LIBYA

LEBANON SYRIA

ISRAEL/OT/ Palestinian Authority

EGYPT JORDAN MiddleIRAQ Middle

KUWAIT Middle East andIRAN East and

SAUDI ARABIA BAHRAIN QATAR East and NorthU.A.E . North

OMAN AfricaYEMEN AfricaNorth Preti Taneja AfricaPreti Taneja ARABIAN SEA Miriam Puttick and Derek Verbakel vents in the Middle East during the year presidency, Sisi’s rule has itself been characterized support. In the village of al-Galaa, for example, Bahá’i and Jehovah’s Witnesses, are excluded. were again dominated by the militant by authoritarianism and widespread human rights after the reconstruction of a church was blocked Bahá’i still face difficulties when seeking E group Daesh, also known as Islamic abuses, including arbitrary arrests, torture and by local Muslims, the Coptic community was government-issued identification cards and are State in Iraq and al-Sham (ISIS). Despite losing forced disappearances, particularly of perceived forced amid rising sectarian tensions to agree frequently subjected to public vilification. In significant swathes of territory under its control supporters of the now outlawed Muslim to rebuild it without a bell or tower – a typical December 2014, a public workshop was held by in Iraq and Syria, ISIS nevertheless still controls Brotherhood. While Sisi has publicly stated his outcome of coercive reconciliation processes the Ministry of Religious Endowments to warn large areas and subjects millions of civilians to a commitment to combating religious extremism, backed by local authorities. In the same week, of the dangers of the spread of the Bahá’i faith in brutal rule of violence, threats and intimidation. throughout the year the government continued police raided the Saint Youssef al-Bar prayer . Minorities in particular, such as Christians, to restrict the beliefs and practices of many house near Maghagha, confiscating religious Though adherents of Islam, Shi’a Muslims Turkmen and Yezidis, have been targeted with minorities. Though military operations against paraphernalia and accusing occupants of praying in the Sunni-majority country are also human rights abuses including looting, house ISIS-affiliated insurgents in Sinai were escalated, in a property illegally without official permission. marginalized and face widespread hostility burning, torture, sexual assault and murder, in the risk of targeted violence against religious In Abu Qurqas, police abruptly arrived and shut for their beliefs. Their religious practices have the process displacing entire communities from minorities from other Egyptians – a threat long down reconstruction on part of a village church. often been presented as a threat to national areas where they have lived for centuries. Besides pre-dating the recent rise of the extremist group These and other incidents have occurred despite security, leading to public vilification and official staged executions, such as the release in February – remains high. Sisi’s draconian policies have Article 235 of the 2014 Constitution requiring crackdowns – tendencies that continued in 2015. 2015 by the group of a filmed beheading of 21 done little to resolve the underlying problem the government to draft legislation regulating the On 22 October, for example, the Ministry of Egyptian in , ISIS has also attracted of inter‑communal conflict and have arguably building and renovating of churches to ensure Endowments announced the closure of Shi’a wide publicity for its destruction of ancient deepened divisions within Egyptian society. that Christians are free to practise their religious mosques to prevent Ashura celebrations. Despite heritage sites such as significant parts of United This lack of progress is reflected in the rituals. For his part, in a speech in January 2016, being deemed a legitimate branch of Islam in Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural situation of Egypt’s sizeable Coptic Christian Sisi lamented the failure of authorities to repair 1959 by Al-Azhar, the country’s most powerful Organization (UNESCO)-listed Palmyra. minority, long victims of discrimination and Coptic properties damaged in violent episodes religious institution, Egypt’s current religious However, this is only part of a much broader persecution, who to some extent have benefited during 2013, promising that ‘by next year there establishment considers Shi’a rituals to be in assault on churches, mosques and shrines from recent political reforms under Sisi. For won’t be a single church or house that is not violation of the tenets of Islam. In November, belonging to religious and ethnic minorities that example, Egypt’s national elections in October restored’ – a claim met with scepticism for instance, the Grand Imam of Al-Azhar used continued throughout 2015 saw Coptic Christians win 36 parliamentary by many. a weekly television appearance to implore his the year. seats, 6 per cent of the total – an unprecedented Copts, their properties and places of worship audience to beware of Shi’a proselytizers. Nevertheless, the challenges facing minorities achievement that represents an important also remain vulnerable to violent attacks. In Egypt’s Jewish community, long marginalized, and the survival of their rich cultural traditions milestone for the community. This has been January 2015, Orthodox, Catholic and Protestant faced a further setback when an annual Jewish are not confined to areas controlled by ISIS, accompanied by Sisi’s apparent efforts to engage leaders in Minya were forced to cancel Christmas festival planned for 9–10 January was cancelled nor are they wholly new. Indeed, the recent the Coptic church leadership, highlighted by his celebrations after two policemen were gunned due to a ruling by the Administrative rise of violent extremism has been driven in historic attendance of Coptic Christmas Eve mass down while guarding a Coptic church. Later, Court. Though previously called off in 2012 part by longer-term factors, such as official in January 2015 – the first time a head of state during Holy Week in April, Easter celebrations and regularly opposed by locals, the event discrimination, legal impunity and even state-led has done so – as well as his offering of personal were accompanied by heightened sectarian commemorated the birthday of the prominent persecution that are evident in many countries condolences to Pope Tawadros II in February violence in . Copts, their nineteenth-century Rabbi Abu Hasira and across the region. Religious, ethnic and linguistic after 21 Egyptian Copts were killed by ISIS churches and homes in Nasreya were left poorly attracted hundreds of Jews, including many minorities have frequently faced restrictions militants in Libya. Yet despite these conciliatory protected by security personnel – a common from Israel, to visit his tomb. The Court’s ruling on their ability to worship, to engage freely gestures, Coptic Egyptians remain marginalized occurrence – when attacked by angry villagers deemed the festival contradictory to Islamic in cultural practices or even speak their native by state institutions and face ongoing risks of after a Coptic teacher and students were accused traditions and a violation of public order. tongue – all symptoms of a wider climate of sectarian violence. of insulting Islam after a video was circulated Located in the Delta village of Damanhour intolerance that threatens the region’s rich One area where the state has failed in its in which they reportedly ridiculed ISIS. Many and added to Egypt’s antiquities records by the diversity. protection of the community is the continued attacks against the community are enabled by Minister of Culture in 2001, the tomb was barriers to constructing houses of worship the failure of security forces to provide adequate ordered to be struck from the list, obliging the Egypt for non-Muslims, a legacy of Ottoman era protection. government to notify the UNESCO World Following the military‑backed ousting of former legislation. Particularly in Upper Egypt, this While Coptic Christians face these difficulties Heritage Committee as well. Other sites of President Mohamed Morsi in 2013 by General has long contributed to the targeting of Coptic despite their status as a recognized religion, other important Jewish heritage also struggle with Abdel Fattah el-Sisi, subsequent elections in congregations and their religious practices. While minorities lack even legal recognition. Article 64 dereliction or disuse, with all of the estimated 2014 handed Sisi a landslide victory. While authorities have reportedly objected less to church of the 2014 Constitution, like its predecessors, 12 synagogues in and Alexandria now he enjoyed support among many Egyptians, construction and renovations since Sisi took guarantees freedom of religion only to the three reportedly closed or falling into disrepair due including minorities, following the suppression of power, the community has still faced tremendous ‘Abrahamic faiths’ – , Islam and to lack of funds. The disappearance of Egypt’s religious freedoms and civil rights during Morsi’s difficulties in securing official approval and Judaism – meaning that other groups, such as Jewish cultural heritage is all the more troubling

188 Middle East and State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Middle East and 189 North Africa and Indigenous Peoples 2016 and Indigenous Peoples 2016 North Africa Left: Nubian women in Egypt. Katie Hunt. where, as descendants of one of the world’s oldest civilizations, fishing and farming had long been for the fact that this once sizeable religious fundamental to their culture. Since displacement, community, comprising as many as 80,000 in the the ‘right to return’ has remained their late 1940s, now reportedly numbers only seven cardinal demand, coupled with calls to combat people, the majority elderly women. unemployment and improve deteriorating Blasphemy accusations and related attacks services. Abdel Sabour has stated he will push remain a serious problem for Egypt’s religious for the implementation of Articles 47 and 50 of minorities, particularly Copts and Shi’a. the 2014 Constitution, which affirm the state’s Following 15 similar blasphemy cases earlier in commitment to preserve the cultural identities the year for insulting Islam – a crime under the and heritage of different groups. Egyptian Penal Code outlawing ridicule of the three Abrahamic faiths – in July, three Coptic Iraq men were arrested for distributing bags of dates The situation of Iraq’s minorities remained bleak containing messages proclaiming their ‘Lord’s’ throughout 2015 as fighting continued between beneficence. Earlier, in a village at the the Iraqi government and allied forces, ISIS, end of May, a Coptic man was accused of posting and the Kurdish Peshmerga. While minorities cartoons offensive to the Prophet Muhammad have long suffered discrimination and the threat on Facebook, resulting in more than ten Coptic of targeted attacks, particularly since 2003, homes being attacked with rocks and Molotov the rise of ISIS in 2014 has led to a dramatic cocktails and the eventual forcible displacement deterioration in their situation. After the armed of Coptic families from the village. In May a group’s capture of Mosul in June 2014 and Shi’a dentist from Daqahlia governorate received subsequent expansion into Tel Afar, Sinjar and a six-month prison sentence for contempt of the Ninewa Plains, entire minority populations religion after authorities found in his home books were expelled from their historical homelands. and other items supposedly used to perform Shi’a In addition, minorities have been targeted for religious rituals. A week later, Shi’a cleric Taher egregious human rights violations, including al-Hashimy was arrested following a raid on his summary executions, kidnapping, rape, sexual apartment where books and other items were slavery and forced conversion. Large numbers of confiscated by security forces. An atheist student Iraq’s religious minorities, including Armenian was also given a three-year prison sentence in and Chaldo-Assyrian Christians, Bahá’i, Kaka’i, January for ‘belittl[ing] the divine’ through Sabean Mandaeans, Shabak, Turkmen and Facebook postings, an increasingly perilous Yezidis, remained displaced from their homes at activity. year’s end, living in either the Kurdistan region, Ethnic minorities also shared in a struggle the southern and central Iraqi governorates, or for greater social acceptance and political outside of the country. representation. For Egypt’s Nubian community, In March 2015, a report released by the UN the October parliamentary elections carried found that ISIS violations perpetrated against particular significance. Due to a reconfiguration Yezidis may amount to crimes of genocide, as of decades-old electoral constituencies three certain acts, including killings and the forcible months prior, New Nubia was assigned its own transfer of members of the community, appear to parliamentary seat, which in October was won have represented attempts to destroy the Yezidi by Yassine Abdel Sabour, the first Nubian MP minority. Mass graves containing the corpses in Egypt’s new parliament. While viewed as a of Yezidi men and women were discovered positive step, many Nubians expressed scepticism throughout the year. In the month of November as to whether the most urgent issues facing 2015 alone, at least six mass graves were the community would be addressed. During discovered in Sinjar after the area was retaken the construction of the High Dam in from ISIS control, one of which contained more the 1960s, the government forcibly relocated than 120 bodies. At year’s end, activists estimated Egyptian Nubians from their ancestral homeland the number of Yezidis still missing or in ISIS

190 Middle East and State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Middle East and 191 North Africa and Indigenous Peoples 2016 and Indigenous Peoples 2016 North Africa Left: Representatives of the Yezidis in Iraq pressure to assimilate into Kurdish culture or make a plea for support during a meeting with support the political aims of the Kurdish parties. European Parliament President Martin Schulz Assyrian Christians have also long complained in April 2015. European Union 2015 – European of Kurdish restrictions on their political and Parliament. cultural activities. In the southern governorates, too, Shabak have reported being prevented from Another devastating aspect of the conflict for taking part in religious rituals which they share minorities has been the systematic destruction with Shi’a Muslims. of symbols of their cultural, intellectual and Human rights groups now report that many religious heritage, part of the ISIS strategy to minorities are resorting to emigration outside of eliminate all remnants of diversity in the areas Iraq as a permanent solution. Despite the fact they control. Since the group’s takeover of Mosul that many areas that are home to minorities, in 2014, it has destroyed innumerable churches, such as Sinjar, have been recaptured from ISIS mosques, shrines, graves and other religious control, the numbers of minorities returning to and cultural sites. Throughout 2015, reports their homes has remained modest. The reality continued to emerge of the group looting and of displacement could pose a threat to the destroying mosques and churches in Mosul, in future vitality of certain minority languages and addition to numerous Kaka’i, Shabak and Yezidi cultures, especially those with a smaller number shrines in Sinjar and the Ninewa Plains. After of adherents. For example, rights groups have destroying an estimated 90 artifects from Mosul warned that the Sabean Mandaean culture is at Museum in February, most of them linked to the risk of extinction due to the mass emigration of Assyrian civilization, in March the group sparked community members, including religious leaders, international outrage and condemnation from and the difficulty of keeping religious rituals alive captivity to be between 3,500 and 4,000. While Representatives of the Turkmen community the UN when it proceeded to destroy the ancient in host countries outside of Iraq. As more and male Yezidi children have been forced to convert reported hundreds of kidnappings of men and city of Hatra and the historical Assyrian capital more areas are recaptured from ISIS control, it to Islam, indoctrinated in ISIS ideology and women by ISIS during the year, as well as a of Nimrud. On 15 July, the group reportedly remains to be seen whether the Iraqi and Kurdish trained to become fighters for the group, Yezidi massacre of Turkmen civilians in Mosul in ordered staff at the University of Mosul to governments will commit to addressing these women kidnapped by ISIS have been forced to August. burn more than a thousand Master’s and PhD grievances and making minorities full partners in convert to Islam and marry ISIS fighters, while The proliferation of Shi’a militias and other dissertations authored by Christian, Shabak and building a more inclusive political order. others have been sold or given away as sex slaves, paramilitary groups opposed to ISIS has itself Yezidi students. both in Iraq and Syria. ISIS has also targeted contributed to deepening sectarianism. During These systematic attempts to destroy Iraq’s Israel/Palestine other minority women for kidnapping and sexual the month of May, reports emerged that Shi’a diverse religious culture have had a deep Minorities in Israel and Palestine experienced violence, including Christian and Shi’a women, militias had set up checkpoints in Diyala and psychological impact on its minorities and continued hardship during 2015. Ahead of albeit in smaller numbers. For example, on 13 were harassing and assaulting Kurdish drivers affected their perceptions of the possibility Israel’s elections on 17 March subsequently March, ISIS reportedly killed nine Turkmen Shi’a and passengers, culminating in the killing of of rebuilding a future in Iraq. For some won by Benjamin Netanyahu and his right- women after they refused to marry ISIS fighters. three Kurdish drivers. The Turkmen community communities, the ISIS campaign is only wing Likud Party, Netanyahu issued a much On several occasions, ISIS retaliated against reported violations after an attack by the Kurdish the latest wave in a long history of forcible publicized warning that ‘Arab voters are coming minorities for engaging in cultural or religious Peshmerga on the city of Tuz Khurmatu, displacement and assimilatory cultural policies: out in droves to the polls’. This reflected a practices deemed inconsistent with their including burning and looting of Shi’a Turkmen- for example, under decades of Ba’athist rule, broader atmosphere of racist incitement against puritanical ideology. For example, on 21 March owned shops and the removal of Shi’a mourning non-Arab minorities, especially Kurds but also Palestinians that played a critical part in the the armed group abducted 56 Kurdish men flags and banners. According to Human Rights Assyrian Christians, Kaka’i and Yezidis, were election’s outcome. Nevertheless, the election for participating in celebrations of Nawroz, the Watch, the situation in Tuz Khurmatu worsened either forced to identify as Arabs or expelled was unprecedented in the inclusion of a major Kurdish New Year, demanding ransom payments after a car bombing in October, with clashes from their lands, while hundreds of their Palestinian party. Following a January Supreme for their release. On 15 April, ISIS killed two between armed groups drawing in civilians villages were systematically destroyed. Those Court ruling raising the minimum electoral Yezidi men in Mosul for exchanging greetings to on all sides. Attacks such as these are not displaced within Iraq and the Kurdish region threshold for parties to enter the Knesset, mark the Yezidi New Year. ISIS also undertook isolated incidents. Turkmen leaders have long also face multiple challenges to preserving their Palestinian citizens of Israel integrated their a systematic assault on other religious minorities complained of aggression from both the Iraqi identity. For example, many minority families four main political parties into a Joint List during the year. The UN documented at least and Kurdish authorities in Turkmen-majority now living in the Kurdish region are unable with a common platform in order to achieve 31 houses owned by Christians and destroyed areas, motivated by their desire to extend their to send their children to schools because of political representation. While, encouragingly, by ISIS in the Mosul area from May to October. control over those areas. the language barrier and also reportedly face their political concerns gained significance in

192 Middle East and State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Middle East and 193 North Africa and Indigenous Peoples 2016 and Indigenous Peoples 2016 North Africa for us to buy in our names.’ Furthermore, discourse surrounding the election, the Court’s arrivals of Jews to pray there. Sovereignty over Case study by Joana Dabaj the Orthodox Church is largely dependent ruling also effectively forced the abandonment of the religious site, known as the Temple Mount financially on personal donations, and in some their participation through multiple parties with in Judaism, is fiercely contested and of immense areas this source of revenue is increasingly under diverse ideologies and agendas. Furthermore, cultural importance to both Jews and Muslims. The struggle threat. The lack of fixed legal status for many though Palestinian citizens of Israel exercised The Israeli government responded to the unrest Christians in the Gulf, such as migrant workers, voting rights, Palestinians living under Israeli rule by placing restrictions on Muslim access to the of Christian reinforces the feeling of being a nomad even in the occupied territories – unlike Israeli settlers mosque, including a ban on men under the in one’s country of residence. ‘Everyone’, says living in their midst – remained without the age of 45 who wish to pray there on Friday – communities in the Hazim, ‘feels they are in a transitory state and right to vote. The grassroots ‘Real Democracy’ a decision strongly criticized in a resolution may have to move on at any moment.’ campaign, however, gave small numbers of adopted by UNESCO’s board. Middle East: an Despite the significant cultural contribution Palestinians in the occupied territories the ability Violence subsequently spread throughout Israel Christians have made in the region, Hazim to vote through volunteer Israeli proxies. and the occupied territories, with widespread interview with Bishop now sees the Christian presence under threat In November, steps were taken by Prime confrontations between Israeli security forces as external migration, much of it forced, has Minister Netanyahu to use legislation to erode and Palestinians, particularly in East Jerusalem Ghattas Hazim increased. ‘We feel there is a project to empty the rights of non-Jewish minorities in Israel by and around Hebron. Near-daily attacks on the Middle East of Christian people,’ he advancing the ‘Nation-State’ bill, which defines Israeli security personnel and civilians took says, arguing that certain groups are actively Israel as ‘the nation-state of the Jewish people’, place, primarily in the form of stone throwing Ghattas Hazim, Greek Orthodox Metropolitan attempting to trigger population movements. not of its citizens, of whom around one-fifth are and stabbings, while systemic violence against of Baghdad, Kuwait and their dependencies, To halt this, governments in the region must non-Jewish Palestinians. Similar ethno-nationalist Palestinians intensified, with an estimated plays an important role in supporting Christian first of all support the agreement of a ceasefire concerns appeared to guide other official policies 4,192 Palestinians – an average of 69 every communities across the Persian Gulf (also known in Syria to halt the violence. Providing adequate during the year, such as a parliamentary vote in day – shot by Israeli security forces from 1 as the Arabian Gulf). Extending across Iraq, humanitarian assistance to those displaced June to extend a law that enables the government October to 30 November. The same period Kuwait, Oman and Saudi Arabia, the Orthodox by conflict is also essential in ensuring their to refuse granting Israeli citizenship or residency saw 17 Israeli and 102 Palestinian fatalities. presence was originally established in 1961. survival and the eventual possibility of return. status to Palestinians who are married to Israelis. Human rights organizations raised concerns Today, however, the difficulties facing Christians ‘The current situation of families who fled In December, reports also emerged that the about attacks on Israeli civilians by Palestinians in the region are increasingly acute, even in areas their homes – our responsibility lies with Education Ministry had banned a novel featuring and excessive use of force by Israeli military and where they have long lived in relative stability. providing them with shelter, food, water and an Arab–Jewish romance from being used in police, condemning repressive police acts and Hazim’s own home city of Mhardeh in northern medication. The needs are very high and we high schools on the basis that it threatened ‘the extra-judicial killings. Amid ongoing tensions, Syria, where for centuries tens of thousands of need to mobilize all organizations, NGOs identity and heritage of students in every sector.’ celebrations in Bethlehem, a cherished centre of Christians resided, is now at the centre of the [non-governmental organizations] and CBOs While Palestinians in Israel with recognized cultural heritage for Palestinian Christians, were Syrian civil war. [community groups] to join these efforts.’ citizenship are still subjected to wide ranging marred by clashes on Christmas Day between Supporting the existence of Christian While forced migration is displacing whole discrimination in housing, social welfare, Israeli security and local youths. minorities in the Gulf region is no easy task, communities, the physical destruction of education, criminal justice and other areas of Throughout the year, numerous attacks against particularly with the rise of militant groups such churches, monasteries and shrines by extremists their lives, the difficulties facing Palestinians Muslim and Christian holy sites were perpetrated as ISIS. According to the Bishop, more than 90 is destroying evidence of their long history without Israeli citizenship in the Gaza Strip by extremists in Israel and so-called ‘price tag’ per cent of Orthodox Christians in Iraq have been in these countries. From Mosul and Nineva and the West Bank are even more acute – incidents – acts of violence or arson perpetrated displaced, leaving a much reduced community to in Iraq to Aleppo and Damascus in Syria, dispossession of land, restricted movement, by settler youths in the occupied territories. maintain their historic presence and rich cultural the devastation of their unique Christian prosecution by military courts and above all In February, for instance, a Greek Orthodox traditions in the country. But the pressures facing heritage is designed to permanently erase the the pervasive threat of violence from security seminary was set ablaze in Jerusalem, a day after Christian communities in Iraq are echoed in other identities of these communities. As Hazim personnel or ultra-nationalist settlers. This was a similar attack on a mosque near Bethlehem. countries too, and the recent rise of extremism is highlights, the speed and scale of this assault underlined by the death in July of 18-month old In June, another fire left a church in the Galilee not the only challenge they face. means that Christians, like other threatened Ali Dawabsha, who was murdered along with region containing fifth-century mosaics in ruins. In Iraq, the Orthodox Church is allowed to religious minorities in the region, need the full three family members in a firebomb attack on Olive trees, an important symbol of Palestinian own land, but in other Gulf countries it is denied support of governments and the international their home by settlers. resilience and rootedness to the land as well as a property rights and its presence is dependent communities. ‘What is needed,’ he concludes, A rise in violence between Israelis and vital source of livelihood, have also been targeted. on the continued allowance of the state. As ‘is far greater than what we could ever provide.’ Palestinians was sparked in Jerusalem on the eve In January alone, settlers reportedly uprooted or Hazim highlights, ‘Our churches in the Gulf This article is based on an interview with Bishop of the Jewish New Year, Rosh Hashanah, in mid vandalized around 5,600 trees in the West Bank, are not owned by us. As a result we are at the Ghattas Hazim, conducted in January 2016 and September when Israeli security forces entered representing 60 per cent of those attacked during mercy of the landlord, since there are no rights translated from to English. ■ the Al-Aqsa Mosque compound and clashed the whole of 2014, and eventually capped the with Palestinian youths protesting increased year by destroying 50 olive trees near Nablus.

194 Middle East and State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Middle East and 195 North Africa and Indigenous Peoples 2016 and Indigenous Peoples 2016 North Africa While these and other incidents pose a direct Palestinian land, restricting access to holy sites and rights situation, as armed groups carried out have already been numerous reports of attacks on threat to the survival of Palestinian heritage in threatening the very existence of affected villages. violations including kidnappings, arbitrary Sufi shrines, graves, and celebrations since 2011. the area, Palestinian cultural life remains vibrant. Also in the West Bank, continuously detentions, torture and unlawful executions with On 23 April 2015, militants bombed the ancient In 2015, Gaza held its first ever film festival. faced pressure by authorities pushing them impunity. With the signing of an agreement Al-Quds mosque in , a mosque frequented Focusing on human rights, it took place in the off their ancestral land in Area C, where Israel between the two ruling factions in December by Sufis. Shujaiyya neighbourhood, which remained retains exclusive control over security, planning 2015 to establish a unity government, Libya’s Black migrants and Libyans alike have also badly damaged by heavy fighting and Israeli and construction, while communities inside future stability hinges upon the new government’s been targeted by rebels due to the perception bombardment during the summer of 2014. Israel also continued to face home demolitions ability to establish an inclusive and functional that they fought on Gaddafi’s side in the The Arabic language, spoken by Palestinians and dispossession of their traditional semi- political system. This includes taking measures uprising, based on claims that he used African and many Mizrahim (Jews originating from the nomadic lifestyle, particularly in Naqab/Negev to end legacies of exclusion and discrimination mercenaries during the conflict. Following the Middle East and North Africa), has remained desert villages ‘unrecognized’ by Israel as legal. A against Libya’s minority groups. stationing of government forces in the town of intrinsic to the culture and identity of both significant Supreme Court ruling in May denied The state of prolonged conflict afflicting Tawergha in 2011, rebel forces retaliated against groups. Since the state’s founding in 1948, Bedouin indigenous land rights, solidifying Libya has allowed extremist groups, including the town, forcing more than 30,000 residents Arab – including Jewish-Arab – culture and legal justification for future expropriation of militias loyal to ISIS, to carve out an increasing to flee and leaving it a ghost town. Ever since, music has been widely censured and suppressed Palestinian land within Israel and the West presence in parts of the country. This has created the majority of Tawerghans have been forced in Israeli society, but for the first time ever, in Bank. By failing to acknowledge the distinct a dangerous situation for religious minorities to live in displacement camps scattered across summer 2015, a Mizrahi Arabic-language song historical and cultural heritage of the Bedouin, living in the country. On 15 February 2015, the country, and face ongoing harassment. The topped the music charts in Israel. While more the court failed to recognize the Al-Uqbi family’s a video released by an ISIS-affiliated group – UN documented multiple cases of abduction of and more young Arab Jews are now exploring ownership of a large plot of land including the depicting the massacre of 21 Coptic Christians, Tawerghan internally displaced people (IDPs) their cultural heritage, Mizrahi culture remains ‘unrecognized’ village of Al-Araqib, bulldozed mostly Egyptian nationals, on a beach on Libya’s in March and April 2015 after their identities widely denigrated, as evidenced before the for the 92nd time by the end of 2015. Earlier, in northern coast – sent shockwaves through the were discovered at checkpoints. In March, eight March election when openly racist remarks May, the Israeli Supreme Court also approved a region. An estimated 800,000–900,000 Egyptian civilians were reportedly killed when Libyan were made about the community by several state plan to demolish the ‘unrecognized’ village nationals were working in Libya at the time, but warplanes bombed a Tawerghan IDP camp. prominent Ashkenazi (Jews originating from Umm al-Hieran, to evict its residents and in its numerous reports of kidnapping of Egyptian However, in a positive development at the Central or Eastern Europe) leftists. The erasure place build a new Jewish town, and at the end Copts in late 2014 and early 2015 began to end of the year, the –Tawergha Joint of Palestinian cultural heritage continued of November the government approved a plan create a climate of fear. News of the February Committee adopted a Road Map Document with the removal of Arabic from street signs for five new settlements that threaten to displace massacre caused at least 33,000 Egyptians providing for the reconstruction of Tawergha in Be’er al-Sabe/Be’er Sheva, home to tens of thousands more Bedouin. However, in early to return home and prompted the Egyptian and the voluntary return of its residents to their thousands of Palestinian citizens of Israel, and 2016, when the government declared intentions government to launch retaliatory airstrikes. homes. Nevertheless, at the time of writing in East Jerusalem where, as tensions mounted in to develop a town over the ruins of a depopulated On 19 April 2015, another video was released concrete progress on the principles outlined in October, the city council approved new Hebrew Palestinian village, members of Israel’s Druze showing the beheadings and shooting of 28 the document had yet to be seen. street names as part of ongoing efforts to assert community, intended to be the new inhabitants Ethiopian and Eritrean Christians. On 3 June Amid the upheaval that has characterized control over Palestinian neighbourhoods. and having themselves historically faced state 2015, a further 86 Eritrean Christians were Libya’s tumultuous transition, the country’s Further efforts to dislocate Palestinians from confiscation of land, widely rejected the proposal. kidnapped south of Tripoli. Their whereabouts main ethnic minorities have become more active their land came in various forms. Protection and are still unknown. Incidents such as these and begun to assert an independent voice after relative impunity granted to settlers by Israeli Libya illustrate the heightened vulnerability faced by decades of marginalization under the Gaddafi authorities alongside continuous settlement Several years after the 2011 uprising that toppled sub-Saharan African migrants in Libya, who regime. This includes Tuaregs, who are nomadic expansion – over 900 new settlement housing former dictator Muammar Al-Gaddafi, Libya’s can be easily targeted by militias due to their pastoralist tribes living along Libya’s western units were approved in July – means destruction political landscape remains fractured. The power ethnicity, undocumented status or religion. border, and black African Tebu tribes inhabiting and expropriation of Palestinian property is set vacuum that emerged after the fall of Gaddafi Amnesty International has documented southern Libya. Nevertheless, relations between to continue. A rare victory was won in January, has led to the proliferation of armed groups, widespread abuses against migrants, asylum- minorities have at times turned violent. In the however, when the High Court of Justice each fighting for pockets of control across the seekers and refugees in Libya, ranging from southern town of Awbari, where Tuareg and Tebu indefinitely halted construction of a section of country. Conflict escalated into open warfare in threats, physical assaults and theft to abduction, live side by side, conflict that began in September Israel’s separation barrier through the ancient mid 2014 and led to the establishment of two torture and killing. Female migrants are 2014 culminated in the displacement of 18,500 agricultural terraces of the UNESCO-recognized rival governments in Tobruk and Tripoli, the particularly prone to sexual exploitation. people, most of whom were women, children West Bank village of Battir. The barrier has more former with international recognition and backed There are fears that the increased presence and the elderly. The conflict has been driven by broadly harmed Palestinian cultural rights and by armed militias under the ‘Operation Dignity’ of ISIS-affiliated groups in Libya could lead disputes between Tebu and Tuareg militias, who heritage by not only isolating and in some cases alliance, and the latter backed by ‘Libya Dawn’ to attacks on historical and religious sites, in overlap in Awbari, over oil and water resources, damaging archaeological sites as well as the natural militias. The continuation of fighting throughout attempts to emulate the campaign of destruction as well as control of the lucrative smuggling trade environment, but also by annexing large swathes of 2015 saw a further deterioration of the human unleashed by the group in Iraq and Syria. There in arms, drugs and migrants. In July, a week of

196 Middle East and State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Middle East and 197 North Africa and Indigenous Peoples 2016 and Indigenous Peoples 2016 North Africa clashes between Tuareg and Tebu in the town with the government or the opposition. The Christian villages along the Khabour River in the Case study by Miriam Puttick of Sebha left over 40 people dead. According to increased involvement of international actors north-eastern Al-Hasakah governorate. According the Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre in Syria, including Saudi Arabia and Iran, has to Assyrian news outlets, the armed group (IDMC), there are also 4,800 IDPs in protracted further amplified these tensions. The launching kidnapped 253 Assyrians, including many women Increasing displacement who have been unable to return of Russian airstrikes in support of the Assad and children, caused an estimated 3,000 to flee to their homes since the January 2014 clashes government, a key development in 2015, has also the area and destroyed 11 churches. Although recognition for between the Tebu and Awlad Suleiman tribe, led to shockingly high civilian casualty levels, the villages were subsequently recaptured from who may have been re-displaced during the leading rights groups to criticize Russia’s apparent ISIS, very few Assyrian Christians returned. On Libya’s Imazhigen renewed conflict. Although a ceasefire negotiated targeting of residential areas in which no military 23 September, ISIS released a video showing with the help of Qatar in November promises targets were present. Turkmen community the execution of three Assyrian Christian men to end fighting and provide for the return of representatives also accused Russia of targeting kidnapped in February. As of December 2015, While Libya’s fledgling democracy has struggled displaced people to Awbari, sporadic clashes have Turkmen civilians in an attempt to ethnically 105 still remained in captivity. On 6 August, to establish a stable transition from Gaddafi’s continued to erupt. cleanse their community from the north-west of ISIS captured the town of Qaryatain, near Homs, dictatorship, there have nevertheless been some the country. kidnapping at least 230 civilians, including positive developments for the country’s minority Syria Minorities have been caught in the middle dozens of Assyrian Christians. ISIS later released and indigenous communities, specifically in Syria’s diverse ethnic and religious minorities of this sectarian climate and their loyalties a charter for the town’s Christian inhabitants, terms of securing recognition of their distinct include Alawites, Christians, Druze, Ismailis, are divided. While many have sided with the imposing jizya (tribute) payments and restricting cultural identity and language rights. This is Kurds, Turkmen, Twelver Shi’a and Yezidis. Assad government, viewing it as the only viable their rights to religious expression. particularly the case for the Imazighen (; Since the outbreak of armed conflict in 2011, guarantor of their security, other members Anti-government armed groups have reserved singular Amazigh), long marginalized under the Syria’s minorities have suffered alongside the of minorities have been vocal members of some of their most vicious treatment for Gaddafi regime. For decades, the existence of majority Sunni Muslim population from the opposition. Minority activists have been Alawites and other Shi’a minorities, due to their the Imazighen as a distinct indigenous group spiralling violence and the humanitarian crisis arbitrarily arrested, detained incommunicado and perceived association with the Assad government. was denied: the Tamazight language could caused by the war. While government forces tortured in Assad’s prisons alongside their Sunni Towards the end of March, Jabhat Al-Nusra and not be taught in schools, children could not have deliberately and indiscriminately targeted Muslim counterparts. Some minority detainees Free Syrian Army forces took control of Busra be registered with non-Arab names and books densely populated areas, leading to devastating have reported being subjected to particularly Al-Sham in Daraa governorate. Killings and written in Tamazight were destroyed. civilian death tolls and the destruction of vital harsh treatment by interrogators on account of kidnappings of Shi’a civilians were documented Since the fall of Gaddafi, bolstered by infrastructure including hospitals and schools, their identity, in addition to religious and ethnic in the previous months, while Shi’a married to Amazigh activism, there has been a revival in use armed groups fighting against the government slurs. Sunnis were threatened with death or sexual of the language as schools offering Tamazight have also targeted civilians and obstructed Since 2014, the rising power of extremist violence once the town fell. On 31 March, lessons have been established, language textbooks humanitarian aid flows. Hundreds of civilians armed groups and their expansion into ISIS attacked Mabouja in Hama governorate, have been printed and Tamazight media outlets have also been killed or injured in international increasingly large swathes of the country has a town with a large Ismaili population, killing have flourished. A law passed in 2013 recognized coalition airstrikes against ISIS. As of October meant that minorities are increasingly prone to an estimated 46 civilians and abducting 50 the Tamazight, Tuareg and Tebu languages 2015, more than 250,000 people had been grave human rights violations from militants. others, including 10 Ismailis. In April, Jabhat and upheld the right of minorities to receive killed in the conflict, of which nearly half were Groups such as ISIS and Jabhat Al-Nusra Al-Nusra and other armed groups attacked the education in their mother tongue as a voluntary civilians. Over 4 million Syrians have been made have imposed a reign of terror on minorities predominantly Alawite village of Ishtabraq in option. In August 2015, the first democratic refugees, while a further 7.5 million are internally in the areas they control, suppressing freedom Idlib Governorate, killing civilians as they fled elections for the Amazigh Supreme Council were displaced. of religion and singling them out for attack, and blowing up Alawite shrines. After capturing held, and a body formed equally of men and Targeted attacks against minorities were not while imposing harsh punishments on all those the city of Deir Ez-Zour in May, ISIS carried women was created. a central part of the conflict in its early stages, who oppose their control. Moreover, they have out public executions of Alawite and Shi’a men The challenge of Amazigh leaders remains although certain minorities may have been systematically destroyed innumerable historical accused of fighting for the government. securing recognition for their rights at the more exposed to violence. For example, due and religious sites in an attempt to destroy all Syria’s Druze population, concentrated in the national and societal level, including by ensuring to their concentration in urban centres such as traces of minority cultural heritage. southern governorate of Suweida as well as Idlib, that the future Constitution includes Tamazight Aleppo, Damascus and Homs, which have been Syria’s Christians have faced kidnappings of has largely avoided openly taking sides in the as an official language. Imazighen have the scene of intense fighting, a large number of their religious leaders throughout the conflict, conflict. Most have been reluctant to enlist in already boycotted the Constitutional Drafting Syria’s Christians have fled the country. However, while some of their towns have been consumed Assad’s army, fearing they would be sent to fight Committee, followed recently by Tuaregs and many argue that the actions of the government by fighting between government and anti- on distant battlefronts and risk creating tensions Tebu, due to what they see as the assembly’s led by President Bashar Al-Assad escalated the government forces. The advance of ISIS into with their Sunni neighbours. The community’s exclusionary approach and lack of commitment sectarian dimensions of the conflict, leading to further Christian-majority areas in 2015 led to increasingly vocal resistance to conscription to minority rights. ■ indiscriminate attacks against civilians on the an upsurge in kidnappings and other violations. throughout 2015 has left it at loggerheads with basis of their identity and perceived association On 23 February, ISIS attacked 35 Assyrian the government, while opening it to attack by

198 Middle East and State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Middle East and 199 North Africa and Indigenous Peoples 2016 and Indigenous Peoples 2016 North Africa anti-government armed groups. On 10 June, supermarkets. In turn, the children of these extended blockade that prevented essential Jabhat Al-Nusra fighters killed 30 Druze in Case study by Kat Eghdamian families face bullying at school and compulsory food, medicine and fuel supplies from entering the village of Qalba Loza, Idlib governorate. religious training in Islam, while women have the country. Amid widespread allegations Inhabitants of the village had previously faced reported being questioned by neighbours and of human rights abuses and violations of pressures by the armed group to renounce their Jordan: experiences other refugees as to why they are not veiled. international humanitarian law by all parties faith. Militants also destroyed shrines and dug up Despite initial hopes of return to their to the conflict, Yemen has been consumed by a Druze graves. of Syria’s Christian homeland, many now feel there is no home major humanitarian crisis. Between March and As in Iraq, the course of the conflict in Syria to return to. Syrian neighbourhoods that were the end of the year there were over 6,000 deaths has involved the widespread destruction of and Druze refugees previously well known as Christian havens and 28,000 injuries, with more than 2.5 million places of worship and other sites of cultural or clusters for Druze communities have people internally displaced and an estimated 21.2 heritage. While the demolition of large sections either been razed to the ground or remain million Yemenis – more than four-fifths of the of Palmyra, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, Of the more than 4 million Syrians battlegrounds between different sides of the population – in need of humanitarian assistance. by ISIS between May and October attracted internationally displaced by the crisis, little is conflict. From the castle of Krak des Chevaliers The Houthi movement, rooted in long- international condemnation, it was only part known about the fate of religious minorities in Homs to the ancient Saint Elian Monastery standing grievances about the perceived of a wider assault by militants on heritage that among the refugee population. This is of near Qaryatain founded over 1,500 years ago, socio-economic marginalization of Yemen’s has seen the destruction of countless places of growing concern since the Syrian conflict is many of the physical sites associated with underdeveloped north, is named after the worship, statues and other artifects associated increasingly being waged across sectarian lines, ancient Christianity are being destroyed. In late Hussein Al Houthi, a former member of with religious minorities. These have also directly influencing the experiences of displaced this context, the importance of maintaining parliament who subsequently led the insurgency provided the group with an important source of Syrians both within and outside its borders. Due religious freedom and cultural heritage is more against the government at the beginning of revenue, with some reports suggesting that illegal to the lack of reliable figures on the number important than ever, with minority refugees what became known as the Saada war before trade in antiquities was the second-largest source of Syrian refugees from different religious playing a vital role as carriers and preservers of his death in 2004. While conflict has been of finance for ISIS after oil, reaching volumes communities, it is unclear exactly how many their traditions. ongoing, the group’s activities escalated in 2011 of over US$100 million a year. Nevertheless, religious minorities have been displaced by the Although religious communities, such as and in ensuing years forces gained control over despite the notoriety ISIS has created through conflict, though unofficial estimates based on churches, offer extra support and help to large swathes of the country. While the Houthi these acts, the Syrian Network for Human the country’s pre-conflict population equates to these refugees, many express despair about rebellion has presented its grievances as primarily Rights reported during the year that government hundreds of thousands of people. their plight in Jordan and the prospects for political rather than religious, the fact that the forces were in fact responsible for the majority A recent study, published by the UCL the future. Recognizing the need to maintain large majority of its members are Zaidi Shi’a, of attacks on houses of worship. By the end Migration Unit, on the situation of Syrian their culture, local religious communities are fighting against a Sunni-dominated government, of April 2015, of the 63 targeted churches Christian and Syrian Druze refugees living in offering language and culture classes for Syrian has meant the conflict has taken on increasingly documented by the monitoring group, 40 were urban centres across Jordan found that religious Christian refugees – a great source of support sectarian dimensions. This has been exacerbated attacked by government forces compared to 14 minorities face specific vulnerabilities and and familiarity. However, for Syrian Druze by the military involvement of Saudi Arabia, and by ISIS, Jabhat al-Nusra and other extremist challenges in displacement. For instance, out of refugees, there appear to be few or no religious its hostility towards Iran. As a result, in areas organizations, as well as another 14 by armed fear of targeted attacks, many are not entering or cultural support networks directly available. such as Sana’a where different Muslim groups opposition groups. Moreover, as early as June refugee camps or registering with UN agencies. Many also lamented the discrimination they previously coexisted with relatively little friction, 2013 the group recorded that government forces Instead, a large proportion choose to live in experienced in their host communities as sectarian tensions within communities have had already attacked 1,451 mosques, of which private homes or gather together in religious a result of misunderstandings about their reportedly become more common. 348 were completely destroyed. buildings such as monasteries, restricting their religious beliefs. The conflict has also resulted in the damage access to humanitarian services and protection. As Jordan continues to host over 600,000 and destruction of significant cultural sites and Yemen With rent prices rising with the influx of Syrian refugees, there is a need to ensure the heritage in Yemen, including those connected to Yemen’s conflict escalated further during 2015, refugees, many are forced to move to the divisions causing the displacement into the minority communities, such as the 1,200-year‑old with devastating consequences for its civilian peripheries of cities. country do not continue to brew discontent Al-Hadi mosque in Saada, the oldest Shi’a centre population. In the wake of significant advances For those who remain in Jordan and do and conflict within its borders. Targeted of learning on the Arabian Peninsula, which was during 2014 by rebel Houthi forces, culminating not make the journey onward to Europe strategies are urgently required to support struck by coalition airstrikes in May. In June the in the capture of the capital Sana’a in September, and elsewhere, many face social exclusion, tolerance and religious freedom among Director-General of UNESCO, Irina Bokova, President Abd-Rabbu Mansour Hadi resigned in stigmatization and discrimination. In refugee population. Indeed, the treatment condemned coalition airstrikes for repeatedly January 2015 before fleeing south in February particular, Syrian Christian and Syrian Druze of Syria’s religious minorities will have wider striking cultural heritage sites, and on 22 July to Aden. An international coalition led by refugees are regularly subjected to verbal and implications, beyond security concerns, for UNESCO announced an emergency plan to Saudi Arabia subsequently launched ‘Operation physical harassment, including being called the future of religious diversity and cultural safeguard the country’s unique cultural heritage Decisive Storm’ at the end of March in support kafir (infidel) and refused service at local heritage in the Middle East. ■ from damage caused by fighting, shelling and of Hadi, including aerial bombings and an bombing.

200 Middle East and State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Middle East and 201 North Africa and Indigenous Peoples 2016 and Indigenous Peoples 2016 North Africa Left: Yemeni Jews. BBC World Service.

Anti-Israeli sentiment has also driven the persecution of Bahá’i, who number around 1,000 people in Yemen. On January 2015, a formal indictment was issued against Hamed Kamal bin Haydara, a Bahá’i Yemeni, accusing him of being an Iranian citizen working on behalf of the Israeli government – a common accusation levelled at members of the community due to the location of the Bahá’i World Centre in the cities of ‘Akká and Haifa in Israel. The charges come following more than a year in detention without trial following Haydara’s arrest in December 2013, during which he has reportedly been subjected to sustained torture by prison guards. Ethnic discrimination is also entrenched within Yemeni society. As the conflict has intensified, the situation of Yemen’s Muhamasheen – ‘marginalized ones’ in Arabic – has become even more precarious. A visible minority commonly believed to be of African descent and also known pejoratively as Akhdam (‘servants’), their lives have long been characterized by deep-seated poverty and exclusion. Having largely made their homes in shantytowns on the outskirts of urban centres, many Muhamasheen were concentrated Extremist groups such as Al Qaeda in the The conflict has also placed increasing pressure in the cities worst affected by the conflict. Aden, Arabian Peninsula (AQAP) and Islamic State (IS) on Yemen’s Jewish community. The ancient Saada and Taiz had especially large numbers of in Yemen have also exploited rising insecurity community, numbering as many as 50,000 in Muhamasheen, who became internally displaced to expand their influence in the south, where, the 1940s, has now shrunk to a few dozen, who when coalition airstrikes began pounding their alongside other acts of destruction, AQAP face widespread hostility from large sections of neighbourhoods in those cities in March and militants reportedly left the 800-year-old tomb Yemeni society, due in part to the conflation April. of Sufi scholar Sufyan bin Abdullah in Lahij in of the Jewish faith with Zionism. For many In the absence of access to tribal or other ruins. Mosques in Sana’a frequented by Houthi within the community, fears of attack have also informal networks of patronage, with the supporters were also targeted by IS bomb attacks intensified since the Houthi takeover. Due to deepening humanitarian crisis Muhamasheen throughout the year, including an attack on 20 fear of harassment, Jews have tended to conceal have struggled to access basic services or other March in which at least 137 people were killed in visible markers of their identity in public, such as support mechanisms. While the risk for all a series of coordinated attacks on Shi’a mosques sidelocks, and have been confined to practising civilians is high, the experience of displacement in the capital. This incident was followed by religious rituals in the privacy of their homes. for Muhamasheen has differed considerably from similar attacks throughout the year, including a The unique cultural traditions for which the that of other Yemenis, with community members suicide bombing in September that reportedly left community has historically been renowned in facing discrimination and in some cases even at least 25 people dead. In July IS also claimed Yemen and further afield, such as metalworking denial of access to aid distribution. Displaced responsibility for a car bomb in Sana’a striking and, in particular, the handcrafting of silver Muhamasheen have been forced to find shelter a Dawoodi Ismaili mosque, in reprisal for what jewellery, are close to disappearing. In this on open ground or in disused buildings. Activists the group claimed was Ismaili support for the context, many of those remaining now wish and community members have also reported Houthis. Similar incidents have occurred in the to leave the country. In March 2016, reports young girls being coerced into early marriages south of the country, including the demolition of emerged that the Israeli government had secretly to support their families, as well as the forcible an empty Catholic church in Aden by suspected airlifted 17 Yemeni Jews out of the country, recruitment of boys to fight for various armed militants in December. leaving just 50 community members in Yemen. groups. ■

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