How many schools Autumn 2013 Issue 27 and teachers do you reach – The European journal for science teachers worldwide? In this issue: Evolving threats: investigating new zoonotic infections Also: Peering into the darkness:

modelling black holes in primary school

Advertising in Science in School · Choose between advertising in the quarterly print journal or on our website. · Website: reach over 30 000 science educators worldwide – every month. · In print: target over 5000 European science educators every quarter, including over 3500 named subscribers. · Distribute your flyers, brochures, CD-ROMs or other materials to the recipients of the print copies. For more details, see www.scienceinschool.org/advertising LIKE US ON FACEBOOK: www.facebook.com/scienceinschool Published by EIROforum: ISSN: 1818-0353

Subscribe (free in Europe): www.scienceinschool.org Published and funded by EIROforum Editorial About Science in School The European journal for science teachers Science in School is the only teaching journal to cover all sciences and target the whole of nce upon a time, scholars tended Europe and beyond. Contents include cutting- edge science, teaching materials and much to wear long robes, live in mon- more. asteries and focus on botany. Brought to you by Europe’s top scientific Some of these medieval scientists research institutes Orecorded their extensive knowledge of medici- Science in School is published and funded by nal plants; today, researchers are using these EIROforum (www.eiroforum.org), a partnership between eight of Europe’s largest intergovern- manuscripts to inspire and develop modern mental scientific research organisations. medicines (page 38). Inspiring science teachers worldwide Although efficient in some cases, these early The Science in School website offers articles in 30+ languages and is read worldwide. The treatments could not combat the rampant epidemics of the time, such as free quarterly journal is printed in English and the plague, which constantly re-emerged because humans and animals distributed across Europe. lived in such close proximity. Unfortunately, history repeats itself, and we are once again struggling with the threat of zoonoses: animal dis- Advertising: tailored to your needs Choose between advertising in our print eases that cross to humans (page 12). ­journal, or on our website. For maximum Modern genetics, too, owes a debt to monastic botany, and more spe- impact, reach our entire readership with an cifically to Gregor Mendel, whose laws of heredity underlie the theory advertorial (online and in print). Online and in print, we have a total of over 120 000 readers of evolution and are still taught in biology classes. To explain – liter- per quarter. ally – the nuts and bolts of evolution, why not use everyday materials to · The majority of our readers are secondary- construct your own phylogenetic trees in the classroom (page 26)? school science teachers. · Our readership also includes many primary- Plants clearly provide inspiration in many scientific fields. Did you school teachers, teacher trainers, head know, for example, that iodine was originally discovered in seaweed? ­teachers and others involved in science Although at the time, the chemists involved were actually trying to make education. gunpowder (page 45). · The journal reaches significant numbers of key decision-makers: at the European More violent and infinitely more destructive than the firing of a gun are ­Commission, the European Parliament and in volcanic eruptions. To better understand volcanoes, an international European national ministries. team of scientists are using tiny particles – muons – to see inside For more information, see www.scienceinschool.org/advertising or (page 6). ­contact [email protected] On an even bigger, hotter and more destructive scale, the supernova explosion of a dying star can result in a black hole – sucking into it all Subscribing surrounding matter. Black holes may be difficult to grasp conceptu- Register free online to: · Subscribe to the e-newsletter ally, but they can be easily demonstrated in the classroom using simple · Request a free print subscription equipment (page 32). (limited availability) From medieval herbal remedies to monitoring volcanoes with cosmic · Post your comments. particles: this issue should make your heart beat fast with excitement. So How can I get involved? why not take the opportunity to simulate this with a gruesome, hands-on Science in School relies on the involvement of teachers, scientists and other experts in science activity to investigate how the heart pumps (page 18)? education. · Submit articles or reviews · Join the referee panel Isabelle Kling · Translate articles for publication online Co-Editor of Science in School · Tell your colleagues about Science in School [email protected] · Make a donation to support the journal. See www.scienceinschool.org or contact us. www.scienceinschool.org Contact us Dr Eleanor Hayes / Isabelle Kling Science in School European Molecular Biology Laboratory To learn how to Meyerhofstrasse 1 use this code, see 69117 Heidelberg page 53. Germany

i I Science in School I Issue 27 : Autumn 2013 www.scienceinschool.org Contents

Public domain image; image source: Wikimedia Commons i Editorial News from the EIROs 2 A range of scales: from fusing a nucleus to studying a dwarf planet

Cutting-edge science 6 6 The secret life of volcanoes: using muon radiography Image courtesy of Scott Bauer, US Department of Agriculture / Wikimedia Commons 12 Evolving threats: investigating new zoonotic infections

Advertorial 18 Science teachers: using education research to make a difference Teaching activity 20 From the bottom of our hearts: a hands-on demonstration of the mammalian heartbeat 12 26 Phylogenetics of man-made objects: simulating evolution Royal Collection Trust / © Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II 2013 in the classroom 32 Peering into the darkness: modelling black holes in primary school

Science topics 38 Monastic medicine: medieval herbalism meets modern science 45 Purple fumes: the importance of iodine 20

Forthcoming events for schools: www.scienceinschool.org/events To read the whole issue, see: www.scienceinschool.org/2013/issue27

To learn how to use this code, see page 53.

32 Agency, Image courtesy of the European Space Atomic En - (the French Mirabel and Felix NASA Astronomy ergy Commission & the Institute for Argentina) / Conicet of and Space Physics

Public domain image / Wikimedia Commons

38 www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 27 : Autumn 2013 I 1 A range of scales: from ­fusing a nucleus to studying a dwarf planet

EFDA-JET: EMBL: Making a What an ‘X’perience! deliberate error for ITER Are you struggling to store all your movies on regular DVDs? A new method published by researchers at the Eu- Forthcoming experiments at the Joint European Torus (JET), ropean Bioinformatics Institute (EBI, part of the European currently the world’s largest fusion energy experiment, will Molecular Biology Laboratory, EMBL) makes it possible to take a surprising twist, with some internal components being store 100 million hours of high-definition videos in a cup deliberately melted. The reason? In preparation for ITER, JET’s of… DNA! tenfold-larger successor, scientists will need to know what ef- The team, led by Nick Goldman and Ewan Birney, designed fect such melting would have on experiments. a method to synthesise information into DNA, duplicate it, ITER is under construction in the south of France. It will cre- and read it back. Stored under the right conditions, DNA can ate the first ever long-duration burning fusion plasma, which last tens of thousands of years, as shown by studies of woolly will inflict a heat load on the vessel that is equivalent to the mammoth remains. DNA is also very small and dense, and temperature on the surface of the Sun. Astonishingly, ITER’s its code is universal: all qualities that could make it a very ap- design engineers predict that tungsten tiles can withstand pealing technology for storing the enormous amounts of data this condition during normal operation. However bursts of generated in research facilities. turbulence similar to solar flares may momentarily heat the tungsten above its melting point (3422 °C). To simulate this, a tile in JET has been deliberately misaligned to create transient melts. These will be superficial only and will not endanger the 700 tonne JET vessel, but the effect on the plasma – if any – will be vital information for the ITER design team. To learn more about the fusion research at JET and ITER, see: Rüth C (2012) Harnessing the power of the Sun: fusion reactors. Science in School 22: 42-48. www.scienceinschool.org/2012/issue22/ fusion Dooley P (2012) Seeing the light: monitoring fusion experiments. Science in School 24: 12-16. www.scienceinschool.org/2012/issue24/

fusion Vitousek Image courtesy of Ondrej Dooley P (2013) A thermometer that goes to 200 million degrees. Science in School 26: 44-49. www.scienceinschool.org/2013/issue26/ Image courtesy of EFDA fusion Nick Goldman introduced his team’s findings to a fascinated audi- Find out more about fusion in the Universe in the Science in School series ence at a recent TEDx event in Prague, Czech Republic. The experi- of fusion articles. See: www.scienceinschool.org/fusion ence proved to be a high point in the popularisation of research on Situated in Culham, UK, JET is Europe’s fusion device. Scientific exploi- DNA storage. tation of JET is undertaken through the European Fusion Develop- To learn more, watch Nick Goldman’s talk on Youtube (http://youtu. ment Agreement (EFDA). To learn more, see: www.efda.org be/a4PiGWNsIEU) or read the press release on the EMBL website For a list of EFDA-JET-related articles in Science in School, see: (www.embl.org or use the direct link: http://tinyurl.com/olkpefy). www.scienceinschool.org/efdajet EMBL is Europe’s leading laboratory for basic research in molecu- lar biology, with its headquarters in Heidelberg, Germany. The European Bioinformatics Institute is part of EMBL and is based in Cambridge, UK. To learn more, see: www.embl.org For a list of EMBL-related articles in Science in School, see: www. scienceinschool.org/embl

2 I Science in School I Issue 27 : Autumn 2013 www.scienceinschool.org News from the EIROs

Science in School is published by EIROforum, a collaboration between eight of Europe’s largest inter-governmental scientific research organisations (EIROs). This article reviews some of the latest news from the EIROs.

ESO: Dwarf planet Makemake lacks atmosphere: distant frigid

Ozone levels over the Antarctic world reveals its secrets from 1996 to 2012. Blue indi- cates low levels of ozone and shows the hole in the ozone Image courtesy of BIRA / IASB layer.

Astronomers used three telescopes at facilities of the Europe- an Southern Observatory (ESO) in Chile to observe the dwarf ESA: planet Makemake as it drifted in front of a distant star and blocked its light. The new observations have allowed them to Is the ozone layer recovering? check whether Makemake is surrounded by an atmosphere. This chilly world has an orbit lying in the outer Solar System Since the 1980s, the emission of chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) and was expected to have an atmosphere like Pluto, but this gases has caused a hole to form in the protective ozone layer has now been shown not to be the case. The scientists also of the atmosphere. Weather conditions make the low levels measured Makemake’s density for the first time. The new of ozone particularly noticeable over the Antarctic in spring results were published in the journal Nature. (September to November).

This artist’s impression shows the surface of the distant dwarf Risinger (skysurvey.org) Image courtesy of ESO / L Calçada Nick The European weather satellite Metop is monitoring the hole planet Makemake. It is about two thirds of the size of Pluto, in the ozone layer, and the European Space Agency (ESA) Cli- and travels around the Sun in a distant path that lies beyond mate Change Initiative collects many measurements to track that of Pluto, but closer to the Sun than Eris, the most massive the changes over time. known dwarf planet in the Solar System. Since the reduction in CFC emissions in the 1990s, the hole has begun to shrink. The newest data from Metop show that For more information, see the press release on the ESO website the hole in the ozone layer over Antarctica in 2012 was the (www.eso.org or use the direct link: http://tinyurl.com/q5pjqmt) or refer to the original research paper: smallest it has been in a decade. CFC gases remain in the Ortiz JL et al (2012) Albedo and atmospheric constraints of dwarf atmosphere for a very long time, but these promising results planet Makemake from a stellar occultation. Nature 491: 566–569. demonstrate that the ozone layer has begun to recover. doi: 10.1038/nature11597 To learn more about the chemistry behind the hole in the ozone layer, Download the article free of charge on the Science in School website see: (www.scienceinschool.org/2013/issue27/eiroforum#resources), or Harrison T, Shallcross D (2010) A hole in the sky. Science in School 17: subscribe to Nature today: www.nature.com/subscribe 46-53. www.scienceinschool.org/2010/issue17/ozone To learn about the discovery of Eris, the most massive known dwarf ESA is Europe’s gateway to space, with its headquarters in Paris, planet in the Solar System, see: France. For more information, see: www.esa.int Hayes E (2011) How I killed Pluto: Mike Brown. Science in School 21: For a list of ESA-related articles in Science in School, see: 6-11. www.scienceinschool.org/2011/issue21/pluto www.scienceinschool.org/esa ESO is by far the world’s most productive ground-based astronomical observatory, with its headquarters in Garching near Munich, Ger- The European many, and its telescopes in Chile. ESO is the European partner in weather satellite the ALMA project, which is a collaboration between Europe, North Metop keeps an America and East Asia, in co-operation with the Republic of Chile. eye on the ozone For more information, see: www.eso.org layer in the atmos- For a list of ESO-related articles in Science in School, see: ­ phere. www.scienceinschool.org/eso Image courtesy of ESA / AOES Medialab AOES Image courtesy of ESA /

www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 27 : Autumn 2013 I 3 ESRF and ILL: Crystallography? What is that?

Ada Yonath, 2009 Nobel Prize Winner in Chemistry, while carrying out an experiment at the ESRF to decipher the structure of the ribosome. To celebrate 100 years of crystal- lography, she was invited to Grenoble in March 2013 to give a lecture to the general public entitled “Is there a limit to life expectancy? Wishes, predictions and reality”.

languages, together with many partners from across the world. Image courtesy of M Pelletier and C Bruneau Image courtesy of M Pelletier We will keep you informed! Learn more about the history of crystallography (currently only in French). See www.echosciences-grenoble.fr/sites/ 3D structure of the ribosome 100-ans-de-cristallographie or use the shorter link: http://tinyurl. com/ou3flm5 On the Nobel Prize website, find out more about the work of Max von Obviously, crystallography is the study of crystals, but it is Laue (www.nobelprize.org or use the direct link: http://tinyurl. also much more than that. Crystallography is a powerful tech- com/nnddkuu) and the Braggs (www.nobelprize.org or use the Image courtesy of ESRF nique that allows us to explore all sorts of material and even direct link: http://tinyurl.com/qcg5swy). biological samples. It is a way to look at atoms and molecules To find out more about crystallography, see also: and to understand how the world around us is ruled by these Cornuéjols D (2009) Biological crystals: at the interface between tiny bits of matter. physics, chemistry and biology. Science in School 11: 70-76. Modern crystallography started about one hundred years ago, www.scienceinschool.org/2009/issue11/crystallography when Max von Laue discovered that X-rays were diffracted Haddow M (2012) The new definition of crystals – or how to win by crystals. Soon after, William Lawrence Bragg, helped by a Nobel Prize. Science in School 24: 59-63. www.scienceinschool. his father, found that the X-ray diffraction patterns could org/2012/issue24/crystals reveal the intimate structure of matter. Laue and the Braggs To learn how to grow your own protein crystals at school, see: received Nobel Prizes only two years after their discoveries, Blattmann B, Sticher P (2009) Growing crystals from protein. Science in School 11 in 1914 and 1915, respectively. To celebrate this tremendous ­ : 30-36. www.scienceinschool.org/2009/issue11/ lysozyme breakthrough, 2014 has been declared the International Year of Situated in Grenoble, France, ESRF operates the most powerful syn- Crystallography by the United Nations. chrotron radiation source in Europe. To learn more, see: www.esrf.eu Today, crystallography is more active than ever thanks to the For a list of ESRF-related articles in Science in School, see: development of large-scale facilities such as very powerful X- www.scienceinschool.org/esrf ray sources, called synchrotrons, and neutron sources, which ILL is an international research centre at the leading edge of neutron can both be compared to super-microscopes for the investiga- science and technology, based in Grenoble, France. To learn more, tion of matter. In Grenoble, France, two world-class facilities see: www.ill.eu are leading neutron and X-ray research: the Institut Laue For a list of ILL-related articles in Science in School, see: Langevin (ILL) and the European Synchrotron Radiation Facil- www.scienceinschool.org/ill ity (ESRF). Every year, they welcome thousands of researchers A large stand at the Fête de la Science from all over the world to perform crystallographic experi- in Grenoble celebrated 100 years of ments. ­crystallography in October 2012. ESRF and ILL started celebrating 100 years of crystallography in 2012 by co-organising various events. Much more is expect- ed in 2013 and 2014: an exhibition, 3D digital animations and interactive educational material will be produced in various

EIROforum combines the resources, facilities and expertise of its member organisations to support European science in reaching its full potential. To

learn more, see: www.eiroforum.org Image courtesy of Serge Claisse, ILL For a list of EIROforum-related articles in Science in School, see: www.scienceinschool.org/eiroforum To browse the other EIRO news articles, see: To learn how to www.scienceinschool.org/eironews use this code, see page 53.

4 I Science in School I Issue 27 : Autumn 2013 www.scienceinschool.org Science topics Biology Chemistry Earth science Physics General science Primary The chemistry education magazine from the Royal Society of Chemistry for innovative teaching and Image courtesy of Serge Claisse, ILL sharing best practice Visit www.rsc.org/eic to connect with 50 years’ experience in chemistrywww.scienceinschool.org education Science in School I Issue 27 : Autumn 2013 I 5

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The secret life of volcanoes: using muon radiography How do we find out what’s going on inside a volcano? Using cosmic rays!

Mount Vesuvius erupting, by Johan Christian Dahl (1788–1857)

By Paolo Strolin We now have tools that go beyond A new imaging technology imaginative speculation to find out The aim of our project, which is a olcanoes are fascinating moun- exactly what is happening inside collaboration between scientists in Vtains, combining beauty with hid- volcanoes, but unfortunately they are Italy, France, the USA and Japan, is den danger. In the vicinity of an active still very limited. Current methods to further develop a new way to ‘see’ volcano, such as Mount Vesuvius in are indirect. For example, one method inside volcanoes directly. We want to Naples, Italy, people feel its presence uses small explosions to propagate produce shadow pictures, similar to like that of a gigantic living being that small tremors around a volcano, the way that X-rays allow us to see could attack at any time. This affects which yields information from the inside the human body. But instead of their attitude towards life: life is beau- way that these artificial seismic waves X-rays, we are using muons (penetrat- tiful but unpredictable. How long will are reflected (like echoes) by rocks ing particles with a mass about 200 it be before Vesuvius erupts again? of different density. Using complex times that of electrons) – hence And what is happening deep inside mathematics, this data can provide the project name of Mu-Ray. The the volcano? details of the internal structure of the technique is known as muon volcano. radiography.

6 I Science in School I Issue 27 : Autumn 2013 www.scienceinschool.org Cutting edge science

Towering over the Italian town of Naples, Vesuvius erupted dramatically in 1872. Photograph by Giorgio Sommer (1834-1914). Public domain image; image source: Wikimedia Commons Wikimedia Public domain image; image source: Earth science

The interior of Vesuvius according Physics to Athanasius Kircher (1602- 1680), from his work Mundus Subterraneous Commons Wikimedia Public domain image; image source:

Muons are produced, along with Muon radiography was first used in other particles, when cosmic rays 1971 – not for volcanoes, but for inves- (high-energy particles originating in tigating the interior of the pyramid of outer space) interact with atomic nu- Chefren at Giza, Egypt. The Nobel- clei in Earth’s atmosphere to produce prize winning physicist Louis Alvarez ‘showers’ of secondary particles. The placed a muon detector inside the muons inherit the high energy of the pyramid to pick up changes in muon parent cosmic rays, which enables flux (rate of muon flow) that could in- them to penetrate and pass through dicate the presence of a hidden burial the rock of the volcano and to be de- chamber. However, none was found. tected on the other side of the moun- In 2007, Hiroyuki Tanaka and tain. Because denser materials absorb collaborators from the University more muons (just as dense materials of Tokyo were the first to apply this such as bone absorb more X-rays), this technique to volcanoes. They carried provides a basis for producing shad- out radiography of the top part of the ow images of the volcano’s interior. Asama volcano in Honshu, Japan, www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 27 : Autumn 2013 I 7 Image courtesy of the Max Planck Institute for Astronomy

Primary particle which revealed a region with rock of (e.g. iron nucleus) low density under the bottom of the crater. The presence of low-density regions can be used in computer simulations that predict how possible eruptions could develop, indicating first interaction the most dangerous areas around the volcano. Their observations showed that muon radiography could indeed g p produce useful images of the internal p n pion decays structure of volcanoes. The really important advantages of pion-nucleus m muon radiography of volcanoes are interaction two-fold. First, whereas current indi- rect methods can provide information to a spatial resolution of some 100 m, muon radiography can be up to ten second interaction times more specific, mapping internal g structures to a resolution of some 10 m. Second, muon radiography offers the possibility of continuous moni- toring, thus potentially revealing the evolution of structures over time. The time resolution depends on the thickness of the rock traversed by the muons: the thicker it is, the fainter The shower of particles produced when a cosmic ray, a the muon flux and the longer it takes primary particle accelerated by mysterious mechanisms to accumulate enough muons for a in the distant Cosmos, reaches us and interacts with an picture. The time needed can thus be atomic nucleus in Earth’s atmosphere. Muons are indi- weeks, months or years. cated by the symbol m; other particles shown are photons (g), pions (p), neutrinos (n) and energy (e). Image courtesy of H T M Tanaka T M Image courtesy of H

Image obtained from muon radiog- raphy of Japan’s Asama volcano. The different rock densities are shown on a colour scale, and the internal shape of the volcano can be clearly seen. Public domain image; image source: Wikimedia Commons Wikimedia Public domain image; image source: 8 I Science in School I Issue 27 : Autumn 2013 www.scienceinschool.org Cutting edge science

The principle of muon radiography. As they pass through the volcano, near-horizontal muons are absorbed by the rock through Forward which they are passing. The denser the rock, the more muons are absorbed. Backward flux is used for normalisation.

Backward Image courtesy of Nicola Graf

Detector Earth science Muon radiography is now being summit of Vesuvius is a crater that The detectors consist of plastic scintil- used for volcanoes around the world: is 500 m wide and 300 m deep: this lator strips – a technology borrowed in the Lesser Antilles, at the Puy de means that, to look below the bottom from particle physics. These strips can Dôme in Central France, and in our of the crater, muons have to penetrate be used to cover large areas and pro- very challenging work on Vesuvius deep into the mountain, through al- vide long exposure times, and they are with the Mu-Ray project. The images most two kilometres of rock, to reach robust enough to withstand volcanic are produced using detectors called the detector on the opposite side of conditions. Of practical importance

muon telescopes, which use technol- the volcano. Only muons of very high too are the telescope’s low energy con- Physics ogy developed in particle physics energy travelling in a near-horizontal sumption, enabling it to be powered and play the role of the X-ray film direction are able to pass through all by a solar panel, and its portability, so in conventional radiography. The this rock, so their flux at the detec- that it can be used in different loca- telescopes detect near-horizontal tor is very low, making imaging tions. Depending on funding and the muons emerging from the volcano’s extremely difficult. This explains why experience gained with the prototype, edifice, having passed right through the project – and the development we hope as the next step to construct it. By reconstructing the path of each of muon radiography – is extremely two telescope arrays, each with total single muon through the volcano, challenging. areas of 4 m2, to record data for one the apparatus reveals the amount of To look inside Vesuvius, therefore, year or more. muon absorption in each direction. we need to develop a new type of Denser rocks absorb more muons, so muon telescope. To detect enough Image courtesy of Paolo Strolin a map of muon fluxes gives a negative particles of such low flux to produce image of the rock densities inside the an image, this apparatus must cover a volcano. Such images cannot help to much larger area than previous muon predict when an eruption might occur, telescopes. Substantial improvements but – combined with other observa- are also needed to distinguish the tions – can help to foresee how one experimentally important particles could happen. from background muons – which we plan to do by measuring each muon’s time of flight through the telescope Imaging Vesuvius to confirm that it really has the right So, what about Vesuvius? This vol- direction to have passed through the cano is a special challenge, not only volcano. because it represents the highest vol- A prototype telescope with a detec- canic risk in Europe, but also because tor area of just 1 m2, compared to 10 of the mountain’s unusual structure. m2 or more to be covered by the final Vesuvius is in fact situated within the telescope array, has been recording The Mu-Ray muon telescope prototype remnants of a much larger volcano, data at Vesuvius since Spring 2013. at Vesuvius. Mount Somma. Moreover, inside the The data is currently being analysed. www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 27 : Autumn 2013 I 9 Public domain image; image source: Wikimedia Commons

In its most famous eruption, in 79 AD, Mount Vesuvius destroyed the Roman town of Pompeii. The Last Days of Pompeii by Karl Briullov (1799–1852)

New frontiers tion about the density of the core of new field of research by HKM Tanaka Meanwhile, particle physicists our own planet. and A Taketa (ERI-Tokyo); K Niwa and T Nakano (Nagoya); D Gibert and and volcanologists continue to work Acknowledgments together in muon radiography. As J Marteau (DIAPHANE collabora- well as providing a powerful tool for The Mu-Ray project is funded tion); C Carloganu (TOMUVOL col- the study of geological structures, this by the Istituto Nazionale di Fisica laboration); F Ambrosino, G Castellini, expanding field also has potential Nucleare (Italian national institute for R D’Alessandro, G Iacobucci, M Mar- industrial applications, such as seeing nuclear physics) and the Istituto Nazi- tini, M Orazi and G Saracino (Mu-Ray inside nuclear reactors or determining onale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia (Ital- collaboration). the remaining thickness of the wall ian national institute for geophysics Web reference of an iron furnace, which can then be and volcanology), with contributions replaced at the right time. by the Italian Ministry of Education w1 – Learn more about the Scienza e Alongside these possibilities, there and Research (MIUR-PRIN), Fermilab Scuola (science and school) project. is another developing technology that (USA) and IN2P3-Orsay (France) and See: http://scienzaescuola.fisica. promises imaging on an even larger support from the Provincia di Napoli unina.it scale: neutrino radiography. With (province of Naples) and the Istituto their extraordinary penetration power, Fondazione Banco di Napoli (foundation Resources neutrinos produced by cosmic rays of the bank of Naples). To learn more about the Mu-Ray and passing through Earth itself could The author would like to gratefully ­project, see the project website. at some future date provide informa- acknowledge the contributions to this http://mu-ray.fisica.unina.it

10 I Science in School I Issue 27 : Autumn 2013 www.scienceinschool.org Cutting edge science

Details can also be found in: 23: 25-32. www.scienceinschool. involved in the Scienza e Scuola (sci- Poppi F (2011) Muons reveal the org/2012/issue23/earthquakes ence and school) project, which links interior of volcanoes. CERN Bulletin With its most famous eruption, in 79 school teachers, school students and 50:2 AD, Mount Vesuvius destroyed the professional researchers to encourage and nourish young people’s interest in For more technical details about the Roman town of Pompeii. To learn and knowledge of sciencew1. Mu-Ray project, see: how modern scientific analyses are casting light on the ancient town, Anastasio A et al. (2013) The Mu- see: Ray experiment: An application of SiPM technology to the understand- Capellas M (2007) Recovering Pom- ing of volcanic phenomena. Nuclear peii. Science in School 6: 14-19. www. Instruments & Methods in Physics Re- scienceinschool.org/2007/issue6/ search A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, pompeii Detectors and Associated Equipment If you enjoyed this article, why not 718: 134-137. doi: 10.1016/ browse the other cutting-edge sci- j.nima.2012.08.065 ence articles in Science in School?

Ambrosi G et al. (2011) The Mu-Ray See: www.scienceinschool.org/­ Earth science project: Volcano radiography with cuttingedge cosmic-ray muons. Nuclear Instru- ments & Methods in Physics Research A 628(1): 120-123. doi: 10.1016/ Paolo Strolin is an emeritus pro- j.nima.2010.06.299 fessor at the University of Naples Beauducel et al. (2008) Muon Federico II, Italy. His main scientific radiography of volcanoes and the background is particle physics, in To learn how to particular neutrino physics. His inter- use this code, see Physics challenge at Mt. Vesuvius. page 53. est in education has led him to be The article can be downloaded from the Mu-Ray project website (click on Image courtesy of NASA ‘Read the complete proposal’). See: http://mu-ray.fisica.unina.it The website of the European Space Agency (ESA) offers multimedia background informa- tion about cosmic rays. See: http:// esamultimedia.esa.int/multimedia/ edu/Cosmic_Rays.swf or use the shorter link: http://tinyurl.com/ m6ap2c3 ESA’s Eduspace website offers school- level information about volcanoes, including how they are monitored. See: http://www.esa.int/ SPECIALS/Eduspace_Disasters_ EN/SEM3WAMSNNG_0.html or use the shorter link: http://tinyurl. com/k6ep7tb To mimic in the classroom how volca- noes are traditionally investigated, by monitoring the characteristic way seismic waves travel through rocks of different density, see: Photo of the Cleveland Volcano, Aleutian Islands, taken from the International Space Bazanos P (2012) Building a seismo- Station on 23 May 2006. The volcano emitted a plume of ash but did not erupt. graph from scrap. Science in School www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 27 : Autumn 2013 I 11 Evolving threats: investigating new zoonotic infections

In the African forest, Fabian Leendertz and his team look for new infectious agents that can be transmitted from animals to humans. Could one of them cause the next pandemic?

By Julia Heymann The word zoonosis, derived from the pathogens that have recently evolved Greek words zoon (creature) and nosos to broaden their host spectrum. Hu- ur modern lifestyle, in which (disease), describes an infectious dis- man immunodeficiency virus (HIV) we can travel around the globe ease that can be transmitted between originated in chimpanzees or gorillas, inO a matter of days, has made it easier animals and humans. Two established the 2003 outbreak of severe acute res- for infectious diseases to spread. examples are rabies and bubonic piratory syndrome (SARS) was caused Pathogens that have recently been plague, both of which can be deadly by an avian coronavirus, and the 2009 transmitted from animals to humans for humans. Whereas an epidemic af- swine flu pandemic came from – well, can be particularly dangerous because fects a certain population, a pandemic you can guess. they are new to our immune system. is an infection spanning multiple How did these infections become Fabian Leendertz at the Robert Koch continents or even the whole world. such a serious and global danger? Institutew1 in Berlin, Germany, studies Significantly, all recent pandemic out- “The majority of human pathogens previously unknown infectious mi- breaks have been caused by animal came from elsewhere in the animal crobes in Africa, hoping to prevent the kingdom,” Fabian explains, so that outbreak of new zoonoses. alone is not the explanation. However, “Today, it is far easier for a pathogen to spread between countries. What would have been a small incident in the past can now quickly become a worldwide outbreak.” Our increased mobility is not the only reason for this: Image courtesy of Scott Bauer, US Department of Agriculture / Wikimedia Commons Wikimedia Agriculture / US Department of Image courtesy of Scott Bauer,

12 I Science in School I Issue 27 : Autumn 2013 www.scienceinschool.org Cutting edge science

Plane landing over Simpson Bay Biology Biology Evolution Health Ecosystems Climate change Ages 14-18 This comprehensive and simply written article about research into zoonotic infections can be used in biology lessons to address Flickr Conry; image source: Image courtesy of Steven the topics of evolution, health, ecosystems or cli- mate change. Suitable com- prehension and extension questions include: 1. Why are zootonic infec- tious so dangerous? “As human residential areas grow and humans enter more and more remote At bush markets, live wild animals can 2. How may environmen- be bought as food. This is one way in territories, we encounter new patho- tal changes cause more which zoonotic infections can spread. gens. Changing the local ecosystem zootonic infections in eliminates some species and benefits the near future? others, some of which could bring 3. What could govern- zoonotic microbes with them.” ments do to prevent Ebola virus, for example, was new pandemics? passed from apes to humans, presum- 4. What tests allow sci- ably by the consumption of ‘bush entists to determine if meat’: wild animals such as fruit bats an individual has been or monkeys that are hunted for food. infected by a zoonosis? Often, they are butchered without 5. How should authorities gloves. If those animals have an infec- manage an emergency tion, it can easily spread to the people of a pandemic caused hunting, butchering or eating them. by zoonosis? In parts of Africa, wild animals are an important food source, and rapid This article could also be Leendertz Image courtesy of Fabian population growth has stimulated the used to stimulate discus- bush meat trade. Fabian’s research sions about the history of focuses on this method of disease infectious diseases; the transmission. interactions of organisms with their environment; Monitoring our relatives’ health to study the great apes. They collabo- and recent food security

Image courtesy of Scott Bauer, US Department of Agriculture / Wikimedia Commons Wikimedia Agriculture / US Department of Image courtesy of Scott Bauer, The primates include not only hu- rate as part of the Great Ape Health scandals. Starting with the mans, but also lemurs, monkeys and Monitoring Unitw2, an institute that known zoonoses men- our closest relatives: the great apes, provides space to researchers from tioned in the article, it such as chimpanzees and gorillas. around the world who want to obtain could be used to discuss Any virus or bacterium that infects samples from wild apes. Whenever the economic, social and our primate relatives could also be one of the apes that they are studying political consequences of dangerous to us. To identify new in- becomes ill or dies, the team collects recent pandemics. fectious agents that jump the species blood, faeces and urine samples to Panagiotis Stasinakis, barrier, therefore, the German re- send to Fabian and his group in Ber- 4th ­Lyceum of Zografou, searchers teamed up with behavioural lin. If the ape dies, it is autopsied on-

REVIEW Greece scientists in Ivory Coast, West Africa, site by one of the veterinarians.

www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 27 : Autumn 2013 I 13 Public domain image / Wikimedia Commons

Illustration from the Toggenburg Bible (Switzerland) of 1411. The disease is widely believed to be the plague, the ‘Black Death’. However the location of the bumps or blisters is also consistent with smallpox.

Can it infect us? Does the newly discovered microbe infect only apes or can it be trans- mitted to humans? If people can be infected, will they become ill? Could they pass the disease on to other humans? To answer these questions, the German scientists travel to Africa and take samples from people living close to where the virus was found; these people are not necessarily ill, but gions that are unique to certain micro- could have antibodies in their blood organisms. If one of those specific that indicate a past infection. The sci- sequences is present in the sample, entists also work with local doctors the pathogen can be identified as be- who send samples to Germany. longing to a certain bacterial or viral If the microbe is found in human family. By testing different types of samples, it could have been acquired sample – blood, faeces or urine – the either directly from apes or indirectly scientists can search for specific types from another host. To determine of disease, for example those caused whether it might cause an epidemic by respiratory, intestinal or systemic or even a pandemic, the research- pathogens. ers try to find out if it can be passed Image courtesy of Fabian Leendertz Image courtesy of Fabian If the pathogen is an unknown from one person to another. This is a In the field, researchers wear micro-organism, “we try to culture it difficult task, involving interviewing biohazard suits when extracting and isolate the whole genome for se- lots of villagers. Have they had close samples, to protect them from quencing. Then we present the newly contact with apes or with ill people? dangerous micro-organisms. discovered microbe to the scientific Where and when? Using this data, world,” Fabian explains. the researchers hope eventually to Identifying the responsible pathogen When the samples arrive in Fabian’s lab in Berlin, he and his co-workers try to find out which pathogen is be- hind the outbreak – and if it is already known. Several laboratory tests can expose the identity of the microbe,

by revealing its genome sequence or Leendertz Image courtesy of Fabian characteristic surface molecules. Leendertz Image courtesy of Fabian One such technique, the polymerase In parts of rural Africa, people and Blood samples are taken from locals chain reaction (PCR), multiplies DNA monkeys may live in close contact, to check if they have been infected sequences and makes them easier to increasing the probability of infecting with the pathogen. each other. identify. Fabian then searches for re-

14 I Science in School I Issue 27 : Autumn 2013 www.scienceinschool.org Cutting edge science

Public domain image / Wikimedia Commons Public domain image / Wikimedia Commons Biology

During the bubonic plague of 1900– 1902 in Brisbane, Australia, rats – the worst carriers of the dreaded disease – were destroyed in their thousands.

be to test whether this specific strain is found in the local human population and, if so, how humans can be protect- ed, for example, by vaccination.

Reference The plague was detected in rats at the Port of New Orleans in 1914, prompting a Leendertz FH et al. (2004) Anthrax major rat eradication effort. These three men are examining rats for the disease. kills wild chimpanzees in a tropical rainforest. Nature 430: 451-452. doi: 10.1038/nature02722 identify the source and the means of we can instantly test for the most Download the article free of charge transmission of the newly discovered dangerous species, like Ebola virus,” on the Science in School website pathogen. explains Fabian. Until it is clear what (www.scienceinschool.org/2013/ If the pathogen proves to be danger- microbes they are dealing with, they issue27/zoonosis#resources), or ous, the health authorities are notified protect themselves with biohazard subscribe to Nature today: and take charge of emergency meas- suits. www.nature.com/subscribe ures. Sick people are quarantined, doctors and nurses are called to the The outlook Web resources outbreak zone, and bush markets and The research strategy has proved public transport may be shut down w1 – Website of the Robert Koch Insti- successful: in recent years, the group temporarily. The researchers them- tute, the German centre for disease discovered why wild chimpan- selves also need to be careful. “We car- control: www.rki.de zees had started dying of anthrax ry a mobile miniature lab with which w2 – Website of the Great Ape Health (Leendertz et al., 2004). Fabian and Monitoring Unit: www.eva.mpg. his colleagues found that a previously de/primat/GAHMU harmless soil bacterium (Bacillus ce-

Image courtesy of Jans Canon / Wikimedia Commons Wikimedia Canon / Image courtesy of Jans reus) had acquired – from a related pathogenic bacterium (Bacillus anthra- Resources cis) – the genetic information to pro- To learn about the ecology of bird flu, duce the dangerous anthrax toxin. The another zoonotic infection, see: bacterial strain that evolved from this Niekoop L, Rienks F (2006) The genetic transfer (Bacillus cereus anthra- ecologist’s view of bird flu. cis) can live in the soil and is highly Science in School 3: 24-30. www. virulent, thus posing a lethal threat to scienceinschool.org/2006/issue3/ chimpanzees. The next step will now birdflu The University of Minnesota has cre- A wild rat ated ‘Outbreak at Watersedge’, an www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 27 : Autumn 2013 I 15

Public domain image / Wikimedia Commons

Distribution of protection masks in Mexico City during the 2009 flu pandemic

The 1918 Spanish influenza ward at Camp Funston, Kansas, USA, showing the many patients ill with the flu

Image courtesy of kalitemarketing.com

online game in which you track the source of an outbreak of illness. See: www.mclph.umn.edu/watersedge Julia Heymann studied biology and In the online game Pandemic II, you did her PhD on infectious bacteria at are a virus, parasite or bacterium the Max Planck Institute for Infection with the goal of infecting and killing Biology in Berlin, Germany, before everyone on the planet. See: www. doing a post-doc at the Robert Koch crazymonkeygames.com/ Institute in Berlin. She also holds a Pandemic-2.html degree in journalism and is currently working as a writer for Spektrum der In a TEDed video, Mark Honigsbaum Wissenschaft. describes the history of pandemics and how that knowledge can help to halt future outbreaks. See: http://ed.ted.com/lessons/ Image courtesy of Jebulon / Wikimedia Commons how-pandemics-spread To learn how to To learn more about a very different use this code, see page 53. hazard of human–wildlife interac- tions, see: Notman N (2012) Cracking down on wildlife trafficking. Science in School The top of the plague column (“Pestsäule”) in Vienna, Austria. Plague columns were built after 24: 6-11. www.scienceinschool. plague epidemics in Christian cities to thank the org/2012/issue24/juliana Virgin Mary (or sometimes the Holy Trinity) for If you enjoyed this article, you may preserving the city and the survivors. like to browse the other biology-re- lated articles in Science in School. See: www.scienceinschool.org/biology

16 I Science in School I Issue 27 : Autumn 2013 www.scienceinschool.org ENCOURAGE. empowering people Science topics

Energie neu denken! Bewegt etwas für Eure Zukunft. Biology Chemistry Earth science Physics

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Anmeldeschluss zur Teilnahme: 15. November 2013 Einsendeschluss für die Arbeiten: 15. Januar 2014

www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 27 : Autumn 2013 I 17 Image courtesy Turnervisual / iStockphoto

Science teachers: using education research to make a difference

As a teacher of science, technology, engineering or mathematics (STEM), you are in a perfect position to encourage more students to take up STEM studies and careers. But what are the best ways to inspire students and achieve this goal? Research projects in science education can really help, but finding your way through all the results can be a challenge.

Teachers are in a perfect position to encourage more students to take up STEM studies and careers. he DESIRE project (Dissem- eTwinningw2, Scientixw3, inGeniousw4 inating Educational Science, and the Learning Resource Exchange Innovation and Research in platformw5. Being active in topic-based TEurope) was set up to tackle the prob- online communities is a great way come more confident about using new lem of making educational research to create and share ideas with other ­approaches in class. You can share more accessible to teachersw1. From STEM professionals from universi- out opportunities to attend events 2011 to 2013, a range of STEM profes- ties and the private sector, as well as between yourself and your colleagues, sionals – including science teachers, teaching. Moodlew6 and Edmodow7 are so that you all have a chance to be in- spired. On your return, make the most science communicators and policy- recognised by many teachers as ideal of the knowledge you have gained by makers – were consulted to identify social media as they are controlled, discussing it with your colleagues. the main challenges that science teach- secure online areas. Pearltreesw8 helps ers face in accessing new ideas from to save links and explanations, and Participate STEM educational research, and the Diigow9 enables resource sharing. best ways to make research available Even if there is limited time and to help develop innovative teaching. Attend events money available to you to attend events in person, you can still par- Go online Conferences and other face-to-face ticipate in European and national The most efficient way to access events are good opportunities to STEM education projects, for exam- new information is through online meet the innovators of new teaching ple through European Schoolnetw10 communities, websites and blogs. practices, and also to network with or other national and international Some online portals are a central other teachers. Attending a training bodies active in formal and informal point to access information on a wide course can have a long-lasting impact STEM education. Involvement in such range of resources: these include on your teaching and help you to be- activities will enable you to benefit

18 I Science in School I Issue 27 : Autumn 2013 www.scienceinschool.org Advertorial

How can teachers best use STEM educational research to inspire their students?

from the experience of the profession- als leading these initiatives, and to share your own knowledge. By doing this, you will in turn enhance the way STEM education resources are devel- oped and communicated in a way that takes your needs and constraints into account. Inspire You can inspire colleagues to partic- ipate in STEM education projects and use the results of research by showing them the advantages – namely, that Image courtesy of Shutterstock it will reinforce their STEM teaching skills and keep their knowledge up to date. Perhaps share success stories from your own experience, or create The DESIRE project has been fund- w4 – inGenious, which has resources a small exhibition or event with your ed with the support of the Lifelong to encourage interest in science students to display the new insights Learning programme of the European education and careers among they have obtained through using Union. It is carried out by European young Europeans. See: alternative methods. Involving your Schoolnet together with INDIRE www.ingenious-science.eu head teacher is key, as this will help to (Agenzia Nazionale per lo Sviluppo w5 – Learning Resource Exchange motivate your colleagues and provide dell’Autonomia Scolastica), Univer- for schools, which provides educa- professional recognition for your ef- sitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Dan- tional content from many different forts. ish Science­ Communication (Dansk countries. See: http://lreforschools. Although lack of time is a major Naturvidenskabsformidling) and Ecsite eun.org (the European network of science challenge for all teachers, remember w6 – Moodle, a virtual learning envi- centres and museums). This article that most new methods and tools are ronment and social community for reflects the views only of the authors, designed to make teaching more ef- teachers. See: https://moodle.org ficient. Once you are familiar with and the European Commission cannot w7 – Edmodo, a social learning

them, they can save you time and be held responsible for any use that General science platform for teachers, students, and effort in teaching your STEM cur- may be made of the information con- parents. See: www.edmodo.com/ riculum. So think about the long-term tained herein. about vision you have for your classes. Web references w8 – Pearltrees, a tool that acts as an Acknowledgements w1 – The DESIRE project and its re- extension of internet browsers to DESIRE is one of many projects of- sults. See: http://desire.eun.org reference favourite web pages. See: www.pearltrees.com fered to science teachers by European w2 – eTwinning, a learning

Schoolnet, a network of 30 ministries ­community that promotes school w9 – Diigo, a research tool and of education in Europe. Other major collaboration and teachers’ profes- knowledge-sharing community . w3 platforms are Scientix and Ingen- sional development. See: See: www.diigo.com w4 ious . http://­etwinning.net w10 – European Schoolnet, where you w3 – Scientix, the community for can subscribe to newsletters for op- science education in Europe, which portunities to participate in educa- aims to facilitate sharing of know- tion projects. See: www.eun.org how and best practices. See: www.scientix.eu

How can STEM educational

Image courtesy of European Schoolnet research be effectively used To learn how to use this in teaching? code, see page 53.

www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 27 : Autumn 2013 I 19 From the bottom of our hearts: a hands-on demonstration of the mammalian heartbeat

A typical diagram of the heart, showing the Using nothing but structures involved but explain- ing very little about the function. J a pig’s heart, a A: Right ventricle; B: left ventricle; C: tricuspid valve (atrioventricular); D: knife and a supply mitral valve (atrioventricular), E: aortic G valve (arterial); F: pulmonary valve (ar- of water, you and terial); G: aorta; H: pulmonary artery; H I: pulmonary vein; J: superior vena your students can cava; K: inferior vena cava; I L: right atrium; M: left investigate how the atrium heart pumps. M L D

B E F

C A Image courtesy of Edmond Hui

K

Biology students (ages 11-14), the teacher should demonstrate History of science the activity; older students (ages 15-19) should be able Mathematics to work autonomously in groups. Cardiovascular system The authors also suggest some further investigations, which would extend the educational value of the activ- Ages 11-19 ity and create interdisciplinary opportunities involving The article shows how important curiosity can be: in mathematics. Furthermore, the historical information in this case, the desire to better understand the physiology the introduction would be an excellent starting point of the mammalian heart led to the discovery of a simple for discussions with older students about the history of but effective strategy to study how blood is pumped. science and the relationship between science and tech- Although novel, the strategy is so simple that it could nology.

REVIEW be used with students of almost any age. With younger Betina Lopez, Portugal

20 I Science in School I Issue 27 : Autumn 2013 www.scienceinschool.org Teaching activities

Royal Collection Trust / © Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II 2013 Biology

Figure 1: The heart and coronary vessels by Leonardo da Vinci. Da Vinci’s drawings and notes record both By Edmond Hui and Archie Taplin So to da Vinci, the heart appeared his remarkable powers of observa- to pump blood into vessels that tion and his inability to reconcile eonardo da Vinci was one of the branched into ever-smaller vessels – what he saw with the traditional first people to look carefully at essentially dead ends. And where did understanding of the heart at the Lthe heart and describe what it did. the blood flowing into the heart come time. Blood circulation was not discovered for another hun- His drawings of the heart and its from? Without knowing this, he could dred years. valves are masterpieces of scientific not reconcile the large volumes that art (figure 1), and he made remarkable the heart could clearly pump with the observations about the way that blood fact that there was apparently no- flows through the vessels and cham- where for the pumped blood to go. bers and activates the arterial valves. Today, the circulation of blood is of the heart in action, but these images Nevertheless, da Vinci never fully well understood, but only a small are difficult for laypeople to interpret understood how the heart pumps, proportion of people have actually and impossible to create in schools. because he was unaware of the circu- witnessed the pumping action of the The biomechanical functioning of lation of blood in the body. He could mammalian heart. Hearts are cryptic the heart is thus so obscure that in see the arteries and veins, but not the organs, hidden inside living animals; popular culture the organ is primarily capillaries that connected them. He exposing the heart usually causes the thought of as a metaphor for emotion. was also hampered by the prevailing animal to die. Even in open-heart sur- School biology lessons document view at the time: that the heart moved gery, the valves and the flow of blood the dual circuit of the vascular system blood to transport heat from the liver are obscured by the opaque heart and name the parts of the heart, but to the muscles, and that the function tissues. Modern medical imaging sys- do not really explain how the blood is of the lungs was to cool the blood. tems can produce spectacular displays propelled, or why the heart is arranged

www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 27 : Autumn 2013 I 21 the atrioventricular valves: they were Initially, we had imagined that the hanging down like curtains, close to atrioventricular valves had robust, the walls of the ventricles. hinged or elastic flaps (cusps) that re- To identify which ventricle was con- sponded to pressure differences. How nected to which artery, we ran water wrong we were! Instead, the cusps into one of the ventricles from the tap. are membranous and flaccid, like To our surprise, the atrioventricular parachutes attached to the ventricular valve immediately closed inwards to- walls – billowing out when the flow wards the stream of water (figure 4 on of liquid inflates them, and prevented page 21). As da Vinci had described from turning inside out by ‘heart- for the arterial valves, it was not pres- strings’ (chordae tendineae) that work sure, contraction or compression that like parachute cords. activated the atrioventricular valves, When the blood moves from the but the actual movement of the liquid. ventricle into the artery, another valve as it is. Try searching the Internet for (the arterial valve) stops the high- Royal Collection Trust / © Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II 2013 Trust Collection Royal demonstrations of the heart and you pressure blood from leaking back into will find thousands of diagrams and the ventricle. By trimming the aorta other teaching resources. However, and pulmonary artery closer to the we found none that actually showed ventricles, we were able to observe the pumping action of a real mamma- these valves opening and closing as lian heart. well. On a personal level, we have been Investigating the mammalian amazed. To sort through the internal heart for ourselves organs of a pig, remove the heart and then discover all this intricate detail We wanted to discover for ourselves for ourselves has been a scientific how the mammalian heart actually adventure. We were also struck by the pumps. We started with the idea that realisation that we had not properly we should be able to make the heart understood the available resources, pump by squeezing it manually, much and that what had seemed to be a like a simple plastic hand pump. complex and obscure subject was We obtained an undamaged pig’s in fact fully accessible to school-age heart and tried manually compressing students. it under water. We also tried pumping it while attempting to run water into the atria from the tap; this was dif- ficult as the atria were flaccid and had We found that by manually compress- multiple openings. Neither approach ing the heart while water was flowing seemed to work – no water was into the ventricles, we could close the expelled from either the pulmonary atrioventricular valve completely and artery or aorta. produce a dramatic spurt of water After this failure, we re-examined from the artery. both the heart and our initial under- We realised that in our earlier at- standing of its function, and began tempt, the atria had been blocking the to dissect it. First, we completely flow of water into the ventricles. Now, removed both atria, which resemble however, we had an unobstructed floppy bags with holes in them. The flow and were able to manually remainder, literally the bottom of the reproduce the pumping action of the heart, consists of a pair of open ven- heart. We could see not only how the tricles with the aorta and pulmonary contraction (or manual compression) artery rising between them. The sys- of the ventricles moves the liquid, but tem is visually and mechanically very also the precise action of the valves simple – clearly just a pair of pumps. – something very seldom seen by At first sight, there were no signs of anyone but a heart surgeon.

22 I Science in School I Issue 27 : Autumn 2013 www.scienceinschool.org Biology - 23 I

tesy of Ed Hui our e c ag Im

the aorta.

i

inwards. Figure 4: 4: Figure of water.

u A) The stream

H

B) Once the d of water is flowing is flowing of water E pid valve closes pid valve As the stream of f

o left hand is supporting

ventricle, the tricus- ventricle,

water enters the right enters water y the incoming stream. The The the incoming stream.

s into the centre of the right

has closed inwards against has closed inwards e water flow has stopped, flow water t tricuspid valve The ventricle. r

under a continuous stream u the closed tricuspid valve is the closed tricuspid valve

o

Issue 27 : Autumn 2013 Autumn Issue 27 :

performed with the heart held

I c

run into the right ventricle. The The run into the right ventricle.

actual demonstration should be actual demonstration

because the water has only been because the water

in the left ventricle remains open in the left ventricle

e valve visible. Note that the mitral

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Teaching activities Teaching Identify the left and right ventricles; Identify the left and Performing the demonstration Performing works better on the the demonstration right ventricle. Turn thinner-walled smooth, continu- on the tap so that a of water is flowing. Hold ous stream the enters stream the heart so that the of the opening of the right ven centre tricle. The tricuspid valve should close tricle. The tricuspid to touch the incoming stream inwards 4). of water (figure Science in School Science in School Hui ui Ed d H of E y of es y rt s - u te o r c u e o g c a e m g I a m I - Figure 3: Figure ventricle. Figure 2: Figure to be cut. The atria have been atria have The ready to compress the right ready removed and the atrial walls and the atrial walls removed Finding the arteries. the arteries. Finding The pulmonary artery pulmonary The ally isolated from sur ally isolated the forefinger of the right hand tion for the demonstration, with tion for the demonstration, rounding tissues, ready ready rounding tissues, trimmed down to the tops of the trimmed down ventricles. The two holes are the two The ventricles. openings into the ventricles. The The openings into the ventricles. Trim any vestiges of the atria Trim down to the ventricular wall. Identify the light coloured and Identify the light coloured elastic-walled aorta and pulmo nary artery; the dark vena cavae and the pulmonary vein; and the atria. Remove the atria, trimming their walls close to the tops of the not 3). Be careful ventricles (figure to damage the aorta and pulmo- the rise from which nary artery, is of the heart. The heart centre for use. now ready and aorta can be manu- and aorta heart is held in the correct orienta- Preparing a supermarket heart 1. 2. - - rate the heart from the lungs by rate the heart from cutting the pulmonary artery and the heart as pos- vein as far from 2). The vena cavae and sible (figure have been cut aorta will already removed were when the organs the body cavity. from Remove the pericardium and sepa Remove the pericardium ket. In this case, make sure you buy you buy ket. In this case, make sure as they have normally some spares, been trimmed by cutting across the atria. The aorta and pulmonary artery may also have been cut very un- short but if the ventricles are damaged, the demonstration will work. sharp knife or scalpel A Running water. For each group, you will need: you will For each group, pig or sheep heart A The heart fully attached to the liver and lungs is known in the UK as a ‘full pluck’, and can be requested butcher or local abattoir. a good from you can use pre- Alternatively, the supermar packed hearts from We believe that this demonstration believe We The pumping mechanism alone The activity is suitable for any age www.scienceinschool.org • • • of the heart pumping mechanism is of the heart pumping in any to repeat novel, yet it is easy the activity, After school laboratory. have understood the students should of the heart, the functional anatomy the motion and observed directly heart valves, and function of the four of flow to the grasped the importance motion of the valves. can be demonstrated in just a few a full demonstra- minutes. However, tion – with student participation and a discussion of the heart’s connections - and the circula organs to surrounding occupy tory system – can productively two hours. of secondary-school students (11+). Preparing a full pluck 1. Procedure Materials Demonstrating a beating heart in a beating heart Demonstrating the classroom urtesy of Ed Hu ge co i Ima

If you now compress the heart, Figure 6: the valve will close completely and By trimming the water should be expelled from the aorta and pulmonary pulmonary artery (figure 5). Squeeze artery close enough to rhythmically to mimic the action of a the heart, you should be able to see the arterial beating heartw1. If you trim the aorta valves. and pulmonary artery close enough to the heart, you should be able to see the arterial valves (figure 6).

Figure 5: When the right ventricle is compressed with the right hand, a stream of water is expelled from the pulmonary artery. This stream can be seen flying over the knuckles of the right hand towards Further investigations the camera. Im ag e 1. Attach surgical tubing to the out- co ur Figure 7: te sy flow vessels, then measure the wa- o “I can do gory!” Archie f E d ter pressures achieved when you H Taplin holds a pig’s heart, u i compress the heart. having just removed the 2. Challenge your students to prove pericardium. The liver can be that the heart is a pair of indepen- seen at the top of the picture, dently functioning pumps by dis- the lungs are on the left, and secting away an entire ventricle. the trachea extends to the tongue on the far left. Using a second heart, repeat the I exercise using the other ventricle. ma ge c ou These isolated ventricles should rt e sy function when manually com- o f E d

pressed. H u 3. In live animals, the two ventricles i contract simultaneously, pro-

Im a pelling blood first through one ge c o u ventricle and eventually through r te s y the other. Despite their markedly

o f

E d different morphology, therefore,

H

u

i over time, the two ventricles must average precisely the same volume of blood per beat. How is this equi- librium achieved? Given their ob- servation that the thinner-walled right ventricle is easier to compress manually than the left ventricle, the students should consider the implications for cardiopulmonary resuscitation, which is essentially this demonstration performed with the heart in situ. 4. This demonstration is only pos- sible once the atria have been removed. Ask your students to re- search the function of the atria.

24 I Science in School I Issue 27 : Autumn 2013 www.scienceinschool.org

Biology Physics General science Primary Royal Collection Trust / © Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II 2013 II Elizabeth Queen Majesty Her © / Trust Collection Royal - - - 25 , - I

w3 . When Ed w2 page 53. Issue 27 : Autumn 2013 Autumn Issue 27 : I To learn how to learn how To use this code, see Teaching activities Teaching The two undertook this demonstra- The two undertook Dr Edmond Hui is a marine biolo Dr Edmond Hui is ing with Ed’s enjoyment of the ‘Leon app Anatomy’ Ipad da Vinci: ardo pointed out the difficulty of creating of creating pointed out the difficulty on a dramatic zoological presentation stage (“It’ll either involve live animals “I replied Archie or it’ll be gory…”), can do gory!”. This comment, coincid was the inspiration to investigate the was the inspiration to investigate the pumping heart. gist by training and the network man gist by training and School, as well as ager at Teddington of the TEDxTeddington the organiser aged 15, is a Taplin, Archie conference. School. student at Teddington in was interested Archie tion because TEDxTeddington talk for a developing on a zoological subject Science in School Science in School : iv5–iv10. : i2–13. doi: doi: 10.1136/heart.88.suppl_4.iv5 (2006) Nihoyannopoulos P Ho SY, and echocardiography, Anatomy, normal right ventricular dimen- sions. Heart 92(suppl. 1) heart anatomy are remarkably remarkably heart anatomy are helpful in the accessible and were of this paper: preparation of the mitral Anatomy (2002) Ho SY valve. Heart 88(suppl. 4) 10.1136/hrt.2005.077875 the other might like to browse teaching activities in Science in School. See: www.scienceinschool. org/teaching

Resources The following scientific papers about If you found this article useful, you - is video of the demonstration Archie Taplin’s talk for the Taplin’s Archie school’s TEDxTeddington confer school’s TEDxTeddington available on Youtube. See: Youtube. available on http://youtu.be/5OuLTQlTEso ence was the inspiration for the authors’ investigation of the heart’s anatomy and function. http://youtu.be/4tQR4H88zmE Anatomy’ app for the Ipad, Martin Castle, Clayton, curator at Windsor tells the story behind Leonardo ambition and life-long da Vinci’s the mind of a scientist who reveals was centuries ahead of his time. See: www.touchpress.com/titles/ leonardo-da-vinci-anatomy - grateful to the TED organisa are We www.scienceinschool.org w2 – da Vinci: w3 – In the ‘Leonardo tion and Teddington School, without tion and Teddington would have made which neither of us Laverstoke Park these observations. full plucks with Farm supplied the number of A and attention. care great answered heart experts generously on heart anatomy our basic questions Andrew Dr and function, including Hospital, Ho (Evelina Children’s David Firmin London); Professor (Imperial College, London); Dr Gary Ruiz (King’s College Hospital, David Celermajer London); Professor (University of Sydney); Dr Louise and Robson (University of Sheffield) Martin Clayton (The Royal Collection, Castle). Nonetheless, any Windsor paper are and omissions in this errors our own. entirely w1 – A w1 – A Web references Web Acknowledgements Image courtesy of Michael Apel / Wikimedia Commons

Juvenile male damselfly (Calopteryx virgo)

Phylogenetics of man-made objects: simulating evolution in the classroom

e / Wikimedia Common vincol s American avocet of ke esy ourt (Recurvirostra e c ag Im americana)

Evolutionary relationships can be tricky to explain. By using simple, everyday objects, your students can work them out for themselves.

26 I Science in School I Issue 27 : Autumn 2013 www.scienceinschool.org Teaching activities

By John Barker and Judith Philip age of about 15 up to postgraduate Biology level. irds, bats and insects all have It allows students to: wings; horses, millipedes 1. Use morphology to make an A fruit bat Band crocodiles all have legs. Many ‘evolutionary’ tree. (Pteropodidae) unrelated species can be grouped 2. Link morphology to adaptations by physical similarities – that is and consider the definition of a one of the problems with studying species. morphological phenotype to 3. Hypothesise the morphology of determine evolutionary relationships. missing links and state how their Image courtesy of Peter van der Sluijs / Wikimedia Commons Wikimedia der Sluijs / van Image courtesy of Peter Convergent evolution can result hypothesis could be tested. in apparently similar structures. 4. Consider the challenges and Although the end product may be the limitations of using evolutionary same (e.g. the presence of wings), the trees based on morphology and on Guiding principles starting points can be very different. DNA sequences. There are four guiding principles Some organisms that may appear 5. Investigate for themselves the used to produce an evolutionary tree similar and hence related are actually concepts of divergent, convergent based on morphology: widely separated from each other in and parallel evolution. the evolutionary tree. 6. Present, discuss, defend and 1. Organisms that resemble each At a molecular level, DNA and evaluate a proposed evolutionary other in many ways are probably protein studies can be used to tree. more closely related than are produce a family tree by looking at 7. Recognise the expertise required organisms that resemble each the differences between homologous by scientists when making other only slightly. That is, the sequences: sequences that are thought evolutionary trees. greater the similarity in structure to have evolved from a common (the more features in common), the ancestor. Kozlowski (2010) describes closer the probable relationship an excellent activity to demonstrate between two forms. this in a classroom, but there is a sense 2. Evolution is usually the result of of being removed from the study – the a gradual accumulation of small data required is simply downloaded changes in structure (and function) and used. This article provides a but occasionally there are larger complementary, more hand-on Biology changes. introduction to evolutionary studies, Evolution 3. In general, simpler forms give rise in which the students gather all the Ages 14-19 to more complex ones and smaller necessary data themselves before forms to larger ones, although Evolution is a tricky con- considering the underlying principles. there can be exceptions. cept to understand. This In this classroom activity, your 4. Evolutionary processes do not article describes an unu- students can use a wide range go into reverse, but specialised sual but simple classroom of objects to create an artificial structures can be lost. activity, using cheap and phylogeny based on morphology. easily available materials The family tree that they produce Activity: evolution in the to teach some of the most will be artificial in the sense that classroom basic principles of evolu- the objects used have not actually tion. More specifically, One version of this activity uses evolved from each other. However, through the use of evolu- metal objects such as nails, screws, the problems faced and the questions tionary trees, students can staples, paperclips and drawing pins. posed are similar to those addressed investigate the phenomena The greater the number of objects by palaeontologists using specimens of divergence, convergence used, the longer the activity will take. of fossils, or by entomologists using and parallel evolution. It’s As a guide, it will take the students specimens of dead insects in museum also fun! around 15 minutes to sort out the cabinets. evolutionary relationships and 10-15 Michalis Hadjimarcou, The activity, which takes minutes for feedback and discussion.

REVIEW Cyprus approximately 30 minutes, is suitable The time required could be shortened for a wide range of students, from the by using fewer objects or using www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 27 : Autumn 2013 I 27 Image courtesy of John Barker printouts instead of real objects – Note, however, that it is not Some solutions and although it is more fun to handle real essential that the objects are exactly discussion points objects. the size stated. Some lines of evolution seem very Materials Procedure obvious whereas other specimens will be quite difficult to place. Some may 1. Divide the class into groups. For each group, you will need one fit in several positions. 2. Either: example each of some or all of the • The common ancestor is probably L a) Hand out one of each of the following metal objects (figure 1). — a small, simple form with a tiny objects shown in the figure to every Alternatively, you can use printouts of head and simple shaft. group. Make sure each object has a the objects (see the procedure, below). • → → letter. L B R is an obvious line • 75 mm tack [A] b) Download the pictures of the showing increase in size. • • → → 20 mm nail [B] objects in figure 1 from the Science in L J A is a parallel line with • 20 mm screw [C] School websitew1 and cut them out, a square shaft and larger head • Hairpin (50 mm) [D] keeping the letter with the picture. between Land J. L or B or J could have → C by an increase in • Staple (25 mm) [E] Use the printouts as though they were complexity of head and shaft. (L or • Safety pin (40 mm) [F] the actual objects. 3. Ask your students to arrange the B seems the more likely ancestor • Split rivet (20 mm) [G] objects to form a possible evolu- because J has a square shaft.) • Paperclip (32 mm) [H] tionary series, using the four guid- • C → Q → Z is a line showing • 25 mm tack [J] ing principles. Encourage them to an increase in size, increase in • Upholstery pin (20 mm) [K] choose the smallest, simplest form complexity of head, and finally a change in the shaft. Probably • 13 mm nail [L] as the probable common ancestor for the group and then try to ar- C → T through a change in head • Mirror screw (20 mm) [M] range the others as branches accompanied by slimming of the • Insulated staple (13 mm) [N] of a tree derived from this ances- body. • Round-headed paper fastener tor. • L → S → K is a line showing an (20 mm) [O] 4. Ask your students to record their increase in size and specialisation • Flat-headed paper fastener trees using the letters associated of the head. Probably S → P (20 mm) [P] with the objects. through an increase in size, but the • Round-headed screw (25 mm) [Q] 5. Explain the concepts of divergent, material is different so it is possible that B or J → P, in which case there • 50 mm nail [R] convergent and parallel evolution. Then get your students to mark would be a convergence between P • Drawing pin (6 mm) [S] their trees to show possible di- and S / K. • Hook (20 mm) [T] vergence, convergence or parallel • Is G part of this evolutionary • Kirby grip [W] evolutionary developments. series? Either S or P could → G by a • Bolt (65 mm) [Z] thickening and subsequent splitting

28 I Science in School I Issue 27 : Autumn 2013 www.scienceinschool.org Teaching activities Biology

Figure 1: Image of example man-made objects

of the shaft. Probably G → O by loss of the screw thread and further Sinuos group shows variety in the a combination of elongation and bending of the head. It seems more bending of the two shafts; they slimming (a sort of eel-like series). likely that T is convergent to the generally lack heads – which may • M presents an interesting problem: series descended from E. make it more probable that G and O of its two parts, one, the base • E → N by addition of the plastic are Orthos and not Sinuos. component, is clearly very close to insulation. Your students may have thought C in structure; the other part, the • E → D by elongation and slimming out quite a different series of top component, shows similarities of the two sides and appearance of evolutionary lines but as long as to Z but the head is smooth, not waves. they can justify them using the four grooved. M also shows similarities • D → W by further asymmetrical general principles, then each series to S but the shaft is threaded, not specialisation of the two sides. is just as credible. If the objects smooth. This is probably part • H and F look as though they are were extant organisms, then there of the radiation from C but it is related, with H → F by addition of would be other possible lines of clearly convergent to S. Do the two material to form a head. H might argument – such as studies of their components represent two sexes be derived from E by slimming and molecular characteristics or of their (illustrating sexual dimorphism) bending, possibly with common embryology – which might support or is M really a curious hybrid ancestry with D; extra bends some hypotheses while discounting between descendants of C and S? formed later, thus E → X (not others and so indicate more precisely All the evolutionary series represented in the collection – an as the probable evolutionary series. considered so far basically have yet undiscovered fossil) → D → W a straight shaft and a single axis and X → H → F. Variations (exceptions are G and O where the • G and O have double shafts – This type of activity can also be shaft is double; T, which has a curved could they be part of the Sinuos carried out with a range of other head, is another highly divergent order? O could be derived from E objects, for example biscuits or dried type). We could say that all these by slimming and development of pasta. These materials can introduce forms are members of a single order – the centre into a sort of head, and another variable – that of colour. Orthos (from the Greek for ‘straight’) then O could develop into G by Do the colour differences represent or some similar name. The rest of strengthening and solidification. camouflage, for example, or sexual the objects are bent in various ways In this case, there would be strong dimorphism? – Sinuos (from the Latin for ‘curve’) convergence between G and S / P. For a simple, 20-minute activity, a or some similar name. Of the curved Within each ‘order’, there are small group of objects can be used to objects, the simplest form is probably several divergent lines. Series represent the problems sometimes E so this is likely to be nearest to the showing increases in size are common faced by palaeontologists. New common ancestor. in the Orthos group; they also specimens can be introduced as if they • Probably L → E by loss of its tiny show variety in the development were recently discovered fossils. How head and bending of the shaft but of the head and of the shaft, both can these new finds be accommodated it is just conceivable that T → E by independently and together. The in the tree?

www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 27 : Autumn 2013 I 29 Once your students have completed their trees, it is useful for them to assess each other’s work. For example, they could ask:

Images courtesy of Isabelle Kling 1. Why have you put XX at the start Images courtesy of Isabelle Kling of your tree? 2. Do you think YY evolved before ZZ? 3. Why (not)? 4. Do you think different coloured versions of the same shape are the same or different species? 5. Why (not)? Have any groups of students produced identical trees? Can each group justify their reasons for choosing particular evolutionary pathways? This could lead to a discussion of why it is very difficult to generate an undisputed ‘correct’ tree. The students can then start to appreciate the depth and range of expertise that is required by an evolutionary biologist. Next, tell your students that the pasta shapes (or biscuits) are made from a range of primary ingredients (wheat, rye and corn) and that if they were to look at the chemical composition of each shape, they would get a very different set of trees. The students normally make the link to DNA. For 15- to 16-year olds, it is sufficient to say that some species have similar DNA even though they look different. For older students (16+), convergent and divergent evolution can be discussed in more detail. An extension activity for older students could be a discussion of the difficulties associated with extracting uncontaminated DNA from ancient samples (see, for example, Hayes, 2011). A further extension activity could be to introduce the molecular phylogeny activity described in Kozlowski (2010).

Acknowledgement The activity using metal objects was originally developed by the Open University’s Science Course

30 I Science in School I Issue 27 : Autumn 2013 www.scienceinschool.org Foundation Course Team for the S100 Resources of biology, medicine and veterinary Course, Unit 21 ‘Unity and diversity’, medicine for seven years. Tafforeau P (2007) Synchrotron light Study Guide. This version has been John Barker taught at a school in illuminates the orang-utan’s ob- adapted from Barker (1984). London, UK, for a decade and then scure origins. Science in School 5: 24- References moved into science teacher educa- 27. www.scienceinschool.org/2007/ tion, first at Borough Road College, Barker JA (1984) Simulating evolution. issue5/orangutan London, and then at the Centre for Journal of Biological Education 18(1): The website of the Natural History Science Education, Chelsea College, 13–15 Museum in London, UK, offers London, during which time he was Hayes E (2011) An archaeologist excellent information about one of the team that produced Nuf- of the genome: Svante Pääbo. ­evolution. See: www.nhm.ac.uk/ field Advanced Biology. He is keenly Science in School 20: 6-12. www. nature-online/evolution interested in initial science teacher scienceinschool.org/2011/issue20/ If you found this article useful, why education courses and was director paabo not browse the other teaching of the course at Chelsea College and, after their amalgamation, at King’s Kozlowski C (2010) Bioinformatics activities in Science in School? See: College London, for more than ten with pen and paper: building a www.scienceinschool.org/teaching years. He is now retired. phylogenetic tree. Science in School 17: 28-33. www.scienceinschool. org/2010/issue17/bioinformatics Dr Judith Philip has a master’s de- gree in pathology, a PhD in parasitol- Web reference ogy and a master’s degree in science w1 – Download pictures of the metal education, all from the University of objects to use for the activity from Cambridge, UK. She has been teach- the Science in School website. www. ing biology in a secondary school in To learn how to use this code, see scienceinschool.org/2013/issue27/ England for three years. Before that, page 53. phylogenetics#resources she taught undergraduate students www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 27 : Autumn 2013 I 31 Image courtesy of the European Space Agency, NASA and Felix Mirabel (the French Atomic Energy Commission & the Institute for Astronomy and Space Physics / Conicet of Argentina)

Peering into the darkness: modelling black holes in primary school Having difficulties explaining black holes to your students? Why not try these simple activities in the classroom?

Figure 1: An artist’s impression of a black hole. The black hole is only a point in the very centre, but its gravity is so strong that the light from stars around it is unable to escape. aged 10-14 (although note that the its core, however, it is unable to sup- reviewer suggests using the activities port these heavy outer layers of gas. If with students aged 10-19). the dying star is very massive, gravity will pull on the gas and cause the star By Monica Turner Black holes to become smaller and smaller until Black holes form during the death its density reaches infinity at a single any young people have heard of very massive stars (at least several point, which is called a singularity of black holes and understand times the mass of our Sun). (figure 2). thatM if something falls into one, it can- A star consists of a hot core sur- Close to the singularity, gravity is not get out again – even light cannot rounded by many layers of gasw1. In so strong that nothing can escape. escape. That is how a black hole gets the core of the star, lighter elements The escape velocity would need to be its name: it is a point in space that such as hydrogen and helium are higher than the speed of light – so not does not emit any light (figure 1). This joined together by thermonuclear even light can escape, which is why is not an easy concept to explain. In fusion to form heavier elements such the black hole is black. (It is not actu- this article, therefore, I briefly intro- as metals. The heat created in this ally a hole, though: there is a lot in duce black holes and then describe process exerts an outward pressure, there, although we cannot see it.) two simple activities to help school which counteracts the force of grav- At a certain distance from the students to visualise what is happen- ity pulling the gas towards the centre singularity, gravity is weak enough ing. Each activity should take about of the star and gives the star its large to allow light to escape, thus objects an hour; both are suitable for pupils size. When the star runs out of fuel in beyond this distance are visible. This

32 I Science in School I Issue 27 : Autumn 2013 www.scienceinschool.org Teaching activities

Image courtesy of Monica Turner

Figure 2: A black hole: the col- lapsed star or singularity; the event horizon, a region around the sin- gularity where not even light can escape; and the region outside the event horizon, where objects can Singularity feel the gravity of the black hole without becoming trapped.

Event horizon Not even light Here objects feel the gravity can escape of the black hole, but light can still escape

boundary is called the event horizon. Objects outside the event horizon still

feel the black hole’s gravity, and will Physics be attracted towards it, but they can be seen and can potentially escape falling in. Once objects are sucked in- Physics side the event horizon, however, there Astrophysics is no return. Solar systems After the black hole forms, it can Gas laws grow by absorbing mass from its Gravity surroundings, such as other stars and Relativity other black holesw2. If a black hole ab- sorbs enough material, it can become Ages 10-19* a supermassive black hole, which means In this article, the author briefly describes how black holes are it has a mass of more than one mil- formed in space and how they interact with what is known as ‘space– lion solar masses. It is believed that time’. She then describes very simple but impressive experiments to supermassive black holes exist in the demonstrate the formation of black holes and how they can influence centres of many galaxies, including the space around them. the Milky Way. Suitable comprehension questions after the activities include: Usually, astronomers observe ob- • Describe black holes. jects in space by looking at the light; • What allows stars to be stable? (Your students could discuss this, for instance, is how they study gravity and fusion.) stars (for example, see Mignone & Barnes, 2011). However, since black • What is a singularity? holes do not emit any light, they • How does gravity influence massive objects? What about photons cannot be observed in the usual way. (light)? Instead, astronomers have to observe • What are supermassive black holes? the interaction of the black hole with Gerd Vogt, HLUW Yspertal, Austria other objects. One way to do this is to look at the motions of stars around the *Note that the author recommends the activities for pupils aged 10-14.

black hole, since their orbits will be REVIEW altered by its presencew3. www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 27 : Autumn 2013 I 33 Image courtesy of ESO

An image of the galaxy NGC 3621, taken using the Very Large Telescope at the European Southern Observatory (ESO). This galaxy is believed to have an active supermassive black hole at its centre that is engulfing matter and producing radiation.

Activity 1: Modelling the 2. Explain that the layers of foil mimic the effect of gravity. This ­formation of a black hole represent the different gas layers of time, they will be able to compress the star, and the balloon that gives the foil into a small ball, which This activity will demonstrate to them their shape is analogous to simulates the formation of a black students how a black hole is formed the hot burning core of the star. hole. Note that the mass of the through the collapse of a massive star, Inside the core, the heat created small ball is the same as that of the once the core of the star is unable to by thermonuclear fusion exerts model star, but their sizes are quite support the weight of the outer lay- a pressure on the gas layers of different. ers of gas surrounding it. The time the star, which keeps them from needed should be about one hour. collapsing. Discussion Materials 3. Have the students simulate the • If a real star were the size of the Each working group will need: effect of gravity by trying to lightly balloon, then how big would • A balloon compress the balloon. The pressure the black hole really be? Is the • A few sheets of aluminium foil, of the core is such that the star crumpled ball too large or too small each approximately 30 cm square cannot collapse from gravity. to represent a real black hole? • A pin for popping the balloon. 4. When a star reaches the end of its Answer: The crumpled ball is much life, it runs out of fuel in the core too large to represent a black hole. Method and is no longer able to hold up Even a real black hole, formed from 1. Have the students inflate the the gas layers. Have the students a massive star, is smaller than the balloon and tie it closed. They pop the balloon with the pin, tip of a pencil. should then wrap the balloon in which simulates this process. • What would happen if you used several layers of aluminium foil to 5. Again, they should try to compress more pieces of aluminium foil to create the model star. the balloon with their hands to make the gas layers in the star?

34 I Science in School I Issue 27 : Autumn 2013 www.scienceinschool.org Physics 35 I

Issue 27 : Autumn 2013 Autumn Issue 27 : I Teaching activities Teaching

Figure 6: Using marbles of Figure different weights. Step 4: placing the heavy 4: Step 4: placing the heavy Figure the space- ball in the centre causes time fabric to curve. Step 5: roll a small marble 5: Figure how along the fabric, and observe is altered. its trajectory Images courtesy of Charlotte Provost and Monica Turner Monica and Provost Charlotte of courtesy Images Science in School Cut a piece of elastic bandage about 40 cm long. If it is tubular, you will need to cut it open on one side. Ask several students to stretch the bandage horizontally until it two- becomes taut, to represent dimensional space. Place the marble on the bandage, the surface across and make it roll of the bandage. Its path should be a straight line, similar to that of a space. light ray travelling through Place the heavy ball on the bandage, and you will see how it deforms the fabric of space. Space the heavy becomes curved around mass. close to the Make the marble roll mass; its trajectory should be by the deformation of the altered bandage. This is similar to what happens to light passing close to a massive object that deforms the varying it. Try space surrounding the speed of the marble to see how its path changes. concentrated the central The more mass (that is, the heavier the large curved the bandage ball), the more the depth will be. This increases of the ‘gravitational well’, from A small marble A those very heavy ball (such as A used in games of boules, bocce or pétanque) pair of sharp scissors. A Method 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. • • • A light elastic bandage used for A sold muscular injuries (e.g. Tubifix, ones in chemists’ shops), the largest available (used for the thorax) Would the star be more massive? the star be more Would What about the black hole? Building the star with more by the layers of gas (represented foil) would make the star more in the massive. It would also result massive black formation of a more would be more hole, since there material with which to form the black hole. The concept of density (mass per unit volume) could be introduced density, Which has a higher here. the star or the black hole? Although they have a different size, the star and black hole have made the same mass, since they are the exact same amount of from since the black material. However, material it has more hole is smaller, contained in less volume, and has a higher density. therefore Each working group will need Each working group In this activity, students will build In this activity, www.scienceinschool.org

(figure 3): (figure • a model of a black hole to help them visualise how a black hole can ‘bend’ nearby objects. space–time and affect The activity should take about one hour. Materials Activity 2: Modelling the action Activity hole of a black materials required for the activity The 3: Figure • Image courtesy of Charlotte Provost and Monica Turner Monica and Provost Charlotte of courtesy Image Image courtesy of NASA

The Hubble telescope in orbit around Earth

which a marble would not be able if the speed of the marble is too observing the motions of many to escape. low, the force of gravity from the stars, astronomers can look for stars 7. As the marble passes close to black hole is too strong and the that have orbits around the same the large ball, it starts to revolve marble will not be able to escape. central point. If they cannot see an around the ‘black hole’ and • What happens when you use a object at this central point, this is eventually falls in. Once it is there, heavier large ball? What about a evidence that a black hole could be you can see how things may easily heavier marble (figure 6)? present there. fall into a black hole but have Because more massive objects Acknowledgements difficulty getting out. This is what create a stronger gravitational happens with black holes: their force, in both cases you will need Activity 1 was adapted from the gravity deforms space in such a to throw the marble harder for it to ‘Journey to a Black Hole’ demonstra- way that light or other objects fall escape the gravity of the black hole. tion manual on the Inside Einstein’s in and cannot escape. • How would you be able to tell if Universe websitew4. That activity was there is a black hole somewhere by in turn adapted from the ‘Aluminum Discussion observing the motions of the stars? Foil, Balloons, and Black Holes’ activ- • What happens when you decrease If a black hole becomes massive ity on NASA’s Imagine the Universe the speed of the marble? Why? enough, stars that pass nearby will websitew1. When the speed of the marble become trapped in its gravitational Activity 2 is adapted from a re- is high enough, the marble has field and begin to orbit the black source in the UNAWE database by enough energy to escape the hole, much as the planets in our Ricardo Moreno from Exploring the gravity of the black hole. However, Solar System orbit the Sun. By Universe, UNAWEw5 Espagna.

36 I Science in School I Issue 27 : Autumn 2013 www.scienceinschool.org Teaching activities

Reference Resources and southern lights) in the class- room. Mignone C, Barnes R (2011) More than The Hubblesite website from the Rosenberg M (2012) Creating eclips- meets the eye: the electromagnetic Space Telescope Science Institute es in the classroom. Science in School spectrum. Science in School 20: 51-59. offers lots of information about 23: 20-24. www.scienceinschool. www.scienceinschool.org/2011/ black holes, as well as interactive, org/2012/issue23/eclipses issue20/em online activities and experiments. Jeanjacquot P, Lilensten J (2013) This article is part of a series of See: http://hubblesite.org/explore_­ Casting light on solar wind: ­Science in School articles about how astronomy/black_holes ­simulating aurorae at school. the electromagnetic spectrum is The Ask an Astronomer website at Science in School 26: 32-37. www. used in astronomy. See Cornell University offers accessible scienceinschool.org/2013/issue26/ www.scienceinschool.org/em answers, aimed at different levels aurorae (beginner, intermediate, advanced), Web references to many questions about black Or why not browse all the teaching activities in Science in School? w1 – NASA’s Imagine the Universe holes. See: http://curious.astro. www.scienceinschool.org/teaching website provides information for cornell.edu/blackholes.php both teachers and students about The Kids Astronomy website pro- You may also find the full collection the life cycles of stars. Search vides a simple reference for young of astronomy- and space-related http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov (for children to learn about black holes. Science in School articles helpful. ‘life cycle of stars’) or use the direct www.kidsastronomy.com/black_ See: www.scienceinschool.org/­ link: http://tinyurl.com/l4la9eh hole.htm astronomy and www.scienceinschool.org/space To find the original of Activity 1, To find out what happens when a search for ‘aluminum foil’ or use massive star explodes in a super- the direct link: http://tinyurl.com/ nova, see: Physics Monica Turner received her BSc in m4nldmn Székely P, Benedekfi Ö (2007) Fu- physics from McGill University in w2 – The website of the European sion in the Universe: when a giant Montreal, Canada, and then complet- Space Agency offers an animation star dies.... Science in School 6: 64-68. ed her master’s in astronomy at the demonstrating what happens when www.scienceinschool.org/2007/­ University of Victoria in Victoria, Can- an object gets too close to a black issue6/fusion ada. She is currently working on her hole. See http://spaceinvideos.esa. To learn more about the fusion reac- PhD in astronomy at Leiden Observa- int/Videos/2013/03/Black_hole_ tions that occur in stars, and how tory in the Netherlands. Monica has eats_a_super-Jupiter or use the light elements are fused into heavier experience as a teaching assistant for shorter link: http://tinyurl.com/ ones, see: astronomy classes, as well as working l8u3nfc Boffin H, Pierce-Price D (2007) Fu- with young children in science camps, w3 – The ESO website offers a video sion in the Universe: we are all star- and is currently involved with EU showing real data of stars orbiting dust. Science in School 4: 61-63. www. Universe Awareness (UNAWE)w4. a black hole. See: www.eso.org/­ scienceinschool.org/2007/­issue4/ public/videos/eso0846a fusion w4 – Hosted by Harvard University, Rebusco P, Boffin H & Pierce-Price the Inside Einstein’s Universe web- D (2007) Fusion in the Universe: site offers a range of educational where your jewellery comes from. astronomy resources, including Science in School 5: 52-56. www. a downloadable demonstration scienceinschool.org/2007/issue5/ manual and other materials about fusion black holes. See: www.cfa.harvard. These two articles are part of a se- edu/seuforum/Einstein ries of Science in School articles about w5 – UNAWE is an astronomy ­fusion in the Universe. See: programme to educate and inspire www.scienceinschool.org/fusion young children around the world. To complement this simulation of a See: www.unawe.org black hole, you may like to model To learn how to use this code, see eclipses or the aurorae (northern page 53. www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 27 : Autumn 2013 I 37 Monastic medicine: medieval herbalism meets modern ­science A group of German researchers is bringing to light the medicinal wisdom of the Middle Ages.

By Susan Watt and Eleanor Hayes all much more seriously: he believes that the herbal remedies described in ost people think of herbal medieval texts can provide excellent medicine as a distinctly starting points for highly effective ‘alternative’M option – something that modern treatments, even for diseases you might try for a cough or cold that such as cancer. And he is not alone, won’t budge, but not for life-threat- as his work has already attracted the ening illnesses. Medical historian Dr attention (and funding!) of pharma- Johannes Mayer, however, takes it ceutical giant GlaxoSmithKline. Public domain image / Wikimedia Commons Wikimedia Public domain image /

38 I Science in School I Issue 27 : Autumn 2013 www.scienceinschool.org Science topics Biology Biology • Natural ingredients for modern medicines Chemistry • Using old wisdom for new discoveries Medicine • How knowledge is transferred across time and dif- History ferent civilisations. Religious studies Suitable comprehension questions include: Ages 12+ 1. Why is it difficult to gather useful information about It is widely known that herbs are useful in everyday herbs that could be used to treat illnesses? life in a number of different ways; this article describes 2. The pharmaceutical industry normally relies on the one such application – how medieval monastic herbs combined work of biologists, chemists, pharmacists can be used as a source of modern medicines. Of great and doctors to develop a new drug. In the case of interest is the obvious link between history, religious the monastic medicines described in this article, re- studies and science disciplines such as plant biology, searchers from a wider spectrum of disciplines are chemistry and pharmacy. Equally interesting is the needed. Explain why this is the case. complex procedure involved in extracting useful infor- 3. Once useful medicinal herbs have been identified, mation from medieval monastic manuscripts. Overall, why can it be difficult to source large amounts of the article shows beautifully how knowledge can be the specific herbs or their active ingredients? transferred across time and different civilisations. Michalis Hadjimarou, Cyprus The article is an excellent source of information for in-

REVIEW terdisciplinary lessons. Relevant topics could include:

The focus for Dr Mayer’s research The abbey of St-Martin-du-Canigou th group at the University of Würz- was built in the 10 century in the south of France. It had a herbal burg, Germany, is monastic medicine garden where many types of local (Klostermedizin in German). For the medicinal plant were grown. past 30 years, group members have been sifting through monastic manu- scripts dating from the 8th century onwards, translating and publish- ing details of plant remedies and the ­ailments that they are intended to treat. Image courtesy of Isabelle Kling Their work moved from the histori- cal towards the more scientific some 14 years ago, when the group received a visit from a manager at GlaxoSmith- Kline. When the visitor asked “What is monastic medicine? Is it praying or something?”, Dr Mayer explained that in fact it meant elucidating the herbal treatments documented by monaster- ies and investigating their physiologi- cal effects. That visit led to a research group be- ing established at the university, with sponsorship from GlaxoSmithKline, to look for effective modern remedies derived from medieval monastic knowledge. So far the collaboration has led to the development of some products to treat the common cold, www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 27 : Autumn 2013 I 39 Salvia officinalis, a type of sage, is mentioned in medieval manuscripts as being useful for improving memory. Recent re- search at the University of New- castle, UK, has shown it to be effective in this role (it appears to help reduce the breakdown of the neurotransmitter acetylcho- line), which makes it a candi- date for the development of a treatment for dementia (Scholey et al., 2008). Drug development and clinical trials take time, however, so Dr Mayer expects it will be another ten years before a drug based on sage becomes available.

Ten years ago, the Klostermedizin re- search group started a project together

Images courtesy of Heike Will Images courtesy of Heike with Abtei to investigate the active ingredients and mechanisms by which hops (Humulus lupulus) and valerian (Valeriana officinalis) work as sedatives (see, for example, Schellenberg et al., 2004). They found that the lignans in hops function similarly to adenosine, an inhibitory neurotransmitter that promotes sleep. Hops work in a similar way to the hormone melatonin, which plays a role in the body clock. Image courtesy of Heike Will Image courtesy of Heike

sold under the appropriately named centuries,” says Dr Mayer. “But now used for many plants – and then find- brand Abtei (German for ‘abbey’). The we are researching the whole history ing the active ingredients. group now has other links with phar- of medicinal plants in Europe up to Some of these ingredients are then maceutical companies, as well as with the modern day, looking for indica- tested in laboratories at Würzburg Würzburg University Hospital. tions of what might be useful.” University Hospital or at their partner The initial source of such fruitful The research involves several steps: pharmaceutical companies. For ex- results is the huge range of historical translating the texts (often from ample, scientists in the ear, nose and texts. “First we tried to research the medieval Latin), identifying precisely throat department at the hospital are plants that were documented in mon- which plant was used for which treat- currently testing the effect of water- asteries used in the early and higher ment – no easy task given the incon- and alcohol-based extracts of Osmun- Middle Ages, between the 8th and 12th sistent and varied common names da regalis (old world royal fern) and

40 I Science in School I Issue 27 : Autumn 2013 www.scienceinschool.org Science topics Biology Reliable remedies

Although many plants have been used traditionally in • St. John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum) is as effec- medicine, few have been investigated scientifically to tive in treating depression as some pharmaceutical find out whether they are indeed safe and effective antidepressants, but like them it can also have side remedies for the conditions they are said to treat. In effects. See The Handbook of Clinically Tested Herb- addition to laboratory studies, such as those carried out al Remediesw1 for evidence. by Dr Mayer’s group, the clinical efficacy of a treat- Artichokes can aid digestive problems. ment also needs to be tested. Scientists agree that the best way to find out the effect of a treatment is via a high-quality clinical trial, or RCT (randomised controlled trial). These include several precautions to make sure the trial results are free from bias: • The treatment being studied is compared to one or more alternative control treatments, including a pla- cebo (one that has no direct pharmacological effect, such as a sugar pill). • Participants in the trial are randomly assigned to the different treatments. • Neither the patients themselves, nor the people giv- ing them the treatment, know which treatment each has been given; this is called double-blinding. • The trial needs to have enough people taking part so that the results could not easily have occurred by chance (the more data there is, the less likely this is to happen). Wikimedia / Image courtesy of Richardfabi While this all may seem very complicated, without Cranberries may help prevent urinary tract infections.

these precautions the results could easily be due to fac- tors other than the treatment itself, so they would not be reliable. Even when a high-quality study has been done, the results need to be examined alongside those from other such trials to see what the total evidence suggests. (To learn more about clinical trials, see Gar- ner & Thomas, 2010, and Brown, 2011.) Herbal treatments that are supported by good-quality evidence include these: Image courtesy of Liz West / Wikimedia / West Image courtesy of Liz • Artichoke (Cynara scolymus) can aid digestive prob- St. John’s wort has been proven in clinical trials to be lems as it increases the flow of bile, which helps to effective at treating depression. digest fats. See The Handbook of Clinically Tested Herbal Remediesw1 for evidence. • Cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon) may help prevent urinary tract infections: drinking cranberry juice is thought to make bacteria less able to ad- here to walls of the urinary tract. (However, a recent evidence review concluded cranberry is less effec- tive than previously thought.) See the Cochrane Col- laboration websitew2 for evidence. Image courtesy of Heike Will Will Image courtesy of Heike BACKGROUND www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 27 : Autumn 2013 I 41 Public domain image / Wikimedia Commons Wikimedia Public domain image / Public domain image / Wikimedia Commons Wikimedia Public domain image / Public domain image / Wikimedia Commons Wikimedia Public domain image / Folio from a manuscript of the De Materia Medica by Dioscorides (ca. 40-90 AD), showing a physician preparing an elixir. From Iraq or Northern Mesopotamia, call on – including a Cistercian monk perhaps Baghdad. who is a biologist. Dr Mayer’s own background is in history. “I first studied history, and Chelidonium majus (greater celandine) This complex process is reflected in then the history of medicine and that’s on cultures of ear cancer cells. Finally, the multidisciplinary expertise of Dr how I found out that we didn’t know a few promising leads have been Mayer’s team, which comprises aca- what plants they really were using in passed on for development as poten- demics from a variety of backgrounds: the Middle Ages. So I started to make tial new drugs, undergoing clinical historians of medicine and scholars of a database about historical plants trials and other testing to conform to Latin and ancient Greek, plus chem- used in Europe,” he says. legislative requirements. If the fern ists, biologists and pharmacists – all of Although most of the key texts are and celandine extracts prove effective, whom are needed to fully understand written in Latin, in many cases this is for example, the clinical trials will be the medieval recipes. There are also a translation from earlier texts written carried out at the hospital. outside specialists that the group can in Arabic, some of which also contain

42 I Science in School I Issue 27 : Autumn 2013 www.scienceinschool.org Science topics

th

ties in the 13 century. So from this One of the best resources to find out Biology Hildegard of Bingen (1098-1179) was time onwards there were professional about the efficacy of medicines of all an influential Benedictine abbess who wrote botanical and medicinal texts, physicians, and monastic medicine kinds is the Cochrane Collaboration w2 as well as theological manuscripts became less important. website . The Cochrane Collabora- and beautiful liturgical music. She There was, however, a new pe- tion produces reviews of clinical trials is shown here, in a miniature from riod of monastic medicine in the 16th data to establish whether there is good the Rupertsberger Codex des Liber century, because many missionaries evidence that a treatment is effective. Scivias, being inspired by God. sent to the newly discovered lands in The reviews can be accessed via the the Americas were monks. “The mis- Cochrane website. sionaries were interested in finding Another resource is The Handbook of out what the native Americans did Clinically Tested Herbal Remediesw1 by with the special plants in Central and Marilyn Barrett (2004), which can also South America. So they wrote books be accessed online. The author has about the use of these plants, and sent compiled evidence from trials of more the information back to Europe,” says than 30 commonly used herbal rem- Dr Mayer. edies, together with reviews of each Today, Dr Mayer’s group collabo- trial and a rating of the quality of the rates not only with industry but also evidence that each provides (graded I, with working monasteries, advis- II or III). ing on special plants to grow in the Folio from Hieronymus Brunschwig’s Liber monastery gardens and on their uses References de arte Distillandi de Compositis (Stras- in tea-style infusions and in lotions. bourg, 1512) showing two figures perform- Brown A (2011) Just the placebo effect? They even run courses for the public ing a distillation. Brunschwig’s compre- Science in School 21: 52-56. www. at the local monastery in Oberzell hensive book on distillation was one of scienceinschool.org/2011/issue21/ – which brings in some useful addi- the earliest texts devoted exclusively to placebo chemical technology. This book expanded tional funding for the group. on his smaller, earlier work on distillation Dr Mayer has found that cultivating Garner S, Thomas R (2010) of herbal remedies to include a wide plants is not always the best way to Evaluating a medical treatment. range of alchemical distillation techniques. obtain them, either because it’s hard Science in School 16: 54-59. www. to get them to grow or because the scienceinschool.org/2010/issue16/ ingredients obtained from wild plants clinical knowledge preserved from ancient are better than those from cultivated Schellenberg R et al. (2004) The fixed Greek authors such as Aristotle. As Dr plants. “You must go out in the woods combination of valerian and hops Mayer explains: “In the early Middle to find these plants, like Arnica mon- (Ze91019) acts via a central adeno- Ages there was not much literature tana; it’s very difficult to cultivate the sine mechanism. Planta Medica 70(7): here in Europe, and Pliny the Elder plants and to get enough flowers,” he 594–597 (23-79 AD) was the most important says. “But in the wild it grows well.” Scholey AB et al. (2008) An extract of antique author for monastery medi- Which is perhaps a fitting reminder of Salvia (sage) with anticholinesterase cine. Then in the 11th century, they the fabulous complexity of nature, as properties improves memory and started to translate Arabic texts into evident today as it was to the people attention in healthy older volun- Latin, and so a lot of new plants of the Middle Ages. teers. Psychopharmacology 198:127– came into European medicine.” One 139. doi: 10.1007/s00213-008-1101-3 example of this is Alpinia officinarum, a Class activity Web references plant used to treat respiratory prob- Students can carry out their own re- lems and also for relaxation. Although search into herbal medicines that have w1 – A good compilation of evaluative this plant is endemic to Europe, its been shown to be effective – or not. information about herbal treatments medicinal use started only after the Perhaps ask them to investigate some is: Barratt M (2004) The Handbook Arabic medicine texts arrived. commonly used herbal remedies (e.g. of Clinically Tested Herbal Remedies In time, the translation of Arabic echinacea, evening primrose, gingko, Volume 2. USA: Haworth Press, Inc. texts came to overshadow the epoch ginseng, valerian) and to explain what ISBN: 0-7890-2724-0. This is avail- of monastic medicine because it led the available information suggests able online, for example at: http:// to the foundation of many universi- and how reliable they think this is. www.pharmacognosy.com/book.pdf www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 27 : Autumn 2013 I 43 Images courtesy of WeiterWinkel / Flickr

Monasteries such as the Cistercian abbey of Maulbronn, in southern Germany, preserved and transmitted important knowledge about herbal medicine in the Middle Ages.

w2 – The Cochrane Collaboration pro- To learn more about Arabic science Museum, London, and the British duces reviews of clinical trials data, and medicine between the 7th and Council, as well as for many publish- including trials of herbal medicines, 17th centuries, see: ers. Her special interests are in the which can be accessed via the Khan Y (2006) 1000 years of missing history and philosophy of science and Cochrane website. www.cochrane. science. Science in School 3: 67-70. in science education. org/cochrane-reviews www.scienceinschool.org/2006/ Dr Eleanor Hayes is the editor-in- The most recent review of evidence issue3/missing chief of Science in School. She studied zoology at the University of Oxford, for the effectiveness of cranberries To learn more about the work of Dr UK, and completed a PhD in insect in the prevention of urinary tract Mayer’s research group, visit the ecology. She then spent some time infections showed no significant Forschergruppe Klostermedizin working in university administration benefit. http://summaries.cochrane. website (in German): before moving to Germany and into org/CD001321 www.klostermedizin.de science publishing in 2001. In 2005, Resources If you found this article interesting, she moved to the European Molecular why not browse the other science Biology Laboratory to launch Science The Science and Plants for Schools topics in Science in School: www. in School. website offers a teaching resource scienceinschool.org/sciencetopics about medicines and drugs from plants. Using a card-game format, the activity is suitable for teaching Susan Watt is a freelance science students aged 16+ about plant-de- writer and editor. She studied natural rived pharmaceuticals, or it could be sciences at the University of Cam- used to introduce younger students bridge, UK, and also holds degrees in To learn how to to poisons. See www.saps.org.uk or philosophy and experimental psychol- use this code, see page 53. use the direct link: http://tinyurl. ogy. She has worked for the Science com/cnc4zw8

44 I Science in School I Issue 27 : Autumn 2013 www.scienceinschool.org Chemistry 45 I

Science topics Science Issue 27 : Autumn 2013 Autumn Issue 27 : I Although Courtois suspected that Gay-Lussac went on to investigate his purple vapour was a new element, he did not have the financial means It was left to follow up his research. to his colleagues, including Joseph Gay-Lussac, to confirm his results and name the element iodine, from iodes, which means word the Greek purple or violet. the chemistry of iodine, and despite chemists found the French the war, with British ways to correspond chemists, notably Sir Humphry Davy. Davy believed the vapour Initially, to be a chlorine compound, but soon concluded that it was indeed a new element. Science in School Science in School - -

- century and the th ) for manufactur 3 The discovery of iodine can be Napoleonic wars. With the British im- Napoleonic wars. With ports, posing a blockade on European faced with shortages were the French (KNO of saltpetre from the Sun), prevents some congeni the Sun), prevents from tal abnormalities in humans, and has many industrial applications? traced back to the 19 trated sulphuric acid to seaweed ash and was surprised by the beautiful produced purple fumes that were 1). (figure ing gunpowder. So chemist Bernard So chemist Bernard ing gunpowder. Courtois investigated the potential algae, Laminaria of seaweed (brown for this sp.) as the potassium source substance. He added concen ­crucial - Purple fumes: Purple fumes: the importance of iodine Iodine, with its characteristic purple purple Iodine, with its characteristic applications has myriad vapours, to – from the familiar disinfectant cells. solar innovative

hat makes iodine so impor Not tant and interesting?

www.scienceinschool.org W By Frithjof C Küpper, C Küpper, By Frithjof Berit Olofsson, Martin C Feiters, Yanagida, Kaiho, Shozo Tatsuo B Zimmermann, Michael J Carpenter, Lucy W Luther III, Zunli Lu, George & Lars Kloo Mats Jonsson only does it sublimate into a dramatic many purple gas, but it also affects aspects of life on Earth and of human for exam- civilisation. Did you know, marine algae ple, that iodine protects oxidative damage (for example from Public domain image / Wikimedia Commons The front page of Courtois’ historic publication reporting the discovery of iodine Image courtesy of Frithjof Küpper Image courtesy of Frithjof

Sir Humphrey Davy

ain image / Wikim dom edia blic Co Pu mm o ns

Portrait of Joseph Louis Gay- Lussac, French physicist and chemist, by François Séraphin Delpech (1778–1825)

Chemistry history of science (the discovery of the elements), the Biology role of scientists in the development of weapons, or the Physics relationships between scientists of opposing countries History during wartime. Ages 13-18 Suitable comprehension questions include: In this concise update on the element iodine, the 1. From the article you can deduce that seaweeds authors guide the reader through the history and the accumulate iodine: many applications of this important element, from a) To oxidise atmospheric ozone medicine to industry and energy production. Sugges- tions for school laboratory experiments add interest b) To absorb atmospheric ozone and appeal to the topic. c) To produce atmospheric ozone Given the plain and clear style, I recommend this arti- d) To protect themselves from atmospheric ozone. cle not only to European science teachers but also to 2. If we do not receive enough iodine: their students aged 13-18. It could be used in lessons a) Our thyroid gland enlarges / atrophies on chemistry (the periodic table, halogens), biology b) Our anterior pituitary gland secretes less / more (endocrine glands, the thyroid and its diseases) and physics (isotopes, radioactivity and solar cells). There thyroid-stimulating hormone

REVIEW is also an interdisciplinary opportunity to address the Giulia Realdon, Italy

46 I Science in School I Issue 27 : Autumn 2013 www.scienceinschool.org Science topics

odi Squirmelia / y of J Flick rtes r ou e c ag With the help of X-ray absorption Im spectroscopy, we now know that seaweeds accumulate iodine as iodide (I-), which acts as an antioxidant to protect them against oxidative dam- age caused by atmospheric ozone

(O3). This goes some way to explain- ing why trace amounts of molecular iodine (I ) can be detected in the at- kelp forest, big Sur, Chemistry 2 California mosphere of coastal regions and why human iodine intake in these regions is dependent on seaweed abundance rather than proximity to the sea. For much of the next century, iodine continued to be extracted from sea- weed. Today, however, it is removed from natural iodine-containing brines in gas and oil fields in Japan and the USA, or from Chilean caliches (nitrate Brown algae such as kelp are the strong- ores), which contain calcium iodate est iodine accumulators among living

(Ca(IO3)2). The iodine is supplied to systems. Photograph taken on the shore at the market as a purplish-black solid. Dunstaffnage, near Oban, Scotland, UK Iodine chemistry Iodine belongs to the halogens, and thus shares many of the typical characteristics of the elements in this group. Because of its high electron- Image courtesy of FCK egativity, iodine forms iodides with most elements in its formal oxidation state, -1. Many iodine-containing compounds are frequently used as reagents in organic synthesis – mainly for iodination, oxidation and C-C bond formation. Iodine in the atmosphere originates mostly from biological and chemical processes in the ocean – such as the io- dide antioxidant system in seaweeds. Most iodine is ultimately removed from the atmosphere by cloud forma- tion. In the ocean, iodine is mainly - dissolved and exists as iodate (IO3 , oxidised form) and iodide (I-, reduced form). In Earth’s outer layer (the litho- sphere), most iodine is in marine and terrestrial sediments; iodine levels are low in igneous rocks. The physiological importance of iodine Physiologically, iodine is an essential element, required for the synthesis www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 27 : Autumn 2013 I 47 Image courtesy of Eleanor A Merritt

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of thyroid hormones – triiodotyros- The thyroid hormones thyroxine (T4) ine and thyroxine (figure 3) – which and triiodotyrosine (T3) regulate growth, development and cell metabolism. The recommended dietary intake of iodine for adults is 150 µg/day, which can be obtained sive growth of the thyroid gland. But from dairy products, seaweed and the most damaging effect of a lack of iodised table salt. iodine is to the developing brains of The classic symptom of iodine defi- babies, leading to mental retardation. ciency is thyroid enlargement (goitre). Furthermore, severe iodine deficiency As iodine intake falls, the anterior during pregnancy is associated with a pituitary gland secretes increasing greater incidence of stillbirth, miscar- levels of thyroid-stimulating hormone riage and congenital abnormalities. in an effort to maximise the uptake of The most effective way to prevent available iodine; this leads to exces- Image courtesy of Michael Zimmermann iodine deficiency is to add potassium

48 I Science in School I Issue 27 : Autumn 2013 www.scienceinschool.org Science topics

iodide (KI) or potassium iodate (KIO3) cess) are used to catalyse the carbony­ Iodine in the energy industry lation of methanol. to table salt. This practice of salt Iodine is used in one of the most Silver iodide (AgI), used in early iodisation is carried out in around 120 promising solar cells on the market photographic plates, is used today countries, with more than 70% of the for the production of low-cost ‘green in cloud seeding to initiate rain and world population now having access energy’: the dye-sensitised titanium to control climate. Because AgI has a to iodised salt. oxide solar cell. Also known as the similar crystal structure to ice, it can Grätzel cell after one of its inventors, induce freezing by providing nuclea- Industrial uses of iodine it consists of polyiodide electrolytes as tion sites. This was done at the 2008 Iodine and its compounds are used the charge transport layer between the Chemistry Beijing Olympics to prevent rainfall in myriad products, from food and cathode and the anode (to learn more, during the opening and closing cer- pharmaceuticals, through to animal see Shallcross et al., 2009). emonies. feed and industrial catalysts (figure With its high atomic weight (126.9) Of the 37 known isotopes of io- 127 4). For instance, iodine is a potent an- and large number of electrons, iodine dine, all but one, I, are radioactive. timicrobial. For more than a century, is also an excellent X-ray absorber Most of these radioisotopes, which iodine tincture – a mixture of ethanol, and is used in X-ray contrast media. are produced via fission reactions in water, iodine and potassium iodide – These substances are generally safe to nuclear power plants and weapons, was used as an antiseptic for wounds. administer to humans and enable the are short-lived, which makes them This has now largely been replaced visualisation of soft tissues in X-ray useful as tracers and therapeutic by water-soluble ionophores (iodine examinations. agents in medicine. For example, io- complexed with surfactants), which A more everyday application of dine isotopes can be used to image the are less irritating to the skin. For iodine is in liquid-crystal displays for thyroid gland, which absorbs radioac- example, povidone iodine, a mixture TVs, computers and mobile phones, tive iodine when it is injected into the of polyvinylpyrrolidone and iodine, is which use polarising films to filter bloodstream. used widely as a surgical scrub. light. These films are commonly Unfortunately, radioactive 131I, In the industrial production of acetic made of polyvinyl alcohol layers released from nuclear accidents – such acid, iodine compounds such as rho- doped with iodine. Here, iodine acts as the disaster in Fukushima, Japan, in dium iodide (the Monsanto process) as a cross-linker and ensures that the 2011 – is also taken up by the thyroid. or iridium iodide (BP’s Cativa pro- structure is polarising. Because it is a high-energy β-particle

Image courtesy of Michael Zimmermann Image courtesy of: Wen-Yan King / Flickr

A 12-year-old boy with a goitre A Chinese man with a goitre due to hypothyroidism. Hypo- caused by iodine deficiency thyroidism can be caused by a deficiency in iodine that is easily preventable and treatable with just pinches of iodised salt. www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 27 : Autumn 2013 I 49 Image courtesy of Tatsuo Kaiho

Others Contrast media

15% 22% Herbicides 3%

Salt additives 4% 12% Antimicrobial agents Feed Additives 5%

7% 11% LCD 11% 10% Industrial catalyst

Stabilizers Pharmaceuticals

The major industrial uses of iodine

Commemorating two centuries of emitter, it damages cells and induces Acknowledgement iodine research: an interdiscipli- cancer. To counteract this effect, non- This article was adapted from a nary overview of current research. radioactive potassium iodide (KI) much longer publication in Angewand- tablets are ingested to saturate the Angewandte Chemie International Edi- te Chemie International Edition (Küpper thyroid’s ability to take up radioactive tion 50: 11598-11620. doi: 10.1002/ et al., 2011). iodine. anie.201100028 These are just a small sample of the References Shallcross D, Harrison T, Henshaw S, many applications of iodine. Clearly, Sellou L (2009) Looking to the heav- although the element has been known Küpper FC, Feiters MC, Olofsson B, ens: climate change experiments. for only two hundred years, it is well Kaiho T, Yanagida S, Zimmermann Science in School 12: 34-39. www. established in modern chemistry, MB, Carpenter LJ, Luther GW, scienceinschool.org/2009/issue12/ physics and medicine. Lu Z, Jonsson M, Kloo L (2011) climate

Iodine in the classroom

No doubt we are all familiar with the colourful ‘iodine • Potassium iodide can be used to detect the clock’ experiment between hydrogen peroxide, po- presence of starch in a range of foods. tassium iodide, starch and sodium thiosulphate – but • Various solutions, including aqueous sodium there are many other ways to introduce iodine practi- iodide, can be electrolysed and the products at the cally into the classroom. For example: electrodes identified. Students can then use their • When catalysed by water, aluminium and iodine practical experience and theoretical knowledge to react to produce spectacular clouds of purple construct simple ionic equations. iodine vapour. Details of these and many other school experiments • In a direct reaction between a metal and a non- can be downloaded from the Learn Chemistry web- metal, zinc powder reacts with a solution of iodine sitew1. in ethanol to form zinc iodide in an exothermic redox reaction. CLASSROOM ACTIVITY

50 I Science in School I Issue 27 : Autumn 2013 www.scienceinschool.org Science topics Chemistry

Image courtesy of Christian Jansky / Wikimedia

This Cessna 210 plane has two silver iodide generators on the sides for cloud seeding.

Web reference Berit Olofsson is a professor of or- Shozo Yanagida is a professor at ganic chemistry at Stockholm Univer- w1 – The Learn Chemistry website of the Center for Advanced Science and sity, Sweden. Her research focuses on the UK’s Royal Society of Chemistry Innovation, Osaka University, Japan. hypervalent iodine chemistry, which offers a wide range of download- His research focuses on dye-sensitised involves iodine compounds in high able resources to support the teach- solar cells. oxidation states. She has given several ing and learning of chemistry. See: Michael B Zimmermann MD is a popular scientific lectures to second- www.rsc.org/learn-chemistry professor of human nutrition at the ary-school students to stimulate their Swiss Federal Institute of Technology interest in chemistry. (ETH) in Zurich, Switzerland. His re- Dr Tatsuo Kaiho is the director of Frithjof C Küpper is a professor of search focuses on the disorders caused Nihon Tennen Gas Co Ltd, Japan. His marine biodiversity at the University by iodine deficiency. He teaches research interests are iodine produc- of Aberdeen, UK. His research focuses several courses on nutrition and tion and its novel applications. on the biochemistry and biodiversity metabolism at the University, at both of marine algae and microbes – in undergraduate and graduate level. particular, on halogen metabolism of seaweeds and its atmospheric impact. Image courtesy of the Pharmacie Centrale des Armées He is engaged in a range of scientific outreach activities, recently including the production of a filmed documen- tary (Immersed in the Arctic). Martin C Feiters is an associate professor in the Institute for Mol- ecules and Materials at the Radboud University Nijmegen, the Nether- lands. He has been involved in many spectroscopic and structural studies involving synchrotron radiation, and in chemistry demonstrations for Potassium iodide pills are distributed to people living within secondary-school students who are a radius of 10 km of each nuclear power plant in France, to interested in studying science further. prevent damage to their thyroid glands in case of an accident. www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 27 : Autumn 2013 I 51 Image courtesy of the AIEA /Wikimedia

The nuclear power plant at Tricastin, France, is situated close to a densely populated region. Approximately every five years, ­potassium iodide pills are distributed to the people who live nearby to prevent damage to their thyroid glands in case of a nuclear accident.

Lucy J Carpenter is a professor of specialises in geological cycling of atmospheric chemistry at the Univer- iodine. sity of York, UK. Her specialities are Mats Jonsson is a professor of nu- volatile halogens and their influence clear chemistry at the Royal Institute on atmospheric chemistry. of Technology, in Stockholm, Sweden. George W Luther is the Harrington Lars Kloo is a professor of inorganic Professor of Marine Chemistry at the chemistry and the head of applied School of Marine Science & Policy at physical chemistry at the Royal the University of Delaware, USA. He Institute of Technology (KTH), in explores biogeochemical processes in Stockholm, Sweden. He is often in- marine environments, emphasising volved with school teachers and their research that interfaces chemistry with classes, on the subject of solar energy biology with the view that chemistry in general and solar cells in particu- drives biology. He performs chemi- lar. Currently, he is involved in the cal magic shows for local schools Soljakten programme, jointly with the and outreach programmes, and takes Nobel Museum, in Stockholm, which high-school teachers on oceanograph- is aimed at final-year elementary- ic research cruises, including those school classes. studying hydrothermal vents. Zunli Lu is an assistant professor To learn how to use this code, see at Syracuse University, NY, USA, and page 53.

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www.scienceinschool.org Science in School I Issue 27 : Autumn 2013 I 53 How many schools Autumn 2013 Issue 27 and teachers do you reach – The European journal for science teachers worldwide? In this issue: Evolving threats: investigating new zoonotic infections Also: Peering into the darkness:

modelling black holes in primary school

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