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Honor's Thesis Reconsidering The Puebloan Languages In A Southwestern Areal Context Michael Everdell Oberlin College 2013 Advisor: Jason D. Haugen 1 Acknowledgments: I would like to thank all of my friends, family and professors who supported me throughout this process and aided in the research and development of this thesis. I cannot fully express my gratitude to my advisor Jason D. Haugen for not only his support, countless edits, discussions, patience, etc., but most of all for introducing me to linguistics in the first place, treating me as a peer, and mentoring me in my academic journey. Thank you Professor Josef Fioretta, of Hofstra University, for helping me with the early stages of research and for your constant encouragement and support. Thank you to Professor Baron Pineda, Professor Pablo Mitchell and Professor John McLaughlin (Utah State University) for granting me interviews and guiding my research of the cultures of the Southwest and Pueblos as well as equipping me with theories of culture. Thank you Dr. Anna A. Neuzil for helping me research and understand culture areas and their utility. Thanks to all of my Oberlin professors who have helped me grow into the person I am today and given me the tools and drive required to write this thesis and Professor Crystal Biruk for editing this acknowledgments section. I would also like to thank the other linguistics students at Oberlin, particularly Ida Hoequist, Luke Adamson, Miriam Rothenberg, and Casey Murphy, whose passion for this field has helped keep my spirits up during this grueling process. My fellow Anthropology honors candidate, Julie Christensen, commiserated with me and helped me talk through issues. Finally, I would like to dedicate this thesis to my cousin Todd Wasserman M.D. who, though he did not live log enough to read this, has supported me on my journey into academia. I will miss him. 2 TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements................................................................................................................... 2 List of Tables............................................................................................................................. 5 1. Introduction........................................................................................................................... 7 2. Culture and Linguistic areas.................................................................................................. 10 2.1. Culture Areas.......................................................................................................... 10 2.1.1. History and Critiques of Culture Areas................................................... 11 2.2. Linguistic Areas..................................................................................................... 16 2.2.1. A Brief Overview of Areal Linguistics................................................... 17 2.2.1.1. The Question of Borrowability................................................ 17 2.2.1.2. The Language Family Tree Model........................................... 22 2.2.2. Constituting a Linguistic Area................................................................ 24 2.2.2.1. Areal Traits............................................................................... 30 2.2.3. Case Study: Mesoamerica....................................................................... 42 2.2.4. Methods and Important Questions.......................................................... 47 3. Background of the Southwest and Pueblos.......................................................................... 49 4. Status and Make-up of the Southwest as a Linguistic Area................................................. 55 4.1. The Pueblos as a Linguistic Area.......................................................................... 56 4.1.1. Sherzer (1976)........................................................................................ 56 4.1.2. Bereznak (1995)..................................................................................... 59 4.1.3. Puebloan Areal Traits............................................................................. 60 4.1.3.1. Features Examined by Sherzer (1976).................................... 62 4.1.3.2. Features Examined by Bereznak (1995)................................. 75 3 4.1.3.3. Discussion of the Pueblos as a Linguistic Area.................... 113 4.1.4. Puebloan Loan Words.......................................................................... 119 4.1.5. Examining East-West Split of Pueblo Linguistic Area........................ 124 4.2. Examination of Southwest Areal Traits............................................................... 131 4.2.1. Southwest and Puebloan Lexical Diffusion......................................... 131 4.2.2. Possible Southwest Areal Traits in Sherzer (1976).............................. 133 4.2.3. Discussion of the Southwest as a Linguistic Area............................... 146 4.3. Greater Southwest............................................................................................... 148 4.3.1. Sherzer (1976)’s Features of the Great Basin....................................... 149 4.3.2. Sherzer (1976)’s Features of the Plains................................................ 154 4.4. Greater Greater Southwest................................................................................... 157 5. Conclusion.......................................................................................................................... 159 6. Appendix A: Some Accepted Linguistic Areas and their Defining Areal Traits................ 164 7. Appendix B: Cultures of the North American Southwest.................................................. 170 8. Appendix C: Puebloan Cultures......................................................................................... 172 9. Appendix D: Language Families of the Southwest............................................................ 174 10. References......................................................................................................................... 176 4 LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Vowels Table 2: Consonants (Sherzer 1976) Table 3: Morphosyntax Table 4: Possible Puebloan Areal Traits Found in Sherzer (1976) Table 5: Consonants (Bereznak 1995) Table 6: Phonological Rules Table 7: Verb Morphology Table 8: Noun Morphology Table 9: Pronouns Table 10: Hopi and Zuni Pronouns Table 11: Demonstratives Table 12: Word Order and Other Morphosyntactic Features Table 13: Semantic Features Table 14: Classificatory Verbs in Navajo Table 15: Classificatory Verbs in Acoma Table 16: Classificatory affixes in Zuni Table 17: Ethnolinguistic Features Table 18: Example Male and Female Lexical Differences Table 19: Puebloan Areal Traits Table 20: Diagnostic Features of Pueblo Linguistic Area Table 21: Keresan to Zuni Loan Words 5 Table 22: Zuni to Hopi Loan Words Table 23: Hopi to Keresan Loan Words Table 24: Keresan to Hopi Loan Words Table 25: Proposed Western Puebloan Areal Traits Table 26: Proposed Eastern Puebloan Areal Traits Table 27: Piman to Zuni loan words Table 28: Whole Areal Traits of the Southwest Table 29: Features Which Are Absent in the Southwest Table 30: Central Areal Traits of the Southwest Table 31: Western Southwest Regional Areal Traits Table 32: Possible Areal Traits of the Southwest Table 33: Whole Areal Traits of the Great Basin Table 34: Central Areal Traits of the Great Basin Table 35: Features which are Absent in the Great Basin Table 36: Regional Areal Traits of the Great Basin Table 37: Features Possibly Diffused into Great Basin Through Contact with Southwest and Californian Languages Table 38: Whole Areal Traits of the Plains Table 39: Features Which are Absent in the Plains Table 40: Central Areal Traits of the Plains Table 41: Regional Areal Traits of the Southern Plains 6 1. INTRODUCTION Areal linguistics involves the study of prehistoric linguistic interactions, and as such offers exciting insights into linguistic universals and human prehistory. Linguistic areas are the result of contact between speakers and can have profound effects on languages the extent of which has yet to be fully uncovered. Although the concept of linguistic areas has been discussed since before Trubetzkoy (1928) first used the term ‘Sprachbund’ to describe areas of linguistic convergence, we do not yet have standard well defined vocabulary to discuss areal phenomena, despite their importance in linguistics, archeology, anthropology, and almost every other field which studies humans. To address this issue, I will posit my own definitions for various terms used in discussion of areal phenomena. Although this thesis focuses on a specific case study, the Pueblos and the North American Southwest (hereafter referred to as the Southwest), these concepts and definitions should have application to other linguistic areas beyond the Pueblos and Southwest, including those which are generally accepted (see Appendix A). I will not only discuss and define the concept of a “linguistic area,” but also the terms used to analyze and evaluate linguistic areas. The overall goal of this thesis is to clarify linguistic areas and the terms surrounding them so that future research in this important domain will be as consistent, clear, and useful as possible. To that end, I make distinctions between concepts which I believe have been erroneously combined, such as, feature vs. trait, strength vs. intensity, and markedness vs. expectancy. It is necessary to differentiate these
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