The American Frontier Hero in Mary Rowlandson's NARRATIVE of THE

Notes

 The American Frontier Hero in Mary Rowlandson’s NARRATIVE OF THE CAPTIVITY AND RESTAURATION 1. Throughout the remainder of this book, Rowlandson’s text will be referred to by the short title Narrative. 2. Projections based on Mott pages 303 and 305–306. 3. I use the terms English and Puritan pretty much interchangeably in this discussion because of their unity of purpose and method at this stage in regard to Native Americans and the American wilderness. 4. Among others, see Adventure, Mystery, and Romance: Formula Stories as Art and Popular Culture by John Cawelti; The Six-Gun Mystique, also by Cawelti; The American Adam: Innocence, Tragedy and Tradition in the Nineteenth Century by R.W.B. Lewis; The Cowboy Hero: His Image in American History and Culture by William W. Savage, Jr.; Regeneration through Violence by Richard Slotkin; and The Voice of the Old Frontier by R.W.G. Vail. 5. For identifying that a link exists between Rowlandson and the American hero, see Fitzpatrick. 6. All italicization in quotations from Rowlandson’s Narrative and its “Preface” are as they appear in the text, unless I’ve indicated otherwise. Likewise, all spelling and punctuation are from the text, unless otherwise indicated. 7. In Captivity and Sentiment, Burnham states captives often engaged in “startling forms of transgression. . . . , since survival frequently necessi- tated abandoning Anglo-American cultural traditions, social and legal standards, and gendered codes of conduct” (52). See also Burnham “The Journey,” and Castiglia. 8. The nature of the Narrative is unusual among early best sellers. Generally best sellers of seventeenth-century America were sermons or religious poetry. Other best sellers of the period surrounding the publication of the Narrative include Michael Wigglesworth’s “The Day of Doom” (1662), Richard Baxter’s A Call to the Unconverted (1664), Lewis Bayly’s The Practice of Piety (1665), Samuel Hardy’s A Guide to Heaven (1681), Francis Bacon’s Essays (1688), and Jonathan Dickinson’s God’s Protecting Providence (1699) (Mott 303). 9. These estimates are based on information provided by Derounian, synthesizing statistics provided by Hall and Bennett. Based on these 192 NOTES

findings, I have estimated press runs for each of the 1682 editions at between 300 and 2,000 copies. 10. My cataloging of the editions Vail presents can be summarized as fol- lows: 1682, four editions; 1720, one edition; 1770, three editions; 1771, one edition; 1773, two editions; 1791, one edition; 1794, two editions; 1795, one edition; 1796, one edition; 1800, one edition; 1802, one edition; 1805, one edition; 1811, one edition; 1828, two editions; 1853, one edition; 1856, one edition; 1883, one edition; 1903, one edition; 1930, one edition; 193_? [precise year unknown], one edition; 1933, one edition; and 1934, one edition (cf. Vail, page 486, “Rowlandson, Mary”). All of these editions were published in America, with the exception of the fourth edition in 1682, which was published in London (Vail 169). Lang states that there were twenty-three editions of Rowlandson’s text by 1828 and forty by 1990 (19–21). 11. In addition to those named by Vail (see note above), the National Union Catalogue: Pre-1956 Imprints lists editions in 1792, 1812, 1913, 1915, 1937, and 1953 (422–424). WorldCat reveals additional editions of Rowlandson’s text appearing in 1972, 1975, 1977, 1983, 1988, 1990, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998, 2000, 2003, and 2005; and anthologized editions appearing in 1913, 1915, 1992, and 1998. In addition to the sustained, popular interest represented by these many editions, academic attention to the Narrative is extensive. 12. Sound recordings were released in 2003, 2007, and 2008. In 1953, the Library of Congress produced an audio discussion of Rowlandson’s work. There is also a PBS radio version of the Narrative. 13. Castiglia expanded this definition to include European Americans taken captive by social/cultural groups other than Native Americans: for instance, the 1974 kidnapping of Patty Hearst by the Symbionese Liberation Army. 14. On increasing the stature of the individual and gendering colonists’ experience in the New World, see Armstrong and Tennenhouse. 15. Armstrong and Tennenhouse have identified a number of elements in Rowlandson that are significant to my argument. However, my analysis looks specifically at the evolution of the American frontier hero, who required the changes that Armstrong and Tennenhouse identify, but which they do not address. 16. Fitzpatrick cites Fliegelman 144–148 in this section of her argument. 17. See also Fitzpatrick; Toulouse. 18. Burnham suggests that Rowlandson has “a growing ease” among the Indians because “she has become relatively more acculturated and has moreover gained an economic independence she never experienced in her own culture” (“The Journey” 63). See also Logan 270. Derounian, however, suggests that Rowlandson’s forgetting where she is results from her being “in a state of shock” as a result of her traumatic experiences (“Puritan Orthodoxy” 87). NOTES 193

19. See Breitwieser; Toulouse. 20. Cf. Armstrong and Tennenhouse; Burnham “The Journey”; Fitzpatrick. 21. I am grateful to Elizabeth Truax for articulating these hypotheses. 22. Among others, see Armstrong and Tennenhouse; Breitwieser; Fitzpatrick; Logan.

 Mythological Roots of the American Frontier Hero 1. In Campbell’s text, see especially 3–40 and 245–251 for descriptions of the hero and the hero’s journey. 2. In Campbell’s analysis, the hero is male. I use male nouns and pronouns in my descriptions and discussions of this hero for the sake of accuracy in discussing the genesis of the American frontier hero, a character type that has become hyperbolically and hyper- stereotypically masculine. My use of male nouns and pronouns, as opposed to gender-inclusive or gender-neutral terms, does not suggest that women or the feminine can be adequately addressed within a generic male diction assumed to represent both sexes. 3. Campbell cites perhaps the most dramatic and most well-known example of a material boon that advanced the technology of human- kind: Prometheus’s providing humans with fire, which he had stolen from the gods. 4. Because the pages of the text containing the “Preface” are unnum- bered, I use paragraph numbers to identify the location of quotations taken from the “Preface.” 5. The hero of James Fenimore Cooper’s Leatherstocking Tales: The Pioneers (1823), The Last of the Mohicans (1826), The Prairie (1827), The Pathfinder (1840), and The Deerslayer (1841). 6. Logan examines Rowlandson’s use of irony. 7. Derounian-Stodola, Kathryn Zabelle, and James Arthur Levernier, The Indian Captivity Narrative, 1550–1900, have identified an “overall mythic structure of capture-initiation-return” within Rowlandson’s text that “became the norm for the form” of the captivity narrative. They elaborate the details of this structure as “a sud- den attack, casualties, a forced march, sale or trade, and eventual ransom, release, or escape” (100). These elements replicate the hero cycle, reinforcing the relationship between Rowlandson’s travels with the Algonquians and the path of the hero’s journey described by Campbell. 8. The phrase is from Deuteronomy 32:10 (King James Version). 9. Among others, see Breitwieser; Davis; Derounian, “Puritan Orthodoxy”; Fitzpatrick; Logan; and Toulouse. 10. Obtaining ransom was a primary reason Algonquians took captives (Strong 55–56). 194 NOTES

11. This interchange can also demonstrate that Rowlandson’s allegiances have shifted from being attached only to her own people. She is no longer perfectly Puritan. Logan states that “Rowlandson’s work exhib- its a tension between the language of typology, which stabilizes interpretation, and other kinds of language that disrupt the authority of this interpretation. Rowlandson’s use of Native American words, her growing differentiation of her captors from the ‘heathen’ stereotype, and other evidence of adaptation to her captors’ culture seems [sic] to undermine the portrayal of experience in terms of Babylonian captivity and providential affliction” (269). Smith-Rosenberg states, “Passionately elaborating American Indian otherness, she fuses with them” (184). This acceptance of and fusion with the Algonquians is the flip side of the changes the mythological hero must undergo in order to return to his everyday world bringing a boon that has the capacity to address cultural deficits and solve previously unsolvable problems. 12. Being under the control of Algonquian precepts may not have been all bad for women captives. Burnham summarizes Griffin, who “noted the possibility that for many female captives, release from the Indians frequently promised only a return to captivity in another form—as domestic wife and mother in Puritan New England” (“The Journey” 72; cf. Griffin 47). As the highest status woman in Lancaster—Mistress Rowlandson, rather than a goodwife— Rowlandson could have experienced more freedom within the con- fines of Puritan society than some women. However, it is likely that she too experienced greater agency and, ironically, autonomy during her captivity than she did before it. 13. Woodard states that it is when Rowlandson begins to change as a result of her captivity that she becomes most dangerous to the Puritan community: “Transformation proves so subversive because it chal- lenges the very notion of identity promoted by the Puritan community by blurring the line between self and other” (121). 14. Campbell here references Arnold Toynbee, A Study of History, vol. VI, 169–175 (Oxford UP, 1934). 15. The ending of Rowlandson’s text has received focused critical attention. See, in particular, Breitwieser and Derounian, “Puritan Orthodoxy.”

 Mary Rowlandson, Puritan Hero 1. See Miller 4–15. See also Bercovitch 85–88. 2. Metacom’s, or King Philip’s, War was a genocide in which the Native Americans of eastern Massachusetts were virtually exterminated. The Puritans, however, did not have this perspective on the conflict. My purpose here is to present the Puritan mind-set or point of view in order to demonstrate conditions that predisposed Rowlandson’s contemporaries to embrace her text. NOTES 195

3. Elliott defines the first generation Puritans in New England “to include all settlers who came to New England between the years 1630 and 1650,” and the second generation as “composed of those who were born during New England’s first two decades” (viii–ix). The third generation would then be the children of the second generation (cf. Elliott 7). Interestingly, Mary Rowlandson is tied to both the first and second generations. While she emigrated to New England in 1639, making her part of the first generation, she was only approximately two years old at the time, making her chronolog- ically and experientially part of the second generation. 4. Elliott cites Robert G. Pope, The Half-Way Covenant: Church Membership in Puritan New England (Princeton, NJ: Princeton UP, 1969) in this argument. Miller points out that the second and third generations felt cut off and abandoned in the New World. This perception may explain the particularly insistent need for myth that he identifies in these generations. 5. The influence of Old Testament law has also been noted in the American frontier, specifically that it demonstrates “qualities of the wrathful God of the Old Testament” (Marsden 108). 6. I am grateful to Janna Henrichsen for her assistance in elucidating Mosaic law. 7. An example of this theological principle in which the outcome was death exists in the story of Jeroboam and the golden calves (1 Kings 12–14, Kings James Version). Because Jerusalem and the temple were given to Judah, leaving Israel without access to the tabernacle, Jeroboam attempts to hold the kingdom of Israel together by providing them with a focus for their worship by constructing two golden calves. As a result of this, not only is Jeroboam killed but his entire family as well. In addition, Israel is cast out of its land. 8. See Salisbury fn. 25, page 74, and fn. 54, page 91. 9. See, among others, Breitwieser, who discusses it in terms of mourning; Burnham (“The Journey”), who addresses Rowlandson’s position between two cultural perspectives; Davis, who looks at Rowlandson’s divided loyalties engendered by her training as Puritan goodwife; Derounian in “Puritan Orthodoxy,” who examines Rowlandson in light of characteristics of Neiderland’s survivor syndrome; and Toulouse, who demonstrates an angry, covert critique of Rowlandson’s plight in the juxtaposition Rowlandson chooses for her presentation of biblical quotations. 10. Elliott’s analysis of the Puritan psychological condition, which provides an in-depth description of Puritan attitudes and psychological stresses, suggests this conclusion. 11. “Critics frequently claim that Rowlandson’s narrative fulfilled a nov- elistic need in a society otherwise devoid of such amusements. . . ., exhibit[ing] linguistic and cultural characteristics which mark it as a type of proto-novel” (Burnham, “The Journey” 68). 196 NOTES

12. I.e., “Against thee, thee only have I signed” (Psalm 51:4), and “God be merciful unto me a sinner” (Luke 18:13). 13. Cf. Davis 58. 14. Fliegelman states that “the captivity narrative secretly taught a still pious public how to live self-sufficiently alone” (145). 15. Data in this section on Hutchinson, Rowlandson, and White is taken from Salisbury 7–10. 16. Several critics have commented upon Rowlandson’s taking the food from the child. See, for example, Davis 54; Derounian, “Puritan Orthodoxy” 89; Woodard 121. 17. Fitzpatrick states, “In the end, a narrative figure designed to main- tain and enforce boundaries came instead to explode them, to sanc- tion the venture of the individual into the wilderness, there to be destroyed or saved” (20–21). 18. Cf. Elliott. 19. Slotkin discusses this characteristic of Rowlandson’s experience. 20. Cf. Armstrong and Tennenhouse.

 Mothering the Adamic Hero 1. Lang attributes this perception of Rowlandson to “expectations set by later and far more sensational tales of pioneers and Indians” (19). 2. In the 1773 Boston edition, Rowlandson stands at the front door of her house, holding off the Indians with a musket. In this edition, she wears a woman’s bonnet (A Narrative of the Captivity, Sufferings and Removes of Mrs. Mary Rowlandson, Boston: John Boyle’s Printing Office, 1773). Notice that in this edition, the words sufferings and removes have been added to the title, replacing the original second term of restauration. These changes emphasize the idea of Rowlandson’s passively enduring her captivity and her distance from her home in the Puritan world. In another late eighteenth-century edition, a bosomy Rowlandson has exchanged her bonnet for a tricornered hat reminis- cent of those worn by Revolutionary War Minutemen (Salisbury 52). 3. A concise discussion of the differences between myth and rhetorics is presented in Fisher. 4. This date is according to the Gregorian calendar, which we currently use. On the Julian calendar, in use in Massachusetts at this time, the date was calculated as February 10, 1675, which is the date Rowlandson uses. See Salisbury page 63, fn. 1, and page 68, fn.13. 5. One possibility that twentieth- and twenty-first-century readers might suspect is that the Native Americans were systematically killing all adult males, and it is this that accounts in part for Rowlandson’s survival. There is no evidence for this in the Narrative or the historical texts I have consulted. In addition, Rowlandson mentions at least two captive Puritan men that she meets in the course of her travels with the Algonquians. NOTES 197

6. Burnham addresses the danger of tears and sympathy for captives and their importance for readers. “The captive’s tears may lead to death. . . . [signaling at the same time] the sympathy of English captives for one another but, even more significantly the reader’s vicarious sympathy for the suffering captives—a response that directly distinguishes them from the unsympathetic Indians” (Captivity, 51–52). 7. Ulrich draws a similar conclusion (177).

 Transcending Gendered English American Social Positions: Gender and Racial Multiplicity in THE FEMALE AMERICAN; OR, THE ADVENTURES OF UNCA ELIZA WINKFIELD 1. The Female American; or, the Adventures of Unca Eliza Winkfield is a recently rediscovered novel, which was published pseudonymously in 1767. The novel recounts the experiences of a biracial, binational heroine named Unca Eliza Winkfield. In the novel, Winkfield steers her way through multiple life calamities, including becoming castaway on an uninhabited island. Attention to this rich addition to transatlantic early American fiction is growing. To my knowledge, the novel was first addressed contemporarily in 1997 when I presented “Perspectives on The Female American by Unca Eliza Winkfield” at the American Literature Association Conference, Baltimore, Maryland, U.S.A., on May 25 (MacNeil). Since then, a critical edition has been released, and the novel has been the main focus of a dissertation as well as a number of journal articles. Colleagues in early American literature report rou- tinely teaching it in their courses, with students interested in and receptive to the text. 2. Winkfield’s first name of Unca ties her in the minds of nineteenth- century readers and later readers to the later Uncas of James Fenimore Cooper’s The Last of the Mohicans, published in 1826 and which is examined in a later chapter of this text. Cooper remarks on the name Uncas in his preface to Wept of Wish-ton-Wish. Cooper writes, “The appellation of Uncas, came like those of the Cæsars and the Pharoahs, to be a sort of synonym for chief wit the Mohegans, a tribe of the Pequots, among whom several warriors of this name were known to govern in due succession” (“Preface,” vi). Although not writing about Native Americans from the northeast, the late eighteenth-century author of The Female American may have been employing this symbolic tie in the choice of the name of Unca for the heroine of the novel. 3. Burnham states that, although the identity of the author of The Female American is not known, the novel is an American novel because “the contents, concerns, and language” of the text define it as American (“Introduction,” 23). 4. There are still problematic aspects of these relations within The Female American, however, demonstrated by several of Winkfield’s actions, 198 NOTES

such as destroying the idol and her sending of gold items from the Native American temple to England. 5. Burnham states that The Female American presents a “radical vision of race and gender through an account of a biracial heroine who is able to indulge in a kind of ‘rambling’ mobility and ‘extraordinary’ adventure precisely because she is, as the title declares, an American female. . . . The Female American is . . . about the potentially extraordinary possibilities of being both female and American” (“Introduction,” 24). Kuhlman states that the novel is “a founding interracial myth” (3). 6. Burnham refers to the strength of Winkfield’s status as both female and American, saying, “Those actions and abilities that seem most unusual or surprising for a female are invariably explained and legiti- mized by her status as a female American, an identity that strategi- cally allows her to indulge in what would otherwise be, for an English woman, transgressive acts and adventures” (“Introduction,” 17; italics in original). 7. As was the case in Rowlandson’s Narrative when her garrison-house was under attack, violence acts as a catalyst to move the hero Winkfield along in the heroic cycle. 8. For a discussion of this incident, see chapter 2 of this book, pp. 29–30. 9. Burnham notes a similar circumstance in Rowlandson’s Narrative. Referring to Rowlandson’s involvement with her captors, Burnham states that the “experiences described in such detail by the author contradict the interpretive conclusions drawn from them” by Rowlandson (“The Journey,” 61). 10. Unless otherwise noted, all spelling, punctuation, and sentence structure are the novel’s own. 11. Kuhlman discusses similar concepts at length, commenting on Winkfield’s “nuanced perspective on the possibility of multiple hybridities,” her “straddl[ing] cultures, communities, traditions, reli- gions, and ethnicities,” and her formation of “a new culture that blends aspects of Native American traditions, Christian ideals, and European rationalism” (4). Kuhlman also states that in The Female American, cultural harmony “exists in her [Winkfield’s] person,” and that Winkfield “survives and thrives . . . largely because of her ability to transition between and adapt to the cultures she encounters on both sides of the Atlantic” (3, 5). See also Kuhlman Chapter 2 generally. 12. Kuhlman states that The Female American presents “the possibility of a third space” (39). 13. This is one of the characteristics of female Robinsonades that Blackwell identifies: “women do not remain alone on the island at length . . .; they find other women quickly” (13). Contrary to what is often the case with female Robinsonades, Winkfield’s life with the Native Americans does not include her immersion in a female social circle. Instead the novel presents numerous examples of Winkfield’s intense, and NOTES 199

sometimes even exclusive, involvement with high-status males once she has been castaway. A few instances of this follow: From within the golden idol, Winkfield announces herself as a person coming “especially” to teach the priests (Vol. II, 34). Once the islanders make her acquaintance, she reports that “the priests and [she] took a comfortable repast together” (Vol. II, 50). When she sets out for their island, she is “in company with all the priests” (Vol. II, 54). Once she arrives there, “the priests conducted [her] to a little town” and into “one of the best” cottages (Vol. II, 55). Interestingly, Winkfield’s text is not included in Blackwell’s study and the publication date of Winkfield’s text precedes the chronological field of Robinsonades included in the study. Because no explanation for this omission is provided in the essay, I assume The Female American was left out because Blackwell was unaware of it. 14. The hermit’s journal is another element that reconfigures the understanding of the American frontier hero, and ties that hero to a lineage rather than having that hero remain loose in space and time as the Adamic hero, because the journal and Winkfield’s employment of it demonstrate the value of relying on others’ prior knowledge and experience. 15. Kuhlman comments that Winkfield’s “completely hybrid identity remains relatively stable throughout her adventures” (46). 16. Cf. Derounian, “Puritan Orthodoxy.”

 Dancing between Ferocity and Delicacy in EDGAR HUNTLY; OR, MEMOIRS OF A SLEEP-WALKER by Charles Brockden Brown 1. Hamelman notes ties between Huntly’s rhetoric and “the generic rhetoric of the captivity tradition” (para. 28). 2. Hamelman also notes Edgar Huntly’s ties to the captivity narrative, and to Rowlandson’s Narrative in particular. He states that “the captivity narrative is deeply embedded in Edgar Huntly. . . . the novel reflects the memoir of Rowlandson. . . . [and] the captivity narrative is the novel’s generic starting point” (para. 35). 3. While not the blockbuster Rowlandson’s text was, Edgar Huntly had the strongest sales for a literary text in 1799 and is considered by Mott to be a “better seller” for the 1790s. Mott lists Edgar Huntly as the only “better seller” for 1799, with no “best seller” identified for that year (317, 305). 4. Schulz notes that Clithero’s “position as the hero’s doppelganger is reinforced when Huntly turns somnambulist himself” (328). 5. Sivils notes, “Huntly Farm is built on the exact location where her [Old Deb’s] village stood thirty years before” (para. 12). 6. Krause notes that the name Waldegrave “signifies forest burial” (471). 7. Schulz makes a related observation about Huntly, saying “In the course of his search, the hero turns from his role as active agent of his quest into the object of uncontrollable forces within his own self” (325). 200 NOTES

8. Schulz calls Huntly’s rescue of the girl “gratuitous” because it has “no significance” to the plot (330). However, the rescue has meaning in relation to Huntly’s attempts to inhabit multiple positions in both the hero and captivity cycles. This relevance of the rescue is empha- sized by the girl’s later being recaptured, while under Huntly’s care, by the same band of Indians—highlighting Huntly’s disintegration, inabilities, and distortion within these cycles. 9. Unless otherwise noted, spelling and sentence structure are as in Brown’s text. 10. Hamelman notes, “Huntly’s self-portrait might be that of the generic captive” (para. 34). 11. My thanks to Luciana Cabral Pereira for pointing this out to me (2008[a]). 12. Cf. Gardner, who says that Huntly opens the box because of its ties to his surrogate father Sarsefield, who taught both Huntly and Clithero to make secretly locking boxes (445). 13. Schulz also notes this tie, stating that Clithero “is rushed to his death in a fit of insanity” as a result of Huntly’s “self-imposed mission to save Clithero” (332). Cf. also 328 and 331. 14. Cf. Hustis, especially 101 and remarks on “elision.” 15. Sivils also notes these results of Huntly’s benevolence (331). 16. Smith-Rosenberg notes the silence of female characters in Edgar Huntly and reads this as a “deni[al] . . . [of an] authoritative voice” for female characters (495). 17. Sivils states that Old Deb is “an elderly and enigmatically powerful matriarch . . . central to the plot and meaning of the book.” He defines her as “a representative for dispossessed Indian nations and their fight to retain sovereignty over the land that defines their existence” (paras. 1 and 3). Gardner defines Old Deb as “the force behind all the novel’s action, from the murder of Waldegrave to the attack on Solebury” (446). 18. Gardner states that “the question of identity in Edgar Huntly is importantly national rather than (generally) human or (particularly) individual. . . . [focusing on] the question—newly urgent in the United States in 1799—of what it means to be American” (429). 19. Gardner also notes this passage, stating that Brown is “staking his claim to a uniquely American writing via his portrayal of the Indian” that Brown includes in Edgar Huntly (430).

 Reconstituting the American Frontier Hero through James Fenimore Cooper’s Natty Bumppo in THE LAST OF THE MOHICANS: A NARRATIVE OF 1757 1. See also McWilliams, “Historical Contexts,” 410–411. 2. McWilliams states that “Incidents of exactly this kind had been reported in the most sensational of recent captivity narratives. . . . From NOTES 201

captivity narratives through film westerns, the image of the savage descending on the woman and her babe would out-Herod Herod in arousing horror at the persecution of the innocent” (“Historical Contexts,” 411). McWilliams writes that “Leatherstocking and the Mohicans prove their heroism primarily by protecting the two white women, flowers of civilization, on their journey into the wilderness” (“Introduction,” xiv). 3. Cora’s action echoes Mary Rowlandson’s advising Goodwife Joslin (discussed in chapter 4) to be calm and patient in order to preserve her life. This tactic fails in both instances because in each case the character who is the receiver of the advice is unable to respond agilely and pragmatically to a terrifying situation. In addition, both Goodwife Joslin and the unnamed woman in Mohicans are highly maternal symbols—one pregnant and one the mother of a young baby. In both cases this intense maternity provides an explanation for their inability to employ that advice successfully, while also separating them from the givers of that advice. In Mohicans, however, the presence of unrespon- sive male characters highlights Cora’s gender and emphasizes the inability of the designated heroes in the novel when they are faced with female characters at peril. 4. The assertion of the “I” as authority would become increasingly per- vasive and obvious as the nineteenth century progressed, and would be demonstrated throughout the literature of this period, in keeping with the philosophical and romantic perspectives of the age. For example, Walt Whitman’s poetic self, the “I” of many of his poems, can be seen as evoking the same first-person authority standing in contradistinction to the greater culture that Rowlandson’s Narrative presents in nascent form, thus indentifying Whitman’s poetic self as a version of this same hero. My thanks to Luciana Cabral Pereira for pointing out the tie between Whitman and the American frontier hero prototype (2008[b]). 5. The page references to The Last of the Mohicans that follow will use the abbreviated title Mohicans to identify the novel, where necessary. 6. The feminized construction of the American wilderness has been noted by other scholars. Cf. in particular The Land before Her by Annette Kolodny. 7. Commenting on the larger passage of the novel containing this phrase, McWilliams notes that the mood of the narrative moment results from the “suspension of military and historical time decreed by the two political powers” (“Historical Contexts,” 414). He claims that “Nature’s tranquility depends on the truce declared by human enemies. . . . Nature’s peace is feminine and life-giving, but its intensity depends on its seeming suspension from time” (415). 8. As the retreat from Fort William Henry demonstrates, Cora and Alice function as metonyms for the larger situation in which families were a common component of the warring armies’ entourages. The incident 202 NOTES

during the retreat in which the baby of the unnamed woman with the shawl is killed reinforces this view. 9. An anonymous contemporary reviewer of The Last of the Mohicans charges Cooper with “[h]aving taken pains to leave them defenceless [sic] [in the wilderness], and to throw them in the way of the enemy” (“Last American Novel,” 86). 10. Callahan states about Cora that she is able to “remain conventionally womanly while at the same time exhibiting putatively masculine characteristics of courage, resourcefulness and competence when placed under stress” (251). 11. Callahan states that “Cooper’s fiction, however awkwardly and unevenly, is attempting to revise male heroism in the direction of qualities associated with female priorities and arenas of action” (252). For Slotkin, Hawk-eye may be attempting to be the “hunter-hero” discussed earlier in chapter 4 (180). This “frontier hero” values “trusting personal experience of the wilderness rather than orthodox theory” (183), because of his “extended experience in the wilderness” (205). However, the abysmal results of Hawk-eye’s self-reliance demonstrate that he is not, in fact, this hero. 12. The description of these forces is an interesting side note to the examination of the American frontier hero. They are described as dark red and as walking in an “Indian file.” In addition, they are called warriors, a term often used in the novel to denote Native American com- batants. Yet these forces are not identified as Indians. Instead, they are called the “royal Americans” and are said to make up a battalion—“a tactically organized military group” (“Battalion”). This equates Americanness with these dark-red, single file warriors, and legitimates them further with the adjective “royal” and with Heyward’s obvious feelings of attachment to, and responsibility for, his battalion. 13. Ringe states that “Montcalm and the victorious French cannot completely govern their Huron allies after the evacuation of the fort, and the French commander himself muses about the dangers of setting in motion a process which he cannot control. . . . In the massacre at Fort William Henry, the Indians clearly dominate the whites who have invaded their lands” (26). 14. In the nineteenth century, “[p]roponents of Indian Removal found it handy to write and speak of Indians as if they were all nomadic hunters,” because it eased white consciences about taking Native American land and about removing Native Americans from lands they had historically held (McWilliams, “Historical Contexts,” 419). The Last of the Mohicans participates in this cultural construction, McWilliams argues: “Readers predisposed to favour Indian Removal would surely have found their concept of the Red Man as a nomadic warrior . . . fully confirmed. . . . They would, moreover, have focused approvingly upon those passages in which Cooper seems to suggest that the demise of the Indians is inevitable” (420). NOTES 203

15. The language and extent of the description of the beaver village contrast with that of human habitations. The Delawares who receive Heyward and Alice when they are freed from the Huron are called a “half-tribe” residing in a “present place of encampment.” The Hurons are living in a “temporary village” (Cooper, Mohicans, 323). When Hawk-eye and the others need shelter for the night after freeing Cora, Alice, Heyward, and Gamut from Magua after the first captivity, they stay in the “decayed block-house. . . . [a] rude and neglected building . . . thrown up on an emergency” (142). 16. Callahan states that Cooper’s female characters, in general, “if they are positive, [are] allowed to infuse their supposed feminine characters with conventionally masculine traits” (251). 17. Gamut also brings active maternity and the core of domesticity into the interstitial wilderness in the form of his horse Miriam and her nursing colt. Additionally, as the only one who can effectively protect himself and others, when they are with him, from attack, Gamut acts on his synthesis of emotion and logic, presenting positive proof of his androgynous nature. 18. A contemporaneous review holds a similar opinion: “David Gamut is a bore in every sense of the word. Invested with that official situation of bore, which is a necessary appendage of the modern novel, as the fool was of ancient royal courts” (“Unsigned Review” 102). Cast by the novel as illogical and almost a simpleton, he is in the lineage of the wise court fool and provides a link between them and Mose, the wise fool of The Searchers, whom we meet in the next chapter. 19. McWilliams uses this phrase to describe the 1804 painting by John Vanderlyn, Death of Jane McCrea, who, like Cora and Alice, travelled into the wilderness from Fort Edward (“Introduction,” xi–xii). I include the quotation here in reference to the captured Cora because the psychological dynamics for the contemporaneous white reader are the same as those of viewers of McCrea’s painting. Although Cora is not immediately threatened with death or scalping in this scene, both she and Alice have been mock scalped earlier in the novel. This scene evokes those earlier artificial scalping, bringing the potential of Cora’s actual scalping that much closer to reality. 20. As Munro explains, “ ‘[I]t was my lot to form a connection with one who in time became my wife, and the mother of Cora. She was the daughter of a gentleman of those isles, by a lady, whose misfortune it was, if you will,’ said the old man, proudly, ‘to be descended, remotely, from that unfortunate class, who are so basely enslaved to administer to the wants of a luxurious people. . . . Major Heyward, you are your- self born at the south, where these unfortunate beings are considered of a race inferior to your own’ ” (Cooper, Mohicans, 180). 21. Reviewing The Last of the Mohicans for North American Review in 1826, W. H. Gardiner falls all over himself expressing contemporaneous acquiescence to racial prejudice. Gardiner universalizes his statements 204 NOTES

by expressing himself using the royal “we.” I quote at length to present the contortions of the tangle of self-justification Gardiner constructs: In the present case, we are free to confess, that so far as Cora is concerned, our judgments, like Major Heyward’s may be somewhat biased. We mean no offence whatever to the colored population of the United States; on the contrary, we have a great esteem for them in certain situations; and we acknowledge it to be a vile and abom- inable prejudice; but still we have (and we cannot help it) a particular dislike to the richness of the negro blood in a heroine (111). 22. In this solitary position, Hawk-eye evokes the Adamic “hero in space . . . outside [and] . . . essentially . . . alone” (Lewis 91; italics in original). 23. Although Alice demonstrates these heroic traits in her intermittent assertions of courage and independent action, she, in the end, is taken far from the frontier, into space that has been coded throughout the novel as feminized. Cora Munro, who could be said to be the female American frontier hero in this novel, is killed senselessly in the end by an anonymous Indian. And, as with the murder of the mother and baby at the retreat from Fort William Henry, discussed at the begin- ning of this chapter, all are powerless to prevent Cora’s death, even Magua. In addition, here again, as when Tamenund turns Cora over to Magua, the racial structuring of Cora comes into play. Cora’s death is the end result of Tamenund’s decision, a decision that pits suppos- edly Indian ethics of fairness in war against European concepts of the rights of the individual for freedom and safety. Race obscures the nature of the heroic dynamics at work as the startlingly murder of Cora is figured as beyond the sphere of influence of heroic abilities. 24. In 1826, an anonymous reviewer for the United States Literary Gazette protested the deaths of Cora and Uncas, saying that there was “reason to believe that Cora and Uncas were preserved through so many dangers for some good end,” and suggesting that “Uncas would have made a good match for Cora, particularly as she had a little of the blood of a darker race in her veins,—and still more, as this sort of arrangement is coming into fashion, in real life, as well as in fiction” (“Unsigned Review,”100).

 Mary Rowlandson in Jeans: The John Ford/ John Wayne film THE SEARCHERS and the Mary Rowlandson Archetype 1. While The Searchers is set in 1868 (almost exactly two hundred years after Rowlandson’s captivity in 1676), the film was produced in the 1950s, making The Searchers a cultural document of the mid-twentieth century (cf. Lehman 411). This multiplicity of historical periods, which is also present in The Female American and The Last of the Mohicans, is a richness of these works. (The temporal gap in Edgar NOTES 205

Huntly is slight, representing approximately forty years between the chronological situation of the novel and the publication of the novel.) Not only does each of these texts simultaneously represent multiple temporal and cultural sensibilities, they implicitly demonstrate the continued cultural relevance of their subject matters and perspectives. 2. “Americans could conclude that the years spent re-creating episodes of imagined national history somehow qualified the movie cowboy to assess our current condition and offer guidance—to function, ulti- mately, as a father figure, benevolent and all-wise. Of this phenome- non John Wayne is perhaps the best, most obvious example” (Savage 24). 3. The film adapts the novel by the same name written by Alan LeMay and published in 1954. 4. Skerry states that The Searchers presents “the most complex and pro- found statement of Ford’s western vision. . . . Ford’s critics see The Searchers as the consummate dramatization of the mature Ford’s western mythology” (86). On this point, Skerry also cites Tag Gallagher, John Ford: The Man and His Films (Berkeley: U of California P, 1986); and Peter Stowell, John Ford (Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1986). 5. Aleiss is representative of the evaluation of Ford’s contribution to the development and direction of the genre: “No film director has created as enduring an image of the American West as has John Ford. During a career that spanned more than fifty years, Ford directed approximately 135 films, of which close to sixty were Westerns” (167). 6. “It is often cited as the most influential movie by a whole generation of filmmakers including Martin Scorsese, Steven Spielberg, and George Lucas” (Lehman 402). Lehman also points out that the film still has strong appeal today and has proved to be a major cultural influence. Courtney states that “the film is considered an example of the genre [of Westerns] par excellence” (86). 7. “John Wayne was the most popular star in film history. From 1949 to 1976, he was absent from the top ten only three times. . . . In a 1995 poll, John Wayne (who had been dead for over sixteen years) was named America’s all-time favorite movie star” (Giannetti 260). Wayne “completed nearly three hundred films in a half century of work and became the movie cowboy. . . . [He was] a fixture of American popular culture” (Savage 25, emphasis in original). 8. “I play John Wayne in every part regardless of the character, and I’ve been doing okay, haven’t I?” Wayne once asked (Giannetti 260). Interestingly, John Wayne as John Wayne was also a character, since Wayne’s real name was Marion Morrison. Thus “play[ing] John Wayne in every part” was a presentation of a character constructed in the very interplay of myth and culture that is the focus of this analysis. 9. This spear resonates with the musket that Edgar Huntly drives bayonet-first into the road and which is read by Sarsefield as “a beacon attracting our attention to the spot” (Brown 864). 206 NOTES

10. This fragility of domestic space is reprised later in the movie, when Ethan and Martin ride through the devastation of Scar’s encampment and find Martin’s wife Look murdered where she slept. The close-up and intense focus on the village of teepees as they ride through establishes Scar’s encampment as a domestic space, existing in contradistinction to the interstitial quality of Ethan and Martin’s existence. Shots of the Indians who had been captured during the raid reenforce the domesticity of the village. The beleaguered line of cold, hungry, and clearly un-warrior-like Indian prisoners trudging through the snow to the fort demonstrates the lack these characters experience away from the village. The meaning of earlier, somewhat obscure images of raiding horses now becomes clear as shots of a U.S. Cavalry raid on the village. In these shots, the cavalry is figured as an anonymous destructive force through mise en scène and camera angle. The shots of the cavalry are focused low on the thundering hooves of the horses, including very little of the riders themselves. This anonymity confirms the interchangeability of raiders on domestic spaces. The focus on the wildly thundering hooves emphasizes the potential force and power of the raiders, while erasing references to the possibility of logic and discipline that could inhere in images of military organization and controlling structure. In addition, these two parallel scenes—the “murder raid” on the Edwards homestead and the even more murderous raid on Scar’s “homestead”—confound the movie’s presumed perspective that the Indians are the “bad guys,” shifting the focus instead to questions of the nature of and justification for violence itself. Finally, these parallel scenes unmoor linkages of race and thought- less, unprincipled violence assumed by the movie’s genre identity. 11. Ethan claims that he found Martin out in the wilderness and that Martin’s mother was an Indian. Ethan’s phraseology and manner, freighted with the silences and gaps that he uses throughout the film as markers of intensity, suggest that he knows more than this, however. Courtney remarks on these suggestions of Ethan’s greater knowledge, proposing that Martin is Ethan’s son, since Ethan “found” Martin and also “recognizes Martin’s mother’s scalp among those flaunted by Scar,” suggesting that Ethan has “intimate knowledge . . . of Martin’s mother” (116). This “possibility that Ethan himself has slept with an Indian and is Martin’s father” (117) draws a sharp contrast between Pawley’s hybridity and Hawk-eye’s asserted (or actual) purity in The Last of the Mohicans, identifying Pawley as most likely being a man with a cross. 12. Peek states that “[Debbie] is a marker . . . of Ethan’s normative desire. If he can re-capture Debbie he can re-capture a world where families stand together, a world where big strong men like him rescue helpless little girls” (81). 13. British filmmaker Lindsay Anderson refers to Debbie as a “contami- nated creature” (qtd. in Roth, 65). Roth goes on to state that The NOTES 207

Searchers is part of “a series of [John ford’s] films devoted to . . . fantasies of miscegenation that variously ‘pollute’ the white daughter and kill the white mother” (65). 14. Brode looks at the film as “a morality play in which the rugged American individualist Ethan—and subsequently America itself— works himself free of racism” (180–181). 15. Marsden notes the tie between captivity narratives and the Western hero as specifically that which “fused the instincts of the frontiers- man with those of the American Indian” (107). 16. Interestingly, Mose Harper, the one African American character in the film and who functions as the wise fool, demonstrates intuitive knowledge of Indian goals and intentions, survival tactics while among the Indians, and judgment regarding who among the whites knows the proper (most successful) approach to take. 17. This is analogous to Mary Rowlandson’s fluency in Algonquian, a fluency that she demonstrated with the same casual mastery. 18. Peek discusses the recognition in “the media of the 1950s [of the] per- ils [that] befell men at every turn,” which took the form of “recognition of the burdens—physical, emotional, and psychological—preying on men who attempted to fulfill traditional masculine roles” (74). 19. Card states that Ford’s films “often deal . . . with homecomings” and that in particular there exists a “centrality of family and home in its [The Searchers] narrative structure” (7–8). 20. Card quotes Brode’s use of the term integrated. 21. Marsden states that the Western film hero “stands between the forces of wilderness and civilization and provides the necessary advantage so Progress and the American Way can survive and thrive” (107). 22. Critics have offered a variety of reasons for Ethan’s refraining from killing Debbie. Card states that “for Ethan, blood ties, the sense of family or kinship, prove stronger than murderous hate” (7). Lehman suggests that Ethan’s lifting Debbie when he catches up with her at the end of the movie reminds him of lifting her in a similar fashion when he first met her when she was a little girl and that this causes him to change his plans (398). Roth suggests that Ethan does not kill Debbie because, as Ethan’s niece, she represents a “transcendentally fierce connection between father and child” (73). Skerry states that because Ethan “satisfies his need to revenge his family and his honor” by scalping Scar, he is “[c]ured of the poison of revenge [and] and now ‘save’ Debbie” (90). 23. Lehman also comments upon this, stating “the film begins with Ethan approaching a home with a complete family and it ends with him leaving a home after restoring Debbie to it” (396). 24. Mr. Jorgensen’s position as the white Other explains how it is that the Edwards homestead is the one that is attacked and not Jorgensen’s, even though it was his bull that the Comanches rustled and then 208 NOTES

killed. As the white Other, the Jorgensen’s are not full-fledged Americans in the ethnic parlance of either the film’s setting in the 1860s or its production era of the 1950s. 25. Slotkin recognizes this trait of Rowlandson’s, calling her “the heroine-victim” (103). 26. Various critics have addressed the question of why Ethan remains outside. Card states that for Ethan “there is no place in this integrated world” of the reconstituted frontier family (8). Courtney suggests that it is “the severity of the threat posed by women on the frontier” to masculinity that keeps Ethan in the wilderness (109). Lehman concludes that it is Ethan’s “loner status,” saying that “it is a commonplace of the western genre that the hero, after fulfilling his function, leaves the community rather than integrate himself into it” (395). Marsden suggests that it is the character of the Western hero to remain outside, who “having tasted of the Western landscape, refused to return to civilization” (108). Skerry states that it is because Ethan is out of place, an anachronism “in a west that will soon no longer recognize him” (90). Thomson gives perhaps the most interesting reason, stating that it is because of “the hardness in Wayne, the way in which he could carry heroism so close to something terri- ble and ugly and solitary. Something not fit to come into the house,” that “searching is a fine life. . . . It is not in Ethan’s way to go into any house and settle down.” And finally that it is Ethan’s sexuality, his “impacted desire” that sends him back off into the desert. (31). 27. Interestingly, in an earlier John Wayne/John Ford film, Stagecoach (1939), John Wayne plays The Ringo Kid, a parallel character who is able to take part in the integration of a similarly reconstituted frontier family. The difference in the social and emotional dynamics surrounding these two characters reflects the perspective on of the hero to the time period of each movie’s production and the trajectory of the development of the American frontier hero. The Ringo Kid in Stagecoach represents an attempt for the frontier hero to find a way to reconcile sociality with embedment in the wilderness. 28. Cf. Slotkin: “[T]he redemption of the soul is followed by the rescue of the body, as in the classic captivity of Mary Rowlandson” (442). Works Cited

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Notes of Explanation adventure, call to The following abbreviations are in MRN, 22–3 employed in this index: in TFA, 86 Afh—American frontier hero adventure, threshold of, Afh and, EH—Edgar Huntly 15, 158–60, 159 fig. 8.1 MRN—Mary Rowlandson’s in EH, 106–7, 158–60 Narrative, The Soveraignty in MRN, 30, 158 & Goodness of God as sealed border, 160 TFA—The Female American in TFA, 86, 158 TLM—The Last of the Mohicans in TLM, 160, 185 TS—The Searchers in TS, 160 [ ]—square brackets enclose page adventure cycle numbers of text tied to the Afh, 15–16, 159 fig. 8.1 referenced endnote see also hero cycle adversity and toughness, 58 1868 v. 1956, 172–3, Afh 204–5n1[157n1], adventure cycle, 15–16, 159 fig. 207–8n24[183n24] 8.1 1950s defiance of cultural, authority, 1956 v. 1868, 172–3, typified by MRN, 62 204–5n1[157n1], evolution, 13–14, 155, 158–60, 207–8n24[183n24] 159 fig. 8.1 male stoicism, 179, hunter-hero as, 67–8, 207n18[179n18] 202n11[141n11] psychic wholeness, search for, 182 traits, 69–71, 80, 159 fig. 8.1 20th century, 204–5n1[157n1] see also Adamic hero, hero, hero MRN, readers, 196n5[74n5] cycle, heroic traits, masculine 21st century, 188 hero MRN, readers, 68, 196n5[74n5] African American Cora, 154, 203n20[154n20] Abraham, 44 Mose, 207n16[176n16] Adamic hero aggression, inadequacy of, for hermit’s journal and, protection, 153 199n14[97n14] Algonquian (as term), 12 maternity of, 64–7 Alice, character and captivity, 149–50 TFA, 96–7 pragmatism, 142 TLM, 155 Alluca, 85, 93, 94 216 INDEX altruism in EH, see benevolence benevolence, perverted, in EH, 103, amalgamation of heroic traits, TS, 106, 113–14, 117, 128, 173 200n15[117n15] American and murder, 111, 114–17 v. English/European, 129: hero, best seller, 84; I as authority, 135; EH, 199n3[101n3] mythos of America, 39; MRN, 1, 4–6, 191n8[4n8], nationality, EH, 191–2n9[4n9], 192n10[6n10], 200n18[130n18] 192n11[6n11], 192n12[6n12] Native American and, bible quotations, order in MRN, 46 202n12[142n12] bicultural, see cultural novel, TFA as, 197n3[83n3] biracial, see race American Adam, The 53, 65, Blackwell, Jeannine, 198– 96, 97 9n13[96n13] androgyny, 96 boon, 15–16, 25–6 Cooper’s female characters, agency a component, 29 203n16[147n16] as assimilation of Puritan and Cora, 202n10[140n10] Native American, 33–5 dispersion among characters, 155 in EH, 108, 109 EH, denied, 118–24 hero’s noble deed v. quasar, 65–6 Gamut, David, 150, 153–4 as instructions, MRN v. TFA, 87 of hero, 84, 94, 153–4: in MRN, 30, 32–3; portrayal of diminishing, in EH, 104, 130; changes as, 34–7 diminishing, TLM, 136–7; Puritans, 58; as adopting Native masculine and, 133–4, American abilities, 22 202n11[141n11]; in TFA, 99 in TFA, sent back by emissary, 83 MRN v.TFA, 98 in TLM, lack of, 155 redemption and, 188 in TS, 172–3; as tolerance, 181 see also feminine, gender, borderland, cultural, 6, 61–2 masculine bow and arrows, 94–5 Arbella, covenant, 42 box, Clithero’s, and paternity, Armstrong, Nancy, and Leonard 200n12[112n12] Tennenhouse, 4, 5, 8, 12, 53, bravery, masculine ideas of, 64 58–9 Breitwieser, Mitchell, 8 authority Brief History of the Warr with the spiritual, MRN, 7, 48, 60 Indians, A, 41 see also I as authority Brown, Charles Brockden, see EH. See also individual topics. baby, dying Native American, 57 brutality Baquag River 25, 34 in EH, 109–10, 129 Bathsheba, 44–5 gender and, 93–4 beaver village, 145, race and, 85, 93–4 203n15[145n15] synthesis of, with sensitivity, 102 begging, MRN, 28 brute force, “savage,” 10–11, 93–4 behavior toward others v. toward Burnham, Michelle, 4–5, 8, 47–8, God, MRN, 57 51–2, 66, 191n7[3n7], INDEX 217

192n18[10n18], class status 194n12[31n12], Clithero in EH, 129 195n11[48n11], 197n6[75n6], readers of MRN and, 5 197n3[83n3], 198n5[84n5], working class, 95 198n6[85n6], 198n9[89n9] Clithero, death of, 114–17 colonized and colonizing subject, Call to the Unconverted, A, 85 191n8[4n8] compassion in EH, see benevolence Callahan, David, 202n10[140n10], competence 202n11[141n11], emotion and, 99 203n16[147n16] Native American skills and Afh, 98 Campbell, Joseph, 15–16, 24, Confederacy 32–3, 35, 67, 159 fig. 8.1, 180, allegiance to, and Puritan 181–2 theology, 165 captive Ethan Edwards and, 164–5 autonomy, English v. Native violence to Other and, 187 American court, 31–2 consciousness, divided, 85 behavior of, in Puritan context, control, assertion of, in 47 confinement, 63 Edgar Huntly as, 107, 108, Cooper, James, Fenimore, see also 200n10[108n10] TLM and individual topics. feminine, 99, 161 Cooper, Preface, of Wept of Wish- girl Huntly rescues, ton-Wish, 197n2[83n2] 200n8[108n8] Cora super-, Alice as, 149 as Afh, 149, 204n23[155n23] tears and sympathy, danger of, androgyny of, 202n10[140n10] 197n6[75n6] maternity of, 149 see also victim mother at retreat and, captivity 201n3[133n3] of Alice and Cora, TLM, 147–9 pragmatism, 140–1, 147–8 in EH, 101, 199n2[101n2] survival skills improvement, masculine hero and, 148–9 207n15[173n15] Cotton, John, 5 narrative, 6 Courtney, Susan, 12, 176, self-sufficiency and, 205n6[162n6], 196n14[52n14] 206n11[171n11], surviving, 9; and passivity, 64 208n26[184n26] capture-initiation-return cycle covenant, God and Israel, 44 hero cycle and, 93n7[23n7] cultural amalgamation, 76 TFA and, 87 and masculine hero, caution in EH 207n15[173n15] excessive, 102, 126 cultural authority lack of, 113, 127 defiance of by Afh, typified in Cawelti, John G., 70, 181 MRN, 62 church and state, conflation, 166–7 endorsing alternative to, MRN, Civil War, 172 51 218 INDEX cultural changes for Afh, 58 wilderness and, 134, 144–5, 170, multicultural individual, 63, 99, 207n21[181n21]: death of 207n15[173n15] Clithero, 114–17; death of cultural integration, Waldegrave, 127; as home, in MRN, 3, 5, 6, 27, 31, 32, 80, 58; mother in cabin, EH, 98 123 in TFA, 98 doubling of Clithero and Huntly, cultural mediator, TFA, 95 112–14, 199n4[104n4] extra-cultural nature of TFA and emotion, distortion of, 112 Adamic hero, 97–8 feminine roots of hero and, 112 memoirs and, 104 danger, perception v. reality, and sleepwalking and, 104 Puritans, 41–2 violence/danger in domestic daughter, wounded, not fed, MRN, space, and, 125 45–6 David, King, 44–5, 46–7 Eden and New World, 40 Davis, Margaret H., 9, 47, 49, 77 Edgar Huntly, see EH. See also Day of Doom, The, 191n8[4n8] individual topics. Derounian, Kathryn Zabelle, 4, 5, Edwards, Ethan 8, 192n18[10n18] Confederacy and, 164–5 Derounian-Stodola, Kathryn not a protective function, 161 Zabelle, and James Arthur Edwards, Martha, frontier domestic Levernier, 87, 193n7[23n7] survival, 187 destruction, hero as agent of EH, 101–4, 105, 107–14, 115, in EH, 109–10 116–30, 205n9[169n9] in TS, 160 MRN and, 101 determination, gendered, 153–4 scarifications, tattoos, 108 domestic space Elliott, Emory, 42, 195n3[41n3] anonymity of raiders of, elm, Huntly farm, and,105 206n10[170n10] Elm, Treaty,105 beaver village, 145–6, emotion 203n15[145n15] competence, 99, 114–15, 117–18, dead outside of, 146 207n18[179n18]; and Alice, effects on Edgar Huntly, 127 149–50 fragility of, 206n10[170n10] danger and: in EH, 117–18, 130; gender, 88–9, 91 in TS, 158 hero: danger to, 107, 142; outside distorted, 106; and doubling,112 of, 186–7; protector of, 62 in EH, 109; engaged by and hybridized family, 182 others,103 MRN, 7 Gamut, David, and power of, 152 and Native American, 91 gender, safety, and, 141 and race, 146 logic and, 115–17; and TS, 171–2, 173–4: inaccessible to Waldegrave’s letters, 120–1 Ethan Edwards, 171; Martha needs of 17th-C colonists and, Edwards and, 187 39–40 violence in, 124–6 as obstacle, 99, 104 INDEX 219

English (as term), v. Puritan, silence, in EH, 200n16[119n16] 191n3[1n3] suppression of, 101–2, 161–2: in English, as abducted female, 62 1630s, 55–7 English army, as test in MRN, 25 wilderness and, in EH, 136 English/European v. American, see see also androgyny, gender, American v. English/European masculine Englishman, dead, and Mary fiction Rowlandson, 76 societal need for, 195n11[48n11] Essays, Francis Bacon 191n8[4n8] transition of hero to, 84 ethnicity, destabilizing, 178 figure 8.1, 159 Euphemia, meta-feminine as single Fitzpatrick, Tara, 8, 49, 50, 58, 60, character, 122 61–2, 62, 196n17[58n17] everyday world food, in MRN gone, 135 Lancaster stores, 21, 22 hero retires from, 98 taken from child, 57, returning to, in TS, 179–80, 196n16[57n16] 207n19[179n19] withheld from daughter, 45–6 Examination, The, 20 fool, wise, 207n16[176n16] Exodus, 44 Gamut and Mose, extra-cultural nature of Afh, see 203n18[152n18] various topics under cultural Ford, John, 162, 205n4[162n4], 205n5[162n5] failure frontier, shifting, 19 heroic, in TS, 143 personal and corporate, Gamut, David perception of, 42 androgyny, 150, 153–4 Female American, The, see TFA. See emotional power, 152 also individual topics. I as authority, 151 feminine as protective function, 150–4, displaced among characters, 155 203n18[152n18] distorted, in EH, 103 gender hero and, 84, 85, 93–4: denied, adventure and, 91 122–4; discord 129; authority, 56, 85 evolution, 65, 68 bifurcation, 69, 99, 188, hyperbolic: Alice as, in TLM, 206n12[171n12]; in EH, 149; in EH,118–20; victim 124; in TS, 184 as, 68 boundaries, 96: and Adamic identity in MRN, 9 hero, 64; blurring of, 58, 87; masculine defined by,121–2 and colonists, 7, 8; meta-, in EH, 118–20: Old Deb wilderness and, 9, 87 as, 121–2, 200n17[122n17]; culture and survival skills,37 Euphemia as,122; determination and, 153–4 compassion and distortion in domestic and wilderness, 88–9, EH, 128 91, 207n21[181n21] sexualized, danger to domestic, dynamics of captives, 6 171, 206–7n13[171n13] emotion and safety, 141 220 INDEX gender—Continued helplessness, of modern hero, 186 frontier regulation by, 2 hemmed in, 184 readers of MRN, 5 hermit’s journal, Adamic hero and, resilience and, 140–1: and 199n14[97n14] resourcefulness in TFA, hero 92–3 Adamic, 155: hermit’s journal experience of, 144 and, 199n14[97n14]; shift, Afh, 130: and race, 67 maternity of 67; TFA, 96–7 trans-, Afh roots, 99 as agent of destruction: in EH, see also androgyny, feminine, 109–10; in TS, 160 masculine diminished possibilities for, in General Webb, letter, 143 EH,129 generation evolution of, 13–14 first, 59–60, 195n3[41n3] humanistic potential, 84 myth of declining, 42, 60 male nouns/pronouns and, second, 41–2, 55, 59–60, 193n2[15n2] 195n3[41n3]: Rowlandson protective function (of masculine member of, 48 hero), 182, 200–1n2[133n2], third, 41–2, 59–60 207n21[181n21], Genesis, 44 207n23[182n23]: failed, Giberd, John, 74–5, 78, 110–11 133–4, 139; Ethan Edwards God’s Protecting Providence, not, 161; Gamut, David, as, 191n8[4n8] 150–4, 203n18[152n18]; golden calves, Jeroboam, Magua as, 152–4 195n7[44n7] psychic distance from society, 52, Golden Multitudes, 4, 5, 59, 60, 84, 170 199n3[101n3] redemption of, 208n28[188n28]: goodwife, Rowlandson as, 77–9 androgyny, wilderness, and, Good Wives, 78, 197n7[79n7] 188; in EH, 101; race, gothic, 101 violence, and, 97 grace in space, 53, 65 individual determination and, 56 unstable, 99, 104 law, salvation, and, 43 see also Adamic hero, Afh, hero Grey, Zane, 2 cycle, heroic traits, masculine grief, altered subjectivity and, 8 hero Guide to Heaven, A, 191n8[4n8] hero cycle, 15–16 divergence from, 87, 159 fig. 8.1 Hamelman, Steve, 199n1[101n1], in EH, 106–10: collapse of, 101; 199n2[101n2], 124; positions within, 200n10[108n10] 199n7[108n7], 200n8[108n8] Harper, Mose, wise fool, removes and, MRN, 24 203n18[152n18] see also, Adamic hero, Afh, hero, Hawk-eye, hunter-hero as, heroic traits, masculine hero 202n11[141n11] Hero with a Thousand Faces, The, Hearst, Patty, 192n13[6n13] 15–16, 24, 32–3, 35, 67, 159 hegemony, 130 fig. 8.1, 180, 181–82 INDEX 221 heroic traits Kuhlman, Keely Susan, 98, dispersion, 158 198n5[84n5], 198n11[95n11], positive become negative, 161–2 198n12[95n12], 199n15[97n15] humanism, heroic potential for, 84 husband, protected by wife, 30, 88–9 Lancaster Hustis, Harriet, 105 attack on, 72–4: see also military Hutchinson, Anne, 55, 56, 57 inadequacy hybridity dead Englishman and, 76–7 of identity, 199n15[97n15] food stores, 21, 22 third space and TFA, fortifications, 20 198n12[95n12] as underworld, 23 Lang, Amy Schrager, 63 I as authority, 7 Last American Novel, 19th century, 201n4[135n4] 202n9[138n9] community v., 10, 96: meaning of Last of the Mohicans, The, see TLM. personal traits to, 61; status See also individual topics. and, 7, 53, 58, 60 Lehman, Peter, 205n6[162n6], experience based, 35, 53, 58 207n22[181n22], Gamut, David, 151 207n23[182n23], nationality and, 135 208n26[184n26] Native American captors and, 66 lepers, ten, 33, 51, 52 Whitman, Walt, and, Lewis, R.W.B., 53, 65, 96, 97 201n4[135n4] Logan, Lisa, 18, 57, 194n11[31n11] idol, 89–91, 197–8n4[84n4], 198– logic and gender, in EH, 103–4, 9n13[96n13] 109, 113 independence Lucas, George, 205n6[162n6] legitimating for American Luke 18, 46 women, 198n6[85n6] tenth leper, Puritan, and, 52 MacNeil, Denise, 197n1[83n1] Indian (as term) 12 Magua, as protective function, innocence, MRN, 57 152–4 intimacy, with Native Americans, 63 marriage, interracial, 85 hermit, 92 masculine Winkfield, 96 aggression, 68 Iraq, 68 logic and character, 103–4 Israel, 195n7[44n7] as protective function, children of, 44 200–1n2[133n2], 207n21[181n21] jeremiad, MRN, 48, 50 subject to feminine, 118–20 Jeroboam, 195n7[44n7] see also androgyny, feminine, Joslin, Goodwife, 71, 75, 76 gender mother at retreat and, masculine hero 201n3[133n3] androgyny of, 202n11[141n11] captivity and, 207n15[173n15] King Philip, see Metacom as creator of victims, 109–10, Kings, 1, 195n7[44n7] 134, 137–40 222 INDEX masculine hero—Continued daughter, not fed, 45–6 danger to women, 133–4, EH and, 101 137–40, 143, 144, 158, hero cycle, 22, 34–5 202n9[138n9] howling wilderness, 23 disintegration of, 99 husband, fears for, 29–30 emotionality of, 115–17, Preface (Increase Mather), 12, 17, 207n18[179n18] 20, 50, 51–5, 62, 71, 174: hyper-, 68, in EH, 118 army, 19; macrocosmic protector of women, triumph, 32–3 206n12[171n12] as quasar, 65–6 racism and, 207n14[173n14] ransom, 30–1 see also Adamic hero, Afh, hero, river crossing, 25, 26–7 hero cycle, heroic Rowlandson: Joseph, 111; Mary, maternal nature childhood, 55–6; Sarah, of Cora,149 45–6 distortion in EH,103 multicultural individual, see various Goodwife Joslin, mother at topics under cultural retreat in TLM, and, murder and altruism, see 201n3[133n3] benevolence and murder maternity of Adamic hero, 67 musket Mather, Increase, see MRN, in EH, skill, 125 Preface. See also individual in MRN, 64 topics. myth McCarthyism, 172 of declining generations, 42, 60 Metacom, 20 multivalent, 69 maid of, 78–9 as pathway from cosmos, 67 Metacom’s War, 41, 42, rhetorics and, 69 194n2[41n2] mythological underworld, see military underworld, wilderness paternity and, 166 theocracy and, 166–7 Narrative, Rowlandson, see MRN. military inadequacy, 17, 24–6, 153, See also individual topics. 165–9, 17–22 narratives, as true, 11 Miller, Perry, 40, 41 narrator, unreliable, in EH, 102–3 Minuteman’s hat and Rowlandson, Native (as term), v. native, 130 64 Native American (as term), 12 miscegenation, 206–7n13[171n13] Native American mistress, Rowlandson as, 77–9 ambivalence toward, 98 Moses, 44 American as, 202n12[142n12] Mott, Frank L., 4, 5, 199n3[101n3] blame of, 154 MRN, 1, 3, 10, 18, 20, 57, 61, 63, captives, 6 71, 72, 73–5, 77, 78, 184, Edgar Huntly as, 108 185–6 in interstitial wilderness, army, 21, 25–6 202n14[145n14] barters, 27–8, 29 interpersonal dynamics, in MRN, begging, 28 75 INDEX 223

Lancaster attack plan, 17 in TLM, 155: inadequate, 134, language and hero, 89, 97, 98–9, 138, 144, 153 128, 169, 177, in TS, 170, 171, 207n17[177n17] 206n11[171n11], as mythological guide, 27, 29 207n22[181n22] ; military relationship to, improving, 84 and, 166 rout by English, 18–19 patricide, 106 Rowlandson’s negotiations with, 24 Peek, Wendy Chapman, 182, as shadow presence, 23 206n12[171n12], skills of Afh, 33, 53, 62, 130, 207n18[179n18] 207n15[173n15] personality, coherence of, 94 treaty with Delawares, 105 Pilgrim’s Progress, 6 Neiderlands survivor syndrome, popularity 195n9[47n9] MRN, 1, 3–6, 192n10[6n10], New Jerusalem, 17 192n11[6n11], 192n12[6n12]: New World nature of, and voice, 49; community, 59 presumed orthodoxy and, emotional survival in, 42 39–40; Puritan New World psychological stress and Old experience, readers, and, 18; World, 68 significance of, 5 Puritan competence in, 48 TS, 162 New Zion, 17 Wayne, John, 162–3 Northfield, 74 post-traumatic stress disorder, 98, noyeki, 177 104–5, 119, 141 poverty, 95, 103–4, 109, 128 oak leaves, wound treatment, MRN Practice of Piety, The, 191n8[4n8] 71 pragmatism, 75, 141, 169 Old Deb of Alice, 142 feminine power, 121–2, of Cora, 140–1, 147–8 200n17[122n17] Preface, Cooper, of Wept of Wish-ton- Huntly farm and, 105, Wish, 197n2[83n2] 99n5[105n5] Prince, Thomas, 5 Old World Prometheus, 193n3[16n3] community, 59 Psalm 51, 45, 46 psychological stress and New Puritan (as term), v. English, World, 68 191n3[1n3] Other Puritan culture treatment in TS , 182–3, 187 New World experience, 40, 43 violence to, and degeneration, MRN accepted by, 7, 10, 48: and 187 changes to, 33, 42, 49 white, 207–8n24[183n24] restraints of, MRN, 31, 35 Puritan experience, relationship to, passage, underground, 92–3 as determinative, 39 paternity Puritan theology in EH, 106, 108, 109: Clithero’s diminishing importance in box and, 200n12[112n12] America, 71 224 INDEX

Puritan theology—Continued rhetorics, myth and multiple, 69 EH and, 101 Robinson Crusoe, 87 frontier and, 16 Robinsonades, female, 96, 198– justification of changes, 43 9n13[96n13] MRN as doctrinal, 46 Roth, Marty, 206–7n13[171n13], salvation and self-determination, 51 207n22[181n22] stabilizing effects, weakening, 43 Rowlandson subversion by MRN, 33, 42, 49 Joseph, 111 Mary: childhood, 55–6; EH and, Quannapaquait, 21 101; as quasar, 65–6 quasar, Rowlandson as, 65–6 Sarah, 45–6 quest, 15, 159 fig. 8.1 see also MRN and individual topics race authority and, 85 Salisbury, Neal, 12, 32, 55, 63, 77 boundaries, 96; destabilized, 178; Savage, Jr., William W., 160, 162, wilderness and, 87 205n2[160n2], 205n7[162n7] domesticity, the dead, and, 146 savagery, 10, 93–4 hero, redemption of, violence scarification, EH, 108 and, 97 Schulz, Dieter 128, 199n4[104n4], hybridity, 96: of heroine, 199n7[108n7], 200n8[108n8] 198n5[84n5]; of individual, Scorsese, Martin, 205n6[162n6] 85; 93–4; marriage and, Searchers, The, see TS. See also 85–6; MRN v. TFA, 98 individual topics. masculine hero, prejudice, and, self 207n14[173n14] internal, elision of, 134 polarization, 99, 188 split, 117, 118; from action, 99, 104 resistance to defeat and, 140 self-determination, Puritan ransom, negotiation, MRN 30 salvation and, 51 Read, Thomas, 111 self-sufficiency, 75 recklessness, EH, 102, 113, 127 captives and, 196n14[52n14] redemption of hero, sensitivity, synthesis of, with 208n28[188n28] brutality, 102 androgyny, wilderness, and, 188 settlements, European, and danger, in EH, 101 91, 93 race, violence, and, 97 Sewall, Samuel, 5 Regeneration through Violence, 40, Sivils, Matthew Wynn, 43–4, 65, 66–8, 199n5[105n5], 200n15[117n15], 202n11[141n11], 200n17[122n17] 208n25[184n25] Skerry, Philip J. 205n4[162n4], removes, MRN, hero cycle, and, 24 207n22[181n22], resourcefulness, gender and, TFA, 208n26[184n26] 92–3 sleepwalking, doubling and, 104 rhetoric Slotkin, Richard, 40, 43–4, 65, EH, captivity, and,199n1[101n1] 66–8, 202n11[141n11], MRN, 62, 79 208n25[184n25] INDEX 225

Smith-Rosenberg, Carroll, 9, 48–9, see also Puritan theology 50, 194n11[31n11], TLM, 133, 135–6, 150–6, 200n16[119n16] 203n15[145n15], Soveraignty & Goodness of God, The, 203n20[154n20] see MRN. See also individual captivities in, 147–9 topics. domesticity, 144–7 Spielberg, Stephen, 205n6[162n6] female vulnerability, 137–40 Stagecoach, 208n27[184n27] pragmatism, 140–2 Strong, Pauline Turner, 6, 12, responsibility, 142–4 193n10[27n10] tomahawk in EH, skill with, 125, subjectivity, altered, 8 130 suicide, Clithero, 114–17 Toulouse, Teresa A., 42–3, 49, 50, Summer Isles, 87 61 supernatural underworld, see trans-cultural individual, see various underworld, wilderness topics under cultural survival transformation, heroic potential for, hero’s focus on, v. quasar, MRN, 84 65–6 trauma, altered subjectivity and, 8 skills, increased significance of, 72 Ulrich, Laurel Thatcher, 78, Symbionese Liberation Army, 197n7[79n7] 192n13[6n13] Unca and Uncas, 197n2[83n2] sympathy underground passage, 92–3 Afh and, 54 underworld danger of, 197n6[75n6] collision with everyday world, in MRN, unnecessary, 53–4 101 hero remains in, 98: submerged, tattoos, EH, 108 135 tears, danger of, 197n6[75n6] mythological, MRN, 30: Ten Commandments, 44 wilderness as, 15 Texican, 175 as safe, 107 TFA, 81, 83–4, 85–7, 89–93, 94–8, see also wilderness 98–9n13[96n13], Unsigned Review, 203n18[152n18] 198n11[95n11], Uriah, 45 198n12[95n12], 199n15[97n15] VanDerBeets, Richard, 5 rediscovery, contemporary, victim, see also captive, captivity 197n1[83n1] captive as, 137 theocracy as center of captivity narrative, military and, TS, 166–7 67–8 restructuring, MRN, 42 as created by hero, 109–10, 134, see also Puritan culture, Puritan 137–40 theology heroine-victim, 208n25[184n25] theology as ultra-feminine, 68 diminishing importance in violence America, 71 catalytic, 198n7[86n7] 226 INDEX violence—Continued gender, race, freedom, and, 87 domestic space, wilderness, and, hero confined to, 83, 127–8, 160, 125–6: see also domestic, 207n23[182n23], wilderness 208n26[184n26], escalated by hero, 143 208n27[184n27]: assertion gendered, 68: see also victim of control in, MRN, 63; in hero as locus for, 109–10, 141 EH, 107; sociality and, voice 208n27[184n27]; in TFA, 89 MRN, and popularity, 49 hero immersed in, 99: and narrative, 102–3 Adamic hero, 96–7; in TFA, 87 Waldegrave homemaking and, see domestic, death and wilderness, 127 domestic space letters, 120–1 howling, 23, 34 meaning of name, 105, internal, in EH, 107, 109 199n6[105n6] interstitial, hero trapped in, 188: war redemption from, Native American success in, 22 208n28[188n28]; characters theories, 17–18 and, 135; Edgar Huntly in, Washusett, 76 107, 128–9; Ethan Edwards Wayne, John, 208n26[184n26] in, 161; everyday world constructing myth and culture, unknown from, 156; hero 205n8[162n8] trapped in, 182; Native popularity, 162–3, 205n7[162n7] Americans and, Weetamo, 78–9 202n14[145n14]; redemption Wenham Church, 56 from, 188 Wept of Wish-ton-Wish, Preface, invasion as European response to, Cooper, 197n2[83n2] 91 white, American as, 130, isolation in, 7, 161, 169: hermit, 200n19[130n19] 92; Winkfield, 96 White, Joan, 56–7 males construct as dangerous, 9, Whitman, Walt, 201n4[135n4] 92 Wiatte, Arthur, death of, 126–7 Native American experience, wilderness MRN, 34 ability in, gendered, in MRN, supernatural underworld, 15 25–6 survival, 3: Cora, 148–9 Clithero’s death and, 114–17 Waldegrave’s death and, 127 as dangerous as battle, 135–6 see also underworld dangerous to self, doubling and, Winkfield, Unca Eliza, see TFA. See 125–6 also individual topics. domestic and, see domestic space Winthrop, John, 87 Edgar Huntly treats as safe, 107, word, written, power of, 62 124–6 work, forced, MRN, 28 as feminine, 134, 136–7, working class, 95 201n7[137n7], 201n6[136n6] World War II, 172