Preti Taneja Africapreti Taneja Sarah El Ashmawy, Tom Palmer, Miriam Puttick and Derek Verbakel LIBYA

Middle Middle East and EastMiddle and North NorthEast and Africa AfricaNorth Preti Taneja AfricaPreti Taneja Sarah El Ashmawy, Tom Palmer, Miriam Puttick and Derek Verbakel LIBYA LEBANON SYRIA ISRAEL/OT/ Palestinian Authority EGYPT JORDAN MiddleIRAQ Middle KUWAIT East andIRAN East and SAUDI ARABIA BAHRAIN QATAR NorthU.A.E . North OMAN AfricaYEMEN Africa Preti Taneja Preti Taneja ARABIAN SEA he Middle East and North Africa the beheading of 21 Egyptian Copts in Libya in (MENA) region experienced one February 2015 and an attack by armed gunmen T of its bloodiest years in 2014, with in central Tunis in March 2015. ongoing fighting in Syria between President Though some of these attacks may have been Bashar al-Assad’s army, opposition forces and the intended to exaggerate the actual presence of increasingly powerful presence of the extremist ISIS in these countries, it is also the case that group Da’ash, also known as the Islamic State even religious and ethnic minorities in relatively of Iraq and the Levant (ISIS). In neighbouring stable countries in the region routinely experience Iraq, ISIS launched a summer offensive in the discrimination, intimidation and violence. In north of the country which saw their forces many cases these incidents occur in urban areas overrun large swathes of territory. This area has where diverse populations have coexisted for long been home to many minority communities, centuries. However, ongoing violence, particularly including Chaldo-Assyrians, Shabak, Turkmen in Iraq and Syria, is increasingly leading to and Yezidis, who were actively targeted as ISIS segregation and homogenization in cities. ISIS, captured Mosul, Tal Afar and other major cities, besides displacing minority communities in the as well as numerous towns and villages with large areas under its control, has also systematically minority populations. Thousands were killed or destroyed churches, shrines and non-Sunni abducted, while hundreds of thousands of people mosques. As a result, the historical legacy of were displaced. In addition, ISIS has spread fear centuries of coexistence is being erased. Yet across the region with a number of high-profile urban centres such as Cairo, despite significant incidents in other countries, such as the suicide challenges, still offer minorities more opportunities bomb explosion at a Beirut hotel in June 2014, to engage in activism, enjoy personal freedoms 228 Middle East and State of the World’s Minorities North Africa and Indigenous Peoples 2015 and interact with members of other communities. worship still refers specifically to the ‘Abrahamic’ Ensuring the security and dignity of minorities in religions – a term that includes Christianity, urban areas is therefore essential to achieving long- Islam and Judaism, but potentially excludes term stability across the region. Bahá’í and other faiths that are discriminated against. More generally, there is continued Egypt scepticism about the government’s willingness The year 2014 began with a referendum in and ability to tackle the broader context of January on a new Constitution that prohibits discrimination towards minorities in the country. political parties based on religion, with 98 per Despite some positive signs during the year – cent of participants voting in approval, though culminating in President Abdel Fattah el-Sisi’s opposition groups complained of intimidation attendance of a Coptic Christmas mass in and partisan media coverage. For the country’s January 2015, an unprecedented gesture by an most vulnerable social groups, however, the Egyptian head of state – many challenges remain. drafting process at least provided an opportunity This is particularly the case for Copts and other to promote a more inclusive environment for religious minorities in a country where Islam Egypt’s diverse religious and ethnic population. is still elevated as the state religion and Sharia In the preceding months, representatives of long- principles form the main source of legislation. marginalized communities such as Amazigh and For example, the fraught issue of regulations Nubians were able to meet with members of on church construction, despite apparently the drafting committee to advocate for various receiving legal approval through the new amendments to the text. Constitution – Article 64 stipulates ‘the freedom The approved version was generally regarded of practising religious rituals and establishing as an improvement on the 2012 Constitution, worship places for the followers of Abrahamic passed under former President Mohamed Morsi religions’ – has not yet been resolved. Though and widely criticized by rights groups for its lack steps were taken later in the year to address of protections for many minorities. Among other the existing restrictions on church building, achievements, the ‘right to return’ of Egyptian with the Coptic Church and other Christian Nubians whose lands were flooded during the organizations drafting a proposed law, at the government-led construction of the Aswan end of the year the restrictions remained in dam in the 1960s, without prior consultation place. The regulations, rooted in Ottoman or consent, was recognized for the first time. law, have for decades been used to obstruct Furthermore, the 2014 Constitution finally the development or renovation of Christian recognized ‘incitement to hatred’ as a crime, places of worship, and have contributed to the tasking the future legislative body with the wave of attacks in recent years against Coptic creation of a special commission to implement buildings. Though authorities have reportedly the provision. This is a significant milestone been more accommodating in approving church for Egypt’s minorities, as in recent years hate construction since Sisi took power, Coptic speech has been linked with outbreaks of violence communities continue to be targeted by militant against Bahá’í, Copts and Shi’a. groups. In January 2015, for example, two However, the Constitution has also been policemen were killed outside a church in Minya, criticized for perpetuating many of the followed by further attacks three months later in shortcomings of its predecessor. While Article Alexandria and Cairo. 64 on religious freedom has been strengthened, Another source of deep concern is the Sisi its provision on religious practice and places of government’s ongoing human rights abuses and repression of civil freedoms. Shortly after Left: A Yezidi girl and her family at a refugee staging a coup against Morsi in June 2013, camp in north eastern Syria. Some of the the military were responsible for the killing 12,000 Yezidis at the camp walked up to 60km of more than 1,000 protesters. This served to in searing heat to flee Iraq. Rachel Unkovic/ deepen divisions within the country which International Rescue Committee Sisi, since securing democratic election in May State of the World’s Minorities Middle East and 229 and Indigenous Peoples 2015 North Africa Below: Muslim men stand with a Coptic for its failure to ensure their protection. Christian man holding a lit candle in tribute to Whether they are in search of economic the 21 Egyptians beheaded in Libya in February opportunities or displaced due to violence or 2015. REUTERS/Mohamad Torokman disruptive development such as the Aswan dam, many members of Egypt’s minorities have 2014, has failed to resolve. In particular, the relocated to towns and cities within Egypt as government’s crackdown on supporters of the well. Urban development is therefore a key area Muslim Brotherhood, involving arbitrary arrests, of concern for these communities, reflected indefinite detention and killings, has alienated in the inclusion of Article 235 in the 2014 a significant portion of the population and, Constitution, which stipulates that ‘the state by extension, may have put Copts and other shall guarantee setting and implementing a plan religious minorities at increasing risk of attack. for the comprehensive economic and urban While minorities have long been targeted by development of border and underprivileged areas, militants, the mass execution of 21 Coptic including Upper Egypt, the Sinai Peninsula, Egyptians in neighbouring Libya in February Matrouh and Nubia’. It is hoped that this text 2015 by ISIS was a painful reminder of the will lead to support for Nubians who wish to community’s continued vulnerability. Media return to their area of origin. investigations revealed that many of the victims Cairo is not only Egypt’s capital, but also the came from Upper Egypt villages and had left largest megacity in the MENA region. Rapid their homes to financially support their families. and largely unmanaged urban growth has led to The government was criticized by some activists large swathes of informal settlements across the 230 Middle East and State of the World’s Minorities North Africa and Indigenous Peoples 2015 city, with many sheltering in makeshift housing As the country’s second largest city, Mosul was and unsanitary living conditions. These issues previously home to a wide array of minority are especially pronounced, however, for the groups. Hundreds of Christian families and other city’s ‘Zabbalin’ – the Arabic word for garbage minorities joined the exodus of civilians leaving collectors – a large community whose livelihood Mosul, with the UN estimating that 500,000 is based on the collection and recycling of solid people fled in the first week following the entry waste. Operating in the informal sector, the of ISIS into the city. The remaining Christian majority are

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