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A Surgical Approach to the Correction of Pulsatile Tinnitus Caused by a Sigmoid Sinus Diverticulum

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A Surgical Approach to the Correction of Pulsatile Tinnitus Caused by a Sigmoid Sinus Diverticulum A Surgical Approach to the Correction of Pulsatile Tinnitus caused by a Sigmoid Sinus Diverticulum Sarah Cooper Shaina John* Biology Department BA in Biology Arcadia University Arcadia University, 2013 450 S. Easton Road [email protected] Glenside, PA 19038 [email protected] Abstract: The unwanted noises of tinnitis may affect over 36 million Americans at some time during their lifetime. A rare type of Pulsatile tinnitus, which coincides with one’s heartbeat and has its origin in the presence of a sigmoid sinus diverticulum, may be amenable to surgical treatment via a transmastoid approach. The goal of this relatively new surgical procedure is the reconstruction of the sinus wall and the resolution of the associated sounds. Tinnitus, often described as ringing in the ears, is an difficulty sleeping, suffer from fatigue and depression, annoying condition that can be expected to affect one complain of memory problems and exhibit anxiety and out of every five people during their lifetime. Though irritability (Tabuchi et al., 2011). not a disease in itself, it can be a symptom of prob- The most common type of tinnitus is called subjective lems with the auditory system. Common forms of or auditory tinnitus. In auditory tinnitus, sounds typi- tinnitus can be triggered or exacerbated by an array of cally have their origin in the auditory nerve and the substances including antibiotics, cancer medications, central auditory system, which may indicate problems diuretics, antidepressants, quinine-based medications with the outer, middle or inner ear. Only the person and high doses of aspirin. Risk factors for the disorder suffering from tinnitus is able to hear these sounds. include repetitive exposure to loud noises, advanced The less common type of tinnitus is objective tinni- age, smoking, being male, and having high blood pres- tus, also known as somatosounds, which originates in sure. The sounds, which may be intermittent or con- structures in and around the ear. The examiner as well tinuous, are frequently reported to diminish a person’s as the tinnitus sufferer can hear somatosounds. The overall quality of life. People with tinnitus may have most common sources of somatosounds are vascular Figures 1 and 2: “Left sinus wall dehiscence with the air-on-sinus sign. The two images are a few millimeters apart on the same patient. (Continued on next page) 19 HAPS EDucator Spring 2013 bruits, involuntary twitches of the muscles of the palate the sigmoid sinus from the mastoid air cell system, a known as palatal myoclonus, a distended Eustachian condition known as dehiscence. Loss of cortical bone tube, or sounds associated with the tempromandibular to the level of the mastoid air cells may appear as an joint. A vascular bruit, from the French word for noise, “air-on-sinus” sign on a CT scan (Eisenman 2013, Fig.1 refers to sounds that are made by blood turbulence as & 2). One of the possible treatments for this condi- blood flows past an obstruction. The hallmark of vas- tion is a surgical procedure known as transmastoid cular bruit is sound that keeps pace with the heartbeat, reconstruction of the sigmoid sinus. The goal of this resulting in a rare condition known as pulsatile tinnitus procedure is to provide a smooth vascular surface for (Otto et al., 2006). the sigmoid sinus and eliminate any audible sounds of Pulsatile tinnitus is associated with the vasculature blood turbulence by flattening out the sigmoid sinus of the head and neck and may occur in the arte- diverticulum. In order to accomplish this, an incision is rial system when blood encounters a tumor pressing made behind the ear and a flap of skin and subcutane- against a blood vessel or where atherosclerosis is ous tissue is lifted from the region covering the mastoid present in blood vessels of the middle or inner ear. portion of the temporal bone. Once the skin flap is Atherosclerosis typically results in loss of blood vessel securely anchored out of the way, a flap of periosteum elasticity, which may have an affect on the sound blood is raised exposing the mastoid cortex. The sigmoid makes. High blood pressure can also trigger unusual sinus, its adjacent dura mater and the diverticulum are sounds in blood vessels as can blood turbulence result- exposed through careful dissection. The wall of the ing from stenosis of the internal carotid artery or the sigmoid sinus is reconstructed using either part of the internal jugular vein. Unusual sounds may also have temporalis muscle and its associated fascia or bone their origin in abnormal connections between arteries wax. Bone wax is beeswax to which a softening agent and veins in the dura mater known has been added. It can be used to apply pressure to as arteriovenous malformations. bone in order to stop bleeding or, Arteriovenous malformations asso- as in this case, it can function as ciated with tinnitus usually result in a patching material. When a large the production of unilateral sounds. diverticulum has been exposed, In the venous system, bruits most typically a piece of the temporalis commonly originate from venous muscle is used to cover the defec- stenosis, small groups of abnor- tive area of the sigmoid sinus. The mally coiled veins, or elevated temporalis muscle patch is then intracranial blood pressure (Otto et sutured to the adjacent dura with al., 2006). It is possible to distin- just enough tension to flatten out guish whether pulsatile tinnitus is of the diverticulum. Smaller divertic- arterial or venous origin by gently ula can often be patched with just compressing the internal jugular a sheet of bone wax, cut to proper vein. If the tinnitus is of venous size, and placed over the bulging origin, the compression will cause area of the sinus. Care is taken the observed sound to stop. If the during the surgery to conserve the tinnitus is of arterial origin, the normal diameter of the sigmoid compression will make the sound sinus and the sinus is never ligated louder (Gologorsky et al., 2009). or obliterated. When everything has been completed to the satisfaction of the surgeon, For the 25% of people who are severely affected by the repaired section of the sigmoid sinus is covered tinnitus, definitive cures are hard to come by. However, with the periosteal flap, the skin is closed, and a com- reconstructive surgery has recently become an op- pression dressing is applied to the area. Many patients tion for a rare condition known as intramastoid sigmoid whose pulsatile tinnitus is linked to sigmoid sinus diver- sinus diverticulum, a specific type of venous disruption ticulum, and who are treated surgically, report complete that may be associated with pulsatile tinnitus. Individu- resolution of the offending noise (Eisenman 2011, Otto als with this disorder are diagnosed using computed et al., 2006). tomographic angiography, CTA. This type of imaging, in which contrast dye is injected into the blood stream Along with the success that has resulted from surgi- prior to the scan, offers high resolution of both the cal transmastoid reconstruction of the sigmoid sinus in temporal bone and its vascular anatomy. A typical CTA the treatment of pulsatile tinnitus, there are still unan- scan might begin coverage at the level of C6, include swered questions relating to the pathophysiology of the bifurcation of the common carotid artery and extend sigmoid sinus diverticula. The direct cause of a diver- through the Circle of Willis (Otto et al., 2006). ticulum remains unknown as does its sequential natural history and the exact mechanism by which the sound is When a sigmoid sinus diverticulum is present, the asso- generated. The intracranial vascular abnormalities that ciated increase in blood turbulence can cause the loss are related to the diverticulum, and possibly contribute of the thin layer of cortical bone that normally separates to its formation, have not yet been adequately investi- (Continued on next page) 20 HAPS EDucator Spring 2013 M22_MART8156_07_SE_CH22.QXD 11/14/10 12:25 PM Page 594 594 The Cardiovascular System Figure 22.21 Major Veins of the Head and Neck Superior sagittal sinus Superficial cerebral veins Temporal Inferior sagittal sinus Deep cerebral Great cerebral Cavernous sinus Straight sinus Maxillary Petrosal sinuses Right transverse sinus Occipital sinus Facial Sigmoid sinus Occipital Vertebral External Internal jugular jugular Right subclavian Clavicle Right brachiocephalic Axillary a An oblique lateral view of the head and neck Left brachiocephalic showing the major supercial and deep veins First rib Superior vena cava Internal thoracic Superior sagittal sinus (cut) Roots of superior cerebral Superficial Veins of the Head and Neck [Figure 22.21] Superficial veins of the head converge to form the temporal, facial, and maxillary veins (Figure 22.21). The temporal and maxillary veins drain into the external jugular vein. The fa- Middle cerebral cial vein drains into the internal jugular vein; a broad anasto- mosis between the external and internal jugular veins at the Cavernous angle of the mandible provides dual venous drainage of the sinus Pontal face, scalp, and cranium. The external jugular vein descends superficial to the sternocleidomastoid muscle. Posterior to the Petrosal sinuses clavicle, the external jugular empties into the subclavian vein. Internal In healthy individuals, the external jugular vein is easily palpa- jugular ble, and a jugular venous pulse (JVP) can sometimes be seen at Inferior cerebrals the base of the neck. Inferior Venous Return from the Upper Limb [Figure 22.22] The cerebellars Sigmoid sinus digital veins empty into the superficial and deep palmar veins of the hand, which interconnect to form the palmar ve- nous arches (Figure 22.22). The superficial arch empties into the cephalic vein, which ascends along the radial side of the Straight sinus Transverse sinus forearm, the median antebrachial vein, and the basilic vein, Confluence of sinuses which ascends on the ulnar side.
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