DOCSLIB.ORG

Poverty in Bangladesh: Building on Progress

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text

Load more

Report No. 24299-BD Poverty in Bangladesh: Building on Progress December, 2002 Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Sector Unit South Asia Region, World Bank Document of the World Bank and Asian Development Bank CURRENCY EQUIVALENTS Taka (Tk.) US $1.00=Tk. 57.9 (June 2002) GOVERNMENT’S FISCAL YEAR July 1 – June 30 ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ADP Annual Development Program IMF International Monetary Fund ABC Assessment of Basic Competency IMR Infant Mortality Rate BANBEIS Bangladesh Bureau of Educational I-PRSP Interim Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper Information and Statistics LFS Labor Force Survey BBS Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics LGED Local Government Engineering Department BDHS Bangladesh Demographic and MDG Millennium Development Goals Health Survey MFI Micro Finance Institutions BHDR Bangladesh Human Development Report MMR Maternal Mortality Rate MWCA Ministry of Women’s and Children’s Affairs BIA Benefit Incidence Analysis M&E Monitoring and Evaluation BINP Bangladesh Integrated Nutrition program NA National Accounts BRAC Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee NCB National Commercial Bank CBN Cost of Basic Needs NEC National Economic Council CDF Credit Development Forum NGOs Non-Governmental Organizations CMR Child Mortality Rate NIPORT National Institute of Population research CNS Child Nutrition Survey and training CPD Center for Policy Dialogue PA Poverty Assessment DHS Demographic and Health Services PAC Public Affairs Center PARC Public Administration Reform Commission ESP Essential Services Package PCE Per Capita Expenditures ERD External Relations Department PER Public Expenditure Review FFE Food For Education PETS Public Expenditure Tracking Survey FFW Food For Work PFDS Public Food Distribution System FMRSP- Food Management and Research Support PKSF Palli Karma Sahayak Foundation IFPRI Project -International Food Policy PMED Primary and Mass Education Division Research Institute PPRC Power and Participation Research Center FSS Female Secondary Stipend RD Rural Development GDP Gross Domestic Product REB Rural Electrification Board RMP Rural Maintenance Program GIE Gini Income Elasticity RNF Rural Non-Farm GOB Government of Bangladesh SMC School Management Committee GR Gratuitous Relief SOE State-Owned Enterprise HES Household Expenditure Survey SSC Secondary School Certificate HIES Household Income and TNO Thana Nirbahi Officer Expenditure Survey TR Test Relief HKI Helen Keller International UDC Union Disaster Committee HSC Higher Secondary Certificate UNDP United Nations Development Program IFPRI International Food Policy UP Union Parishad Research Institute UPVGD Union Parishad Vulnerable Group Development VGD Vulnerable Group Development IGVGD Income Generation Vulnerable Group VGF Vulnerable Group Feeding Development WFP World Food Program IMED Implementation Monitoring and WHO World Health Organization Evaluation Division Vice President: Mieko Nishimizu, SARVP Country Director: Frederick T. Temple, SACBD Sector Director: Sadiq Ahmed, SASPR Sector Manager: Sanjay Pradhan, SASPR Task Managers: Salman Zaidi, Rinku Murgai, SASPR Report No. 24299-BD Poverty in Bangladesh: Building on Progress December, 2002 Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Sector Unit South Asia Region, World Bank Document of the World Bank and Asian Development Bank CONTENTS EXECUTIVE SUMMARY.................................................................................................................................................i 1.PROGRESS IN POVERTY REDUCTION DURING THE NINETIES:...................................................................... 2 1.1.INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW:............................................................................................................... 2 1.2.TRENDS IN THE ECONOMY: ......................................................................................................................... 3 1.3. TRENDS IN CONSUMPTION-BASED POVERTY AND INEQUALITY MEASURES:.................................. 4 1.4. TRENDS IN NON-INCOME MEASURES OF LIVING STANDARDS:.......................................................... 9 1.5. PROFILE OF THE POOR:..............................................................................................................................14 2. ACCELERATING GROWTH: THE ROLE OF KEY PRIVATE AND PUBLIC ASSETS....................................... 18 2.1. PROFILE OF SOURCES OF INCOME AND ASSET PORTFOLIOS:............................................................ 19 2.2. LABOR EMPLOYMENT AND EARNINGS:.................................................................................................. 21 2.3. LAND AND COMMON PROPERTY RESOURCES:...................................................................................... 26 2.4. IMPROVED ACCESS TO CREDIT:................................................................................................................ 30 2.5. OVERALL ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT AND COMPLEMENTARY PUBLIC ASSETS: ......................... 33 3. INVESTING IN HUMAN CAPITAL: EDUCATION, HEALTH, AND CHILD NUTRITION .............................. 44 3.1. OVERVIEW OF RECENT PROGRESS IN EDUCATION:............................................................................ 44 3.2. BENEFIT-INCIDENCE ANALYSIS OF EDUCATION EXPENDITURES:.................................................. 48 3.3. OVERVIEW OF RECENT PROGRESS IN HEALTH:................................................................................... 51 3.4. BENEFIT-INCIDENCE ANALYSIS OF HEALTH EXPENDITURES: ......................................................... 54 3.5. CHILD MALNUTRITION: ............................................................................................................................. 56 4. REDUCING VULNERABILITY: PUBLIC SOCIAL SAFETY NET PROGRAMS................................................... 66 4.1. RECENT PROGRESS IN REDUCING VULNERABILITY:........................................................................... 66 4.2. MAIN SOCIAL ASSISTANCE PROGRAMS IN BANGLADESH:.................................................................. 67 4.3. TARGETING EFFECTIVENESS OF FOOD-ASSISTED TRANSFER PROGRAMS:.................................... 70 4.4. ASSESSMENT OF LEAKAGE FROM FOOD-ASSISTED TRANSFER PROGRAMS:................................... 75 4.5. IMPROVING THE IMPACT OF THE PUBLIC SAFETY-NET:..................................................................... 78 5. SCORING PROGRESS: .......................................................................................................................................... 84 TECHNICAL APPENDIX:..................................................................................................................................... 92 APPENDIX TABLES AND FIGURES................................................................................................................... 95 REFERENCES ...................................................................................................................................................... 110 List of Tables Table 1.1. Trends in CBN Poverty Measures.................................................................................................... 4 Table 1.2. Regional Trends in Poverty ............................................................................................................... 5 Table 1.3. Total Number and Distribution of Poor in Bangladesh: 2000 HIES ........................................ 6 Table 1.4. Trends in Inequality: Gini Coefficients ........................................................................................... 7 Table 1.5. Trends in Various Indicators of Malnutrition .............................................................................. 10 Table 1.6. Literacy Rates in Bangladesh........................................................................................................... 11 Table 1.7. Percentage of Children Currently Enrolled in School ................................................................ 12 Table 1.8. Poverty Incidence by Level of Education of Household Head ................................................ 14 Table 1.9. Poverty Incidence by Occupation of Household Head.............................................................. 15 Table 1.10. Rural Poverty Incidence by Land Ownership............................................................................ 15 Table 1.11. Housing Conditions by Sector and Poverty ............................................................................... 16 Table 2.1. Gini Decomposition by Source of Income .................................................................................. 19 Table 2.2. Trends in the Labor Market, 1991-2000........................................................................................ 21 Table 2.3. Unemployment and Under-employment ...................................................................................... 23 Table 2.4. Rice Market Participation Status, Rural Areas.............................................................................. 28 Table 2.5. Farm Size and Degree of Crop Diversification............................................................................ 29 Table 2.6. Distribution of Loans by Financial Sector, Rural Areas............................................................. 30 Table 2.7. Main Source of Finance for Setting-up Family Business............................................................ 31 Table 2.8. Per-capita Expenditures & Community Infrastructure
Recommended publications
  • 1 Poverty, Income Inequality and Growth In

    1 Poverty, Income Inequality and Growth In

    POVERTY, INCOME INEQUALITY AND GROWTH IN BANGLADESH: REVISITED KARL-MARX MD NIAZ MURSHED CHOWDHURY Department of Economics University of Nevada Reno [email protected] MD. MOBARAK HOSSAIN Department of Economics University of Nevada Reno ABSTRACT This study tries to find the relationship among poverty inequality and growth. It also tries to connect the Karl Marx’s thoughts on functional income distribution and inequality in capitalism. Using the Household Income and Expenditure Survey of 2010 and 2016 this study attempt to figure out the relationship among them. In Bangladesh about 24.3% of the population is living under poverty lines and 12.3% of its population is living under the extreme poverty line. The major finding of this study is poverty has reduced significantly from 2000 to 2016, which is more than 100% but in recent time poverty reduction has slowed down. Despite the accelerating economic growth, the income inequality also increasing where the rate of urban inequality exceed the rural income inequality. Slower and unequal household consumption growth makes sloth the rate of poverty reduction. Average annual consumption fell from 1.8% to 1.4% from 2010 to 2016 and poorer households experienced slower consumption growth compared to richer households. KEYWORDS: Bangladesh; Inequality; Poverty; Distribution, GDP growth 1 I. INTRODUCTION Global inequality is the major concern in the recent era, which is rising at an alarming rate. According to recent Oxfam report, 82% of the wealth generated last year went to the richest 1% of the global population, which the 3.7% billion people who make up the poorest half of the world population had no increase in their wealth in another word poorest half of the world got nothing.
  • Regional Variations of Banking Services and Poverty Reduction: Evidence from Subdistrict Level Administrative Data of Bangladesh

    Regional Variations of Banking Services and Poverty Reduction: Evidence from Subdistrict Level Administrative Data of Bangladesh

    A Service of Leibniz-Informationszentrum econstor Wirtschaft Leibniz Information Centre Make Your Publications Visible. zbw for Economics Iqbal, Kazi; Roy, Paritosh K.; Shamsul Alam, A. K. Working Paper Regional variations of banking services and poverty reduction: Evidence from subdistrict level administrative data of Bangladesh ADBI Working Paper, No. 871 Provided in Cooperation with: Asian Development Bank Institute (ADBI), Tokyo Suggested Citation: Iqbal, Kazi; Roy, Paritosh K.; Shamsul Alam, A. K. (2018) : Regional variations of banking services and poverty reduction: Evidence from subdistrict level administrative data of Bangladesh, ADBI Working Paper, No. 871, Asian Development Bank Institute (ADBI), Tokyo This Version is available at: http://hdl.handle.net/10419/190292 Standard-Nutzungsbedingungen: Terms of use: Die Dokumente auf EconStor dürfen zu eigenen wissenschaftlichen Documents in EconStor may be saved and copied for your Zwecken und zum Privatgebrauch gespeichert und kopiert werden. personal and scholarly purposes. Sie dürfen die Dokumente nicht für öffentliche oder kommerzielle You are not to copy documents for public or commercial Zwecke vervielfältigen, öffentlich ausstellen, öffentlich zugänglich purposes, to exhibit the documents publicly, to make them machen, vertreiben oder anderweitig nutzen. publicly available on the internet, or to distribute or otherwise use the documents in public. Sofern die Verfasser die Dokumente unter Open-Content-Lizenzen (insbesondere CC-Lizenzen) zur Verfügung gestellt haben sollten,
  • Anna Fadeeva A) Poverty in Bangladesh

    Anna Fadeeva A) Poverty in Bangladesh

    Anna Fadeeva A comparative study of poverty in China, India, Bangladesh, and Philippines. Under review in: University of South California Research Paper Series in Sociology a) Poverty in Bangladesh Banladesh is one of the world's most densely populated countries with 150 million people, 26% of whom live below the national poverty line of US $2 per day. In addition, child malnutrition rates are currently at 48%, in condition that is tied to the low social status of women in Bangladeshi society. While Bangladesh suffers from many problems such as poor infrastructure, political instability, corruption, and insufficient power supplies, the country's economy has grown 5-6% per year since 1996. However, Bangladesh still remains a poor, overpopulated, and inefficiently-governed nation with about 45% of the Bangladeshis being employed in the agriculture sector. Rural and urban poverty The World Bank announced in June 2013 that Bangladesh had reduced the number of people living in poverty from 63 million in 2000 to 47 million in 2010, despite a total population that had grown to approximately 150 million. This means that Bangladesh will reach its first United Nations-established Millennium Development Goal, that of poverty reduction, two years ahead of the 2015 deadline. Bangladesh is also making progress in reducing its poverty rate to 26 percent of the population. Since the 1990s, there has been a declining trend of poverty by 1 percent each year, with the help of international assistance. According to the 2010 household survey by the Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, 17.6 percent of the population were found to be under the poverty line.
  • BANGLADESH Inclusive Growth Diagnostic

    BANGLADESH Inclusive Growth Diagnostic

    BANGLADESH Photo: Tara Simpson Inclusive Growth Diagnostic June 2014 BANGLADESH Inclusive Growth Diagnostic USAID and DFID Inclusive Growth Diagnostic Team – Bangladesh Euan Davidson, DFID Anastasia de Santos, USAID Yoon Lee, USAID Nathan Martinez, USAID Caroline Smith, USAID Takele Tassew, USAID DISCLAIMER: The authors’ views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect the views of the United States Agency for International Development or the United States Government. i TABLE OF CONTENTS Executive Summary ........................................................................................................................ 2 Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................................... 4 1. Overview ................................................................................................................................. 5 1.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 5 1.2 Methodology of Growth Diagnostics ............................................................................... 6 1.3 Organization of the Bangladesh Inclusive Growth Diagnostic ........................................ 7 2 Poverty and Economic Growth – The Bangladesh Experience ............................................... 9 2.1 Extreme Poverty ............................................................................................................... 9 2.2 Bangladesh’s Economic
  • Evidence from Bangladesh, Peru and Thailand

    Evidence from Bangladesh, Peru and Thailand

    WPS6199 Policy Research Working Paper 6199 Public Disclosure Authorized What Is Behind the Decline in Poverty Since 2000? Public Disclosure Authorized Evidence from Bangladesh, Peru and Thailand Gabriela Inchauste Sergio Olivieri Jaime Saavedra Hernan Winkler Public Disclosure Authorized The World Bank Public Disclosure Authorized Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Network Poverty Reduction and Equity Department September 2012 Policy Research Working Paper 6199 Abstract This paper quantifies the contributions of different growth in labor incomes was driven by higher returns factors to poverty reduction observed in Bangladesh, Peru to individual and household endowments, pointing to and Thailand over the last decade. In contrast to methods increases in productivity and real wages as the driving that focus on aggregate summary statistics, the method force behind poverty declines. Lower dependency adopted here generates entire counterfactual distributions ratios also helped to reduce poverty, particularly in to account for the contributions of demographics and Bangladesh. Non-labor income contributed as well, income from labor and non-labor sources in explaining albeit to a smaller extent, in the form of international poverty reduction. The authors find that the most remittances in the case of Bangladesh and through public important contributor was the growth in labor income, and private transfers in Peru and Thailand. Transfers are mostly in the form of farm income in Bangladesh and more important in explaining the reduction in extreme Thailand and non-farm income in the case of Peru. This compared with moderate poverty. This paper is a product of the Poverty Reduction and Equity Department, Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Network.
  • Chronic Poverty in Bangladesh: Tales of Ascent, Descent, Marginality and Persistence

    Chronic Poverty in Bangladesh: Tales of Ascent, Descent, Marginality and Persistence

    Draft circulated for comments Chronic Poverty in Bangladesh: Tales of Ascent, Descent, Marginality and Persistence The State of the Poorest 2004/2005 Edited by Binayak Sen David Hulme Contributors Imtiaz Ahmad Naila Kabeer Zulfiqar Ali Iqbal Alam Khan Sharifa Begum Imran Matin Omar Haider Chowdhury Binayak Sen David Hulme Quazi Shahabuddin Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies (BIDS), Dhaka, Bangladesh And Chronic Poverty Research Centre (CPRC) Institute for Development Policy and Management (IDPM) University of Manchester, Manchester, UK May 2004 Table of Contents Chapter 1: Contextualising the Poorest: Chronic and Extreme Poverty 1-12 1.1 Questions and Concerns 1 1.2 Persistent Themes 5 1.3 Not by Growth Alone: Rethinking the Poverty Agenda 7 1.4 Structure of Report 9 Chapter 2: A Passage to Modernity: From ‘Test Case’ to Growth and 13-20 Democracy 2.1 The Dark Side of Beginnings 13 2.2 From “Test Case” to “Medium Human Development” League 15 2.3 Themes of Ascent, Discovery and Transition 19 Chapter 3: Trends in Poverty and Social Indicators: The 1990s and Beyond 21-24 3.1 Trends in Income-Poverty 21 3.2 Trends in Human Poverty Index 22 3.3 Poverty Trends after 2000 23 3.4 Inequality Matters 27 3.5 Trends in Social MDGs by Poverty Status 30 Chapter 4: Chronic Poverty in Bangladesh: Insights from Household Survey 49-74 Data 4.1 Defining and Measuring Chronic Poverty 50 4.2 Severity and Chronicity 51 4.3 The Incidence of Chronic Income-Poverty 52 4.4 Drivers of Escape and Descent 54 4.5 Mobile and Immobile Chronic Poor 57 4.6 Chronic
  • Crowded House: Analyzing Overpopulation and Poverty in Bangladesh and Indonesia

    Crowded House: Analyzing Overpopulation and Poverty in Bangladesh and Indonesia

    Global Majority E-Journal, Vol. 7, No. 1 (June 2016), pp. 28-37 Crowded House: Analyzing Overpopulation and Poverty in Bangladesh and Indonesia Sarina Kirpalani Abstract This article analyzes some main factors related to extreme poverty and overpopulation in both Bangladesh and Indonesia, and discusses possible solutions to these current issues. The primary focus of this article is to discuss the impact of environmental issues, lack of resources and poor family planning on overpopulation and its consequential result of poverty. The article aims to provide an insightful analysis of the factors in these two countries that contribute to overpopulation and poverty and to examine some possible interventions to stabilize the rates of population growth and to reduce endemic poverty in these nations. I. Introduction While a high population density can have certain benefits, in most developing countries the negatives typically outweigh the positives. Overpopulation and poverty are two major problems in both Bangladesh and Indonesia. • As of 2013, Indonesia had an estimated population of 250 million, living on 1,904,569 square kilometers (km2, or 735,358 square miles), which implies a population density of 138 persons per km2. Excluding city states like Luxembourg or Singapore, Indonesia has the 24th highest population density in the world. About 11.4 percent of Indonesia’s population (around 28 million people) live in poverty. Due to this poverty, about 112,000 infants die yearly, and about 8,800 maternal deaths occur yearly.1 • Another country that experiences severe overpopulation is Bangladesh. Bangladesh has an estimated total population of 160 million in 2013, living on 147,570 km2 (56,977 square miles), which implies a population density of 1.203 persons per km2.
  • How Do Bangladeshi Elites Understand Poverty?

    How Do Bangladeshi Elites Understand Poverty?

    View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by IDS OpenDocs HOW DO BANGLADESHI ELITES UNDERSTAND POVERTY ? * IDS WORKING PAPER 83 Naomi Hossain Summary The poverty of most Bangladeshis is viewed as an important - but not urgent - issue by Bangladesh's elites. They do not feel threatened by the extent of poverty, or by poor people. Some sections of the elite appear to know little about the poor. The poor are instead viewed through a somewhat idealistic lens, as homogenous, deserving objects of traditional elite philanthropy. Poverty alleviation is at one level viewed as a moral project. At another level it is synonymous with the broader, technical project of development: development will solve the problem eventually, without any special focus on the poor. The state is expected to provide education for the poor, but not to act in any more direct way to protect their livelihoods. The proper role of the state is to promote development in the broad sense, not to ensure that the poor are fed. * The author is grateful to Stephen Devereux and Mick Moore for comments on earlier drafts, and to Nandini Gooptu for extensive discussions of the issues. Copyright © Institute of Development Studies 1999 ISBN 1 85864 254 X 1 INTRODUCTION Does it matter what Bangladeshi elites think about the problem of poverty? History suggests that it matters a great deal. Historical scholarship tells us that understandings of poverty have often affected the degree of priority that elites have been willing to accord to poverty alleviation and the nature of anti-poverty policies they are willing to support.
  • Ensuring Escapes from Poverty Are Sustained in Rural Bangladesh

    Ensuring Escapes from Poverty Are Sustained in Rural Bangladesh

    ENSURING ESCAPES FROM POVERTY ARE SUSTAINED IN RURAL BANGLADESH LEO REPORT # LEO REPORT #32 ACDI/VOCA Credit: Photo JULY 2016 This publication was produced for review by the United States Agency for International Development. It was prepared by Lucy Scott and Vidya Diwakar of the Overseas Development Institute (ODI) for ACDI/VOCA with funding from USAID/E3’s Leveraging Economic Opportunities (LEO) project. Acknowledgements to Mishkat Jahan, Afrin Sultana and Shameem Reza from Development Research Initiative for qualitative data collection and Mamun Rashid and Ferdous Jahan for managing fieldwork. ENSURING ESCAPES FROM POVERTY ARE SUSTAINED IN RURAL BANGLADESH: LEO REPORT #32 DISCLAIMER The author’s views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect the views of the United States Agency for International Development or the United States Government. CONTENTS ACRONYMS................................................................................................................................................................ ii EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ....................................................................................................................................... 1 i. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................ 3 II. The Case Study of Rural Bangladesh .................................................................................................................. 4 A. What Is the Extent of Backsliding
  • The Sundarbans: a Riparian Commons in Search of Management

    The Sundarbans: a Riparian Commons in Search of Management

    THE SUNDARBANS: A RIPARIAN COMMONS IN SEARCH OF MANAGEMENT Introduction: The Framework The "tragedy of the commons" has come to symbolize the problems between the survival of nature and the extractive tendencies of humans interacting with nature in order to ensure subsistence as well as profit. The use of the very term ' natural resources' to signify nature as is the wont of development institutions and bureaucracies worldwide is tantamount to subordinating it to human use and modification. The term "tragedy of the commons” connotes the destruction of grazing resources on the commons on account of a local societal failure to control individual maximizing tendencies. What is often not well understood is that when a tragedy of the commons type situation is averted with cooperation on profit maximizing activities by groups of resource users, it often poses a real threat to the survival of the nature itself. Often this term is also used both historically and contemporaneously to clamp down on individual and or social/community based systems of resource use and extraction, by the intermediary role of the state. However, the typical use of monetary controls to regulate extraction by the state leads both to subterfuge by the users who are no longer responsible, as well as widespread rent seeking behaviour by officials, both of which defy any regulatory attempts by the state. At the outset it must be understood that while the existence of common property systems with regard to the Sundarbans is referred to in passing in historical sources, there are traditions and folk religious elements that provide subtle hints about the evolution of a belief system that would have necessarily impacted upon patterns of resource use.

  • Oecd Development Centre

    OECD DEVELOPMENT CENTRE Working Paper No. 143 (Formerly Technical Paper No. 143) HOW BAD GOVERNANCE IMPEDES POVERTY ALLEVIATION IN BANGLADESH by Rehman Sobhan Research programme on: Good Governance and Poverty Alleviation November 1998 CD/DOC(98)13 TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................ 6 RÉSUMÉ .................................................................................................................. 7 SUMMARY ............................................................................................................... 8 PREFACE ................................................................................................................ 9 I. INTRODUCTION............................................................................................... 11 II. CONCEPTUAL ISSUES ................................................................................... 13 III. OVERVIEW ON CHANGING POVERTY STATUS IN BANGLADESH ............. 15 IV. BANGLADESH’S APROACH TO POVERTY ALLEVIATION: THE ROLE OF THE STATE ................................................................................................. 19 V. THE ROLE OF DONORS ................................................................................. 21 VI. THE ROLE OF NGOS....................................................................................... 23 VII. GOVERNANCE AND POLICY .......................................................................... 27 VIII. GOVERNANCE AND INSTITUTIONS

  • Power, Politics and Programming for Social Accountability in Pakistan

    DEPARTMENT OF INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT LONDON SCHOOL OF ECONOMICS AND POLITICAL SCIENCE POWER, POLITICS AND PROGRAMMING FOR SOCIAL ACCOUNTABILITY IN PAKISTAN Submitted in Fulfilment of the Full Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy, November 2017 Thomas Kirk 1 Declaration I certify that the thesis I have presented for examination for the MPhil/PhD degree of the London School of Economics and Political Science is solely my own work other than where I have clearly indicated that it is the work of others (in which case the extent of any work carried out jointly by me and any other person is clearly identified in it). The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. Quotation is permitted, provided that full acknowledgement is made. This thesis may not be reproduced without the prior written consent of the author. I warrant that this authorization does not, to the best of my belief, infringe the rights of any third party. ……………………………………………………………. Signature: Thomas Kirk I declare that my thesis consists of 104,645 words. I declare that the thesis references and para-phrases the arguments of previous studies carried out by the author but does not contain empirical data from them. 2 Photo 1: A community leader adding his signature to state documents REMOVED FOR COPYRIGHT Source: Author’s own photograph 3 Acknowledgements This thesis was co-created with those I already knew and those I met along the way. Here I wish to briefly thank a few. It would not have got off the ground if it had not been for Khalid who welcomed me to Pakistan and helped me explore it.