Proceedings Saltcedar and Water Resources in the West Symposium July 16-17, 2003 San Angelo Convention Center San Angelo, Texas Mention of a trademark or a propriety product does not constitute a guarantee or warrenty of the product by the Texas Agricultural Experiement Station or Texas Cooperative Extension, and does not imply its approval to the exclusion of other products that also might be suitable. All programs and information of The Texas Agricultural Experiment Station or the Texas Cooperative Extension are available to everyone without regard to race, ethnic origin, religion, sex or age. Contents History and Biology of Saltcedar ……………………………………………… 1 History And Ecology Of Saltcedar (Tamarix) Fred E. Smeins…………………………………………………………..... 2-9 Distribution of Saltcedar in the Southwest Homer Sanchez and Patrick L. Shaver…………………………………… 10-15 Groundwater and surface water thresholds for maintaining Populus-Salix forests, San Pedro River, southern Arizona Sharon J. Lite and Juliet C. Stromberg…………………………………... 16-27 Threatened and Endanered Species …………………………………………... 28 Endangered Plant Species in Saltcedar Habitats F.M. Oxley……………………………………………………………..… 29-33 Pecos Pupfish: One Piece of the Puzzle Stacey Johnson…………………………………………………………... 34-37 Insects Associated wit Saltcedar, Baccharis and Willow in West Texas and Their Value as Food for Insectivorous Birds: Preliminary Results Allen Knutson, Mark Muegge, Tom Robbins and C. Jack DeLoach…..... 38-47 Water Use and Saltcedar …………………………………………………….... 48 Water us by saltcedar and associated vegetation along selected rivers in Texas Larry D. White, K Brian Hays, and Kurtiss M. Schmidt………………... 49-68 Simulating Wate Use By Saltcedar With The Epic Model J.R. Kiniry, J.R. Williams, K.M. Schmidt, and L.D. White…………….. 69-78 Saltcedar Management ...................................................................................... 79 Toxicology and Ecotoxicology and Summary for Imazapyr (ARSENAL® Herbicide) BASF Cooperation……………………………………………………..... 80-84 Spray Drift Control Models I.W. Kirk………………………………………………………………..... 85-93 Fire in Saltcedar Ecosystems Brent J. Racher and Carlton M. Britton………………………………….. 94-99 Aerial Spraying and Mechanical Saltcedar Control Kirk C. McDaniel and John P. Taylor…………………………………… 100-105 Individual Plant Treatment of Saltcedar Keith Duncan……………………………………………………………. 106-110 Restoration with Native Species Following Saltcedar Removal John P. Taylor and Kirk McDaniel……………………………………… 111-117 Initial Results of Biological Control of Saltcedar (Tamarix spp.) in the United States Lindsey R. Millbrath, C. Jack DeLoach, and Allen E. Knutson………… 118-124 Saltcedar Project Updates …………………………………………………….. 125 Colorado River Saltcedar Control Project Allan McGinty and Okla Thornton………………………………………. 126-132 The Pecos River Ecosystem Project Charles R. Hart…………………………………………………………… 133-139 New Mexico Saltcedar Control Project Debbie Hughs…………………………………………………………….. 140-147 Arizona Saltcedar Project John H. Brock……………………………………………………………. 148-157 Tamarisk Control Activities in Colorado and Utah Tim Carlson……………………………………………………………… 158 History and Biology of Saltcedar 1 HISTORY AND ECOLOGY OF SALTCEDAR (TAMARIX) Fred E. Smeins Department of Rangeland Ecology and Management Texas A&M University College Station, Texas 77843-2126 Introduction The goal of this review paper is to present a broad overview of the history, biology and ecology of the genus Tamarix (saltcedar). The intent is to provide the basic elements of this genus to 1) establish the basis for some of the known or perceived issues that exist relative to this group of plants, and 2) to set the stage for following presentations on specific aspects of the biology and ecology of the genus and efforts and approaches at management and restoration of ecosystems that have been impacted by members of this genus. Taxonomy Perhaps the first issue is to identify and characterize the subjects of interest. This is not a minor task, since total agreement does not exist on the number of species in the genus Tamarix, synonomy among the species, the taxonomic distinctions between species (Baum 1978), degree of hybridization between some species (Sudbrock 1993) or the phylogenetic position of the family Tamaricaceae (Spichiger and Savolainen 1997). In addition the exact origin of species introduced to North America is not certain, and the number and places of introductions are not well-documented. Also, the horticultural industry continues to import, propagate and disperse species in the ornamental trade. All of this simply creates a caution when considering the application of management to uncertain taxonomic and genetic variations. That is, variations in response of populations to management may be as much a matter of genetic differences as it is the environment they occur in or the method or technology of management applied; what works one place may not work elsewhere because subtle genetic differences may not be apparent based on the morphological or outward appearance of the population being treated. Recent comparisons of Tamarix ramosissima from Arizona and Montana indicate the great amount of phenotypic and genotypic variation in this species (Sexton 2000). Between 8 and 10 species have been introduced into North America (Crins 1982, DeLoach et al. 2000). While complete agreement on nomenclature and number of species does not exist the most commonly available and used source for North America is the USDA, NRCS Plant Database which currently recognizes the following taxa: Tamarix africana Poir. African tamarisk Tamarix aphylla (L.) Karst Athel tamarisk (articulata Vahl) Tamarix aralensis Bunge Russian tamarisk Tamarix canariensis Willd. Canary Island tamarisk Tamarix chinensis Lour. Fivestamen tamarisk 2 (pentandra Pallas) Tamarix dioica Roxb. Ex. Roth Tamarisk Tamarix gallica L. French tamarisk Tamarix parviflora DC. Smallflower tamarisk (tetrandra auct. non Pallas) Tamarix ramosissima Ledeb. Saltcedar Tamarix tetragyna C. Ehrenb. History, Distribution and Introductions The natural geographic range of approximatley 54 species of Tamarix extends from southern Europe across the Middle East, into North Africa and into India, Pakistan and China (Baum 1979). There are no species of Tamarix native to the New World. This is an ancient genus. Fossil charcoal from Tamarix twigs have been found in Israel that date to before 10,000 BC ( Ley-Yadum and Weinstein-Evron 1994). Manna, an exudate, produced by the scale insect, Trabutina mannipara, is considered to be the biblical manna of the wandering Israelites (Ben- dov 1988). The name of the genus apparently comes from the Tamaris River in Spain (Di Tomasco 1998) or perhaps the Tamaro River in Nepal (Crins 1989). Introductions to North America began in the early 1800s. First introductions were from the Middle East (Frasier and Johnsen 1991) and advertisements for ornamental sales occurred in the 1820s (Duncan and McDaniel 1997). Over time as many as 10 species were introduced. Introductions were primarily for the horticultural trade, soil erosion control, streambank erosion protection and windbreaks ((Brotherson and Von Winkel 1986, Di Tomasco 1998). The first noticeable invasions into western riverine systems occurred between 1890 and 1920 and from then until 1950 most riverine systems were affected. The predominant species involved in these invasions is generally agreed to be Tamarix ramosissima. Saltcedar occupies up to 1.5 million hectares of riparian areas throughout the western United States and the invasion continues (Brotherson and Field 1987, Clarke and Nelson 1996, Duncan 1997, DeLoach 2000). Growth Habit, Life History Traits and Ecology The genus Tamarix consists of small deciduous trees or shrubs that function as facultative phreatophytes and facultative halophytes (DeLoach 2000). Depending on species, they may reach large tree size, but most invasive species are multi-stemmed shrubs of less than 8 m that can grow 3 to 4 m in a growing season (Sisneros 1991). Leaves are alternate, sessile, small, punctate, scalelike with salt-secreting glands and are self-pruning during drought periods (Diggs et al. 1999). They have extensive root systems that easily extend to 3 m and lengths of 53 m have been recorded (Waisel, Eshel and Kafkafi 1996). They produce a primary root that extends to the water table and then profuse secondary root production may occur (Brotherson and Von Winkel 1986). Adventitious roots easily develop from submerged or buried stems. Thus, they can expand their range through vegetative reproduction from stems or rootstocks that become dislodged and are later buried in a mudflat (Kerpez and Smith 1987), or from the profuse production of up to 100,000 or more small seeds per plant that are wind or water dispersed (Stevens 1985). The plants are insect pollinated although some wind pollination may occur (DeLoach 2000) Due to their short-lived viability (less than 2 months), the seeds must come in 3 contact with a moist substrate within a few weeks of dispersal. Seeds have no dormancy requirements and germinate in less than 24 hours. Actively growing plants produce a continual supply of seeds which can take advantage of suitable substrates when available during the growing season (Engel-Wilson and Ohmart 1978). New seedlings are highly susceptible to dessication and thus require a continually moist substrate for up to 4 weeks; one day of surface dessication can cause mortality (Kerpez and Smith 1987, Brotherson and Field 1987). Once established, however, seedlings can survive