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Home , Beriev, Biplane, Boeing 307 Stratoliner, Boeing Monomail, Dewoitine, Ferdinand Ferber

AIAA 2002-0172

Introduction SOME GROWTH EVENTS

Orville and Wilber Wright were credited with M Leroy Spearman* achieving the first of a heavier-than-air, NASA powered, man-carrying at Kitty Hawk, Hampton, Virginia 23681 , USA on December 17, 1903. This event marked the beginning of a dramatic Abstract growth. The airplane has changed from a curiosity to a vehicle of many The growth of aviation since the first flight of uses that include transportation, exploration, a heavier-than-air powered manned vehicle in recreation and warfare. The growth in aviation 1903 has been somewhat remarkable. Some of has occurred in many countries around the world the events that have influenced this growth are and has been fostered by the native talent of reviewed in this paper. This review will include individuals as well as by the exchange of some events prior to ; the influence information between countries and by the import of the war itself; the events during the post-war and export of hardware. Driving factors in this years including the establishment of aeronautical growth have included the innate curiosity of research laboratories; and the influence of World man, an inherent desire for adventure, the quest War II which, among other things, introduced for economic benefits, and the feeling of need for new technologies that included rocket and jet security and superiority. propulsion and supersonic . Discussion The subsequent era of aeronautical research and the attendant growth in aviation over the past The Beginnings. The Wright's achievement of half century will be reviewed from the view manned, powered, controlled, heavier-than-air point of the author who, since 1944, has been flight in 1903 was preceded by many years of involved in the NACA/NASA aeronautical thinking, planning, and working. The Wright's research effort at what is now the Langley could also benefit from the works of several Research Center in Hampton, Virginia. The other's. One of the first to concentrate on the review will discuss some of the research development of a heavier-than-air, fixed- programs related to the development of some flying machine was Sir George Cayley of experimental , the Century series of . In 1853, Cayley made a in , multi-mission aircraft, advanced which it is said that his unwilling coachman military aircraft and missiles, advanced civil made what was probably the first flight in a aircraft, supersonic transports, spacecraft and manned, heavier-than-air craft. While Cayley others was laying much of the foundation for modem aircraft, he could not provide what he called a prime mover - a suitable lightweight engine.

* Senior Technical Specialist Among other innovative glider designers was Systems Analysis Branch , a German, who, in the 1890's Associate Fellow, AIAA built and flew many successful hang-gliders. Copyright (c) 2002 by the American Institute of Lilienthal was killed in 1896 when a wind gust Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc. No copyright caused the glider on which he was flying to is asserted in the under Title 17, and crash. Lilienthal did record his work so that U.S. Code. The U.S. Government has a royalty- others might benefit from his experience. One free license to exercise all rights under the follower, in , constructed copyright claimed herein for Governmental several promising gliders in the late 1890's and purposes. All other rights are reserved for the was working toward a powered machine when a copyright owner. crash ended his career. In the United States, a French-born American, , became interested in aeronautics and flight. He wrote severaljournalarticlesonthedevelopmentofthe ofaerodynamicsandleadtomeansofstability, flyingmachineandin1894thearticlesappeared control,andbalance.Thedevelopmentofthe inbookformentitledProgressinFlying lightweightinternalcombustionreciprocating Machines.Chanuteandhisassociatesdiddesign, enginecompletedtheapproachtomannedflight. buildandflyseveralmodifiedversionsofthe Thereciprocatingengineisstillinusetodayand Lilienthal-typeglider.Inaboutthesameperiod wasessentiallytheonlytypeofairplaneengine oftimeinthelate1800'sanotherAmerican formorethan40yearsbeforetheturbojetengine scientist,SamuelPierpointLangleybecame wasperfected. convincedthatpoweredflightwasachievable. Langleydidnotexperimentwithglidingflight The Concept Spreads. A French artillery butwithmodelspoweredwithrubberbandsat commander, Captain became firstandthenwithsteamengines.InNovember interested in flying because of the exploits of 1896,hissteam-poweredAerodromeNo.6 Lilienthal and Chanute. In corresponding with successfullydemonstratedpoweredflightwhen Chanute, Ferber learned about the Wright's and it flewforthree-quartersofamilebeforerunning began to correspond with them. Through his outoffuel.TheWrightbrotherswereawareof writings and lectures, Ferber had a significant Langley'sexperimentsandwroteformore influence on the advancement of flight in . informationonhiswork.TheWrightbrothers One early flyer in France was Brazilian-born alsowrotetoChanuteanddescribedsomeof Alberto Santos-Dumont who built and flew theirexperimentstohim.Thiswasthebeginning gasoline-powered in the late 1800's, ofafriendshipduringwhichChanuteprovided turned to gliders and then to powered . assistanceandencouragementtotheWright's. He earned the credit for making the first TheWright'sstudiesalsoincludedtheworkof powered, manned aircraft flight in France in Lilienthal. 1906. The Wright's finally demonstrated their airplane to the U.S Army and sold the first Whileglidingflightdemonstratedmanned, airplane to the Army in 1908. The Wright's also heavier-than-airflight,asatisfactoryengineto demonstrated in France to an enthusiastic providepoweredflightwasneeded.Someearly audience. The first heavier-than-air machine to attemptsforpoweredflightweremadeusing fly in England, the Army Aeroplane No. 1, flew steamenginestodrivearotororpropellerbut in October 1908. The machine, similar to the noneweresuccessfulinachievingsustained, Wright design, was created by Samuel Cody, an controllableflight.Langleydidproceedfromhis American-born naturalized Briton. The first poweredflightsuccesstoanattempttoflya heavier-than-air flight in Germany was a 1908 mannedversionoftheAerodrome.Hewas demonstration by J.C.H. Ellehammer, a Danish dissatisfiedwithsteampowerbecauseofthelow visitor. The German's were intrigued with the power-to-weightratioandhadchangedtoan rigid airships being built by Count von Zepplin internalcombustiongasolineenginesimilarto and paid little attention to the airplane. In an thatbeingusedonearlyautomobiles.Anattempt effort to catch up, however, the German's were wasmadeonOct.7,1903toachievemanned- soon to borrow from France and from other's. powered-flightwiththeAerodromebutit Germany capitalized on the talent of Anthony crashedimmediatelyduetoaproblemattributed , a Dutchman who came to Germany to tothecatapultlaunchmechanism.Another study engineering. In , a young designer, attemptwasmadetoflythemanned-powered Igor Sikorsky, was experimenting unsuccessfully AerodromeonDec.8,1903butagainacrash with . He then turned his attention to attributedtothecatapultlaunchoccurred.Nine large, fixed-wing airplanes and produced what dayslateronDec.17,1903,OrvilleWright would become a forerunner of large and successfullyachievedpoweredflightatKitty commercial airplanes. Latter Sikorsky left Russia Hawk,NC.TheWright'shadalsoturnedtothe and came to the United States where he was to gasoline-fueledinternalcombustionengineand successfully produce helicopters. Following the hadbuilttheirownenginebasedonthetype initial success of the Wright Brother's, little beingdevelopedforautomobiles. attention was given to the airplane in the United States. Another U.S. designer, , Manned-powered-flightwasnowareality. was becoming well known and a Curtiss airplane Man'sinnatecuriosityhadsparkedthedesireto was the second airplane to be bought by the U.S. fly.Glidingflighthaddemonstratedthetheory Army in 1911.

2 2 The Airplane at War. The idea that an airplane In the final days of World War I, Russia, in might be used in warfare was adopted in the the midst of a revolution was also accumulating early 1900's by European countries where war foreign aircraft and engines from various sources was imminent. The French, the most air-minded including French, German, British, Italian and in Europe, had 254 airplanes in the Army by Dutch. Soon after the war, the also 1912. Two prominent French designers's at the obtained the rights to build the U.S. Liberty time were Louis Bechereau and Edouard engine. These acquisitions were of great value to . Bechereau designed the Deperdussin the newly formed in establishing a racer in 1913 that was the first airplane to have a base in aviation technology. monocoque . Later he designed the Spad fighter of World War I fame. Nieuport was to Between World War I and II. During the become the designer of the famous Nieuport 1920's and 1930's many nations were developing fighters of World War I. The British, after indigenous airplane types for both military and acquiring Army Aeroplane No. 1, were slow in civil use. Among the producers in the U.S. were getting into . At the urging of Curtiss, , Douglas, Martin, Lockheed, such politicians as Winston Churchill, the Royal Keystone, North American, Consolidated, Ryan, Flying Corps was established in April 1912. , Bell, Vultee, Republic, Northrop, Some Among the British designers of the era Vought, Sikorsky, Berliner-Joyce, Brewster, where A.V. Roe, Geoffrey de Haviland, and Stearman, Beech, , Fairchild, Seversky - T.O.M. Sopwith, each of who made important in Great Britian producers included DeHaviland, contributions to British airpower. In Germany Bristol, Avro, Handley-Page, Fairey, Hawker, the efforts of Fokker lead to the , , Armstrong-Whitworth, Blackburn, , and fighter airplanes of World Westland, Saunders-Roe, Gloster, Boulton-Paul, War I fame. The U.S. showed less interest in Short, Bristol - in France producers included developing air power than did the European Leo, Bregnet, , Farman, Amiot, , nations since the threat of war was less ominous. Loire, Bloch, Morane-Saulner, Latecoere, However, some interesting developments did Nieuport, - in Germany producers take place. The Army produced the world's first included Focke-Wulf, Heinkel, Dornier, Arado, bombsight and conducted live bombing tests Henschel, , Messerschmitt, Fieseler, from a in 1911. In the winter of Blohm and Voss - in producers included 1910-1911, the U.S. Navy conducted the first Caproni, Savoia-Marchetti, Fiat, Breda, CANT, shipboard takeoff and landing with a Curtiss Macchi, Piaggio - in Japan producers included airplane. Curtiss airplanes were also used for Mitsubishi, Kawaski, Nakajima, Aichi, Showa, catapult launch testing. In 1911, Curtiss Kawanishi, Hiro - in the Netherlands producers produced a practical . With wheels included Fokker, Koolhoven - in the Soviet attached to the seaplane, Curtiss also Union producers included , , demonstrated the world's first amphibian. Curtiss , Lavochkin, Lisunov, Guryevich, went on to build a watertight fuselage and , Myasishchyev, Petlyakov, Polikarpov, produced the world's first . , Tupelov, Mil, , Bratukhin, , Kalinin. The U.S. was slow in building airpower. When war broke out in Europe in August 1914 the U.S. Some technology transfer between nations had a total of 23 airplanes for military use. In occurred in the 1920's and 1930's through the contrast, France had 1400, Germany had 1000, interchange of hardware. Junkers of Germany Russia had 800 and England had 400. By 1915, operated a plant in the Soviet Union from 1923 the U.S. was producing the Curtiss JN-4 Jenny to 1927 as a way for Germany to overcome some that was used primarily as a trainer. Some of the restrictions imposed by the Treaty of European airplanes were also manufactured in Versailles and as a way for the USSR to the U.S. as an aid to the war effort and this accelerate their aircraft technology in areas such provided valuable experience to American as the use of duralumin in the design and industry. In the World War I era, the U.S construction ofmetal, cantilever . Some acquired several European airplanes including European designed airplanes found a place in the those of Spad, Nieuport, Sopwith, deHaviland, growth of U.S. aviation - for example, the Dutch and Breguet. American airplanes, in addition to Fokker T-2, a single-engine, cantilevered high- the Curtiss Jenny, included those of Thomas- wing monoplane was used by the Army Air Morse, Packard-Le Pere, Standard, and Martin. Service and made the first non-stop flight across

3 3 the U.S. in 1923. The Fokker C-2 single-place aircraft referred to as the "sky transport, also used by the Army Air Service, flivver". At least three versions of the flivver was used by Admiral Byrd in a flight over the were built and flown but it never reached the North Pole in 1926 and by the Army in the first public. Other early civil transports included the California to Hawaii flight in 1927. The Fokker Boeing Model 80-trimotor biplane and the trimotor also saw early service in the U.S. Curtiss Condor twin-engine biplane. In the preceding the . 1930's some transports using more advanced technology began to appear. One of the these Thus a considerable amount of aviation was the which first flew in technology was transferred between nations in 1930. The Monomail was a single-engine design the 1920's and 1930's through the interchange of that had a smooth, low, cantilever, all-metal hardware. Another source of aeronautical monoplane wing, a cowled engine and a technical information was beginning to become retractable landing gear. This was followed in prominent during the 1920's. This was the 1933 by the , a twin-engine design creation of aeronautical research laboratories by with cowled supercharged engines, hydraulically many governments for the purpose of achieving controlled variable-pitch propellers, a low all- preeminence in aviation. In the United Stares, metal cantilever monoplane wing and a the National Advisory Committee for retractable gear. Also in 1933, Douglas produced Aeronautics (NACA) was created by an act of the DC-1 that was followed by the DC-2 and Congress in 1915 and the first NACA wind DC-3. These were all-metal designs with twin- tunnel was running at Langley Field, Virginia in cowled engines, a low cantilever monoplane June 1920. In Russia, the Central Aero- wing, retractable gear, and variable-pitch Hydrodynamic Institute (TsAGI) was propellers. The DC-3 was faster than the 247 established in December 1918. In Great Britain, and carried more passengers and thus was able to the Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE) was capture most of the domestic air transport market begun and, in France, a research center was by 1940. started at Villacoublay. The NACA was quite prolific in the time period between World War's A notable transfer of technology occurred in II and I in producing reports of investigations in the mid 1930's when the U.S. permitted Soviet many areas of aeronautical research. Among the Union technicians to visit the Douglas Aircraft results reported were those related to Company to examine the revolutionary DC-3 sections; cleanup; high devices; the airplane. Subsequently, manufacturing rights NACA cowling; the engine ; were granted to the USSR where the airplane stressed-skin construction; cantilevered wings; was produced under the direction of B.P.Lisunov retractable landing gear; enclosed ; as the Li-2. The Li-2 was soon placed in military propellers; stability and control; boundary layers; and civil service where it remained until well dynamic stability; flying qualities and so on. into the 1940's. These developments were directed toward increased efficiency; increased speed; increased In the 1930's, several clean streamlined safety and comfort; increased utility and airplanes were produced in the belief that there productivity. was a market for a small, high-speed transport. Included in this category were the Lockheed Civil aircraft development in the U.S. was Vega and Orion, and Gamma, delayed by World War I. Some airplanes used in Vultee V-1A, and the Lockheedl0/14/18 family. early airline service were open cockpit, single- engine such as the Douglas M-2 and the Another event in the 1930-1940 time period Boeing Model 40. Among the first of the was the flying-boat activity. These relatively dedicated was the Ford 2-AT, single- large aircraft were primarily to support the engine, all metal, high-wing monoplane with an oceanic routes of Pan American Airways. They enclosed cabin. This was followed by the Ford included the Sikorsky S-38, S-40, S-42, Martin 4-AT, all-metal, tri-motor with an enclosed cabin M-130 and Boeing 314. The flying boat concept for 11 passengers (the author of this paper made was later replaced by large, new land-based his first flight on a Ford Trimotor at the age of airplanes. 16.) Before the trimotor was produced, He W Ford's interest in aviation was noted in the Over 800 civil aircraft types were certified by development of a small, 350-pound, roadable, the CAA in the U.S. from the mid 1920'5 to the

4 4 mid 1950's. Among these were airplanes from outdated Douglas B-18's, Curtiss P-36's, and Aeronca, Arrow, Beech, Bellanca, Bird, Boeing, Northrop A- 17's. By contrast, the British had Budd, Buhl, Cessna, Culver, Curtiss, Douglas, about 2000 first-line airplanes. French air power Erco, Fairchild, Fleet, Fokker, Ford, Gee-Bee, had deteriorated badly following World War I Great Lakes, Howard, Inland, Kellett. Kinner, and the French had adopted a homeland defense Laird, Lockheed, Loening, Luscombe, Martin, policy to prohibit invasion that was based on Monocoupe, Mooney, Northrop, Piper, Pitcairn, heavily fortified fixed ground bases such as the Porterfield, Rearwin, Republic, Ryan, Sikorsky, Maginot Line. In Germany, where a military Spartan, Stearman, Stinson, Swallow, Taylor, buildup had been underway, the had at Travel Air, Verville, Waco and many others. least 4000 essentially new airplanes. While the Western world was debating over the German Military aircraft of various types were under buildup, another unusually large buildup was development in the U.S. between World War I going on almost unnoticed on the small islands and II. Biplanes were prevalent in the1920's as of Japan. The Japanese Air Force had about 2100 the U.S. was following World War I designs. airplanes in 1937 and Japan was building two Army aircraft of that period included the aircraft carriers yearly in the late 1930's. The Consolidated primary trainers, the Curtiss PW-8 German might was unleashed in Europe in Hawk family, Boeing PW-9, Martin MB-2, the September 1939 and the Japanese attacked the Keystone bombers, Curtiss Condor, Curtiss O-1 U.S. in December 1941. and A-3, Douglas 0-2, 0-25 and 0-38. The Boeing Company, in a private venture, began the The U.S. airpower continued to grow in the development of a new biplane fighter in 1928 by late 1930's and early 1940's. Among the changing from the liquid-cooled engine of the airplanes that appeared were the Seversky P-35, PW-9 to an air-cooled . The the Curtiss P-36 and P-40, the Boeing B-17 and airplane was purchased by the U.S. Navy as the B-29, the Consolidated B-24, the North F4B-1 shipboard fighter. Based on enthusiastic American B-25, the Douglas A-20, the Douglas Navy reports, the Army tested the airplane and A-26, the Martin B-26, the Bell P-39, the bought it as the first of a long line of P-12's. Lockheed P-38, the Republic P-47, Northrop P- 61, and the North American P-51. American Monoplane designs became more prevalent in industry accelerated to meet the wartime the 1930's with the expectation that the demands. A prewar rate of 2000 airplanes per performance would exceed that for biplanes. An year was up to 4000 airplanes per month by early Boeing design designated XP-9 had a high, 1943. In the years from 1940 to 1945, the Air body-mounted, -braced wing. The XP-9 had Forces accepted almost 230,000 airplanes an all-metal structure and a semi-monocoque fuselage that was to set the pace for future The rapid growth in aviation was paced by a designs. The wing location limited the pilot's growing need for an expansion of the research visibility and the airplane was not produced. The effort. The NACA laboratory at Langley Field next monoplane effort by Boeing was the XP-15 was being stretched to the limit by the late which was essentially a P-12 with the lower 1930's. To aid in expanding the research effort, wing removed. The XP-15 was never produced. new NACA research centers were established in The next Boeing monoplane design was the California (Ames in 1939) and in Ohio (Lewis- P-26, which had a wire-braced low wing, an now Glenn in1940). During the World War II open cockpit and a fixed gear. The P-26 was years, the workload changed and increased. accepted and was a front-line fighter until the Attention was turned to the short-term problems early 1940's. The follow-on fighter's to replace of airplanes already in production as well as to the P-26 were the SeverskyP-35 and the Curtiss exploring new fields of knowledge for those P-40. Some monoplane observation airplanes airplanes still under design. During the years produced by Douglas were the 0-43 and 0-46. from 1941 to 1944, the NACA laboratories New monoplane bombers that appeared were the worked on 115 different airplane types with Boeing B-9 and the Martin B-10. spectacular results. Fighter speed, altitude, and Once again in the 20th century, warfare was to maneuverability were increased; buffet, stall and play a part in the growth of aviation. In 1939, the problems were cured; range and United States had an air strength of about 1700 payload was increased. Many outstanding airplanes of which only about 800 could be wartime airplanes were based on fundamentals considered first- line. These were primarily

5 5 developedbyNACA-suchasairfoilsections; technology was acquired from the coolingmethods;highlift devicesandsoon. British. The Soviets produced two British jet Manyofthewartimedevelopmentswerealsoto engines under license. Thus the early Soviet jet beusedincommercialairplanes. aircraft were powered by German and British engines. TheAmericandesignedandbuiltairplanesof WorldWarII weregenerallyproducedin Further growth in commercial transports responsetoArmyrequirements.Oneexception, began in the late 1930's and continued into the however,wastheNorthAmericanP-51.This 1950's after an interruption caused by World airplanecameaboutinresponsetoaBritish War II. Douglas had begun the development of searchforafighterairplanetoreplenishthe the DC-4, a 4-engine enlarged version of the dwindlingRoyalAirForcefighterstrength.One DC-3. The airplane entered military service as of theAmericancompaniesapproachedbythe the C-54. Lockheed developed the 4-engine British,NorthAmericanAviation,Inc., Constellation that also saw military service. undertookthedesignoftheNA-73airplanethat Other civil derivatives of the military were the wasproducedin 117days.Theairplaneuseda 4-engine transport newlydevelopedNACAlaminarflowlow-drag developed from the B-17 bomber and utilizing, wingsectionandaradiatoringeniously for the first time, a pressurized fuselage. Boeing positionedforlowdrag.Theairplanewasatfirst also developed the 377 Stratocruiser a 4-engine ignoredbytheU.S.Armybutwaslatertobe transport derived from the B-29 and B-50 tested,accepted,andprocuredand,astheP-51 bombers. The 377 had a twin-lobe 2-level cabin. Mustang,becameoneoftheoutstandingfighters ofitsday.FirstpoweredwithaU.S.Allison Following the war, in 1945, a team of American engine,theairplanewasequippedbytheBritish scientists visited Europe to survey the state of withaRolls-RoyceMerlinengine,which technology related to aviation. Soon large resultedinsubstantialincreasesinspeed,range, quantities of scientific information was flowing andaltitude. in to the U.S. In addition, a number of scientists and technicians from Germany and Italy came to Anothertypeoftechnologytransferaccelerated work in the U.S. Probably the most impressive thegrowthofaviationintheSovietUnion. new technology had to do with high-speed UndertheLend-LeaseprogramtheSoviets aerodynamics and included data on jet and receivedover18,000airplanes-includingthe rocket propulsion and on shaping. Jet BellP-39AiracobraandCurtissP-40Tomahawk propulsion for airplanes was under development fromtheU.S.aswellassomeBritishSpitfires in Germany (von Ohain) and in Great Britain andHurricanes.Inaddition,theSovietsreceived (Whittle) in the 1930's and 1940's. The German's machinetoolsandfactoriesincludingan were flying jet-propelled airplanes before the end aluminumrollingmill;2.25milliontonsofsteel; of the war (He-178, Me-262) and the British 400,000tonsofcopper;and250,000tonsof twinjet was in service by the end aluminum(equalto2yearsof productionat of the summer in 1944. The U.S. began the 1945Sovietrates).Allofthesematerials secret development of a jet airplane in 1941 permittedtheSovietstochangefromwoodento using an American version of the Whittle engine. metalairplaneslateinthewar. The airplane, the Bell P-59 Airacomet first flew in October 1942. Post World War II. - Much transfer of aviation technology followed the end of World War II. The increase in airspeed made possible by the The Soviet Union, for example, began to study jet engine lead to studies of airplane shapes with captured and interned airplanes of both friend reduced drag. One method was through the use and foe. One example was the exploitation of an of wing sweep that would delay the onset of American Boeing B-29, three of which had made compressible flow. Wing sweep had been forced landings in the Far East in 1944. A thoroughly studied in Germany. Basic airfoil design team dismantled the B-29 and theory for swept and yawed wings by Dr. copied the components and in 1947 the Soviet Adolph Betz was published in 1935. Based on copy, designated the Tu-4 (NATO Bull), was the work of Betz, a low-speed wind-tunnel study shown in the Tushino Air Show. The Soviets of the aerodynamic characteristics of swept and acquired much in the way of airplane design and yawed wings of various planforms was jet engine technology from the Germans. More undertaken at NACA Langley in 1944 - a study

6 6 to which the author of this paper was assigned. supersonic transport; the Navy combat air patrol This testing included planforms that were swept (CAP); the Tactical Air Command (TAC) low back, swept forward, skewed, M-shaped, altitude penetration; and the multipurpose triangular, rectangular and trapezoidal. commonality airplane directed by Secretary Some flight results for sweptback wings were Robert McNamara for the Navy and the Air also obtained at NACA-Langley in 1947 using Force - the Tactical Fighter Experimental (TFX) the Bell L-39 research airplane. The L-39 was a which lead to the F-111. While the fundamental Bell P-63 modified to accommodate a swept purpose of developing a multi-service airplane wing. The use of wing sweep in many countries for the Air Force and the Navy was not was to have a pronounced effect on the design of successful in the TFX program, there have been aircraft for years to come. The first operational other cases where commonality was achieved. swept-wing fighter airplane in the U.S. was the Examples are the Boeing F4B Navy fighter and North American P-86 that flew in October 1947. P-12 Army fighter; the McDonnell F4H Navy The airplane began its life in 1944 as the fighter that was later adopted by the Air Force as straight-wing Navy jet XFJ-1 Fury. As the the F4. data became available, the design evolved to the 35 degree swept wing. The research airplane program that was begun in the late 1940's proved to be an effective way Further growth in civil transports occurred to advance the growth of aviation insofar as following the war with the application of jet actual flight hardware is concerned. Before the propulsion and wing sweep. The , the advent of wind tunnels. Early testing in first jet transport in the U.S., flew in 1954. The the transonic range was sometimes done with 4-jet, swept-wing design was a private venture of free-flight rocket models; with the wing-flow the Boeing company based on the B-47 and B-52 technique; and with the transonic-bump swept-wing, jet bombers. The Douglas DC-8 technique. Early transonic data were obtained for was the second U.S. 4-jet swept wing transport. what was to become the X-1 airplane by testing a also produced a 4-jet swept wing half-model mounted on a curved bump on the transport but production was limited because floor of the Langley High-Speed 7-by- 10-Ft. Boeing and Douglas took the market. . When new hypersonic, supersonic and transonic tunnels became available, Another approach to low-drag wings was the experimental data was obtained to accelerate the use of delta shaped planforms with a highly flight research program as well as the swept and a low thickness ratio. development of various types of missiles, launch Research on designs had been done in vehicles and spacecraft. Germany by Lippisch. Lippisch came to the U.S. after the war and, working with the Air Force Advances in the understanding of supersonic and Convair, aided in the design of the tailless aerodynamics was underway in the 1950's with delta airplane XF-92A which, in turn, lead to the the era of the 'Century Series' airplanes. The Convair F-102, F-106 and B-58 delta wing distribution of volume and weight with most airplanes. Many delta wing designs have been high-speed jet designs was such that problems of developed in many other countries. inertia coupling and longitudinal and directional stability and control were encountered. The Further studies of the use of wing sweep lead attainment of low drag was also a concern. to the concept of variable sweep to combine the These concerns lead to the development of the low-speed advantages of low-sweep with the for drag improvement and various tail high-speed advantages of high sweep into one arrangements for stability and control airframe. The concept lead to the development improvements. of the Bell X-5 variable sweep research airplane. Further impetus for variable sweep research The development of aircraft after World War II came in the mid 1950's when the British designer proceeded at a rapid rate. New missions were Barnes Wallis shared his concept of a variable - developed that required new aircraft types. At sweep airplane, the Swallow, with John Stack of the same time, new types of aircraft were NACA-Langley. This lead to a series of wind developed that suggested new missions. The tunnel studies of the use of variable sweep on advent of the high-speed computer has changed transports, fighters and bombers. Among the the design and analysis cycles and, when purposes envisioned were for the commercial properly used in conjunction with experimental

7 7 techniques,thedevelopmentofaviationsystems wasfirstmasteredbuttheinventionofa shouldbecomemoreaccurate. lightweightengineandpropellersystemiswhat Inthelate1950'sandearly1960's,thequest ittooktoreallygetmanofftheground.Since forstillfurtherincreasesinproductivityforcivil thateventoccurredinDecember1903,aviation transportscontinued.Attentionwasgiventoward technologyhasgrownsignificantly.Thegrowth increasingthespeedorincreasingthesizeof hasbeenfosteredbytheinterchangeofideasand aircraft.Supersonicresearchhadbeenunderway peoplebetweenmanycountries.Theuseofthe atNACAfollowingWorldWarII. Aresearch airplaneinwarfarehascausedrapidgrowthin programonthesupersoniccommercialair aviationtechnology.Averysignificantevent transport(SCAT)beganattherenamedNASA wastheintroductionofjetpropulsion.The in1959andoveraperiodofabout7yearsstudies propeller-drivenairplanewaslimitedbythe weremadeofabout40configurations.In1963a rotationalspeedofthepropellerandjet NationalSupersonicTransport(SST)Program propulsionopenthewayforawholenewbredof wascreatedandtheresearchcontinued.An highspeedaircraft.Jetpropulsioncoupledwith industrycompetitiontodevelopaSSTwaswon improveddesignmethodsandwithimproved byBoeing/GeneralElectricin1966.TheBoeing constructiontechniqueshaveprovidedaircraft designwasplaguedwithproblemsandthrougha withcapabilitiesthatfarexceedwhatmighthave hostoftechnical,economical,ecological,and beenexpectedatthetimeoftheWrightbrothers politicalconcerns,theU.S.SSTprogramwas flightin1903.Andthefuture,ofcourse,isyetto cancelledinMarch1971. unfold. Bibliographv Inthesametimeperiodthatthesupersonic transportstudieswereunderway,otherstudies Spearman, M. Leroy: A Review of 50 Years of werebeingconductedbyindustryandthe Aerodynamic Research with NACA/NASA. airlinestodevelopalargersubsonictransport. NASA TM 109163,1994. ThesestudieswereaidedbyanAirForcerequest Spearman, M. Leroy: The Evolution of the foralarge,long-range,logistictransportthat High-Speed Civil Transport. NASA resultedintheC-5.LockheedwontheC-5 TM 109089, 1994. competitionandBoeingturnedtheirattention Spearman, M. Leroy: Historical Trend in the towardthedevelopmentofthe747.The747 Research and Development of Aircraft. retainedthe4-engine,swept-wingdesignofthe NASA TM 84665, 1983. 707butintroducedthefirstofanewgeneration Spearman. M. Leroy: Historical Development of wide-bodyjumbojets.The747entered Of Worldwide Supersonic Aircraft. NASA servicein 1970andcontinuesinservicetothis TM 85637, 1983. day.Otherjumbojetsthatfollowedwerethe Spearman, M. Leroy: Design Trends for McDonnell-Douglastri-jetDC-10andthe Army/Air Force Airplanes in the United States. Lockheedtri-jetL--1011.Otherjettransport NASA TM 4179, 1990. haveenteredthemarketsuchastheBoeing757 Spearman, M. Leroy: Before the High-Speed and767andseveralAirbusmodels.Onlyone Civil Transport. Presented at the AIAA/AHS/ supersonicaircrafthasenteredthecommercial ASEE Aircraft Design, Systems and Operations transportmarketthusfar-theBritish-French Conference, , Washington July 31- Concordethathasbeeninservicesince1976. August 2, 1989. Ellis, Paul: Aircraft of the U.S.A.F., Sixty Years In Pictures. Jane's Publishing Co. 1980. Prendergast, Curtiss: The First Aviator's. Time- Life Books, Arlington, VA, 1986. Mankindhasbeenupgradingthemeansand Wallhauser, Henry T.: Pioneers of Flight. methodsoftransportationsincetimebegan. Hammond Inc., Maplewood, NJ, 1969. Methodsofmovingonlandandwaterhavebeen Boyne, Walter J.: The Smithsonian Book of progressivelyimprovedforyears.Progressin Flight. Smithsonian Books, Washington, D.C. movingthroughtheairhasprimarilybeen 1987. achievedjustinthepastcentury.Whileflight Gunston, Bill: Aviation, The Complete Story of withlighter-than-airvehicleswasaccomplished Man's Conquest of the Air. Octopus Books earlier,itwastheachievementofmannedflight Limited, London, 1978. withaheavier-than-airpoweredvehiclethatset Juptner, Joseph P.: U.S. Civil Aircraft Series. thecourseofairtransportation.Glidingflight TAB AERO Division of McGraw-Hill, Inc.

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