Index of languages

Abkhaz (Northwest CauG1sian) 29-30,}8, 67,70, Armenian (Indo-European] 113) 289,}2}, 346, 82, J42, 241-2, 2;0, 253, 256, 261, 293 360,381, see also Modern Eastern evidentials and modalites 258 Armenian, \'Vcstern Armenian evidentials and person 222--3,238 Ammanian (Romance, Indo-European) 283 evidentials in discourse lO~, J37, 313, 316-18, Arrernte (Australian) 33,69,180-1,183,193,251, 323-4,346, 350 284,293,299, 3JO, 312-14, }22, see also mirativc extensions of cvidentials 196,199, Mparntwe Arrernlc 207-8 Aslian (Mon-Khmer) 234 origin of cvidentials 109,272-3,277 Athau3skan languages 31,53,291) 358 semantics Df evidentials lSB,IB6 Australi'llllanguagcs 33-5,76,87,110,132,193, Achagua (Arawak) 32,292,301 W3,314 Adioukruu (KW3, Niger·Congo) 135 Avar (Northeast Caucasian) 38 Afghan Persi<1n (Iranian, Indo-European) 109 Ayman (la'li) 12,14-[5, IS, 43, 114, 142,250, African languages 116,133,291, }8} 296-7,391, 5ec nl>v la'li Aguaruna (Jivaro) 137,141 semantics of evidentials 162 Agul (Northe.lst Caucasian) 115, J43, 228 usage of cvidcntials 335-6,338-9,357-8 Akha (Tibcto-Bunnan, Sino-'I'ibetan) 69,96-'7, 103, 204,256,261,272,277,284-5,291,31'>9 Bagvalal (Northeast Caucilsian) 155,280,316,325, Albanian (Indo-European) 40,108,130,158,197, 34 1 279,280,288,296 Bahw.m" (Arawak) 46 Algonquian 41,187,279,291 Balinese (Western Austronesian) 356 Amahuaca (Palloan) 357 Balkan Slavic (Slavic, Indo-European) 40,158, Amazonian languages ('1,76,292,357,359,382 197,279,288-9 Amdo Tibetan (Tibeto- Burman, Sino-Tibetan) Balkanlanguages 15,77,150,264,288-9,293,297 45,100,160,229-3°,232,238,260,269, Ballo-Finnic (finno-Ugric, Uralic) 77,123,140, 326,345,350 282,290 Andean Spanish 21, W9, 277, 297-9>335-6, Balticlanguages (lndo-Eumpean) 77, J40, see also Spanish, Andean 278,290 "l..llglophonc environment 386 Banawa (Arawa) 292 (Ath"baskan) 291, sC<' ,lIso Western Baniwa (Arav"'ak) 32) 34, 95, 242) 253) !58~ 285,292) Apnehe 294,310, see also Baniwa of 1<;

Bukiyip Arapcsh (Mapesh, Papuan area) 109 lhni (I'apuan area) 1]2 Bulgar (Turkicl 2R9 Dardic languages lIndo-European} 24,254,289 Bulgarian (Slavic, Indo-European) 14-)5, Jll, 136, Darp"J (KortheastCaucasian) 228,279, 281, 2~4 138, qQ, 264,177,288-9,294,298 DilW (lVhl h,) 32,286, 29"- Des

Crimean Tat;]r (Turkic) 289 270 1 277) 21"1-3 Croatian (Slavic, Indo-European) 11(),386 mirative extensions of evidentials 200, Cupeiio (UtlJ-Aztc£an) }2, 87, lR2, 21},314 },25.2W origin of cyidcntials 111, 119, 12.~, 140, Dilco-Romanian (Romance, Indll-European) 2Xl-], !9U lII, 277) 288 scm,mtics of evidcntiah 7,180,19_' Dakota (Siouan) 50, sa IIIso Lakota, Lakhota usage of evidentials 76,310 Index of languages 431

Estonian South dialects (Balto-Finnic, Hup (Makti) 60.68,72,242,259.261.273-4, Finno-Ugric) 77,111,277-8.283. see also 286-7,292, see also Hupda South Estonian dialects Bupda (Maku) 60.68,72,242,259.261.273-4, Ethiopian Plateau, languages of 132 286-7.292, see ,di" Bup Euchee (isolatel 37-8.73,249,251,275,328>340-1, 386, see (1150 Yllch i 19naciano (Arawak) 32,292 Europeanlanguages 5-7,76,148,333,355,360 India as a linguistic area 291 Even (Tungllsie) 106 IndQ-Aryan languages (Indo-European) 291 Evenki (Tungusic) 106 Indo-European language.1 ll, 18.133, 148 Iranian languag~s ll. 16, 68. 77, 112. 279, 289 Fasu (Kutubuan, Papuan area) 62-3,253,383 Irantxc (isolate) 24,71,82-3,156,232,24<-.250. Finnic languages (Fiullo-Ugric, Uralic) 99 see also Myky Finno-Ugric languages (Uralie] 28,68, 26}, 267, lroquoian 26 279, 289 Ishkashim (Iranian, Indo-European) 38,113-14 Foe (Kutubuan, Papuan area) 61-2,176,}H3 lstanbulludezmo (Jewish Spanish language; Fox (Algonquian) 109.143 Romance, Indo-European) 114 French (Romance, Indo-European) 10-n, 17, IteJmen (Chukotko-Kamchatkan) 116 106-8,134,177 lamamadi (Arawil) 292 Galmku (Gorokan, Papuan area) 139-40 ]amiltepcc Mh:tcc (Oto-1·1anguean) 182 G;llician (Romance, Indo-European) 141 Jamul Tiipay (Yuman) 83,182,193,257,273,284, Gaviao (Tupi) 32 see alsD Dicguefto Georgian (South Cauc,lsian) 11,38,77,113,204, Japanese (isolate) 10,14,81,100,122-3,128,268, 232, 264. 272, 279.324 324-5.356 German (Germanic, Indo-Eumpcan) 15,70, Jaqi 12,14-15,18,43,114.141,25°,296-7,391, 107-8, nO-H, 134-5,150 see aT.'o Aymara Germanic I~ngllagcs (Indo-European) 5 jarawara (Arawa) 23-4,26-7,29. 68, 7(),77, 130, Godoberi (Northeast Caucasian) 28,3]] 242,250.253.258,264,267 Greek (Indo-European) 150-1.272,293.296, evidential, and person 218,220-1. 2Z3-4, 234. see alsD Greek, Modern; Modern Greek 238 Greek, Modern (Indo-European) 142, evidentials, more than once in a clause 88.

15 0 - 1.382 93-5,103 Guahibo languages 32 markedness in cvidellti~ls 71-2 Guarani. Paraguayan (Tupi-Guarani, Tupf) mirative extensions of evidentials 197-8,207 32 ,292 origin of evidcntials 275,292 Cur languages (Niger-Congo) 32 semantics of evidentials 23-4,154,156,158 Gypsy languages, see Romani subsystems u[ evidentials 84-5 usage of evidentials in discourse 308-9>311. Hakha Lai (Tibeto-Burman. Sino-Tibetanl 275 326-7,334.341, 345. 360. 380 Hare (Athabaskan) 31,204,222 Je langllage~ 382 Hatti (isolate) 290 j[varo langnages 137 Hebrew (Semitic.Afroasiatic) 10 Jinghpilw (Tibeto-Burman, 5ino-Tibetan) 178 Hill Patwin (Wintun) 176,277,284. see a/so Patwin Kala palo (Carib) 321.330>337 Hittite (Anatolian, Indo-European) 290 Kalaslw (Dardic. [11 do-European) 24,28,79, no, Hixkar),an3 (Carib) 63.73,292>324 1)4-5,157. 197.210,222,263,289 Hobn langu

Karitian3-4,204,284 Kalo (Athabaskan) 3J,2.91 Lillooet (Salish) .59 Kazakh (Turkic) 40 Lisu (Tibeto-Bunl1an, Sino-Tibetan) 69 Kt,t (isolate) 290 Lithuanian lBaltic, Indo-European) 33,117,119, Kewa (Engan, Papuan area) 83 123, v).o, 238, 281-2)290 Kham (Tiheto-Burman, Sino-Tihetan) miralive extensions of evidcntials 100,205, mirativity 211-12 207-8) 218} 225,228 reported evidential jn 32-4,137-8,177,179,193, Livoniall (Balto-l'innic, l'in!lo-Ugric) .13, 6S, 123, 232,248,273,301 2SZ, 290 Khanty (Ob-Ugric, ~inno-Ugric) 31,155-6,290, LU\'ian (Anatolian, Indo-European) 290 SeC ,,/so No rthern Kh'lnt)' Khazar (Turkic) 289 Macedonian (Slavic, Indo-European) 40,257, Khowar (Dardic, Indo-European) 24,28,7'1,157, 2~S-9, 298, }11, 317, 346, 354 :222, 261} 289 Macuna (East TUGIIlOan, Tucanoan) )2 Kinyarw3nda (Bantu) tl,120 Mad! dialect complex (Arawa) 284,292 Kiowa (Kiowa-Tanoan) 42,178,227,266, 29l, ~-1ah Meti (Aslian, Man-Khmer) 234 33U-1 Maidu (i1;1aidun) 4~, 252,291 Kio\\',I-Tanoan 42,69,291 ~lakah (Wakashan) 63, So, 176,212,258, Koasati (Muskogcan) 232 285d45 Kombai (A"7U-Dllmut, PapU3n area) 137,256 Maku languages 32,60,274, 2H6, 292 Komi (Finno-Permic, Pinno-Ugric) 28,68-9, iVlalaga;,y (Western Austronesian) 130 156,232 , 264,279,281,316 Mamainde (Nambiquara) 56-7,61,123,234 Komi Zyryan (Finno-Permic, Pinno-Ugric) 28, Manambu (Ndu, Papuan area) 343 68-y, 156, 2)2, 264,279,281,316, see n/so Mandarin Chinese (Sino-Tibetan) 3B5 Komi Mangap-Mbu1<1 (Oceanic, Austronesia 11) 28, 293 Korean (isoble) 128-9,214,325,356 Mangarayi (Australian) 108-9 Koregu'lje (;,Vest Tucanoan, Tucanoan) 44,72, Mansi (Oh-Ugric, Finno-UgncJ 31, liS, 155, 196, 162, !1)7>373 198,281-2,290 Kunanw (Nilo-SahilrauJ 137 Mao Naga (Tibeto-Burman, Sino-Tibetan) 24l Kuot (New Ireland, P"puan area) 343 i ...lapuche (isolate) 42,200, seeaiso Mapudungnn Kurdi~h (l ranian, I11do- Eumpean) 289 Mapudungun (isolate) 42,200, see ({iso M;tpLlChe Kurmanjl Kurdish (Iranian, Indo-European), Mari (Finno-Permic, Pinoo-Ugric) 28,68,278 5ceKurdish ~'laricopa (Yl1man) 47,69,96,162,182,187-8,193, Kutubuan languages (Papuan area) 61-2 228,235,2,6,272-3,308,373 Kwakiutl (Waka~han) 12-13,59,130,285,345 Mayall 291 Kwakwala, see Kwakuitl MeglenO-Romaniall (Romance, Kwa/.3 (isolate) 132 Indo-European) 288 Kypchak ('furkic) 289 Megrclian (South Caucasian) 31, ll}, 2.89 Meithel (Tibcto-Burman, Sino-Tibetan) 31,144, Ladakhi (Tibe,o-Rurman, Sino-Tibetan) '>3,82, 233-4, 2jR, 251, 26.), 275, 311, 377

2n~232 Menomini (Algonquian) )3,77,132,138,140 Lak (NOrlheast Caucasian) 250 Mingrelian (South Caucasian) 31, 113, 289, see Lakhota (Siouan) 50,75, sua/so Dakota, Lakota 'liso Mcgrdian Lakota (Siouan) ,0,75, s<'ca/,o Dakota, Lakhota Miwok (Miwok-Costanoan) 291 LatundetLakonde (N.unbiquara) 36-7,72,178, Mixtccan (Oto-Manguean) 291 341,386 Modern Eastern Armenian (Indo-European) 113, Latvian (Baltic, Indo-European) 33,12.,,140,258, 289,323,346,360,381, see also Armenian 28!-2,290 (Indo-European), Western Armenian Laz (South Caucasian) Modern Greek (Indo-European) 142,15°-1,382, Lega (Bantu) 275,291 see also Modern Greek Index of languages 433

Modern Persian (Iranian, Indo-European) Northern Samoyedic (Uralic) 284 114-1S Nyangumarta (Aus(rali,lll) HO-ll,133 MOI1-Khmer 234 II-loselell (i~olate) 44,160-1,171,330 Ob-Ugric languagc~ (Finno-Ugric, lIralic) 68, MparotweArrernte (Australian) 33,69, ISO-I, 1I8 \83,193, 251, 284,293, 299dlO, 312-14";21, Oceanic languages (Austronesian) ~8>99 .ice als,} Arrernte Ocotepcc Mixtec (Oto-Ivhngucan) 1112 Muna (We,tern Austronesian) 131 Oksapmin (Papuan area) 46-7,09,72,163,268, Munda I~nguages (Austroasiatic) 131 293,383 Myky (isolate) 24,71,82-3,156,232,242,256, Omaha (Siouan) 33-4,70 .lee also Irantxe Oto-Mangucan languages 178,182

Nadch (Makti) 286,292 Paiute (Uto-Aztecan) 291, 2yS-9> 333> see also Nambiquara languages 36,56,61,215,234,292, Southern Paiute and Northern Paiute 341,]83 Palaic (Anatolian> Indo-European) 290 Nax (Nax-Daghestanian,Northeast Caucasian) 28 Palikur (Arawak) 130 Nencts (S'II11oyedic, Uralic) 31,241>281,284-) Panare (Carib) 118-19,253 Nepali (indo-Aryan, Indo-European) 156, Panoan languages 45-6> 292 197,291 Papuan area 32> 46> 61~~, 83, 109> 132,137,140,176> Ncwari (Tibeto-Burman> Sino-Tibetan) 115,124, 182,2930382-3 204> 274, 291 Paraguayan Guarani (Tupi·Guaranf, Tupi) Nganasall (Samoycciic, Uralie) 47-5f1, 59,82, 32,292 241-"2,245,290 Parcei (Arawak) 32> 292 eviu~ntials and other categories 250,2611-5, Patwin (Wintun) 176,277, }.S4, see also 266-7 HillPatwin cvidel1tials and persun 218-19> 226> 233 Paumari (Arawa) 284 torms ullmarked for evidentiality 74-5 Pawnee (Caddoan) 56,72,310 mir~tive extensions of evidentials ZOO-t, 207 Penutian languages 291 origin of evidentials 284-5 Permk languages (Fillno-Ugric, Uralic) 15 semantics of evidentials 163-4,166,178,180, Persian (Iranian, Indo-European) 38-g, 112,204 183,193 Persian, Modern (lralllan, Indo-European) usage of eviuentials 142,314,325,328,349-50 114-15 Ngi)'ambaa (Australian) 34-5,68,82,227> 254> Philippinc languages (Austronesian) 14,32, 257,386 293,383 S~lll 154, 159, 184> 193 Piapoco (Arawak) 32>34, 2R4, 292,}10 lIS'lge of evidentials 330,341 Pidgim 8",68 Niger-Congo languages 133 Piro (Arawak) 32,292 Nivkh (isolate) 252,255,290, )00, 3.56 Pomuan languages )2> 61, 279-80 Noath (Wakashan) 13,51,80 Ponco (Siouan) 33-4,45>70 North American Indian languages 13-15, 17, 2~, Portuguese (Romance, Indo- European) 10,76. 31,:n, 45> 50-1,82> 290-1, 395 337,)60,385

;-":ortheast Caucdsian languages 79, 26}, 267> Portuguese, South American 142 > 179 280, 289 Portuguese, of northwest Amawnia 206> 297-9, Northern Embera (Choco) 58 339,343 Northern !roquoian (lroquoian) 108 Potawatomi (Algonquian) 32.310 Northern Khanty (Oh-Ugric, Finno-lIgric) 279> Proto-Abkhaz (Northwest C

Proto-!ndo-European 355 Quechlla )unin 213, sec also Quechua Proto-N ax 28 Quechua Pastaza 162,310,319-21, sec also Proto-Tucanoan 355 Quechua Pun!pech~ (isolate) 41-2, !lB, 185, sec 310,353 Salar (Turkic) 223, 2}4,270, 181, }12, 315-16, 354 Quechua (Qucchua) 12,14-15.43,68-70,213, Salish klllgllages 59, 2<)1 245,247,2)0,252-3.256,258,260, :!-66-8. Samoyedic (Uratk) 47,82,241,29° 277,297 5antdli (Munda, Atlstroasiatic) 1)1 acquisition of evidentials 362 Sanuma (Yanomami) 18,46 evidentials and cultural stereotypes 349-50, Scandinavian languages (Germanic, 353,358-61,380-1 lndo-European) 112 evidentials and other categories 72,242 Secoya (vVest Tucanoan, Tllcanuan) 28 mirativc extensions ur e\'identials 202-3, Selkup (Samoyedic, Uralic) 232.241,266-7,300 207,249 Semelai (Aslian, Mon-Khmer) 109,210--11 omission of cvidentials 79 Serbian (Slavic, Jndo- Europea n) 110,288,386 semantics of evidentials 7,159-00,165--6, Shasta (Shastan) 4],160,187>373 169-71,175, 17R, 183,187, 189-YO, 193, 373-4 Sherp'1 (Tibeto-Burlllan, Sino-Tibetan) 124,233 usage of evidential:; 313, 318-21d~S, 337 Shibacha Lisu (Tibe(o -Burm an, Si no -Tibeta n) see (llso Quechua Wanka, Quechua Cuzco. 54,274,286 Quechua Cuzco-Cotlao variety, Quechua Shi1luk (Nilotic) 4c~-4, 214, 226, 234, 256, 191 Huallaga, Qucchua ofHuarochid texts, Shipibo-Konibo (P~noan) 55-6, 68,261, 267-~ Quechua Junin, Quechua l'astno, and other categories 243,245,253,256 Quecilua 1arma cvidcntials, more than once in a clause 89-90. Quechua Wanka 43, 2S2-3, 268-9, see also 93,103,369 Qucchua mirative extensions of evidentials WI, 207,226 evidcntials and other categoric:; 2~O-I, 239, origin of evidenlials :q8 24),247,261-2 semantics of evidcntials 7,24,64,70,72, 7S, mirative extcnsions of evidential, 202-3 171-2,175-6,179--80, 184-S, 192-3,308.375 scope of evidentials 97-8,103,242,369 usage of evidentials 6,310,322>335-6,346, .148, semantics of cvidenti"ls 159-62,165,219 351~3, 360-1,380-1 usage of evidcntials 318-19>344-5 Shoshone (Uto-Aztecan) 33-4,70,130 Quechua CU7.CO 12.79,162,145,248. see also Sierra lI'!iwok (Miwllk-Costanoan) 116 Qucchua Sign Languages 8,}68 Quechua, Cuzco-Colhlo variety 362, see also Silacayo,lpan Mixtcc (Oto-Mangucan) 182 QUCChU3 Sinitie bnguages (Sino-Tibetan) 115 Quechua Huallaga 79.11"2,166, 2W,J22,330.337, Siond (West Tucanoan, Tucanoan) 46 see also Quechua 291 Quechu3 of Huarochiri texts PO-I, see also Siriano (East Tuc

Skidegate Haida (Hnida) 46 evidentials and tense 8,78.263,265-7 Slovene (Slavic, Indo-European) no evidcntials in dependent clauses 253-5 Sm'algyax (1simshianic) 13.300, s~'eaisoTsimshian cvidentials in questions and commands Sochiapan Chinantcc (Olo-Mangucan) 182, 242-3,24,5--7,250 249-'50,313 mirative construction 213 South American languages 14,17,2.8.32,45.70, R2 omission of e"idenlia1s 78-9 South CHlcasian languages 289 origin of evidentials 69.273-4,278-9.284-6, South Estonian dialects 77,1.11.277-,8,283, see aha 294-6 Estonian South dialects semantics of evidentials 7.64,98-9.136. Southeastern Tepehuan (Uto-Attecan) 58-9 1}8-4o.153.167-9,171, 175-9.184, 19L-} Southern N81nbiquara (Nambiquilra) 61,234. subsystems of evidentials 85-7 21i8-9 time reference of evidential, 100-2 Southern Paiute (Ulo-Aztecan) 291,298-9,333, usage of evidcntinls 305-7,J09. 311-12. 315, see also Paiute 322-3,325,327-9, 332,33Y-40 Spanish (Romance, Indo-European) 10,106.135. Tariana, traditional 52.86 337-8,385. see also Spanish, Andean; Tatuyo (East Tucanoan. Tucanoan) 51.345,347, Spanish, Bolivian; Spanish, Colombian: 360,}80 Spanish, European; Spanish. Ecuadorian Tauya (Papuan ar~a) 32.4°,182,193.272.293 Highlands; Spanish of La Pa~; Spanish, Ter~na (Arawak) 32.292 South Americiln Tewa (Kiowa-Tanoan) 42,69-70.96,136,139-40. Spanish, Andean 21. l09. 277. 297-9,335-6, 145.185.294-5.313. sec a/50 Arizona Tewa see a/50 Ande.64. 272. 291 SpJni$h Tibeto-Burman languages (Sino-Tibetan) 17,31. Spanish. Ecuadorian Highlands 205,297-9, 53-4,69'-70.96,124,204.213.220.128, see also Spanish 232-3,237. P2. 275, 291.311• 377 Spanish. European 141-2. 360, Se~ Ii Iso Spanish Tikar (Benue-Congo, Niger-Congo) 132 Spanish of La Paz 114, 1J6.l42-3. 204-5. 227-il. (isolate) 5L. 273, 29l .lee also Spanish Trio (Carib) 292 Spanish. South American 141-2,2.97-9, see also '!safiki (Barbacoan) 54,69,72-3.83-4.136.242. Spanish 245,350 Squami;h (Salish) L51 evidcntials and other categories 1.31,258,339 Sunwar (Tibeto-Bunnan, Sino-Tibetan) 204 evidcntials, more than once in a clause 90-1, Surui (Tupi) 32 93,103,369 Svan (South Caucasi,1[l) 31.76-7, 11}, 158.198, mirative extensions of evidentials 201-2.204, 264.267,269-70 ,346 207,209,211-12 origin of evidentials 293 Tajik (Iranian, Indo-European) 25,39, lll, 197. person marking 124-6 279. 289, 294 selmntics of evidcntials 172-),178-9.189, Takelma (isolate) 41.72.241 L92,374 Tamil (Dravidian) )38,140 Tsakhur (Northeast Caucasian) 310 Tarascan (isolate) 41-2.1I8.1.85,seca/;o Tsez (Northeast Caucasian) 28.245.314 l'urcpecha Tsimshian (Tsimshiolllic) 13,300, see also 'l'ariana (Arawak) 1-3.60,68,73. Ii. 87. 95, 120, Sm'algyax IJO, 146. 257 Tucano (East Tucanoan. TU(anoan) 51-2,68,78. evidenlials and cultural stereotypes 333.336-7. )01,382-,1 341-2,346-9,350-4,360-) evidcntialily strategies 119-20 evid~ntinls and modalities 259-60 cviJentials and cultural stereotypes 342, evidentials and person 2l8-19. :!23-5, 230, 346-7.350.352,354,359-00 236-8 evidentials and modalities 258-9 436 Index aflanguages

evidentials and person 218-19,223-6,230, Uyghur (Turkic) 40,281 235-8 Uzbek (Turkic) 40,294 evidentials and tense 265-7 evidentials in dependent clauses 253-4 Vaupe~ linguistic area 1-3.51.86,15;\-4,170,274, evidentials in questions and commands 285-6,292,295-7.311-12,323,342 242-:\,245-7,250 Verde Valley Yanpai (Yuman) 117,293-9>333. origin of evidcntials 295-6 see also Yavap~i semantics of evidentials 167-9,171,176-7.193 Vlach Romani (IndO-Aryan, Indo-European) 38, subsystems of 85-7 158. 2}2, 324, see also Gypsy, Romani usage of evidentials 309, 3ll--12,}2S, }29-30' 332,33~7,339 Wai \oVal (Carib) 29Z Tucanoanlanguages 72,2.50,265,292,355 80,82,130,176,241,250. 99 285,291 Tunica (isolate) 77 ""anano (East Tucanoan, Tucanoan) 72,120,)82 Tupi langu~ges 32,63,382 Warluwarra (Australian) 293 Tupi-Guarani bnguages (Tupn 18,69,94,280, Warlpiri (Australian) 14,33,69,96,250-1.293 292,382 acquisition of evidentiOlls 363 Turkana (Nilo-Saharan) 148 semantics of evidentiais 181-3,193,314,316, Turkiclanguages ll-U, 15-16, 30-1,40,77,112, 322.330-1 248,2)0.253,289,296-7>342-3.345 Wasco-Wishram (Chinookan) 39,69, H7, evidentials and tense 158 275-6 evidentials and tense 68 Washo (isolate) 46,201.207,210.291 mirative extensions of evidentials 196 Waura (Arawak) 32 origin of evidentials 279,281 Wayana (CaTib) 292 semantics of evidcntials 153 West Caucasian 289 Turkish (Turkic) 15-16,30,]8,40-1,112.114, West Greenlandic (Eskimo-Aleut) 80-1,250 288-9 origin of evidential, 272. z84-5 acquisition of evidentials 362-3 semantics of evidentials 176.182,185 mirativc extensions of evidentials 2:07.-8,210, usage of evidentials 31Od13,353 21::1,217) 221 West Tibetan (Tibeto-Burman, Sino-Tibetan) 205 semantics of evidentials 155,317-18,323 'Vest Tucanoan (Tucanoall) 46 usage of evidentials 311,342 Western Apache (Athabaskan) 31,63,74,81-2, Turkmen (Turkic) 40 93-4,102, 148,358 Tuvaluan (Oceanic, Austronesian) 359 mirative extensions of cviucntials 203-4, Tuv,m (Turkk) 281 209.212 Tuyuca 14,16,60,68,78,86-7.100,120.146,260, semantics of cvidcnlials 185-6,342 294,382 Western Armenian (Indo-European) 113,289, evidentials and other categories 243,265,267 323,346,360,381, see a/so Armenian, origin of cvidcntials 274,280 Modern Eastern Armenian semantics of evidentials 170,175-6,192 Western Austronesiallianguages (Austronesian) usage of evidentials }05-7, 311, 325, 345, 32,140,2.93 360,380 Western Desert language (Australian) 33,69.182, 193,250,293,310,314. sec also Uhykh (Northwest Caucasian) 293 Yankunytjatjara Udihe (Tungusic) 178,272 \lve,tern Torres Straits language 356 Udmurt (Finno-Permic, Pinno-Ugric) 28,68, Western TUrk (Turkic) 289 156,264 Weyewa CWesternAustnmesian) 359 Ugrk languages 29(] Wichita (Caddoan) 59--60>75,226 Uralie family 310 Wintu (\Vintun) 13.36,67,70,82.167,226, 23S. Usan (Numugenan, Papuan area) 139-40 245,284-5,291,300-2,310,314,337,348, Uto-Aztecan ]a nguages 50-1,57-8, 69, 182,193, 35 1.366 272,291 origin of evidcntials 273-4,275 Index ofhmguages 437

Wintu, traditional (Wintun) 36,60,300-2 Yuchi (isolate) 37-8,73,249,251,275,328,340-1, 386, see also Ellchce Xakas (Tllrkic) 30 Yucuna (Arawak) 296 Xamatautcri (Yanomami) 18,56, 8S, 90, 93, 103, Yuhup (Makd) 274,286,292 177,284,311 Yukagbir (isolate) :1.7-8,67-8,70,72-3,77,82, !XUll (Khoisan) 149 149,24,,250,267,290, 3u8, 3il evidentials and other cattgories 68,221-2, Yana (isolate) 291 237-8,244,262-3,266 Yanam (Yanomami) 18,28,241 mirative extensions of evidenl ials 198--9,202, Yankllnytjatjara (Australian) 33,69,182,193,250, 207-9,212 293,310, 314, see also \\'estern Desert semantics of evidentials 24,102-3,154-5,157-8 language llsage of evidentials 317,326, ]28,346, Yanomami languages 18,28,46,56,292 360,380 Yavapai (Ylllllan) Ill, 298-9, 333, see also Verde Yuman languages 83,298 Valley Yavapai Yupik (Eskimo Alellt) 182, see also Eskimo Yokuts (Yollkutsan) 291 language, Central Siberian Eskimo Yoruba (lknuc-Congo, Niger-Congo) 136-7 Yosondtla ;-'1ixlec (Oto-Manguean) 182 Zaparoan languages 32,292 Yllcatec Mal'a (Mayan) 137 Zazaki (Iranian, Indo-Europeal1) 3R-9,112 Index of authors

Adams, K. L. 338 Boas, r. 103,12-13,16 n.ll, 51,59, )30,300,343.345 Adelaar, W. F. H. 162,164 n.l, 165,202, 2D5 n.3, n.), 351, 354,382,393 208,213,245 n·5, 258, 268, 395 Boeder. 'vI!. 113,289.324 Aikhenvald,A. Y. 8,16,32,68-7],73,76,86-8,95, Bokarev. E. A. 28 10011.16,101 n.17, ]]2 n.6, 116,130, ]46, 218 Borgman, D. M. 18,46,275 n.2 n.l, 243,245-6,250,252-3,257,264 n.8. Botne, IL 275 273-4,278,285.288,292,294-6,298, Brandrup, B. 52 300-1.337-8>340.,355-7, }65 Breen. G. 284, 293, 299 n.18 Akatsuka, N. 123 n.1/ Broadwell, G. A. y6, 214. 256.350 Aksu·Ko.~, A. A. 40-1.196-7.210,212,319, 32}, Bromley, H. M. 132 342,362-3 Brosnahan, P. 356 Alexander. R. M. 182 Bugenhagen,R. 28,293 Alhoniemi. A. 28 Bullock, A. 5 n.l, 6 [1.2,392 Alpher, B. 357 n.8 Bulut, C. 149, 289, 311 Ambrazas, V. H7 13ulygina. T. V 149 n.29 Anderson. C. 30,87 Bunte, P. A. 298-9 Anderson, L fl. 8 n.7, 1611.12,69 n.l, 257 Burridge, K. 135-6 Anderson. S. R. 130. Bustamante, I. 205.297,299 Andrews, E. 71 n.3 Bybee, J. 7 n·3, 112 n.6. 279 Anonima 12 Anonymo.us 45 Calvo Perez, /. 12 Aoki, H. 10,14,81, lOO, 128,264 n.8, 268 CampbeJl, L 33,69,123,272,281 Aronson, H.I. 15 Carlin, E. B. 292 n.15 Austin, P. 34-5.200 Carpenter, K. 363 Casad, E. 57-9, 64, 182. 272 Ballard, L 14,)2,293 Caughlcy. R. C. 127 Balode, L. 290 Cerron-Palamina. R. 165,245,268 Bamgbo~e. A. 136-7 Chafe, W. L. 5 n.l, 7 nA,14, 16 n.12, 344 Bani,E. 356 Chamereau, C. 42 n.9, 118 Barentsen,A. ]21 Chang, I. 129 n.20 Barnes. J. 14,16 n.12, 44. 60,68,100 n.14, 146, 170, Chappell, H. 115 n.](J 175.232,260.,265.296.3°5-'7.345,382 Charney, J. o. 50 Baran. D. E. 357 Chellia h, S. L. 31. 144, 233,251. 263, 311 Hashir, E. 24,28, uo, 154, 157.197. 210, 222, 261, 2~9 Chirikba, V. 29.38,67,108-9,11311.9,142,186, J96, Basso, E. B. 321.330,337 199. 222, 256~ 250, ~6o~ 290 n .12. 1.72, 277, Bavin, f. l82,263 ~89. 293, 316- 1H , 323-4.346, 350 Beier, c:. }1$ Chun, S. A. 1291L20 Bendix, E. H. 337 Chung. S. 5 n.ld94 Bertonio Romano, L. u Chuqu!n, C. 14 Besnier, N. 359 Clarke, S. 42,157.278"9,314,346 Bhat, D. N. S. 53.82,211 Comrie, I.l. 28, )]2.118 n.13, 133, 222, 245, 264, 279, Bickel, 13. 291 28<) n.lO. 314 Black,M. 45 n.12 Conklin. N. F. 338 Blass, R. 32, )50, 249, 275 Conrad, R. l. 109 Bloomfield, L. 19.33,138':\10 Cook. D. M. 44 440 Index ofauthors

Courtney, E. 362 Euknberg. /\. 311 CrisweH, L. L. 44,52 Evans,N. 87 Croft, W 71 Crys(ul, D. xiii Faller, M. T. 79,165,245,248 Csat6, t.k 30 n.6 Farris, E. R. 182,291 Culy, C. 133,135 n.::>'2 Fennell, T. G. 258 Curnow, T. 1. 124,133,218 Fernandez-Vest, M. M. J. 77, 119 11.14, 123 n.)6, ISO,261 Dahl, O. 7 n.3, 8 n.li, 279 Fellillct, J. 107-8 Dahlstrom,A. 109, ]43 Hoyd, R. 12,43,97,159-61,164-6,178,202-),231, [hnko re, R. 12 n.9 239,245,247-8, 252) 261~2, 269~ 313, 310-19, Daguman, J. 32 344-5 Davidson, Iv!. 214 Foley, \V. A. 293 Davis, P. W. 09 Foris, D. 182,249,291,313 de Di()z Yapila l\loya, J. 336 Fortescue, j\l 00,82,148,176,182,185,250,272, De Haan, F. 7,16 n.12, 17 n.13, 96. 256-}, 273,275, 284-5,287,290 ,310,313,353.3)9 279-80, 28; Foster, M. L 41,18S Dccsy, G. 15,}l n.7, 241, 281 l'ox, H. 10,148 Dcdenbach-Salazar Saenz, S. 12,258, }20-1 Frajzyllgier, Z. 6, 71l.}, no, 149,257 Deibler, E. W. 139 Frank, P. S. 52 Delancey, S. 7,8, '4, 20, 28,31, 69, 72, 94, ]27, 134, Franklin, K. 62,8}

195-7~ 1~9) 204, 210c -11! 213-4, 2221 2(4) 2-S4 Freeland, L. S. u6 Deloria, E. )1 friedman, V. A. 12 n·9, 15, 38, 40, 77,108,111,114, Dendl,A. 87 130 n.~L. 1421 150-·1, 158) 210~ :2571 264J 2-72~ Dcndale, P. 5-ti n.l, 10,106 277,279-80,289,293-4,297,311, _,17,33R, Denny, J. P. 13°,355,365,368 n.l 346,354,391,394 Derbyshire, D. C. 6:\11. J9, 73, 292 n .15, 32'1 Dickinson, C 54,73,83,91,93,124-6,172,176, Gabas ji!l1ior, N. 63 178-9,202,231,245,258,339,350 Gcben, H. 258 Dik, S. C. 122 Generti, C. 115,274 DiHer, i\. 343 Geniusicne, E. 112 n.6 Dimmcnda,ll, G. 133,135 [1.22,148 Gilley, L G. 43,214,226,234, 25n Dixon, R. M. \'1. xiii, 8,10, [9 n.14, 23-4, 32, 70-1, Givon, T R n.7, n, 120 72 n.5, 75-6, 82-5, 87-·8, 94, 112 n.6, 116, Goddard, C. 33, 181-2,250 111-2, l}O, 149, 198, 218 n.l, 220-1, 232, 234, Goddard, P. E. 53 24211.2,256-'7,264 n.S, 269, 275,284,292, Golla, Y. 53,275 299,30~, 311, )26-7, .)41, .H5, 355'-7, 391 Gomez, G. G. JR, lB, 141 Dohrusilina, N. 28 Gomez-lmbert. E. 51,296,347 Donabedian,J\. 4,39,155,222,218,289, 311,J2l Gordon, D. 149 Donaldson, T. 34-5,159, IS,\. 227, 254>330 Gordon, L 47,69,96,162,182,187,228 n.5, 2,,5, Dra[Jeau, L 158, ;qS, 317 272-3,308,373 Du Hois, ). \1,. 344 Gmlow,F L. 44 Dwyer, A" 223,234,269,312,315-16,354 Green, D. 130 Greenberg, J. H. 71 I:hbing, I. E. 12 Grcvisse, M. IOn Egerod, S. 96 Grice, P. 149>334,361,381 Elliott, j. 393 Gr inc\'al d, C. 299 Emcneau, M. D. 288 Gronen1eyer) C. 117,200,205,22.5,228) 2.81 Epps, P. 60, 6S, 72, 168, 242 n.3, 2~6 n.6, 259, 201, Grunina, E.r\. '10-1 .274,286,292 Gru~hkil1<\,E.V. 3ll1.7,300,393 Ereil,M. ltO, BY Gruzdeva, E. Ju. 252,300 Escobar, A. M. 277 Guasch, A. 32,292 Index of authors 441

Guentc!Jcva, Z. 1:;,30 n.6, 157, 231,311 Janssen, T. A. J. M. 132-3 Guillaume, A. 250 rasperson, R. 120 Gtildcmann, T 132-),1}7,jIO Jaxontov, S. Je. 112 n.6 Gumpcrz, r. I. ]23 Jochelson, W. 158,346 Guscv, V. lu. 47,49-50,59,74,82,163,180, 18}, 201, Johallsoll, L 15-16,25 n.2,}O, 40,1'7,78,112,248,

245, 2o'h 284,}14, 328, 349 2581 264l279: 281,289 n.ll ~ 296~ 311~ 3L7l GvozJanuvic, I. llO,138 393-4 Johnson, A. F. 182 Haarmann, l!. 15033,106 n.l, 290 Jones, 1'. 51, 312 Haas, M. R. 77 Jones, W. 51,312 H ada rcev, 0. A. 38, 77, 114 Joseph, B. 150,290 n.12, 287,2',13,362 Hagege, C. J'5 Haig,G. 295 Kammerzell, F. 132 Hale,A, 124 Kany, C. 140,142 n.28 Hansson, L~L 96 Ka~k,A. 283 Hardman, M. j. 4,12,14-15,17,43,161,203,296, Kaufman, T. 28811.9 .135-6,338-9,300, .\91 Keenan, E. L. 130,357 Hargre~ve~, D. 14Y Kcnda!l, M. B. 1l7,298-9 Hanis, A. C. 113 ]1.9, 12}, 272,28] Kerimova,A.A. 112 Haspelmath, M. 31, ll6, llB 11.13,272,391 Kibrik,A. E. 29,72,83,96,199,210,222. Hassler, G. ),1}5 233, 256, 311 Haugen, E. )l2 Kiefer, F. lOS n04 Haviland, j. 291 Kimball, G. D. 232 Hawkins, R. E. 292 n.15 Kimenyi, A. \1, 120 Heine, B. 87, 14~), 272, 361 , 393 King, R. 10, 148 Helimsky, E. A. 31 n·7, }OO, 393 Kirsner, R. S. 121 Hengeveld, K. 122 Kbmer, M. 140.272, 293 Hewitt, E. G. 28-9,31>38,77,113,204,232.277 Konig, C. 149 Hickmalln, ;-'.1. I3} Koontz, J. E. 34, 46 1l.1.~, 70 Hill,H. 135 Kornfilt, J. 40 Hill, j. H. p, 51, ~7, 182, 213,314,338>344 Koshal, s. 53, 231 Hill, K. E. 4511.12 Knvcdjacva, E. 1. 28 n.4 Hockett, C. 32>310 Kll~inlseva, N. A. 112 n,6, 289.346 Hoff, B. 5 KrejnoYich, E. A. 300 Hoiier, H. 51,273 Krivoshein de Canesc, N. )2,292 Hollenbach, B. E. 178,291 Kroeker, M. 56,61,234 Hoi voel, A. 117 ll.U, 290 Kroskdty, P. \( 42,70,96,139,185,295.313 Hopper, P. J. 287 n.8 Kruspc, N. l09, 211, 234 Howard·Malverde. R. 320 Kuiper. E E. J. 291 Hyman, T.. M. I.D Kuipers, J. C. 359 Kunnap, A. 48n.16, 119,290,284-5, JIO 11.2 [fantidoll, E. 6 n.l, 150 Ku teva, T. '2.72,39,3 Ikola, O. 12,,281 Kmnctsova,A.1. 3J n.7, 241':100,393 Irvine, J. 1. 3W,344 Laanest,A. ]23,282 jacobsen, W. H. jr. 3~4, 46, 80,176,201, 2lU, 214, Lakoff, C;, 149 284-5. 290- 1,345 11 .5,395 Landewecrd, R. 134 Jac'll1csson, E 116.29011.13 Lang,A. 32 Jake,I- :14 Langdon, M. 83,284 jakobsoll, k. 13-14> .>45 n.5, 350, 382, 393 L'lPolb, R. J. 44,47,67,70 n.2, 74,84,89,97,120, James, D. 42,10611.1, l49, 157, :qS-9, 148,160, l64, 201,229,256,274,291, 314,346 310.353 442 Index ofauthors

Laprade, R. A. J 14, 136, 142~3, 205, 228,297,335 Mets!ang, H. 33, 76~7. 111, 1l9, 123 11.16, 277~S, 281, l.arson, M. 1. 1}2, 137,14111.26 283 n·7 Laughren, ;-'.1. 14,_\3,97,137,181, IS.>, ;'.48, 250~1, Michael, L. 315 314,330 Michailovsky, H. 156,29l Lawrence, M. 46,268,}83 J\·!iddcndorf, E. W. 12 n.8 Lazard, G. 7,8,11,1.5, 25 n.2,3R~9, 112, 157~8, Migliazza, E. 18

195-6~ 2-04, 207) 21U l 214, 279~ 311) Miller, A. 83,182,257,273, 284 316,376 Miller, C. L. 43,214.226,2340 256 l.ee, D. D. 13,36,60,245,300,348, .\51 l\·1illcr, :'vl. 3l, 33, 44. 60, 70,120 1l.l5, Lees,A. 225 160, l77 n.3, 265, 2.74, 296~9, 311. 335~6, Lees, B. 12} n. (, 341,344 Lefebvre, c. 68 ,\-"lillcr, W. R. 1)0 Lehiste, I. 180 Miracle,A. W. J1". 336 Leinonen, M. 2H, 69 1\.1, 281,316,328 ~lithlln, M. 37,6\, lOS, 232,245,.,10 Lcvimohn, S. 14 1\1onserrat, R. 24,71,75,82,232,256 Li,C. 132 Mortensen, C. A. 5~, 293 Liddicoat, A. I. lo6~7 Muiiniece, L. 1l9.281 Lindstrom, E. 343 J'l.iunro, P, 51,58,69.182,272,310 Linn) M. 37.249,251,275, 32R>34() MUrk,H. W 283 Locweke, E. 62, 383 Musbin,1. 611.1,8 n.), 324 n·5 Longacre, R. 116,132 Muysken, P. 68,70.253.268 I.oos, E. 45 Lowe, I. 61,215,234,269,383 Nadasdi, T. 10, 148 Lucy, J.A. 133,137,291 Nazarova, Z. O. 38, 77, 113~4 LUllll, P. Y. 106 n.l Ncdjalkov, L V. 106 n.1 Lytkin, V. I. 23 1J.4, 232,26411.8 Nedjalkov, V. 1'. 112 n.6 N<'Hcom, L. 131 Ma(Don~ld. 1. 32.140,18;>',272 Kichols,J. 5n.1,7 nA,8, 14. 16 n.12,3',197, 253, Mackenzie, M. 42. 157, ;>'78~9,314, 346 263-4,283,325,328,344,368 Maisak, T. A, 115,143,155,199, ;>'14,228, Nikolaeva, I. 31.15;, 178, 196~7, 272.279.29° 316,325 Noonan, M. 123 n.17, 137 n.24 Majtinskaja, K. E. 31 Nord linger, R. 88 Malchukov, A. L. 106 n.1 Nuckolls. J. B. 162, V9~10 Ma!on~, T. 14,28,52,69, !Ii" 120,243,274,280, Nuyts,j. 5 n.l 325,350 Martin, E. H. 114 Orhs, E. 357 Martins. 5_ A. }2,286 Olbertl. H. lOS. 297. 299 Martins, V. 32 Ospina Bozzi,i\.. ,vI. 274,292 n.16 ivlaslov3, E. 27.67.102.149,157,199.209,221.244. Oswalt, R. 1. 6u, 204, 233, 266 n.8, 307, 310 258, 262~3! 311} 317 Ozollova,A.A. 29U Mathiassen, 1'. 7i,]]7 Malisoff, J. A. 275 Pagliuca, W. 112 n.n, 279 Matlock, T. 273 Pajusalu, K. 33. 76~7. 111,119,123 J1.16. 277-8, 28J, Malras,Y. ~,8. 112 [l.7, 158,232,288,324 283 n·7 Malthews, P. H. ) n.l, 6 n.2, 7,14 n·IO,J91,395 Palmer. F. R. 7 n.) May, j. 61,383 P,llmer, G. 337, 343 McLendon, S. S2~3, 61, 67, 91~2, 1Ji9-7[J, 174, Parks, D. 56,310 185,226, 235, 243~4, 279~80, 31'1, Paul, L. 38~l), 112 n,8 321~2, 351\ l'aYlle, D. 1. lIB Meillet, A. 153 Payne. T. \\'. 99. 118 Merdanova,S. [l. 115,143,155,228 1"1Y11C, J. R. 99 tvterlan, F. )08,137 n.24 Perkins. R. 112 H.6, 279 Index afauthors 443

Perrot, j, ~.8.118, 119 n.14. 123n.\6, 232, 241, 281, Shme1ev.A. D. 14911.29 283 Silver, S. 31,33,44,70,160, \77 n.3, 297~9,335~6. Perry. J. R. 109 341>344 Peterson.I).A. 275 Silverstein, M. 39,69, 117. 275~6 Peterson, J. 291 Skribnik, E. K. 7,31, \l8, 155, 19o, 198 n.l. J.81. 282 Peterson, :VI. N. 77 n.6,290 Peust, C. 152 Slobin, D.!. 40~1, 196~7,21O, 212.323 Phos~kritsana. P. 343 Smcets,1. 42n.9 Pitkin.H. 36,56,60,67,245.273,275,300"1 Smothermon, J. H. 52 Plungian, V. A. 7 n.3, 68, 114, 193 t1.5 Smothermon. J. R. 52 Prokofjev,G.N. 232 Sohn, Ho·Min. 128,129 n.20. 214 Plllte, VV. 26,41,352 Soper, J. 294 Soto Ru iz, C. 165 Raez. J. F. M. 12 Sparing-Chavez, M. 357 n.9 Rakhilina, E, 10,142,149 n.29 Stallybrass, O. 511.1,6 n.2,392 Ramal, P. 1<18,150 Starke, G. 108 Ramirez, H. 18,46,51,56,85,86 n.12, 90,119, Stebbins, T. 300 168~71, 177,223.230,24311.4,245-6,250. Steever, S. l36,138 253,259. 284,295,311 0.3,342 .347 Stenzel, K. 7211.6,38::. de Rell~e. \V·I· 63,74,93, t02, 148.182, 186, 2()3-4. Stolz.1'. 33,290 34'·, .,58 Storch, A. 214 RecsinK, G. P. 140 Strom, C. 49~50, 296 Reyburn, W. D. 41 Subin, D. A. 129 n.20 Rodriglle~. A. D. 32 Sumba(ova, N. 31, 76~7, 113 11.9,158,198,269.289, Rombandceva) E.!. 31 346 Roncador, M. von 132-3 SUll, T. T. S. 45, IO(} n.I), 160,229-30. 232, 260 n.7. Rood. D. S. Go, 75,214.226 269,326,345,350 Ross,E. M. 12 S\~adesh, M. 13 Rule, ,V. M. 61-2,176,383 Swanton, J. 46 Rumsey,A. 13711.24 Tas1l1ovski, L. 5-611.1,10 Sakel, J. 44, J60,330 Tate\,oso\" S. G. 28,199,214,228 nA, 279-81, 311, Sakita. T.!. 133,137 316,325 Salas.1\. 200 T,wli, V. 123 n.16 Sandler,!.. 88 Taylor,A. R. 75 San to TomAs, D. de 11 Tdles, S. 36, 75>341 Sapir, E. 1:~, 41, 51, 75, 80, 116 Len Cate, A. P. 10711.3,108 Saunders, R. S9 Tepljnshina, T. I. 28 n.,+, 232.264 n.8 Saxena, A. l78, 284,29\ 'lcreschenko, N. M. 31 n.7.1I8. 241 Sckluer,). 296 Thiesen, '>V. 44,83.91.98,163,24), .141 Schauer, S. 296 Thomason, S. G. 188 li,9 Schlichter, A. 56,171.226,273-4, ·!84-j, 3lQ,}14, Thompson, L. 59 348 Th om pson,r..·!. T. 59 Schmid!.A. 300 Thompson. S.A. llS n.13, 121,1230.)7 SchutleJndryer, B. 124 Thurgood, G, 272,277,284-.5 Seici, L. 18,78,94, 1St Timberlake,A. 511.1,117,394 Screbrjannikov, B. A. 232,279 Tolskaya,1\1, 1(8, Z72 Sharp, j. 110 Torres Rubio, D. de. 12 Shell, O. A. 32 Tosco, M. 288 Shcrzcr, J. 14,288,290-1,315 Tournadre, N. 127,272 Shields, ). L 182,291 l'rask, L. 7 n·3 Shiplq, W. r. 46.252 Travis. C. 141,206,324 n.5 444 Index ofauthors

Trived i, (;. lv!. 274 Waltz, C-l. 120 n.15 Tschenkel i. K. 38, ll3 11.9 Watkins, L. 4211.10, t/8,427,266,330 Tuldava, J. 11<) Watters, D. E. 32,137,179,210-)2,232.248, 273, J10 Urmston, J. O. 10 Weber, D.). 14,44,79,83,98, ](i2-3, 166, 243, 261, UsenkoV'I, E. V. 50,226,245 319,32Z,330d37>358 Utas, B. 10,30 n. 6, 393 Weinreich, U. 15 n.n West, B. 119 Valen7.uela,l'. 6,24,55-6,68,70,72,78,89,172, Wheeler, A. 4(\ 179-30,184-5,201,205 n.3, 207,226,250, Whi~tleT, K. W. 176,277,284 256,261,278,292) 308) 310) 335-6.346~ Whorf, B. L. 355 34 8-9,351-2,375---6 Wiemer, B. 140 van den Berg, H. 29,232 \/J'ierzbick", A.. 7 1l.4, 16 n.12 van den Berg, R. 131 Wilkins, D. P. 3J. ISO, 183,251 van del' /luwcra,). 7 n·3, 68 'Willett, Th. 7 n·3, 14, 57-9, 66, 96,15:\,368 vall cler Vomt, H. 132 Windfuhr, G. 3R, 112 n.g van der Wurrf, W. 132-3 Winkler, E. 150 van Eijk, J. )9 Wise, M. R. }2, 83,91 Vet, C. 134 Woodbury,A. C. 124,1)0 Viitso, T... R. 119 ll.14 Vinogradov, V. V. 14 n.lD Yu,Dden. S·h ?-74 Vr'es, de L. J. 137 n.25, 256 Zeisler, B. 205, 207 Wagner, G. 37 Zcshan, U. 368 Walchli, B. 77,119, );13,140, 2Hl-2 Zubin, D. A. 129 n.20 Waltz, C. 120 n,15 Z(lfiiga, F 42 n.9, 21)0 Subject index

acquisition of evidentials 362-83 backgrollnding 9,315-24 a ctive verbs 26~ Balkan linguistic tt'aditinn 15 adjective 81 borrowing 4.21.294-5,355. see ulsocalque, admirative 108,213-24,259-60,)91 diffusioll, language cont,l(t adverb 10, 284 Afirmalive clauses 242) see also declarative clause calque 294-9, see a1so borrowing, diffusion, agglutinating 8,385 language con tact analytic 8,385 case. see grammatical relations ,!I1aphora 131,145-6,371 cert,linty 3,),13.153.161,166,171-2,191,358,373, illlterior 381, 5ee also perfect sec also uncertainty apprehensive 242,252,254-5, :;00 classifier 87,338,343,356,363,365 a'pect 7,28-9,198,241.261-7,27°,284. ditic 8,67-9.95 32g. 365, 369-72>376-7, 389, see also cognition 21,333-9,343-62,)81, )83-4 tense-aspect cogniti,'e states, wrbs of 193.324-) assumed evidential 265-7,31)7-10. Yi7-72, command 9,20, 11o-n, 113.162. 241-2, 249-53, 377>391 270, 294, .F8, 388, see also Imperative and cultural innovations 351-4 commentative function of an evidential 313, in C2 systems 54-7,207,224,243 315-24 in D1 systems 1-3,60.100,168,224.260 commitment to truth of statement 162,176-7 in narratives 311,321~-3 common sense, inference based on 3,155-6 in questions 246-7 communication 21,333-62 origin of 274,284-7,302 complement clause 20,51.105. J11.120-3, 133-4, with first person 230-1,236,239 253-6,271-3,281-3,302,387, .191, see also with verbs of internal states 325-9 COI11 plementiser assumptiun 1-3,27-8,63-5,90,110,113,116-17. complementation ~trategy, see complement clause 145-7,149-51,158.163-4.174-6,279, complcmcntiser, seecompJement clause see also assumed evidential conditional 11,80,82,105-11,116,147,255.257-60. attrition, of language, ,ee language obsolescence, 27°,369,378,388 lilnguage death confl rmativc 15.391, see also non-confirlllativc auditive }1, 232, 391 as "lternative to lirsthand 25 iludibility, in delllonstratives lIJ5, 130-2. see also congruent/lloncongruent person marking, demonstrative pron ouns see (Onjunctldisjunct, locutor! non -locutor auditory information 24,121,159-60, sec (1150 conjecture 3,85, 9(), 164, 174.176,258,373-4 hearing (Onillnct person marking, sl'cconjunct/disjunct in A4systems 34-5,366-71 perso n marking in AS systems 37-8, J3, 249, 251.366-71 conjunct/disjunct person marking 123-13,133, in B1 systems 43-4,159-60 145-7,204-5.207.231,271-2,286,391 in demonstrative systems 105, 13[}-2 contact language 10. 288. 296--302, 3~9, see also in rnultiterm systems 60 diffusion, language contact augmentative 8 content que~tjon, see question auxiliary verb 38,44,69,84-5,119,211,214,2,7. control 114,127,136,161-3.171,173,188,197,204-5, 283-5 237-8,326-7,372 awareness, of evidential, 9-10,153,325,360, lack of control 114,127, IR6. 188, 2U7-9, 217,221,

380-1,389, see (l1so metaJinguistic 223-4~ 227 valuation conversation ~ustainer 86-7,243,294,309,324-5 446 Subject i/Jdex copula 69,81, 127-.8, l.~3-4, 2ll, 271, 283-4. 389 dizqllc as an evidentiality strategy in Colomnian cultural innovatiom 339-43.3'>1-4.359-61, Spanish nl~ 141-2~ 151, 179, ]827 :!.U5~61 .228~ 381,339 290-9,32 4 cultural practices 9,21,315,339-43,363>366, double marking of gender 87-8 379-1 of gnl1\lm09, 326.3.)2, deictic l}O-2, 271, 2/5-6. 287,302.378,391, J44-8,J8o-1,383, see al;o rc\'eI,1tiv~ see n/sode1l10nstrarlve pronouns. evidence demonstrative pronouns 20,105.130-2,145. dubitatil'~ 110, !l6, 143, 257-60,270,278.284-5, 356,371 369,370,388, see also modality dependent clause 69,71,242,253-6,370-1,388, 392, see also subordinate clause endangered language ).99-301, sec also bngnagc dependent-marking language 8,385 obsolescence, language death de-subordin'llion 69,107, llO-ll, 145-7, 271, cpistcmic meaning 107,111,120,262,284-,>,287, 281-3,370-1,392 302,365.39 ). diffusion 21, Hn, 271,288-99,302,335,355,360, epistemic extensions of evidentials 6,3.\,41-'2, 339, .see also language contact, linguistic 66,143,145,147,153, 186-<)3, 2l8,354,.~67, area .170.372-7 diminutive s ill two-term systems 157-9 direct evidential 24.159-62,366-77,392 in three-term systems 161-6 acquisition of 36:0. in !11ultiterm systems 167-76 and cultural innovatiol1$ 551-4 of cvidcntL1lity strategies 105,132,13.5-6, 20S, and internal ,taks 349·~50 337-8 and supcrnatun11 phenomena 348-9,J60 of cvidentials in qnestiom 247--8 in HI systems 4}-·6, 159-62,337 of reported evidentials 176-86,)12'-!3 in C2 systems 54-7, 167~73 cpistcmic modality 6,7,257-60,270,)02,344, in C} systems 57-9,167-73 365, .In, 382,392, see also epistcmic in commands 213-14 meaning, probability, po%ibiJity in dreams 345-8,3(,0-1 epi$t~l1lology ),6, 186,J92 in narratives }18-24 ergative 356-7 in questions 2,15-8 evidence, definition of 4 origin of 284-) cvidcllTioll extensions n, 21,38-40,45,69,7/, with first person 228-30,235 105-51,237,260,264,270, 297-8, :;~'h with future 261-2 365-6,369-73,386-7,392, see als(I direct speech complement 137-40,392, $ce also evidentiality strategy direct speech. complement £lanse ~videnli365-6,369-73,38('-7, .W2 complement i1S 0 rig ill fo r ev identials 271, 276-84, 288-9 disclaimer 42, 158, l~2 mirative extension of 204-6,297 discourse elJecl"s of evidentials 158,205,310-24. wi tn fi r5t pcrso n 227-8

354,366,379. 0 80 evidentiali t}'Systems 387 discourse genre 9,153, !94-6, 31O~24, 337, see also Al 151 23-9, 75~ 77-8, 82, I05-6} 112,186-7~ 205~ genre, diswurse effects of e,·identials 2071 219-23~ 137~9, 2551 288-9, 297-8, disjunct,secconjuJ)c(/ciis)ll!Kt 30S-9, 311, 316,366,372'}75,37o-9 distancing effect l!)~, Ill, 135, 157,181,186,108, distinguishing between Al and A2 systelll~ 209~ 222~ 316-17. )23) 352 39-41,77-8 Subject index 447

distinguishing between AI, A2 ~ndA3 four-term systems 25,51-60,166-76, see <]iso 41- 2 ,185 C1, C2, C3, Jssumed evidential, direct mirative meaning~ in 19,-200,207-9 evidential, inferred evidential, non-visual semantics '54-9 evidential, quotative evidential, reported A? 23,25,29-31,83,105-6,112,186-8,205, evidential, visu~l evidential 207-9,219-30,237-8,248,288-9,293,311, multitcrm systems 14-5,60-3,166-71>, see also 316,366,31;8,372-3,378-9 ])1, assumed evidential, direct evidenti,tl, distinguishing from evidentiality stralegies inferred evidential, n()n~visual evidential, 38-9,77 quotative evidential, reported evidential, mirative meanings in 195-200 visual evidential semantics of 154-9 evidentials as person markers ns, 235-7, 239, 325 A3 2.3,25,31-4,70,77,81,83,85-7,95,105, evidentiab, frequency of 239,301,315 186-8,207-9,237-8,242-3,248,255,366, evidentiality ncntral forms 23,39-41,49-50, 66, 368,372-3 71-8,187,317,366-8,373,387, see ,,150 $emantics of, see reported evidential unmarked for cvidcntialit y A4 25,34-7,75,82,86-7,366,372,375 experienced, as altern~tive term to 'firsthand' 25 semantics of 154-9 experiential 392, see direct evidential AS 25,37-8,75>366,)68,373 eyewitness evidential 388, 392, see firsthand scmantics of 154-9 evidential B1 42-6,49,88-9,186-7,190,366,368, 37}, 375 rnirative meanings in 201-3,207-9,2]8 fieldwork methodology 18-19,385-6 ~emantics of 159-60 first person 8-9,89, 114, 123-~, 136, 157,169-71, B2 42-} , 46, 49, 75, 82, ~5-7, 186-7, 190, 2U7-\l, 183,192 03 25-9,377-8, 242-}, 255, 366, 37}, 375 see also perso n semantics of 159-66 and mirative meanings 195,197,200,205-6, E3 42-3,46-7,49,186-8,19°,207-9,243,366, 208, 2l8, 225 368,373,375 restrictions on cvidentials with 2,1-3 semantics of 159-66 with direct and visual evidentiab 228'-30,235 B4 43,50--1,75,186-8,190,207-9 with evidentiality strategies 227-8 mirative meanings in 200-1 with firsthand and visual evidcntials 228, semantics of 159-66 237~8 vcrb unmarked for evidential in 49-50 with inferred and assumed evidentials 230~1, B5 43,50-1,75,77,92,159-66,19°,367,374 23 6,239 Cl 51-4,75,82,85-6,189-93,166-76,223,238, with nontlrsthand evidentials 217, 2J9-35, 237-8 242-3,367,374,375 with nonvisual evidentials in CI and DI C2 51,54-7,75,83-4, 89-91, 189-93, ]66-76, sy~tems 223-5, 231, 235-8 367.374-5 with reported evidentials 225-7 Iuirative lucanings in 201-2~ 207~9 firsthand evidential 1,18-19, 2}-4, 42, 88, 264, C3 51,57-.60,75,166-76,189-93,367.374-5 289,297-9,308-9,366,369-70,392 Dl 60,82,86-7,95,166-76,189-93,22;1, 2}0, alternative terIns 25 242-3,255, ]67,374 and cultural innovations 352-3 scnwntic parameters in 63-6, lS3-93, 388 and dreams 345-9.360-) time reference of 4,99--103,261,294 in Al systems 26-9,40,77-8,105, '54-9 two-term systems 15,23-'41., lj4-9, sec also AI, in narratives }1I-18,334 Az, /\3, A4, As, firsthand evidential, non­ in small s)'stcms 186-93,372-3 firslh~nd evidential, reported evidential, with first person 22S, 237-K, 377--8 sensory evidential with verbs of internal states 326-8 three-term systems 25,43-51,159-61>, see also focus 95,208,317-18 Hl,S2_ B3, B4, B5, direct evidential, foregrounding 9,315-24 inferred evidential, nOll-visual evidenlial, fOrlnal markedness 44,54,56,59, 6), 72~5, 172, qUQt,ltive evidential, reponed evidential. 286, )68-9, 387, see also marked ness visual evidential frce indirect speech 134-5d91, 448 Subject index

frequency of cvidentials 239,301,315 inference 1-3,19,23, 80-1, ~4-S, no, 112., 115-1(, frustrativc 258-(io, 342, 357, 388, 392 120,143,145-7,149-50,186-93,266-7,279, functional markedness 71-2,308,368-9,387, 370-2, }88, see also inferred evidential see also markedness in two-term systems 154-9 fusional 8,385 in threc·tcrm systems 160-1, 1RJ, 188, 229 future 8,29,67,74,88,105,109,113,146,162,241, in multiterm systems 170,175-6,189-93,224 261-7,270,276-7,369-72,389 inferential 18,61,258-9,285,393 inferred evidential 1-3,9,19, 2}, 63-6,82-4,86-7, gender 1,40 8, 52, 71, 87-8, 148, Ul, 270, 343, 89-91,93-4,100,105,207,210,229,254-5, 356-7,389 259-{)0, 265-9, 306-10,341, 366-7, }88, 393, general knowledge, inference based on 3, 54, 56, see (lisa inference 61,63-5,367-8 and conjunct·disiunct person marking generalization, inductive 19 126-} genre 21,33,35,106-8,116,153,181,293-6,301,304, aB a meaning of reported evidential 31 310-16, 3JI-2, 359, 369, 379-80,383,389, .lee in Al systems 27-1) ai~o discourse in A2 systems 29-31 effects of evidentials, discourse genre in 81 systems 43-6,163-6 grammatical category 1,5, ll-l), 17, 73, 80, 195, in B2 systems 46, [63-6 209-10,214-'5,382-3,385-6 in B4 systems 47-50, 16}-6 grammatical relations 218,2)6,269-'70,356, in C1 systems 51-4 385,389 in C2 systems 54-7 grammaticalisation 20-1,31,4°,69,77,87,1°3, in C3 systems 57-9 105,140-2.,145, 2oS-6, 271-88, 294, 302, in commands 252-3 37s-.9, 389, 393 in fh systems 1-2,60 Grice's maxim 21,149,334-6,361,381, in narratives 311-12.,318-14,331-2 see nlso lnaxinl in questions 244-7,249 origin of 274-5,2,85-7,302 habitual 31.,263,266,272 with first person 23Q-l, 236,239 head-marking language 12,385 with future 262-3 hearing 1,2,19,23-4,159-60,367--8, see also with verbs of internal St3 tes 325-9>3}1 -2, ~50, direct evidential, firsthand evidential, 360-1 non-firsthand evidential, non·visual inflection and derivation 82 evidential intentional action 114, 127, 157, 217, ;>.23-5, 227-30, in Al systems 26 237-8,326-7,331, see also intentionality, in B3 systems 47 unintentional action in C2 systems 54-5 intentionality 114,127,157,217,223-5,227-30, in multiterm systems 62,167,173 237-1),326-7,331, see also intentional he;l,say 1,3,4, ?-1O, 19-20, 42, 64-6, 79, 81-7, aclion 9D-6, 9S-9, 103, H2, l16, uS, 121, 123, 143, interjection 199 148,151-6,186-7,207,393, see also reported intonation 199,251 evidential internal state, verbs of ll, 219, 223-5, 235-7, 246, alternative terms for 25 268-9,324-9,341,349-51,360-1,388-9, hypothetical 7,210-11,262 395 interrogative verb form 82,109-10,143 imperative 9,20,110-11, 1l3, 162, 241-2, 249-53, intraterminal aspect 393 270,294,378,388, see ais() command irrealis 7,35,68,105,108-10,165,210-11,257-8, imperfect 28, H6 365,369-70,393 imperfective 114-15,149,366,393 irony and evidentials 166,183-4, IS8, z2.6, 2}J, impersonal 236-7 323-4 inclusive VS exclusive 'we' 236-7 isolating 8, }85 indirect speech 1}2-4, 138-40,393 indircctive 25>393 kinship relationships 172.35D Subject index 449 l~nguage contact 21,95,288-302,355,379, see also mode 13.33,241>394 diffusion, linguistic area mood 6,9, H, 13, 20, 31, 44-5, 53, 67-8,82,105-11, language death 2[,36-8,73,299-302,366,379, 116, '44-7, 211, ~41, 270, .,65>369-72, 378-9, 393, see also 1;1Ilguage obsolescence 387,394 hlnguage obsolescence 21,36-8,73,299-302, }66, multiple sources of information 4,19,83,87-95, 379,393, see ab, language death 103,322,369,387, see a/so double marking language lype 8,12,385 of information source lexical evidenliality 10,147-51, }24, 338, 3SS lexical reinJorccmetlt of evidentiab 3,10,34,36, narrative 33,34,78-9,91-6, IS}, 181,294-6,305, 10}, 15}, 33S-4(),347-8, 393 311)-15.331-2,343-4,379-80,388, see also lexicon, alsu lexical categories 1, 21,J05, 324-32 genre linguistic

22S~ 315 origin of 69,275-7,279-81, 28}-4, 289,291, in Al and A2 systems 28, 195-wo, 207-9, 221, 296-9 309,328 restrictions on person value 232,377-8 in rnultitcrm systems 201-2,207-9 with verhs of internal states 325-9,350, J60-1 in three-term systems 200-4,207-9,238 non-visual evidential 20,23, 6}-5, 82-3, 85-7, of evidentials in questions 242,249 9 1-'2,99,153-4,254-7,259-60,265-7, of evidcnti~lity strategy 204-9,228,297 3()0-1, 306--10,358,366-77,380,394 of inferred e\'identiais 200-1,207-9 and cultural conventions 353-4 of reported cvidentiab 202-4 jn B2 systems 46, 162-}, 187,189-93 with pronouns 214 in B3 systcms 46-7,162-3,187,189-93 modal verb (" \0,150,394 in B4 syslems 47-50,162-3,187,189-93 modality 6,9,20,68, S}" 105-11, L15-7, 192, 241, in C[ systems 51-4,107-73,189-93 257-60,270-1, l76-9, 302, Y'5, 369-72, in Dl s),s1ems 1-2,60,100,167-73.189-93 378'-9,387-8,394 in dreams 345-8,381 450 Subject index non-visual evidential (COIlt.) possibilit y 6,117,186-93,31'>5, see a/;p epistcmic in multitcrm systems 62-3,167-73,175.189-93 modality in narratives 312.331-2 potential 110-1,241,278,)69 in questions 244-7 preferred evidentials 21, 99, 25/.305~9.327-9, origin of 273-4.284-'7.294.302 331"2,338,379-80,383,31:19 with lirst person 1~3. 223-5. 231. 235-~ presumptive mood 108, II 1,288 with supen1<\(ural experienct' 341-2, pmhabilil)' 6. I, 116, 153, 15X, 165, 186-93,365, 372, 348-9.360 see alsoepistemic modality with wrbs of internal states 32')-9, :131-2, proverb 339.360 349-5°.360- 1 purposive ~42, 253 number 1,52,75-6,217--18, ;qo question 143,255,294,342,387 obligatory marking of cvidcn tiill ity l-3. J 6,333'-4 content question 72,248-9 omi.~,ion of evidential 2.6.70, 7B-9, 387 cvidentials in 4,9,19-20,86-7,162,241-9,27°, )88 parenthetic expression 10 person marking in 124-31 participation 63,124,154,156, l72-3, 186, 191, 199, polar question 248-9 208,224,315-24,37"- rhetorical question 230~1, 242. 249 particle 5,12,33.50, 57·-R, 67,69.81-2,143-51,155. scope of, with evidcntials 97-8,ID3.369 199, 293, 313. 371. 382 quotation 5(}-1, 132-45,342,387 participle 33.39,69, lOS, 116-1B, 123,271-3,278, quotative 13,64-5,80,84, lOS, 177-8, 193-4, 367, 281-3,302,32 4 374-7,388.394 passive 11,20,39,105,116-17,144-7,228,270,276, as alternativ(' term to reported 31,177, 369-72.387 193-4- pasttense 8,21),39,8.5,105, )l2-16, 143~4>26)-7, as different fwm reportcd 25,178,193-4 270-1,279-81,302,318 ,324,337,362-3'}oS, in B5 ~)'stems 5(}-1,7S, 92, 227 569-72 .378-9,387 in C3 systems 57-9 perfect 11,20.38.77. 117-19, 261-7. 270, 297, 324, in general 64-5 369-73,378-9.387,394, see also ilnterior in multiterm systcms 61 and Al systems 28 origin of 69, 271-4,2~1"3,302 as evidentiality strategy 77,105,112-16,144, rcported as quotative 101 271, 279-81,302

experiential 1)2 rcalis 394 non-firsthand meaning of )8-9 reanalysi~ 69,123,140-2,146-7,271-4,281-7,302, perfective 119, 263-'h 269-70,)65, 369-72, 378-9, 37 2 ,378-9, 389 387,394 reasoning, inference based on 3,27-8,48,54-5, performativc evidential 60,232-3,307-8 63-5,89-90, 155-6, 163-4 person 8,20,44,52,89,105,123-30,261-2,267. relative clauses 253-6 270,325-9, 33l-"2, 356, 377, 388, see also reliability of information S, 6, 33.135, 180,183-4. conjunct/disjunct person marking, first 186,352,358, 365, ,182 person, second person, third person, reported evidential 1,3,4,7-10,19-20,42,61-.6, person marking 79~ 31-7, 90-6, 98-9~ 103,112) 116, 118-, 121, person marking 73,123-31,144-7, 312,}25, 12}, 143,148,151-6,186-7,1,07,257-60, 369-72, see 'l}SO conjunct/disjunct person 26,-7,300-1,306-10,366-71.387-8,394. marking, first person. perSall. sewnd see also hearsay, secondh,1I1d person, third person acquisition of 363 pivot 269 alternative terms for 25 pluperfect 114,204-5,227-8,297 and cultural innovations 351-3,361 polilr question, see alsoqucstion and reported sp~cch 105,132-42 poli tcness 234, 243, 2~8. 3430389 a, meaning of non-firsthand cvidenti'll in Al pol ysynthelic 8, 7t\,385 systems 26--9 Subject" index 451

as meaning of non-firsthand evidential in A2 in B3 systems 47 system S 29-30 in C2 systems 54-.5 in A3 systems 31-4,75-8,97 in multitenn systems 62,168 in A4 systems 34-7 speech formulae, evidentials in 329-30 in B3 systems 43-6 Sprachbund z_" 288-99, 302, 311, 379,393, sec also in B4 systems 46-7 linguistic area in B5 systems 50-1,75 Standard Average European 7,334 in Cl systems 51-4 stative verbs 269,363 in C2systems 54-7 stylistic overtones of cvidentials 9,21,137-8,222, in C3 systems 57-9 315-24,379-80) 389 in commands 250-3,270,378 subjunctive 1ll,2,58 in DI systems 1-3, 60, 100-2, 337 subordinate clause 30,69,71,143,242,,253-6, in dependent clauses 253-5,270 2.7 1-3, :z81-3, 302,,370-1,388,392.,395, see in dreams 345-9 also dependent clause in narrat ives 310--24.331-2, 334, 340-4, subordina tor 395, see subordinate clause 379-80,335 substratum 142 in questions 243-5,247-9,270,378 surprise, see mirative meaning in speech form wac 330 synthetic 8,385 origin of 271-5,277--8,284-8,302,290-4 restrictions on person in 232 tense 1-3,7,10,20,44,52,67-8,70>78--9,87,95, semantic parameters in 159,176-86,193-4. wO~-3, 105, '33) 148, 241, 261-7, 270,365, 374-7 369-72,389 with first person 123,225-7 tense-aspect 7) 28-9, 198,2,41,261-7,270,284, 32B. reported speech 105,119, ]}2-42, 369-710387 365>369-72.376-7,389 and reported evidential 105,132-42 third persoll 89,229,233-5,239, reported speech complement 107, 145-7 see also person responsibility 105-6.128,135,153,157, 16l, 165, thirdhand 19,59,63,178-9,193,37.5,388,395 170-1,173,182,196, nl, 374-6 rime reference of evidential 4,99-103, resultative 112-16,118,143-7, 271. ;'.79-8J, 302, 261,294 369-72,378-9,387>394 revelative evidence 14,59,158,173, 2l2, 232,285. uncertainty 33, W6.146, 158.165, 171-~, 174, 1}6, 309,326,332,344-8,380-1,383, 260,372, see also certainty see also dreams unintentional action 114, 127, 157, 217, 223-5, rhetorical question, see question n7-30, 237--8, 326--7,331, see also intentional action, intentionality scattered coding of evidentiality 9) 63, 67.80-2, unmarked for evidclltiality 23.39-41,49-50,66, 185-6,290, 382-}, 387 71-8, Ill7, 317.366-8,373,387, see also second person 12-}-8, 233-5, 239, see also person evidential i ty neutral forms secondhand 15,19.24>395, see also reported unmarked evidential. see markedness eviden(i~l sensory evidential 366-71,395, see also validational 3, IS, 395 nOli-visual evidential validator 395, S(!e validational in A4 systems 34-6,154-9,186,188 verbal report, see reported evidential in llluititerm systems 61-3 verbs of cognitive states 193, 324-5 in speech formula 330 verbs of internal state 1l.119, 223-5,235-7, sex 270,315>354 246, 268,324-9,341,349-51, 360-1. shamanic knowledge 74-5, 99,347-9, 360,389 388-9,395 smelling 1,19,159,173,309,367-8, see also direct verbs of perceptioll and cognitlOll 120-2, l69, evidential, firsthand evidential, non­ 273-4>32 4-32,370-1, 388--9 firsthand evidential, non-visual verbs of speech 271-3,302,328-9 evidential vcrificational 3,15. 7:h 395 in llA systems 34 viewpoint a~ a grammatical category 268 452 Subject index violJal, as a sem~nlic parameter 63-6. 5C" a/so in questions 245-7 direct evidmlial. ii[~thillld evidcnli~!, in speech formulae :130-2 visual evidential, visually acqllired origin ur 273-5) ::'78-9,284~7.302 illformation semantics of 24. 63~-n, 373-7 ""ua! evidential 1-4, I}, 19,82-7, 90, 98-9, 153-4, with iirst person 22?>-30. 235. 237-8, 377-8 154-5,259-60,205-;,300--',333.3('t. witb verbs of internal states 315-9>331-2-. 35(). 366-9.395 360-1 and cultural innovatioll~ jil-4~ 3X' visually 3(qujrcJ jJ1tonn~tion So, 89, )20, 16:>., as preferred evidenti,ll 30;-lO 167. ~29, 305-10, 3}8 [orm"lly un marked 44, 103 inAI systems 26,155 JtmctiollilllY\lnmarkcd 71 in A2 '~-$rcm; )0 in 131 systems 43-4, 72-3. 159--6~, 1~7-9,1 ill A4 systems 34-5 in 82 systems 4(',159-62,187-93 ill B4 systCJl\S 49-50,74-5 in 133 systems 46-7, 159--62, JH7-~" expressed with demonstratives 105,1]1 ill Cl systems 51-4,167-73, lXY-93, 123 vi,ibilit)' in demonstratives 130--1 ill C2 systems 54-7,167-13, lR9-93 vocative 70 in DJ systems 1-2,60-3.100.167-7.\.175, vowel sy,tems 18(> 189-9},213-4 in dreams 345-R.36O-1 zao marking of cvidcntialiry, see markedness, in 113rratives 312,318-24,332.340, 3R9 ~vidCl1tia1it)' neutral forms