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TABLE OF CONTENTS_______________________________________________________________________ Table of Contents Introduction 1 Chapter 1 - Railway Development 5 1.1 Introduction 7 1.2 Determinants of Transportation Development 9 1.3 Pre-Railway Transportation in North America 10 1.4 Physical Determinants of Land Movement 12 1.5 North American Railway Development and Impacts 15 1.6 Developments of the Twentieth Century 19 1.7 Development of Canadian Railways 21 1.8 Mexican Railway Development 23 1.9 Institutional Controls 24 1.10 History of Railway Bridge Engineering 25 1.11 New Technology – Bridge Developments in the Last Twenty Years 27 1.11.1 Existing Railway Bridges: Inspection and Assessment 27 1.11.2 New Railway Bridges: Materials, Design, Fabrication and Construction 28 1.12 Trade Journals 29 1.13 Other References 30 Chapter 2 - Railway Industry Overview 31 2.1 Introduction 33 2.2 Railway Companies 33 2.2.1 Organization of a Railway Company 34 Transportation Department 35 Engineering Department 36 Mechanical Department 37 Marketing Department 37 2.3 Regulatory Agencies and Railway Associations 38 2.3.1 Regulatory Agencies 38 United States 38 Canada 39 2.3.2 Railroad Associations 39 AAR and RAC 39 AREMA 40 REMSA 40 RSSI 40 2.4 Operations of Railways 41 2.4.1 Safety First in Railway Operations 41 2.4.2 Bibles of the Railways for Safe Operations 42 2.4.3 Tracks and Authority of Movements 43 2.4.4 Speeds 45 2.4.5 Rail Traffic Control Systems 46 Radio Communication of Train Orders 46 Train Spacing and Block Separation 46 Track Circuit 47 Signal Block Length 47 Centralized Traffic Control 48 Additional Information 49 2-5 Railway Cars 49 2.5.1 Freight Cars 49 Boxcars 50 Insulated Boxcars and Mechanical Reefers 50 Intermodal Cars – Piggyback Trailers and Containers 50 Flat Cars 51 Auto Rack Cars 52 Gondola Cars 52 Hopper Cars 52 Rotary Gondola/Hopper Cars 52 Tank Cars 52 Maintenance-of-Way Cars 53 Schnabel Cars 53 2.5.2 Hazardous Commodities 53 2.5.3 Passenger Cars 53 2.6 Locomotives 54 2.6.1 Horsepower (hp) and Tractive Effort 55 2.6.2 Tractive Force and Adhesion 55 i TABLE OF CONTENTS_______________________________________________________________________ 2.6.3 Drawbar Pull 56 2.6.4 Train Resistance 56 Rolling Resistance 56 Davis Formula 57 Starting Resistance 57 Grade Resistance 58 Curve Resistance 58 2.6.5 Compensated Grade 58 2.6.6 Acceleration and Balance Speed 59 2.6.7 Tonnage Ratings of Locomotives 60 2.6.8 Ruling Grade 60 2.6.9 Momentum Grade 60 2.6.10 Power to Stop 61 2.7 Traffic Systems 62 2.7.1 Priority of Trains 63 2.7.2 Effects Of Sharing Tracks By Freight And Passenger Trains Vs. Track Of Single Use 64 2.7.3 Overcoming The Delays That Occur In Freight Yards 65 Chapter 3 - Basic Track 67 3.1 Track Components 69 3.1.1 Rail 69 Identification of Rail 70 3.1.2 Ties 72 Timber Ties 72 Concrete Ties 75 Steel Ties 75 Alternative Material Ties 76 3.1.3 Ballast Section 76 3.1.4 Rail Joints 78 Standard Joints 79 Compromise Joints 79 Insulated Joints 80 3.1.5 Tie Plates 82 3.1.6 Rail Anchors 83 3.1.7 Fasteners 83 Spikes 84 Bolts 85 3.1.8 Specialized components 85 Derails 86 Wheel Stops and Bumping Posts 86 Gauge rods 87 Sliding (Conley) Joints 87 Mitre Rail 87 Bridge/tunnel/overpass guard rails 88 3.2 Turnouts 88 3.2.1 Types of Turnouts 88 Basic Turnout Terminology 89 3.2.2 Switch 90 3.2.3 Switching Mechanism 91 3.2.4 Turnout Rails 91 3.2.5 Frog 92 Rail bound manganese (RBM) 92 Spring Frog 93 Solid Manganese Self-guarded Frog 93 Bolted Rigid Frogs 94 Movable Point Frogs 94 Determining Frog Number 94 3.2.6 Switch Ties 95 3.2.7 Stock Rails 95 3.2.8 Switch Points 96 Identifying Left or Right Hand Points 97 3.2.9 Specialty Components 97 Switch Clips 97 Switch Rods 97 Types of Switch Rods 98 Connecting Rod 98 ii TABLE OF CONTENTS_______________________________________________________________________ 3.2.10 Special Turnout Plates 99 Gauge Plates 99 Switch Plates 100 Rail Braces 100 Heel Block Assembly 101 Turnout Plates 101 Hook Twin Tie Plates 101 Frog Plates 102 3.2.11 Guard Rails 102 3.2.12 Switch Stands 103 Spring Switch 103 3.3 Railway Crossings & Crossovers 104 3.4 Highway Crossings 106 3.4.1 Crossing Construction And Reconstruction 108 3.4.2 Crossing Warning Devices 110 3.5 Utility Crossings 111 3.6 Track Geometry 112 3.6.1 Gage 114 3.6.2 Alignment 115 Full Body of the Curve 116 Transition Spiral of the Curve 117 Curve Elevation 117 3.6.3 Surface 118 3.7 Safety 120 3-8 Maintenance Activities 122 3.8.1 Track Disturbance 124 3.8.2 Track Disturbance Activities 125 3.8.3 Rail Lubrication 126 3.8.4 Rail Grinding 127 3.8.5 Rail Defect Testing 128 3.8.6 Geometry Cars 128 3.8.7 Gauge Restraint Measuring System (GRMS) 129 3.8.8 Vegetation Control 129 3.8.9 ROW Stabilization & Drainage 131 3.8.10 Welding 132 3-9 Production Gangs 133 3.9.1 Production Rail Gang 134 3.9.2 Production Tie Gang 136 3.9.3 Production Undercutting 138 3.9.4 Production Surfacing Gangs 139 3.9.5 Road Crossing Renewal Gangs 142 3.9.6 Turnout Renewal 143 3.9.7 New Track Construction/Cutout New Track Construction /Cutovers 144 References: 147 Chapter 4 - Right-of-Way & Roadway 149 4.1 Introduction 151 4.2 Right-of-Way 152 4.2.1 Right-of-Way Width 152 4.2.2 Fences 153 4.2.3 Utilities 154 4.2.4 Vegetation 154 4.3 Roadway 155 4.3.1 Soils 155 Definition 155 Soil Types 157 Major Soil Divisions 157 Soil Texture and Composition 160 4.3.2 Geotechnical Processes 161 The Concept of Stress and Strain 161 Effective Stress 162 The Effect of Porewater Pressure 162 Clays 163 Sand and Gravel 163 Silt 164 Soil Behavior Under Rapid Loading 164 Effect of Shear Strain 164 Settlement 165 Seepage 166 iii TABLE OF CONTENTS_______________________________________________________________________ 4.3.3 Track Structure 167 Historical Background 167 Components and Functions 168 Subgrade 169 Sub-ballast 170 How Track Fails 170 4.3.4 Instability 172 Main Features of Landslides 172 Slides that Affect the Track 172 Triggering Mechanisms 174 Remediation 175 Soil Improvement 176 Improved Slope Geometry 176 Reduce Seepage Pressure 178 Structural Support 179 Inspection of Slopes 180 Monitoring Slope Movements 180 Areas With the Greatest Hazard 181 4.3.5 Settlement 182 Basic Theory 182 Influence of Construction Methods 183 Influence of Soil Type 183 4.3.6 Hazard Identification 184 Understanding the Factors 184 Understanding the Mechanisms 185 Identifying the Hazard 185 4.3.7 Summary 185 Chapter 5 – Drainage 189 5.1 Hydrology 191 5.1.1 Equations and Programs 192 5.1.2 Rainfall Intensity or Precipitation 194 5.1.2 Rainfall Intensity or Precipitation 195 5.1.3 Time of Concentration 197 5.1.4 Distribution 198 5.2 Hydraulics 198 5.2.1 Open Channel Hydraulics 198 5.2.2 Culvert Hydraulics 202 5.3 Recommended Procedures 210 5.3.1 Existing Drainage Study 210 5.3.2 Proposed Drainage System 211 5.3.3 Floodplain Encroachment Evaluation 212 5.3.4 Erosion Control Evaluation 213 Chapter 6 - Railway Track Design 216 6.1 Stationing 218 6.2 Horizontal Alignments 219 Staking Spirals By Deflections 227 Staking Spirals By Offsets 228 Applying The Spiral To Compound Curves (Arema 1965) 228 6.3 Vertical Alignments 229 6.4 Alignment Design 232 6.5 Turnouts 244 6.6 Design Of Yards 253 6.7 Clearances 256 References: 262 Chapter 7 - Communications & Signal 263 7.1 Introduction to Signals 265 7.1.1 Railway Operation 265 7.1.2 Timetable Operation 266 7.1.3 Wayside Signals 268 7.1.4 Color Light Signal 269 7.1.5 Signal Terminology 269 7.1.6 Searchlight Signal 270 7.1.7 Operating Principle 270 7.1.8 Automatic Block Signals 271 7.1.9 Signal Location 272 7.1.10 Common Terms 273 7.1.11 Automatic Block Signal System 274 iv TABLE OF CONTENTS_______________________________________________________________________ 7.1.12 Centralized Traffic Control (CTC) 275 7.2 Energy Source 275 7.2.1 Batteries 275 7.2.2 Battery Charging 276 7.2.3 Lightning Protection 278 7.3 Track Circuits 279 7.3.1 DC Track Circuits 279 7.3.2 Track Circuit Operation 280 7.3.3 Train Shunting 282 7.3.4 Coded DC Track Circuit 283 7.3.5 Style “C” Track Circuit 286 7.3.6 Overlay Track Circuits 287 7.3.7 Overlay Track Circuit Operation 288 7.3.8 Track Coupling Unit 288 7.3.9 AC Track Circuits and Relays 289 7.3.10 Apparatus Used with AC Track Circuits 290 7.4 Track Switches 291 7.4.1 Hand Operated Switch with SCC 291 7.4.2 Electric Switch Lock 293 7.4.3 Dual Controlled Power Switch Machine 294 7.5 Highway Crossings 297 7.5.1 Crossing Operation 298 7.5.2 Crossing Gates 299 7.5.3 Crossing Motion Detector/Predictor 300 7.6 Centralized Traffic Control (CTC) 302 7.6.1 Operation 302 7.6.2 Sequence of Operation 305 7.6.3 Microprocessor Based Coded Track Circuits 308 7.6.4 Theory of Coded Track Circuit Operation 309 7.6.5 Solid State Interlocking 311 7.7 Defect Detectors 313 7.7.1 Hot Box Detector 313 7.7.2 Hot Wheel Detector 313 7.7.3 Dragging Equipment Detector 313 7.7.4 Wheel Defect Detector 314 7.7.5 Slide Fence 315 7.7.6 Flood Detectors 316 7.7.7 Fire Detectors 316 7.7.8 High/Wide Load Detectors 316 Chapter 8 - 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