Moüjmtaiim Operations

L f\f¿ áfó b^i,. ‘<& t¿ ytn) ¿L0d àw 1 /1 ^ / / /This publication contains copyright material. *FM 90-6 FieW Manual HEADQUARTERS No We DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY Washington, DC, 30 June 1980 MOÜJMTAIIM OPERATIONS PREFACE he purpose of this rUanual is to describe how US Army forces fight in mountain regions. Conditions will be encountered in mountains that have a significant effect on. military operations. Mountain operations require, among other things^ special equipment, special training and acclimatization, and a high decree of self-discipline if operations are to succeed. Mountains of military significance are generally characterized by rugged compartmented terrain witn\steep slopes and few natural or manmade lines of communication. Weather in these mountains is seasonal and reaches across the entireSspectrum from extreme cold, with ice and snow in most regions during me winter, to extreme heat in some regions during the summer. AlthoughNthese extremes of weather are important planning considerations, the variability of weather over a short period of time—and from locality to locahty within the confines of a small area—also significantly influences tactical operations. Historically, the focal point of mountain operations has been the battle to control the heights. Changes in weaponry and equipment have not altered this fact. In all but the most extreme conditions of terrain and weather, infantry, with its light equipment and mobility, remains the basic maneuver force in the mountains. With proper equipment and training, it is ideally suited for fighting the close-in battfe commonly associated with mountain warfare. Mechanized infantry can\also enter the mountain battle, but it must be prepared to dismount and conduct operations on foot. *This publication supersedes FM 31-72, 19 May 1964. « . : I Pbíaáaásfti \ r^rzi 1A&I& Faaicgiso; Helicopter units of all types can operate in the mountains to support ground maneuver. However, their effectiveness may be degraded by altitude and rugged terrain as well as by weather conditions. Ad- ditionally, mountain flying produces added fatigue for flightcrews. Special training in the combined hazards of variable winds and rugged terrain is required. Combat support and combat service support functions are further complicated by the mountain environment. Lines of communication to support heavy vehicles are limited, as are suitable firing positions for field artillery and air defense artillery units. Support areas are often fragmented along valley corridors, making coordination more difficult and increasing vulnerability to attack. In the mountains, greater dependence is placed on resupply and medical evacuation using aviation assets. Commanders must understand how severe environmental conditions impact on the capabilities of their units. Special training will be required for all personnel; and, in many cases, special clothing and equipment may also be needed. This manual tells commanders how to prepare for and conduct mountain operations. Provisions of this publication are the subject of international standardization agreements ( See Appendix A for listing ). When amendment, revision, or cancellation of this publication is proposed which will affect or violate the international agreement concerned, the preparing activity will take appropriate reconciliation action through international standardization channels. Readers are encouraged to submit substantive comments and recom- mended changes on DA Form 2028. Submit directly to Commander, US Army Combined Arms Center, ATTN: ATZLCA-DL, Fort Leaven- worth, Kansas 66027. The word "he" or "his" in this publication is intended to include both the masculine and feminine genders and any exception to this will be so noted. FM 90-6 MOUNTAIN OPERATIONS CONTENTS Page PREFACE .. i CHAPTER 1. THE ENVIRONMENT AND ITS EFFECTS ON PERSONNEL AND EQUIPMENT 1-1 THE ENVIRONMENT 1-1 Terrain 1-3 Climate and Weather 1-6 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS ON PERSONNEL 1-9 Conditioning and Acclimitization 1-9 Behavioral Effects and Psychological Adjustment 1-9 Sun, Snow, and Wind Effects 1-10 Medical Considerations 1-11 Hygiene and Sanitation 1-13 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS ON EQUIPMENT 1-14 Vehicles 1-14 Clothing and Equipment 1-16 Batteries 1-16 Communications, Fire Control, and Other Precision Equipment 1-17 CHAPTER 2. PREPARATION FOR MOUNTAIN OPERATIONS .... 2-1 FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED 2-2 TRAINING REQUIREMENTS 2-3 All Personnel 2-4 Leaders and Staff 2-5 , Special Training 2-6 CHAPTER 3. MOUNTAIN OPERATIONS 3-1 HOW THE MOUNTAIN ENVIRONMENT AFFECTS TACTICAL OPERATIONS 3-2 Objectives 3-2 Mobility 3-2 Maneuver Forces 3-4 Observation and Fields of Fire 3-4 Reconnaissance and Security 3-5 * iii CONTENTS (CONT.) Page Cover and Concealment 3-6 Assembly Areas and Bivouac Sites 3-7 Command and Control 3-8 THE ENEMY IN MOUNTAIN OPERATIONS 3-8 Characteristics of Enemy Mountain Operations 3-9 How the Enemy Attacks 3-10 How the Enemy Defends 3-13 Summary 3-15 HOW TO ATTACK IN THE MOUNTAINS 3-15 Fundamentals of Offensive Operations in the Mountains 3-16 Forms of Maneuver 3-18 Types of Offensive Operations 3-19 Attack Example 3-23 Summary 3-27 * HOW TO DEFEND IN THE MOUNTAINS 3-27 Fundamentals of Defensive Operations 3-28 Organization of the Defense 3-29 Preparation for the Defense 3-32 Defense Example 3-32 CHAPTER 4. COMBAT SUPPORT 4-1 FIELD ARTILLERY 4-1 Fire Support 4-3 Fire Planning 4-3 Fire Control 4-3 Observation of Fire 4-4 Targets 4-4 Positioning 4-4 TACTICAL AIR SUPPORT 4-5 Counterair 4-5 Tactical Air Reconnaissance 4-5 FM 90-6 CONTENTS (CONT.) Page Air Interdiction 4-5 Close Air Support 4-6 Tactical Airlift 4-6 AIR DEFENSE ARTILLERY 4-6 Terrain Analysis 4-6 Employment 4-6 Target Acquisition and Data Transfer 4-8 ENGINEERS 4-8 Engineer Augmentation and Employment 4-9 Mobility Operations 4-9 Countermobility 4-10 Survivability 4-13 General Engineering 4-13 COMMUNICATIONS 4-14 Communication Means 4-14 Techniques for Radio Operation in Mountainous Environments 4-16 Antennas and Grounds 4-16 CHAPTER 5. COMBAT SERVICE SUPPORT 5-1 GENERAL 5-1 Preparation 5-1 Support Base 5-2 Trains 5-2 Security of Main Supply Routes 5-3 Supply 5-3 Maintenance 5-4 Transportation 5-5 Health Services 5-5 APPENDIX A. REFERENCES A-1 DEPARTMENT OF ARMY PUBLICATIONS AND FILMS A-1 Field Manuals (FM) A-1 v CONTENTS (CONT.) Page Training Circulars (TC) A-3 Technical Bulletins (TB) A-3 Training Films (TF) A-3 IMPLEMENTED AND RELEVANT INTERNATIONAL STANDARDIZATION AGREEMENTS A-4 APPENDIX B. CLOTHING AND EQUIPMENT B-1 INDIVIDUAL CLOTHING B-2 Cold Wet Uniform B-2 Cold Dry Uniform B-3 Mountain Uniform B-3 Commercial Mountain Clothing B-3 INDIVIDUAL EQUIPMENT B-4 Individual Cold Weather Equipment B-4 Individual Mountain Equipment B-4 Commercial Mountain Equipment B-5 ORGANIZATIONAL EQUIPMENT B-5 Organizational Cold Weather Equipment B-5 Organizational Mountain Equipment B-7 Commercial Mountain Equipment B-7 TYPE LOADS FOR INDIVIDUALS B-7 APPENDIX C. EMPLOYMENT OF MOUNTAINEERS C-1 TRAINING REQUIREMENTS C-1 Basic Mountaineering C-1 Advanced Mountaineering C-2 CAPABILITIES OF CLIMBERS C-2 Installation Party Members C-2 Fixed Alpine Paths C-3 Guides C-3 Observers and Scouts C-3 Patrols C-3 CONTENTS (CONT.) Page Assault Climbers C-4 UTILIZATION OF CLIMBERS C-5 APPENDIX D. ARMY AVIATION D-1 OPERATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS D-1 Attack Helicopter Operations D-1 Command, Control, and Communications Operations D-1 Intelligence D-2 Mobility D-2 Logistics D-2 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS D-2 Terrain D-2 Weather D-2 APPENDIX E. NUCLEAR, BIOLOGICAL, AND CHEMICAL (NBC) CONSIDERATIONS E-1 Nuclear E-1 Biological E-2 Chemical E-2 APPENDIX F. AVALANCHES F-1 CAUSES OF AVALANCHES F-1 Terrain F-1 Cornices F-3 Vegetation F-4 Exposure F-4 Climate and Weather F-4 Avalanche Triggers F-5 TYPES OF AVALANCHES F-5 APPENDIX G. PRINCIPAL MOUNTAINS OF THE WORLD AND MOUNTAINOUS COUNTRIES OF EURASIA ... G-1 Principal Mountains of the World (table) G-1 Mountainous Countries of Eurasia (table) G-12 VII CHAPTER 1 THE ENVIRONMENT AND ITS EFFECTS ON PERSONNEL AND EQUIPMENT >rv r-i V^- Q 1/V «5- The Environment T here is no simple system available for classifying mountain environments. The specific characteristics of each major mountain range are determined by its soil composition, surface configuration, altitude, latitude, and climatic pattern. Some mountains, such as those found in desert regions, are dry and barren with CONTENTS temperatures ranging from extreme heat in the summer to extreme cold in the winter. In THE ENVIRONMENT 1-1 tropical regions, mountains are frequently ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS covered by lush jungles with heavy seasonal ON PERSONNEL 1-9 rains and little temperature variation. High, rocky crags, with glaciated peaks and year- ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS ON EQUIPMENT 1-14 nd snow cover, can be found in mountain - .iges at most latitudes along the western portion of the Americas and in Asia. 1-1 FM 90-6 The principal mountain ranges of the Farther south, the Andes stretch as a world lie along broad belts as shown below. continuous, narrow band along the western Called “cordilleras,” after the Spanish word region of South America. Narrower than its for rope, they encircle the Pacific basin and counterpart in the north, this range is less then lead westward across Eurasia into than 800 kilometers wide. However, it con- North Africa. Secondary, though less tinuously exceeds an altitude of 3,000 meters rugged, chains of mountains lie along the for a distance of 3,200 kilometers. Atlantic margins of America and Europe. Only Africa and Australia lack major In its western extreme, the Eurasian mountain ranges, although there is a mountain belt includes the Pyrenees, Alps, relatively mountainous zone in the eastern Balkans, and Carpathian ranges of Europe.

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