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Table of Contents

Introduction 1

Chapter 1 - Railway Development 5 1.1 Introduction 7 1.2 Determinants of Transportation Development 9 1.3 Pre-Railway Transportation in North America 10 1.4 Physical Determinants of Land Movement 12 1.5 North American Railway Development and Impacts 15 1.6 Developments of the Twentieth Century 19 1.7 Development of Canadian Railways 21 1.8 Mexican Railway Development 23 1.9 Institutional Controls 24 1.10 History of Railway Bridge Engineering 25 1.11 New Technology – Bridge Developments in the Last Twenty Years 27 1.11.1 Existing Railway Bridges: Inspection and Assessment 27 1.11.2 New Railway Bridges: Materials, Design, Fabrication and Construction 28 1.12 Trade Journals 29 1.13 Other References 30

Chapter 2 - Railway Industry Overview 31 2.1 Introduction 33 2.2 Railway Companies 33 2.2.1 Organization of a Railway Company 34 Transportation Department 35 Engineering Department 36 Mechanical Department 37 Marketing Department 37 2.3 Regulatory Agencies and Railway Associations 38 2.3.1 Regulatory Agencies 38 United States 38 Canada 39 2.3.2 Railroad Associations 39 AAR and RAC 39 AREMA 40 REMSA 40 RSSI 40 2.4 Operations of Railways 41 2.4.1 Safety First in Railway Operations 41 2.4.2 Bibles of the Railways for Safe Operations 42 2.4.3 Tracks and Authority of Movements 43 2.4.4 Speeds 45 2.4.5 Rail Traffic Control Systems 46 Radio Communication of Orders 46 Train Spacing and Block Separation 46 Circuit 47 Signal Block Length 47 Centralized Traffic Control 48 Additional Information 49 2-5 Railway Cars 49 2.5.1 Freight Cars 49 Boxcars 50 Insulated Boxcars and Mechanical Reefers 50 Intermodal Cars – Piggyback Trailers and Containers 50 Flat Cars 51 Auto Rack Cars 52 Gondola Cars 52 Hopper Cars 52 Rotary Gondola/Hopper Cars 52 Tank Cars 52 Maintenance-of-Way Cars 53 Schnabel Cars 53 2.5.2 Hazardous Commodities 53 2.5.3 Passenger Cars 53 2.6 Locomotives 54 2.6.1 Horsepower (hp) and Tractive Effort 55 2.6.2 Tractive Force and Adhesion 55

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2.6.3 Drawbar Pull 56 2.6.4 Train Resistance 56 Rolling Resistance 56 Davis Formula 57 Starting Resistance 57 Grade Resistance 58 Curve Resistance 58 2.6.5 Compensated Grade 58 2.6.6 Acceleration and Balance Speed 59 2.6.7 Tonnage Ratings of Locomotives 60 2.6.8 Ruling Grade 60 2.6.9 Momentum Grade 60 2.6.10 Power to Stop 61 2.7 Traffic Systems 62 2.7.1 Priority of 63 2.7.2 Effects Of Sharing Tracks By Freight And Passenger Trains Vs. Track Of Single Use 64 2.7.3 Overcoming The Delays That Occur In Freight Yards 65

Chapter 3 - Basic Track 67 3.1 Track Components 69 3.1.1 Rail 69 Identification of Rail 70 3.1.2 Ties 72 Timber Ties 72 Concrete Ties 75 Steel Ties 75 Alternative Material Ties 76 3.1.3 Ballast Section 76 3.1.4 Rail Joints 78 Standard Joints 79 Compromise Joints 79 Insulated Joints 80 3.1.5 Tie Plates 82 3.1.6 Rail Anchors 83 3.1.7 Fasteners 83 Spikes 84 Bolts 85 3.1.8 Specialized components 85 86 Wheel Stops and Bumping Posts 86 Gauge rods 87 Sliding (Conley) Joints 87 Mitre Rail 87 Bridge/tunnel/overpass guard rails 88 3.2 Turnouts 88 3.2.1 Types of Turnouts 88 Basic Turnout Terminology 89 3.2.2 Switch 90 3.2.3 Switching Mechanism 91 3.2.4 Turnout Rails 91 3.2.5 Frog 92 Rail bound manganese (RBM) 92 Spring Frog 93 Solid Manganese Self-guarded Frog 93 Bolted Rigid Frogs 94 Movable Point Frogs 94 Determining Frog Number 94 3.2.6 Switch Ties 95 3.2.7 Stock Rails 95 3.2.8 Switch Points 96 Identifying Left or Right Hand Points 97 3.2.9 Specialty Components 97 Switch Clips 97 Switch Rods 97 Types of Switch Rods 98 Connecting Rod 98

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3.2.10 Special Turnout Plates 99 Gauge Plates 99 Switch Plates 100 Rail Braces 100 Heel Block Assembly 101 Turnout Plates 101 Hook Twin Tie Plates 101 Frog Plates 102 3.2.11 Guard Rails 102 3.2.12 Switch Stands 103 Spring Switch 103 3.3 Railway Crossings & Crossovers 104 3.4 Highway Crossings 106 3.4.1 Crossing Construction And Reconstruction 108 3.4.2 Crossing Warning Devices 110 3.5 Utility Crossings 111 3.6 112 3.6.1 Gage 114 3.6.2 Alignment 115 Full Body of the Curve 116 Transition of the Curve 117 Curve Elevation 117 3.6.3 Surface 118 3.7 Safety 120 3-8 Maintenance Activities 122 3.8.1 Track Disturbance 124 3.8.2 Track Disturbance Activities 125 3.8.3 Rail Lubrication 126 3.8.4 Rail Grinding 127 3.8.5 Rail Defect Testing 128 3.8.6 Geometry Cars 128 3.8.7 Gauge Restraint Measuring System (GRMS) 129 3.8.8 Vegetation Control 129 3.8.9 ROW Stabilization & Drainage 131 3.8.10 Welding 132 3-9 Production Gangs 133 3.9.1 Production Rail Gang 134 3.9.2 Production Tie Gang 136 3.9.3 Production Undercutting 138 3.9.4 Production Surfacing Gangs 139 3.9.5 Road Crossing Renewal Gangs 142 3.9.6 Turnout Renewal 143 3.9.7 New Track Construction/Cutout New Track Construction /Cutovers 144 References: 147

Chapter 4 - Right-of-Way & Roadway 149 4.1 Introduction 151 4.2 Right-of-Way 152 4.2.1 Right-of-Way Width 152 4.2.2 Fences 153 4.2.3 Utilities 154 4.2.4 Vegetation 154 4.3 Roadway 155 4.3.1 Soils 155 Definition 155 Soil Types 157 Major Soil Divisions 157 Soil Texture and Composition 160 4.3.2 Geotechnical Processes 161 The Concept of Stress and Strain 161 Effective Stress 162 The Effect of Porewater Pressure 162 Clays 163 Sand and Gravel 163 Silt 164 Soil Behavior Under Rapid Loading 164 Effect of Shear Strain 164 Settlement 165 Seepage 166

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4.3.3 Track Structure 167 Historical Background 167 Components and Functions 168 Subgrade 169 Sub-ballast 170 How Track Fails 170 4.3.4 Instability 172 Main Features of Landslides 172 Slides that Affect the Track 172 Triggering Mechanisms 174 Remediation 175 Soil Improvement 176 Improved Slope Geometry 176 Reduce Seepage Pressure 178 Structural Support 179 Inspection of Slopes 180 Monitoring Slope Movements 180 Areas With the Greatest Hazard 181 4.3.5 Settlement 182 Basic Theory 182 Influence of Construction Methods 183 Influence of Soil Type 183 4.3.6 Hazard Identification 184 Understanding the Factors 184 Understanding the Mechanisms 185 Identifying the Hazard 185 4.3.7 Summary 185

Chapter 5 – Drainage 189 5.1 Hydrology 191 5.1.1 Equations and Programs 192 5.1.2 Rainfall Intensity or Precipitation 194 5.1.2 Rainfall Intensity or Precipitation 195 5.1.3 Time of Concentration 197 5.1.4 Distribution 198 5.2 Hydraulics 198 5.2.1 Open Channel Hydraulics 198 5.2.2 Culvert Hydraulics 202 5.3 Recommended Procedures 210 5.3.1 Existing Drainage Study 210 5.3.2 Proposed Drainage System 211 5.3.3 Floodplain Encroachment Evaluation 212 5.3.4 Erosion Control Evaluation 213

Chapter 6 - Railway Track Design 216 6.1 Stationing 218 6.2 Horizontal Alignments 219 Staking Spirals By Deflections 227 Staking Spirals By Offsets 228 Applying The Spiral To Compound Curves (Arema 1965) 228 6.3 Vertical Alignments 229 6.4 Alignment Design 232 6.5 Turnouts 244 6.6 Design Of Yards 253 6.7 Clearances 256 References: 262

Chapter 7 - Communications & Signal 263 7.1 Introduction to Signals 265 7.1.1 Railway Operation 265 7.1.2 Timetable Operation 266 7.1.3 Wayside Signals 268 7.1.4 Color Light Signal 269 7.1.5 Signal Terminology 269 7.1.6 Searchlight Signal 270 7.1.7 Operating Principle 270 7.1.8 Automatic Block Signals 271 7.1.9 Signal Location 272 7.1.10 Common Terms 273 7.1.11 Automatic Block Signal System 274

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7.1.12 Centralized Traffic Control (CTC) 275 7.2 Energy Source 275 7.2.1 Batteries 275 7.2.2 Battery Charging 276 7.2.3 Lightning Protection 278 7.3 Track Circuits 279 7.3.1 DC Track Circuits 279 7.3.2 Track Circuit Operation 280 7.3.3 Train Shunting 282 7.3.4 Coded DC Track Circuit 283 7.3.5 Style “C” Track Circuit 286 7.3.6 Overlay Track Circuits 287 7.3.7 Overlay Track Circuit Operation 288 7.3.8 Track Coupling Unit 288 7.3.9 AC Track Circuits and Relays 289 7.3.10 Apparatus Used with AC Track Circuits 290 7.4 Track Switches 291 7.4.1 Hand Operated Switch with SCC 291 7.4.2 Electric Switch Lock 293 7.4.3 Dual Controlled Power Switch Machine 294 7.5 Highway Crossings 297 7.5.1 Crossing Operation 298 7.5.2 Crossing Gates 299 7.5.3 Crossing Motion Detector/Predictor 300 7.6 Centralized Traffic Control (CTC) 302 7.6.1 Operation 302 7.6.2 Sequence of Operation 305 7.6.3 Microprocessor Based Coded Track Circuits 308 7.6.4 Theory of Coded Track Circuit Operation 309 7.6.5 Solid State 311 7.7 Defect Detectors 313 7.7.1 Hot Box Detector 313 7.7.2 Hot Wheel Detector 313 7.7.3 Dragging Equipment Detector 313 7.7.4 Wheel 314 7.7.5 Slide Fence 315 7.7.6 Flood Detectors 316 7.7.7 Fire Detectors 316 7.7.8 High/Wide Load Detectors 316

Chapter 8 - Railway Structures 318 8.1 Introduction to Railway Structures 320 8.2 Major Bridge Components 321 8.2.1 Substructure 322 Investigate Underlying Soil & Geologic Conditions 322 Piling 322 Abutments and Piers 327 8.2.2 Superstructure 329 8.2.3 Bridge Deck 330 Open Bridge Decks 331 Ballasted Decks 333 Open Deck Vs. Ballast Deck 335 8.3 Bridge Types 337 8.3.1 Timber Trestles 337 Terminology 337 Caps 339 Stringers 339 Timber Connectors 340 8.3.2 Steel Bridges 340 Girder Spans 340 Truss Spans 342 Steel Trestles 345 Viaducts 345 8.3.3 Concrete Bridges 346 Arches 346 Rigid-Frame Bridge 346 Slab Bridges 347 Concrete Trestles 347 Concrete Girders 348

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8.3.4 Moveable Spans 349 Bascule Bridges 349 Swing Span Bridges 351 Vertical Lift Bridges 352 8.4 Other Structures 355 8.4.1 Drainage Structures 355 8.4.2 Retaining Walls 356 Gravity Retaining Walls 356 Crib Walls 356 Sheet Piling 358 Mechanically Stabilized Earth 359 Drainage of Retaining Walls 360 8.4.3 Tunnels 361 Tunnel Construction Methods 361 8.4.4 Sheds 364 8.5 Structural Design Considerations 365 8.5.1 Introduction 365 8.5.2 Bridge Loading, 366 Dead Load 366 Live Loads 367 Impact 370 Centrifugal Load 372 Lateral Loads 374 Longitudinal Loading 375 Wind Loading 377 Stream Flow, Ice and Buoyancy 378 Seismic Loads 379 Combined Loads 381 8.5.3 Other Structure Design Criteria 381 Fatigue 381 Fracture Critical Members (FCM) 382 Structure Serviceability 383 Bearings and Volumetric Changes 385 Composite Design 387 Bridge Design Assumptions and Constructibility Issues 388 Recommended Construction Considerations 389 8.5.4 Retaining Wall Loads 391 References: 392

Chapter 9 - Railway Electrification 393 9.1 Introduction 395 9.2 Development of Motive Power for Railways 395 9.2.1 Pioneers of Electric Traction Development 398 9.3 Rail Operation Classification 401 9.4 Mainline Railways and Independent Short Lines 403 9.4.1 Mainline Electrification Studies 404 9.4.2 Mainline Compatibility 406 Maintenance 408 Staff Safety 408 9.4.3 Impacts of Mainline Railway Electrification on Communities. 409 9.5 Urban Railways 409 9.5.1 Impacts of an Urban Electrified Light Rail or Commuter Rail System on the Community 410 9.6 Existing Electrification Systems 411 9.7 New Electrification Systems 414 9.7.1 Sources of Primary Power 415 9.7.2 Substations 415 9.7.3 Power Distribution Systems 417 Feeder Cable Sub Systems 417 Negative Feeder Cable Sub Systems 418 Contact System Sub Systems 418 9.7.4 Current Collectors 419 Contact Shoe 419 Trolley Poles 420 Pantographs 420 9.7.5 Characteristics Of System 421 Conductor Rail Supports 421 9.7.6 Characteristics Of An Overhead Contact System 422 Single Wire System 423 Catenary Systems 425

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9.7.7 OCS Style Selection 428 Location and Environment 429 Copper Cross-sectional Area 429 Economics 430 Cost Factors of OCS Styles 433 OCS Design Basics 433 9.8 Electrification Interfaces with Other Rail Elements 434 9.8.1 Right-of-Way 434 Track Layout/Realignment 434 Substations 435 Supporting Structures for the Contact System 435 Systemwide Ductbanks 435 9.8.2 Track Structure 435 9.8.3 Civil Structures 436 Tunnels To Be Electrified 436 Bridges Over Electrified Track 437 Bridges Under Electrified Track 437 Station Canopies 437 OCS Attachments 437 9.8.4 Signals and Communications 438 9.9 Interfaces with Project-Wide Staff 439 Bibliography 443

Chapter 10 - Passenger, Transit & High Speed Rail 445 10.1 Introduction 447 10.2 Passenger Rail Modes 448 10.3 Distinctions between Railway Operations and Transit Operations 449 10.4 Passenger Rail Service and Vehicle Characteristics by Mode 450 10.5 Passenger Rail Infrastructure Characteristics by Mode 451 10.6 Passenger Railway Infrastructure Characteristics 453 10.6.1 High-Speed Rail (HSR) 453 Route Alignment Considerations 453 Regulatory Compliance 454 10.6.2 Intercity Rail and Commuter Rail 455 General 455 Route Alignment Considerations 455 Track Standards 455 Regulatory Compliance 456 10.7 Transit Infrastructure Characteristics 457 10.7.1 Rapid Transit 457 Route Alignment Considerations 457 Track Standards 457 Regulatory Compliance 459 10.7.2 Light Rail Transit (LRT) 459 Route Alignment Considerations 459 Track Standards 459 Regulatory Compliance 461 10.7.3 Streetcar and Vintage Trolley 461 Route Alignment Considerations 461 Track Standards 461 Regulatory Compliance 461 10.8 Passenger Railway Maintenance Considerations 462 Maintenance Philosophy 462 Maintenance Practices 462 10.9 Transit Maintenance Considerations 463 Maintenance Philosophy 463 Maintenance Practices 464 10.10 Special Topics Associated with Passenger Railway Operations 465 10.10.1 Passenger Railway Line Capacity 465 10.10.2 The Impact of Superelevation (Or Deficiency and Why It’s Important) 467 10.11 Conclusion 469

Chapter 11 - Environmental Conditions & Permitting 471 11.1 Introduction 473 11.2 Environmental Regulations Of The United States 473 11.2.1 Wetlands Regulations 474 U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Regulatory Boundaries 476 11.2.2 Wetland Definition 477

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11.2.3 Wetland Regulations 481 Nationwide Permits 481 General Permits 486 USACE Non-Jurisdiction Over Isolated Wetlands 487 11.2.4 Best Management Practices 488 11.2.5 Endangered Species 488 11.2.6 Cultural Resources 491 11.2.7 Phase I Environmental Assessment 492 11.2.8 Hazardous Waste 494 11.2.9 Brownfields 496 11.2.10 Asbestos 496 11.2.11 Air Quality 497 11.3 Environmental Regulations Of Canada 499 11.3.1 Canadian Wetlands Environmental Assessment Guidelines 500 11.3.2 Endangered Species 502 11.3.3 Hazardous Waste 503 11.3.4 Air Quality 504 11.4 Environmental Regulations Of Mexico 504 11.4.1 Regulations 505 11.4.2 Mexico Regulation for Hazardous Waste 506 11.5 Wetland Case Study 507

Chapter 12 - European Curve and Turnout Mechanics 511 12.1 Introduction 513 12.2 Curves 514 12.2.1 Curve Definition 514 12.2.2 Gage 515 12.2.3 Elevation in Curves 517 12.2.4 Elevation Transition 518 12.2.5 Track Warp 523 12.2.6 Horizontal Transition Curves 524 12.2.7 Theory of the Transitional Curves 526 12.3 Gradient Change 529 12.4 Turnouts and Turnout Design 531 12.4.1 Measuring the Frog Angle 533 12.4.2 Turnout Calculations 534 12.4.3 Clothoidal Turnout 537 12.5 Speed Raising Improvements 540 12.5.1 Curve Improvements 542 12.5.2 Surfacing and Lining 543

Chapter 13 - Case Studies 547 13.1 Introduction 549 #1 – Kasky, KY – Project Survey 551 #2 – Crestline, OH – Project Survey 557 #3 – FEC/SFRC Connection, West Palm Beach, FL For Amtrak Service – Project Survey 561 #4 - Ft. Washington PA – Project Survey 567

Appendix A-1 Applied Science For Railway Tracks A-3 Turnouts, Connections, And Crossings B-1 Turnouts B-1 Location of Turnouts B-1 Turnouts from Straight Track B-2 Turnouts from Curved Track B-3 Connections B-3 From Straight Track B-3 Turnout from the Inside of a Curved Main Track B-5 Turnout from the Outside of a Curved Main - Track B-12 Parallel Tracks - Sidings B-17 Parallel Tracks Both Straight Tracks B-17 Parallel Tracks - Curved Tracks B-18 Parallel Tracks - Crossovers B-22 Crossovers - Straight Tracks. B-23 Crossovers - Curved Tracks B-24 Ladder Tracks B-25 Intersecting Tracks B-27 Intersecting Tracks - Both Tracks Straight B-27 Intersecting Tracks - One Straight and One Curved Track B-31 Intersecting Tracks - Both Tracks Curved B-34

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Wye Tracks B-35 Track - Straight Main Track B-36 Wye Track - Curved Main Track B-37 Diamond Turnouts B-38 Crossings B-39 Crossing Data B-40 Straight Crossings B-41 Single-Curve Crossings B-42 Double-Curve Crossings B-43 Example Curve Problems With Solutions C-1 PROBLEM 1. C-1 PROBLEM 2. C-1 PROBLEM 3. C-1 PROBLEM 4. C-2 PROBLEM 5. C-2 PROBLEM 6. C-3 PROBLEM 7. C-4 PROBLEM 8. C-8 PROBLEM 9. C-9 PROBLEM 10. C-13 PROBLEM 11. C-18 Spiral Problems & Solutions D-1 Determining E-1 Method Of Determining Degree Of Curvatue E-2 String Lining Curves F-1 Stringlining Of Railroad Curves G-1 Maintenance Processes H-1 Ballast Unloading H-3 Gauging on Wood and Concrete Ties H-7 Mechanical Surfacing of Track H-11 Switch Tie, Yard and Ties & Programmed Maintenance Tie Renewal H-17 Rail Train Rail Pickup H-22 CWR Rail Relay on Wood or Concrete Ties H-27 Mechanized Tie Renewal H-32 Track Abandonment H-37 Track Sledding H-44 Installation of Panelized Turnouts H-50 Unloading Continuous Welded Rail (CWR) H-57 GLOSSARY Glossary-1

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