequilibrium resulted in pain or disease. as the ‘‘Divine Cultivator’’ of the five grains, Received for publication 14 July 2010. Accepted The Greeks associated significance to the num- inventor of the plow and soil testing for suit- for publication 3 Sept. 2010. ber four. Thus, each of the four humors was able crops, the originator of ceremonies asso- This paper was part of the workshop ‘‘Horticulture associated with four temperaments or com- ciated with sowing vegetables and grains, and Health: Historical Resources’’ held 26 July 2009 at the ASHS Conference, St. Louis, MO, and plexion: the phlegmatic, the sanguine, the and the supposed author of the renowned sponsored by the History of Horticultural Science choleric, and the melancholic. The humors pharmacopoeia, Pen T’sao Ching (The Classic (HIST) Working Group. also correlated to four qualities (hot, dry, cold, Herbal), compiled in the first century. 1To whom reprint requests should be addressed; wet), each varying in four degrees of intensity In traditional Chinese teaching, the be- e-mail [email protected]. as well as to the four seasons and the four ages ginning of the healing arts was associated 1584 HORTSCIENCE VOL. 45(11) NOVEMBER 2010 WORKSHOP Chabrey, 1666. In these Renaissance herbals, vegetables, fruits, and herbs were principally considered for their medicinal properties. Botany and medicine were essentially in step until the 18th century, when both arts turned scientific and, from this juncture, bo- tanical works would essentially ignore medic- inal uses while medical works were devoid of plant lore, yet the medicinal use of plants continues as an alternate form of medicine and remains popular to the present day despite the questionable efficacy of many popular herbs and the reliance of many herbal recommen- dations on superstition and astrology. The fact that most drugs were originally plant-based has encouraged a new look at the medicinal properties of plants from traditional medicine. Horticulture and nutrition. The modern system of horticulture and nutrition based on modern science is a relatively new science. Its beginnings date to the ancient discovery that fresh plant food could counteract the dreadful Fig. 1. Cosmology of ancient medicine based on Hippocrates and Galen (Source: Bovey, 2005). consequences of scurvy, a disease not known to be the result of a lack of L-ascorbic acid with the legendary Huangdi, the Yellow may have influenced Ayurvedic medicine, or (Vitamin C) in the diet. As early as 1617, Emperor, 2698 BCE. His name is associ- vice versa, because of the striking similarities citrus was recommended for the British navy ated with the technology of raising silk- of both systems based on related humoral and by the end of the 18th century, limes and worms, origination of boats and carriages, traditions. However, Ayurveda considered sauerkraut were shown to be antiscorbutic. In and the invention of writing, music, and five rather than four basic elements [aakash the 20th century, scientific research demon- medicine. The Huangdi neijing, or the Yel- (ether or vacuum), vayu (air or wind), aapa strated the occurrence of various vitamins low Emperor’s Inner Classic, is the funda- (water), pita (fire), and prithvi (earth)] and (a word derived from vital amines) or sub- mental text for Chinese medicine. In 1973, three humors (doshas): vata (corresponding stances required in tiny amounts by various 14 medicinal classics were excavated from to breath, the Greek pneuma), pitta (corre- organisms, including humans (Desjardins, Tomb III of the Mawangdui site in Chang- sponding to bile), and kapha (corresponding 2008; Finley, 2005; Goldman, 2003). Sub- sha, Hunan Province (Galambos, 1996; Hsu to phlegm). Clearly, the concepts of Greek sequently, fruits and vegetables were shown et al., 1996).
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