Project: Titanic Jetty, Cobh, Co. Cork. Archaeological and Historical Background

Home , Blue Jacket (clipper), Cymric (schooner), Ocean Chief (clipper), White Star Line

October 2015

Address: Julianna O’Donoghue Archaeological Services, 61 Lady’s Cross, Clonakilty, Co. Cork. Web: www.jodas.ie Email: [email protected] Phone: (023) 8858707 / (086)3844831

Contents List of Plates...... 3 1 Introduction ...... 4 2 Scope of Report...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 3 Historical Background...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 3.1 Cobh General ...... 4 3.2 Advent of the Great Shipping Lines ...... 5 3.3 Post Office Packet Service ...... 6 3.4 Liners the paradigm of technological advance and national prestige...... 6 3.5 Charlotte Grace O'Brien and Emigration Conditions ...... 7 3.6 White Star Line ...... 8 3.7 Royal Navy Agreement ...... 9 3.8 White Star House Flag ...... 10 3.9 White Star Ships ...... 10 3.10 White Star Shipwrecks ...... 11 3.11 Deliberate sinkings of White Star Liners ...... 12 3.12 Increasing Size of Liners ...... 14 3.13 Titanic ...... 14 3.14 White Star Queenstown...... 16 3.15 Improved train links...... 19 3.16 Whiter Star Tenders at Queenstown ...... 19 3.17 White Star Jetty Queenstown ...... 23 4 Description of White Star Jetty ...... 24 5 Recommendations ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. Cronin Millar Condition Survey Report ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. Option 1:Localised temporary repairs...... Error! Bookmark not defined. Cultural comment Option 1 ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. Option 2:Construction of new structural support frame to support existing pier in its current form and condition...... Error! Bookmark not defined. Cultural Comment Option 2 ...... Error! Bookmark not defined.

Option 3: Construction of comprehensive structural support frame incorporating access above the pier deck...... Error! Bookmark not defined. Cultural Comment Option 3 ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. Option 4: Full reconstruction of pier to original form and condition...... Error! Bookmark not defined. Cultural Comment Option 4 ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 6 Conclusions ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 7 Bibliography ...... 30

List of Plates Plate 1: Queenstown Harbour Valentine Collection 1893 Plate 2: Gruss Aus Queenstown postcard

Plate 3: Emigrants boarding at Cobh

Plate 4: White Star line logo

Plate 5: Browne’s last photograph of the Titanic as it leaves Roches Point.

Plate 6: White Star Line poster advertising Titanic sailing

Plate 7: White Star Line poster advertising Titanic sailing

Plate 8: Emigrants boarding from the White Star Line jetty (Fr. Browne Collection)

Plate 9: Porters at the White Star Line Jetty waiting for employment (Fr. Browne Collection).

Plate 10: The Tender Ireland towing two rowing boats (Fr. Browne Collection).

Plate 11: Loading the Mail onto tender from the 'American Mail Special Train' from Cork.

Plate 12: Mail being taken aboard the Titanic from the Tender America. (Fr. Browne Collection)

Plate 13: Crowded tenders leaving the White Star Line jetty

Plate 14: Embarking passengers, Queenstown

Plate 15: Image of White Star Line Building, Cobh.

Plate 16: White Star Line ticket office and jetty.

Plate 17: Crowds waiting to embark on the White Star tenders (Fr. Browne Collection)

Plate 18: Queenstown in mourning with flags at half staff outside both the Cunard and white star offices. 19th April 1912.

Plate 19: View of quay, jetty and ticket office, September 2015.

Plate 20: View of south facing elevation of jetty.

Plate 21: West –facing elevation of jetty.

Plate 22: East –facing elevation of jetty.

Plate 23: Image of deteriorating state of timber piles.

1 Introduction Julianna O’Donoghue Archaeological Services has been engaged by Cronin Millar Engineers to undertake historical research of the Titanic Jetty in Cobh, Co. Cork. This report is a component of a wider assessment of the jetty undertaken by Cronin Millar Engineers on behalf of Cork County Council.

2 Cobh General The development of the town and port of Cobh is fairly recent. In 1786 it comprised of the small village of Cove divided by a stream that issued into the sea around what is today known as Casement Square. The village was mainly of the thatched cottages of fishermen, pilots and customs officials. However, it quickly developed into a handsome town of nine large and several smaller streets. The rapid expansion was largely due to its very fine sheltered anchorage whose importance was fully recognised as ships became larger. During the American War of Independence and wars with France between 1776 and 1815 it was a used as a muster port for large merchant convoys and was often filled with shipping. In 1835 it was '...no unusual sight to behold from Spy Hill... 300 sail of merchant vessels assembled for convoy' (Brunicardi 2012, 14).

The construction of large military forts at Camden, Carlisle strategically at the narrows and controlled by Westmorland fort on Spike Island controlled all shipping into Cork. Haulbowline was also fortified and made the Ordinance Depot and the Admiralty made it the only naval victualling depot in Ireland. Rocky Island was excavated and became the chief gun powder magazine for the south of Ireland. The Admiral of the Fleet was based in Cobh and it became the embarkation port for thousands of troops. The town prospered and a new pier was constructed in 1805 for £20,000.00 followed by several other quays. It became a provisioning town for merchant and naval shipping.

In August 1849 the name of Cove was changed to Queenstown to celebrate the visit of Queen Victoria to Ireland (Foster 2012, 414-5).

In 1868 the foundation stone of the wonderful neo-Gothic Revival style St. Colman's cathedral was laid. The cathedral which conspicuously stands 45m above sea-level, was finally roofed and opened in 1894 while the 90m spire was completed in 1915 (McNamara 1981, 140-1). The cathedral became a renowned icon of Cobh universally recognised by mariners, emigrants and passengers. St Colman's features in nearly all the early post cards and images of Cobh.

Plate 1: Queenstown Harbour Valentine Collection 1893

Plate 2:Gruss Aus Queenstown postcard

3 Advent of The Great Shipping Lines Until the 19th century most merchant ships were owned by a number of small investors who spread their capital across several ships. One of the immediate benefits of the advent of steamships was that they were less dependent on the weather and could, more or less, operate to a schedule. It made good economic sense to operate several ships on the main or more lucrative routes to maintain a regular service.

The origin of the shipping line came from the US most likely influenced by the 'lines' that operated regular stagecoach routes (Lavery 2004, 200). The Black Ball Line offered a fortnightly service between New York and London since 1816. Other American companies followed suit exploiting the availability of an abundance of quality timber and very good sailing ships.

The abolition of monopolies like the East India Company in 1833 also improved a more diverse share by the commercial merchant sailing companies. The abolition of the Navigation Acts in 1854, which had been in place since 1650, requiring British merchant ships to be only crewed by British further eased commercial operations. At the same time though safety regulations were put in place to ensure that ships hired qualified officers.

With the ever increasing emigration of thousands of people from Ireland and several other European countries many ships carried people out and timber back.

4 Post Office Packet Service Britain opened the world’s first Post Office packet service. A mail contract was a lucrative operation as it provided a guaranteed regular income and a regular service supplemented by an increase in passengers and cargo. Penalties for late deliveries of mail were severe. In 1839 Samuel Cunard who won the mail contract across the Atlantic route and agreed to pay £500 for every twelve hours the ship was late.

Arthur Anderson set up a steamship service between Falmouth and the ports in Spain and Portugal under the name the Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company (P & O) in 1840. The P&O also opened offices in Cork from which Anderson's Quay is named.

During the latter half of the 19th century Britain's shipping lines had lost their steamship supremacy being eclipsed by the large German lines of Hamburg-Amerika and Norddeutscher Line of Bremen who built some of the largest ships in the world in the 1880's (ibid 202). The Dutch also entered the service with the establishment of the Holland America Line in 1873. By the turn of the century this line had carried 90,000 cabin and 400,000 steerage passengers to the US as well as five million tons of freight.

The French also established a major shipping line, Messageries Maritime from their postal service in 1835. It expanded in 1867 providing service from Bordeaux to Brazil and the River Plate and by 1900 it had a fleet of sixty ships making it the sixth largest in the world (ibid 203).

5 Transatlantic Lines In the last decades of the 19th century the transatlantic liners became larger and faster. Inman Line were the first to introduce twin-screw expansion engines that ensured passage to the US in six days. The White Star Line also entered into the service with the Teutonic . The Germans built the Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse which was the largest and most powerful ship of its time and the first to have four funnels and remotely operated watertight doors. It was the first super-liner in the world. Two months after its maiden voyage in 1897 it captured the Blue Riband for the fastest crossing of the Atlantic with an average speed of 22.27 knots (ibid 207).

However the invention of the steam turbine engine by the British engineer Charles Parsons in the same year ushered in a new period of trans-Atlantic shipping speed.

In 1900 the largest shipping line in the world was the Hamburg-Americka with 73 ships and had captured the coveted Blue Riband with its ships the Deutschland . However, Britain was by far the world's largest shipping nation with almost 14 million tons compared to 2 million each for US and Germany. Britain controlled over half the world's shipping tonnage (ibid).

6 Charlotte Grace O'Brien and Emigration Conditions Charlotte Grace O'Brien, political activist and daughter of William Smith O'Brien of Dromoland Castle, was on a chance visit to Queenstown in 1881 to visit the widow of her brother Charles who had recently remarried a Mr. Dickson of the RIC. Charlotte went on board one of the emigrant ships that was not named but may have been the Cunarder Bothnia or the White Star Liner Germanic accompanied by the Dicksons and Captain Wilson who was a Board of Trade Inspector. For some time previous Charlotte had been interested in the conditions that emigrants, in particular females, travelled on the ships. Charlotte was appalled at what she saw and later published her findings in an article published by the Pall Mall Gazette on the 6th May 1881:

'The pier was crowded, mostly with young men and women, a few of the latter carrying young children. Each emigrant must bring on board a mattress, tins and plate... The deck of the ship seemed crowded, but in fact only 400 were there. I was shown the ship by a Government official...Between two decks, better lighted than the men's quarters, was a large space, open from one side of the ship to the other. From either side of a long central walk to the outer walls of the ship were slung two enormous hammocks, one suspended about three feet from the floor, the other above the lower one...I suppose each of these hammocks carry about one hundred persons....Narrow strips of sailcloth divide this great bed into berths. These strips of cloth, when the mattresses were out, formed divisions about eight inches high.

Now in these beds lie hundreds of men and women. Any man who comes with a woman who is or calls herself, his wife, sleeps by right in the midst of hundreds of young women who are compelled to live in his presence day and night...think that in the darkness of the night , the ship pitching in mid-ocean, a shimmering light or two makes visible to you this mass of moaning humanity...This is no brutal and impure dream; this is the truth, the living horror menacing the life, honour and soul of hundreds of thousands of our fellow-countrymen. The ship in which I saw these things, being supposed to carry in this manner 1,000 steerage passengers, carried last year on one voyage 1,775 emigrants...That the ships of some of these lines are not so abominable as that I saw is at least a comfort; but these things should not depend on the sense of right or money interests of ship owners. Governments protect and inspect property of various kinds. Should they not above all protect defenceless human beings, especially women and children? Women have a right to ask that the interests of women should be under the protection of women. Men have too often learned to condone and accustom themselves to terrible evils' (Barry 1999, 140-1). There was furore over the article with much recrimination. Questions were raised in parliament. In Queenstown Charlotte set up a lodging house to provide accommodation for one hundred and five persons as she felt that emigrants

7 were being charged exorbitant prices by lodgings locally. The nearby lodging houses made their feelings known and Charlotte had to get provisions sent from Cork as she was boycotted by local suppliers. About three thousand emigrants passed through her lodging house annually.

Charlotte Grace O'Brien inspected over eleven ships in 1881 with the Board of Trade Officer. After January 1882 she saw all ships constantly, and visited every nook and corner of them. The shipping lines were now willing to co-operate with her and the same year, 1882, the White Star Line agreed to take her to New York for free where Charlotte could see conditions for immigrants there at first hand and had an interview with Bishop Ireland following which the care of the immigrants when they landed in the US was taken over by the Church (ibid 142). Queenstown came to be called 'a wound which Ireland cannot staunch; and from it pours a constant stream of her best and youngest blood' (De Courcy Ireland, 241). Charlotte Grace O'Brien died suddenly in 1909.

7 White Star Line The White Star Shipping Line was founded by businessmen John Pilkington and Henry Wilson in 1845 in Liverpool to cater initially for the huge increase in emigrant passage to Australia after the discovery of gold there (Brady 2008,43). The company commissioned four new sailing clippers for the line which became the cream of the British sailing fleet, viz: the Golden Era, Champion of the Seas, Blue Jacket and White Star (Barry 1999, 158).

In January 1854 the newly built barque-rigged iron sailing clipper, Tayleur on its maiden voyage from Liverpool to Melbourne with hundreds of emigrants and cargo was blown across the Irish Sea and wrecked on Lambay Island with enormous loss of life. White Star merged with two other small companies the Eagle Line and the Black Ball Line and traded on as the Oriental Steam Navigation Company.

Industrialisation had arrived in the shipping business and the company's first foray was the purchase of its first steamship, Royal Standard, in 1863.

The conglomerate Oriental Steam Navigation Company did not work out and White Star broke away. However, by 1867 White Star was bankrupt and went into liquidation in 1868.

In 1867/8 Lord (Thomas) Ismay, a director of the National Line, bought the company for a €1,000.00. Shortly after Ismay formed a partnership with other investors that included Gustav Wilhelm Wolff who owned the Harland & Wolff shipyard in Belfast. Thus began a long association of White Star and Harland & Wolff who built almost all of the White Star line ships thereafter. They started trading as the Oceanic Steam Navigation Co. Shortly after they began competing in the lucrative Liverpool-Atlantic route which was already served by four major companies including Cunard, Inman, Guion (American owned) and the National Line.

In 1870 Ismay joined up with another experienced ship-owner, William Imrie and the registered company name was Ismay, Imrie & Co. They began operating with six ships of the Oceanic class, viz: the Oceanic (1), Atlantic, Baltic, Republic, Celtic and Adriatic and in 1871 began operating between Liverpool and New York, calling at Queenstown on the way, trading

8 as the White Star Line. They became serious rivals on the North Atlantic run to the Cunard and Inman Lines.

According to Barry (1999, 158) Ismay was somewhat of a devious bully with his captains. In his Book of Regulations in 1880 it is stated that 'The commanders must distinctly understand that the issue of the following instructions does not, in any way, relieve them from entire responsibility for the safe and efficient navigation of their respective vessels; and...whilst they are expected to use every diligence to secure a speedy voyage, they must run no risk which might by any possibility result in accident to their ships. It is to be hoped that they will ever bear in mind that the safety of the lives and property entrusted to their care is the ruling principle that should govern them in the navigation of their ships, and no supposed gain in expedition or saving of time on the voyage is to be purchased at the risk of accident. The company desires to establish and maintain for its vessels a reputation for safety, and oly looks for such speed on the various voyages as is consistent with safe and prudent navigation'. Barry maintains that while he espoused these virtuous regulations he was notorious for insisting on fast passages from his captains. Some years later Ismay's son forbade Titanic's captain to reduce speed when ice threatened. An issue which he cleverly side-stepped in the subsequent enquiry after the demise of the Titanic after striking an ice-berg ( ibid 159).

Ismay occasionally accompanied his ships on their maiden voyages, and this was the case with the Titanic. During the voyage, Ismay talked with either (or possibly both) chief engineer Joseph Bell or captain Edward Smith about a possible test of speed if time permitted. When the ship hit an iceberg 400 miles south of the Grand Banks of Newfoundland and started sinking on the night of 14 April 1912, Ismay was rescued in Collapsible Lifeboat C. Ismay became a social castaway on both sides of the Atlantic due to his alleged snap decision of stepping onto the small boat, reserved for women and children, on the night of 14 April 2012. As the chairman of the White Star Line, he was the most prominent survivor of the Titanic’s sinking. After the disaster, Ismay was savaged by both the American and the British press for deserting the ship while women and children were still on board. Some papers called him the "Coward of the Titanic" or "J. Brute Ismay" and suggested that the White Star flag be changed to a yellow liver. Ismay's reputation never recovered, and he kept a low profile following the Titanic disaster. He lived part of the year in a large cottage, Costello Lodge, near Casla, Connemara and died in Mayfair, London, on 17 October 1937 following a stroke at the age of 74.

8 Royal Navy Agreement In the 1880's the White Star Line brokered an agreement with the Royal Navy whereby they would design and make available their liners for use by the navy as armed cruisers in the event of the onset of war in lieu of funding of the ships by the Government. From this arrangement the RMS Teutonic and her sister ship the Majestic, both of 10,000 tons, were the first to enter service in 1889 and 1890. Both liners were also the first to be fitted with new twin-screw (twin propellers) triple-expansion engines and were also the first to entirely dispense with sailing rigs. From an armed naval perspective they were also the first to be designed and later fitted with up to sixteen guns and used as armed merchant cruisers. When the White Star Line was

9 later sold without consultation with the Royal Navy to an American, J. Pierpoint Morgan, for£32,000,000, it caused a major furore.

9 White Star House Flag By the mid-19th century all shipping companies began logoising and adopted their own distinctive themes, colours and flags. The White Star Line had all its ships names ending in 'ic', the most notable of which was the ill fated Titanic. Distinctively all funnels on their ships were painted a buff colour with a black top. They also featured a swallow-tailed broad-pennant with a distinctive five pointed star. In 1882 Lloyd's published their first Book of House Flags (Lavery 2004, 202).

Plate 4: White Star line logo

10 White Star Ships In 1871 they put the Oceanic, Gaelic and Belgic into the Liverpool-New York run followed the following year by the Baltic, Republic, Celtic and Adriatic. These single funnel, four mast straight stem ships became very familiar to the people in Cobh and were the fastest ships afloat at the time (Barry 1999, 158). Several more ships were put into the service the following years with the arrival of the Asiatic and Tropic in 1873, the Britannic in 1873 and the Germanic in 1874. The latter ships brought the voyage time to New York down to 7.5 days. The Germanic also created another record as being the second longest vessel in active service lasting 76 years between 1874 and 1950.

White Star Liners were the fastest ships on the Atlantic run between 1873 and 1884.

The Majestic steamed from Queenstown to New York in July 1891 in just 5 days 18 hours and 8 minutes and regaining the Blue Riband for White Star. However, the Majestic only held this record for two weeks as her sub-six day crossing was eclipsed by the Teutonic who did it in 5 days 16.5 hours the following month (ibid).

In 1890-1, the Britannic continued to break her own record times from New York to Queenstown-in 7 days 6 hours and 52 minutes. For over twenty years these Harland & Wolff built ships continued to break records for fast crossings with their original compound engines designed for low coal consumption.

The New York Times in an article on transatlantic travel on December 13th 1891 stated '... What a contrast there is between the present facilities for transportation between Europe and America and those of years ago. Now there are daily departures from either side of the Atlantic at large, well-appointed steamships. The ocean greyhounds now land passengers at Queenstown, Southampton, or New York within a week from the day of sailing, and the longest transatlantic voyage can be made in a fortnight...The European passenger of to-day who in his youth came to this country in the steerage of one of the old packets, can see greater improvement in the accommodations for passengers now available by any of the European steamers. The old packet ship filled all the wants of transit in their day. They are no longer a necessity. Progress has put steamers in their place'.

The Cymric, a massive cargo ship of 13,000 tons as well as some passenger accommodation, was added to the Liverpool-New York run via Queenstown. with the new and larger 17,247 ton Oceanic added the following year, and the biggest in the world at the time. In the Oceanic the White Star designers opted for a new departure in comfort and opulence. for all classes of passenger accommodation and marked a turning point in company policy as it was becoming clear that seasoned or regular travellers preferred to travel in greater comfort rather than at the fastest speed. Having said that the Oceanic, while it broke no speed records, was no sluggard and was only half a day slower than the record for crossing the Atlantic in its day.

11 White Star Shipwrecks Much has been written about possibly the most famous accidental shipwreck in the world the Titanic in 1912. However the Titanic was not the first White Star liner to be wrecked, neither was it the first to be wrecked after colliding with an iceberg. However, she was certainly the largest White Star Liner to have been lost and with the massive loss of 1,503 lives as well.

On the 20th day of March 1873 the two year old Atlantic of 2,376 tons sailed from Liverpool and Queenstown on the 21st, for New York, commanded by Captain James A. Williams. Steaming in poor conditions and with coal running low it was disastrously wrecked at Maris Rock near Sambro Island, Halifax, Nova Scotia on the 1st April with the loss of 545 lives out of 957 on board (Fry 1896, 166).

In 1893 the 6,594 ton Naronic left Liverpool for New York under Captain W. Roberts on the 11th February after which nothing more was heard of her until a bottle with a message was found washed up on the shore of Bay Ridge, an inlet in New York Bay on March 3rd. The message simply read 'Naronic sinking with all hands-L.Winsel'. Incredibly a second message was washed ashore at Ocean View Virginia that read:- 'February 19th, 1893. The ship is fast sinking...we can never live in small boats...one boat has already sunk. The ship struck an iceberg in blinding snow...she has floated for two hours, it is now 3.20 in the morning and the deck is level with the sea'. The second message was alleged to have been written by John Olsen, a cattleman on board the Naronic (www.the shipslist.com).

Further evidence of the Naronic sinking was provided by the steamship Coventry which reported that she had seen one of the Naronic's boats floating upside-down and afterwards passed another empty boat attached to a sea anchor of oars and spars (Fry 1896,169;Hocking1969, 495). Seventy four people lost their lives.

The six year old 15, 378 ton Republic under Captain Sealby left New York for Genoa and Alexandria with 250 1st Class and 211 and steerage passengers and a crew of around 300. On the 23rd of January 1909 in dense fog some 20 miles south of of Nantucket off Martha's Vineyard the Republic collided with an Italian steamship the Florida of 5,018 tons, coming from Naples with 800 emigrants bound for New York. The wireless system of signalling was then in its infancy and this was the one of the first important occasions when its value was realised. In response to the C.Q.D. message (Come Quick Danger) the White Star Liner Baltic under Captain Ransome and the liner Furnessia came to the scene. The Republics passengers who had been transferred to the Florida that, although she was only a third of the size of the Republic was not as in as much danger of sinking, were taken on board the Baltic. Later the French liner Lorraine under Captain Tournier arrived to take the hapless emigrants off the Florida. Remarkably only two 1st Class passengers on the Republic lost their lives while two others were injured. Four seamen were killed on the Florida. The Republic was taken in tow by the US revenue tug Gresham but later had to abandon her and she sank in 45 fathoms (82m).

The wireless operator of the Republic J. Binns, was given a public reception by the Mayor of his hometown of Peterborough and received an illuminated address. His heroism in remaining at his post to the last was also recognised by the directors of the Marconi Wireless Telegraphy Co., who presented him with a gold watch (ibid 586).

12 Deliberate Sinkings of White Star Liners As with nearly all the other liner companies the White Star suffered considerable loss during WW1 and to a much lesser extent in WW2 with the loss of only one vessel the Laurentic (2).

The Arabic under Captain W. Finch was struck on the starboard side by a torpedo fired from close range by U-24 under the command of Lt. Schneider off the Old Head of Kinsale on the 19th August 1915. The 15,801 ton liner sank in just ten minutes but thanks to good discipline and seamanship 390 people were saved. However, 44 lives were still lost, many of whom were US citizens (Hocking 1969, 40).

The 48,158 ton Britannic ,that was in use as a hospital ship on its way to Salonika to pick up wounded. It struck a mine in the Zea Channel in the Aegean Sea on the 21st November 1916 1916 largest ship ever sunk in WW1, in Aegean. The mine had only been laid an hour before by U-73 under the command of Lt. Siehs who had just arrived on patrol from Cuxhaven. Of the 1,125 on board, medical staff and crew, 21 lives were lost. She was the largest vessel deliberately sunk during WW1 (Hocking 1969, 103).

The 13,370 ton Cymric was returning from New York with cargo but no passengers and a crew of 110 when she was struck by three torpedoes off the Fastnet Rock fired by U-20 under the command of Walther Schwieger on the 8th May 1916. This attack was undertaken almost a

12 year to the day after Schwieger had sunk the Lusitania off the Old Head of Kinsale. The Cymric managed to stay afloat until 3 a.m. on the 9th May when she sank. Four men were killed by the explosions and another was drowned when evacuating the sinking liner (Hocking 1969,173).

The 10,077 ton Georgic with 1,200 horses and a general cargo of mainly wheat and oil was enroute from Philadelphia when it was shelled by the German raider Moewe commanded by Count Nikolaus zu Dohna Schlodien on December 10th 1916. The Georgic was then captured her crew taken off and then sunk by torpedo. The Moewe was an armed merchantman disguised as a Swedish vessel who had slipped through the British blockade and began raiding. On her first raiding patrol, between January and March 1916a she was responsible for the sinking or capturing of an incredible nineteen ships and successfully returned to Germany. The Moewe again evaded the British blockade for her second patrol between December 1916 and March 1917 when she was even more successful this time twenty four ships including the Georgic and once again returned safely to Germany making her the most successful of the German commerce destroyers (Hocking 1969, 269-270)

The 8,273 ton Delphic was carrying a cargo of coal to Montevideo when it was sunk by a submarine off Bishop Rock,near the Scilly Isles on August 16th 1917. Five lives were lost (Hocking 1969, 184).

The 32,234 ton Justicia was on duty as an armed cruiser doing protection duty for a convoy off the NW coast of Ireland on the 19th July 1917 she was attacked by submarines. Over the next twenty-four hours she was repeatedly attacked and struck no less than six times by torpedoes before finally sinking. Fourteen out of a crew of between 600-700 were killed (Hocking 1969, 367).

The 14,892 ton Laurentic (1) commanded by Captain R. A. Norton was also operating as an armed auxiliary cruiser when it struck a mine in Lough Swilly on January 23rd 1917. She sank in 45 minutes with the loss of 49 out of a total crew of 364 (Hocking 1969, 416).

The 11,999 ton Afric was torpedoed and sunk in the English Channel by a submarine on the 12th February 1917. Five were killed by the explosion and seventeen others were drowned. The captain and 145 crew members survived (Hocking 1969, 11).

Laurentic (2) torpedoed 1940 and sunk while operating as an armed cruiser , 49 killed(Cunard- White Star)

The name Laurentic appears to have been a particularly unlucky name for a liner by White Star. In 1940 the 18,724 ton Laurentic (2) while operating as an armed auxiliary cruiser was destroyed by a submarine in the NW Approaches off Ireland. Captain E. P. Vivian and 367 crew were saved with the loss of 49 others. Another auxiliary cruiser the Patroclus that stood by to pick up survivors was also attacked and sunk (Hocking 1969,416).

With the outbreak of the Boer war in 1899 the Majestic was used as a troopship to the South African Cape and made the trip twice. The Britannic was also used to transport troops from Queenstown to the Cape. A trip she did in 19 days. Presumably the troops embarked from the White Star pier at Queenstown.

13 Increasing Size of Liners The size of these great White Star liners continued to increase in the first decade of the twentieth century amid the rhetoric and bombast of a world heading at the same speed of the liners to world war. In 1901 and 1902 the Celtic and Cedric were launched each with a tonnage of 21,000 tons both of which were placed on the Atlantic run via Queenstown. The following year the even bigger 24, 000 ton Baltic was launched and it too became a familiar sight in Queenstown. Although it never became a record breaker the Baltic was also used as. a troop transport during WW1 and was eventually scrapped in 1933 in Japan (Gibbons 2001, 137). The Adriatic was the other of these Big Four as they were known launched in 1906 and the first liner to boast of an indoor swimming pool and Turkish bath.

The increasing size of liners ultimately threatened the future of Liverpool as a passenger port as larger passenger liners were better serviced by projecting jetties and they needed dry docks for maintenance. As Southampton was blessed with four high tides every twenty-four hours and had a railway to its docks by 1890 liner companies began to gradually move their larger liner operations there. In 1905 Southampton built their large Trafalgar Dry-dock which catered for ships of greater size than Liverpool or London. In 1907 White Star transferred its operations to Southampton and the new Ocean Dock was first used by its new liner the Oceanic in 1911 and by her sister ship the Titanic the following year. Bigger and larger docks were constructed in Southampton and even though huge sums of money was also spent in improvements at Liverpool, ultimately it became the principal port for transatlantic liners from Britain (Stratton & Trinder 2000, 147).

14 Titanic The 45,000 ton Titanic called at Queenstown on the 11th April 1912 having departed from Southampton the previous day on her maiden voyage. She anchored in the outer limits of Cork Harbour near Roches Point for less than two hours only and was tendered to only once by the White Star lighter PS Ireland carried out seven Second-Class and 113 Third-Class passengers to the Titanic and brought off seven. The lucky seven largely comprised the Odell family as well as a Jesuit priest Fr. Francis Browne. Interestingly, two of the Odell children were avid photographers and both carried cameras and took several images in their short cruise to Ireland. Fr. Browne was also a keen photographer and he also took many photographs of the ill fated Titanic. The Odell and Browne images have since become world famous. Of the 123 passengers that embarked from the White Star jetty in Queenstown 79 lost their lives when the Titanic sank on the 15th April after striking an iceberg at full speed.

The Adriatic was in New York on the 15th April 1912 and carried many of the survivor's of the Titanic back including White Star Chairman Bruce Ismay.

In response to Cunard's liners Lusitania and Mauretania, White Star ordered the Olympic class liners, the most luxurious and biggest ships afloat; Olympic, Titanic and Britannic (II). However, Titanic sank on her maiden voyage while Britannic was requisitioned by the Royal Navy and

14 used as a hospital-ship during WW1. In November 1916 she struck a mine and sank. The Olympic was the only one of the three that proved profitable for White Star.

In July 1915 during WW1 the Arabic was sunk by a German submarine thirty miles south of the Old Head of Kinsale with many of the passengers American and the loss of over a million pounds in bullion. The loss of the Arabic , Lusitania and Falaba in 1915 greatly influenced the US to enter WW1 in 1917. During WW1 seventeen ships of the White Star Line were attacked by submarine seven of which survived.

In 1927 White Star was purchased by the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company making it the largest shipping group in the world. By 1932 the RMSPC were in financial difficulty and a new company Royal Mail Lines took over the ships.

In 1933 the Great Depression affected both Cunard and White Star and in order to ease financial difficulties they merged creating the Cunard-White Star line. In 1947 Cunard bought out White Star and in 1950 reverted to using 'Cunard'. White Star was no more. The Georgic and the Britannic were the last two ships of the White Star to retire in 1956 and 1961 respectively. While the Nomadic, the last surviving White Star vessel was returned to Belfast and restored to its original 1910 appearance and was opened to the public in 2013 (see White Star Tenders below).

Plate 5: Browne’s last photograph of the Titanic as it leaves Roches Point.

15 White Star Line, Queenstown The company's activities in Queenstown were managed by Messrs, James Scott and Company. Their building was right on the harbour front in Queenstown. As official representatives for the White Star Line, they managed the transfers of passengers and mail to White Star Liners.

Passenger travel rates and information published in the New York Times in May 1887 record

White Star Line For Queenstown and Liverpool Royal and United States Mail Steamers *Celtic, Capt. Irving.....Wed., May 25, 5 P.M. *Arabic, Capt. Burton..Sat., May 28, 9 A.M. Germanic, Capt, Gleadell, Wed., June 1, 1:30 P.M. *Republic.....Thursday, June 2, 2:30 P.M. From White Star Dock, foot of West 10th-st Rates-Saloon, $60, $80, and $100; return tickets on favorable terms; steerage from or to the old country, $20. *Second cabin passengers carried on these steamers. Rate, $35; excursions, $65. For inspec- tion of plans or other information apply to the company's office, No. 41 Broadway, New-York. J. Bruce Ismay, Agent

Special Notice White Star Line Celtic, sailing May 25; Arabic, May 28, and Republic, June 2, have special and superior second cabin accommodations. The whole of the saloon accommodation on the Arabic and Republic will be given up to second cabin passengers. Apply at the White Star offices, 41 Broadway.

White Star Line fares for Queenstown ships Britannic, Celtic, Teutonic, Germanic, Adriatic: Saloon Rates, $50.00 and upward; Second cabin, $35.00 and upward; according to steamer and location of berths; Steerage $20.00.

Between 1892 and 1894 White Star carried 38,873 passengers to New York. On average White Star carried 221 passengers per trip in cabins

The summer fares from New York between 18th April and 1st August 1895, calling at Queenstown every Wednesday were $90, $100, $125, $150 one way for 1st Class cabins on the Teutonic and Majestic, 2nd Class cabin $40 & $45 and 3rd Class (steerage) $10 (Fry 1896, 297-301).

Plates 6 &7: White Star Line posters advertising Titanic sailings

Plate 8: Emigrants boarding from the White Star Line jetty (Fr. Browne Collection).

Plate 9: Porters at the White Star Line Jetty waiting for employment (Fr. Browne Collection).

16 Improved Train Links The train services and standards were also vastly improved with stations built in Liverpool and at Queenstown right beside the embarkation jetties. 'These trains will be composed of the dining cars, corridor cars, and saloon carriages. The corridor cars are divided into sections, and the other saloons will be found to be most convenient for private parties. These special cars and compartments may be engaged, and seats may be reserved in the corridor and dining cars, on application to the railway company's officials, who meet all steamers at Queenstown, and at the landing stage, Liverpool' (Ibid 312-3).

17 Whiter Star Tenders at Queenstown Embarking and disembarking passengers and mail were transferred from the White Star jetty by two paddle steamer tenders the PS Ireland and her sister ship the PS America which were built in 1891 were familiar to all as they serviced all the White Star Liners that arrived in Queenstown. However nothing is known of the fate of the PS Ireland or the PS America and it is assumed that they were broken up as given their usage they are unlikely to have sunk. The Liverpool based baggage tender White Star Traffic was in service for 82 years before being scrapped in Tranmere.

Tenders generally remained much longer in service than the liners themselves. Indeed the SS Nomadic was launched in Harland & Wolff's shipyard in Belfast in 1910 to specifically tender to the Olympic and Titanic at Cherbourg. Its interior was even more luxurious than the liners themselves or of any of the other White Star tenders. Following a long an chequered service record the SS Nomadic was purchased by the Northern Ireland Department for Social Government (NIDSG) and brought back to Belfast. The NIDSG set up a voluntary charitable trust, the Nomadic Charitable Trust (NCT) in December 2006 which has 12 trustees including historians, maritime experts and enthusiasts. The NCT's stated aim was: To restore the SS

Nomadic and to make her accessible to the public, to ensure she can play a key role in the ongoing celebration of the Titanic, ensure a lasting legacy to celebrate our maritime and industrial heritage and as a catalyst for tourism, social and economic development.

At the same time the Nomadic Preservation Society (NPS) was also founded to collaborate with the NCT and all other parties involved in preserving the Nomadic, including raising and donating funds, conducting historical research and publicising Nomadic as a tourist attraction. The SS Nomadic was restored after several years work that included the sourcing of similar sized boilers and tripe-expansion engines from the SS Nyanza at Lake Victoria which was converting to diesel. The SS Nomadic is open as a visitor attraction since 2013 and is regarded as the last surviving White Star ship in the world as indeed is its lifeboat.

Plate 10: The Tender Ireland towing two rowing boats (Fr. Browne Collection).

Plate 11: Loading the Mail onto the tender 'Flying Fish', from the 'American Mail Special Train' from Cork.

Plate 12: Mail being taken aboard the Titanic from the Tender America. (Fr. Browne Collection)

Plate 13: Crowded tenders leaving the White Star Line jetty

Plate 14: Embarking passagers, Queenstown

18 White Star Jetty Queenstown Currently the White Star Jetty, has no official architectural protection although the White Star Building and the cast-iron post box on the roadside do. Both are listed in the Cobh Town Council Draft Development Plan, 2012 (No. 07, 06, Map 6C & p143. Casement Square(10014006 & 10014007) Post Office ).

The National Inventory of Architectural Heritage (NIAH) have also determined that the building is of Architectural, Artistic and Social merit under its Special Interest Category and determined that it is of Regional importance (NIAH Reg. No. 20827344, www.buildingsof 23reland.ie). Also, Cast-iron post box c 1880 with VT insignia.

Plate 15: Image of White Star Line Building, Cobh (taken from Buildings of Ireland)

The NIAH record that it is a 'Detached seven-bay single-storey building over basement, built c. 1860-1880, having five-bay breakfront and bay window to rear (south) elevation. Now in use as post office. Hipped slate roof with overhanging eaves having timber brackets, brick and rendered chimneystacks. Rendered walls having channel rusticated pilasters. Square-headed openings having four-over-two pane timber sliding sash windows and render continuous sill course. Round-headed opening having overlight and half-glazed double-leaf doors. Flight of limestone steps to entrance. Square-headed opening to front elevation, east bay with half- glazed double-leaf doors. Flight of rendered steps to entrance. Square-profile ashlar limestone piers to west having ornate caps and double-leaf spear-headed cast-iron double-leaf gates. Spear-headed cast-iron railings set in limestone plinths.

Formerly the White Star Line office, it was the check in for all passengers of the company's ships, including the Titanic. The building's long, low form is articulated by the render pilasters which also provide decorative interest to the façade. Retaining historical features and materials such as the sash windows and slate roof, this building makes a positive contribution to the architectural heritage of Cobh' (www.buildingsofireland.ie).

That being the case it is unfortunate that the wooden jetty that was the embarkation point for all the White Star passengers from Cobh and as such as essential component of the design and function of the building was omitted by the NIAH and Cobh Town Council from inclusion as an integral part of the curtilage of the protected structure. Ultimately, from a cultural heritage perspective the wooden jetty should be regarded as a de facto protected structure as

23 understood in the context of the heritage objectives of the Cobh Town Council Development Plan and the wider understanding of the criteria for determining a structure for protection by the NIAH.

19 Description of White Star Jetty The jetty comprises a small dilapidated wooden structure,L-shaped' in plan with its short right angle return oriented to the east. It is in a dangerous state with virtually its entire decking gone as well as several diagonal struts (raking piles) and other members. The extant relict remains are constructed entirely of timber fixed largely with metal fastenings of iron bolts and nails and possibly some treenails. Examination of the jetty from a boat at low tide revealed that some of the visible bolts on the jetty uprights or piles have hexagonal heads and may be machine threaded. The sections of the piles revealed at low tide are heavily encrusted in marine epifauna as well as concealed beneath a green verdure of marine flora that inhibited a closer more detailed examination. The structural integrity of the jetty is severely compromised by two of its piles that are now entirely eroded through and are suspended or hanging from its overhead horizontal joists. Consequently they are therefore acting as a downward weight negatively acting on the partially denuded jetty. Furthermore other support piles are also severely eroded and structurally compromised. It is likely that the upright piles are deeply driven into the seabed. Currently there have been no geotechnical core sampling analysis of the sediment undertaken but it is anticipated that the driven ends of the timber have possibly retained greater structural integrity in the anaerobic environment than those sections of the timbers that occupy the fluid oxygenated tidally affected zone. In this oxygenated zone timbers are more susceptible to erosion from the action of the sea and other erosive elements. The jetty decking or planking was removed in the past. Originally the deck planking was laid transverse across the width of the jetty nailed to seven linear rows of joists along its length that are themselves supported underneath by E-W running pairs of horizontal beams fixed to piles. Handrails were attached along the upper perimeter of the jetty the partial remains of which survive at its southern limits. The remains of at least three horizontal wooden fenders also survive at the south elevation. Fenders, by their very nature operated much as the wale planking of ships and take a significant amount of wear and tear. Close examination of the outer south face of the southernmost piles exhibits the negative imprint from residual tar and oxidisation of previous fenders that were no doubt often repaired and replaced during the lifetime of the jetty. Historic images suggest that the jetty was originally artificially lit by three lamp posts. Furthermore there were originally possibly three derricks to swing luggage and mail bags onto the tenders. A hockey stick-shaped derrick stanchion survives midway along the southern edge of the jetty (Plates).However, as the jetty is in a dangerous state of collapse it was not possible to examine any aspect of the upper deck area close-up.

Other historic images and contemporary post cards show that the tender vessels could dock at all sides of the jetty indication that sections of the hand rail operated as gates to facilitate moveable passenger and mail gangways onto the paddle-steamer tenders, PS Ireland and PS America. The flagstaff of the house pennant of the White Star line was situated at the east end of the quay while a second signalling flagstaff was situated at the west corner.

Cronin Millar has determined that the jetty in its current state has no load taking capacity, no capacity to resist significant environmental forces and a remaining lifespan of zero. Measures should be undertaken as a matter of urgency to retain this important cultural heritage feature of Cork Harbour.

Plate 16: White Star Line ticket office and jetty.

Plate 17: Crowds waiting to embark on the White Star tenders (Fr. Browne Collection)

Plate 18: Queenstown in mourning with flags at half staff outside both the Cunard and White Star offices. 19th April 1912(Fr. Browne Collection).

Plate 19: View of quay, jetty and ticket office, September 2015.

Plate 20: View of south facing elevation of jetty.

Plate 21: West –facing elevation of Jetty.

Plate 22: East –facing elevation of Jetty.

Plate 23: Image of deteriorating state of timber piles.

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