How to Build Transit Oriented Cities Exploring Possibilities ii acknowledgements

Authors: Fatima Beg, Geoffrey Bickford, Stuart Paul Denoon-Stevens, Jesse Harber, Amanda Jitsing, Rehana Moosajee, David Schmidt.

Project Manager: Geoff Bickford (SACN), supported by Stacey-Leigh Joseph (SACN)

Content Editing and Proofreading: Kristina Davidson (Write to the Point)

Design and Layout: InkDesign

A special thank you for the contribution of the sector specialists who reviewed the chapters in this publication: Bill Cameron, Sibulele Dyodo, Peter Ahmad, Fatima Beg and Marianne Vanderschuren.

Date: August 2014.

ISBN: 978-0-620-62065-9 iii Contents

acknowledgements ...... ii

list of Figures ...... iv

list of Tables ...... v

list of Acronyms ...... vi

author profiles ...... vii

Preface ...... v Sithole Mbanga

Introduction ...... 1 Geoffrey Bickford

creating transit-oriented cities Through bold leadership ...... 14 Rehana Moosajee

using Public Transport funding to create inclusive cities ...... 34 Amanda Jitsing

transforming the Minibus Taxi Industry through Technology ...... 58 David Schmidt

integrated Ticketing and fares for equitable access ...... 78 Jesse Harber

using LAND-USE MANAGEMENT TO CREATE TRANSIT-FRIENDLY CITIES ...... 98 Stuart Paul Denoon-Stevens

CONCLUSION ...... 120 Fatima Beg iv How to Build Transit-oriented Cities: Exploring Possibilities List of Figures

Figure 1: Apartheid legacy: spatial engineering through policy...... 15

Figure 2: System-level framework for sustainable mobility...... 17

Figure 3: the reverse traffic pyramid...... 19

Figure 4: the Urban Network...... 22

Figure 5: An example of integration across departments ...... 23

Figure 6: PTIG growth between 2009/10 and 2015/16...... 41

Figure 7: Growth in operating grants to municipalities and provinces ...... 42

Figure 8: operating expenditure on public buses (2009/10-2013/14*)...... 46

Figure 9: operational expenditure on roads (2009/10–2013/14*)...... 47

Figure 10: Fare comparison across multiple countries...... 52

Figure 11: the relationship between fare integration, ticket integration and e-ticketing ...... 80

Figure 12: Curitiba’s trinary road system and permitted land uses and density...... 105

Figure 13: Radical schematic of zoning scheme proposals applied to a commercial development of 10 000m2...... 111

Figure 14: Johannesburg GMS 2010 ...... 113

Figure 15: eThekwini density map 2013...... 113 v List of Tables

Table 1: Governance and funding responsibilities for public transport...... 40

Table 2: Comparison of Rea Vaya and MyCiti Fares...... 49

Table 3: technological assessment...... 70 vi How to Build Transit-oriented Cities: Exploring Possibilities List of Acronyms BEPP Built Environment Performance Plan NLTTA National Land Transport Transition Act BRT Bus Rapid Transit NMT Non-Motorised Transport CBT Campaign for Better Transport NPC National Planning Commission CPRT Current Public Transport Record NTLA National Land Transport Act (2009) CSIR Council for Scientific and Industrial Research PRASA Passenger Rail Agency of South Africa DfT Department for Transport (UK) PRE Provincial Regulatory Entity DoT Department of Transport PTA Peninsula Taxi Association DPME Department of Performance Monitoring PTIG Public Transport Infrastructure Grant and Evaluation PTISG Public Transport Infrastructure and DPW Department of Public Works Systems Grant DRT Demand Responsive Transport PTNOG Public Transport Network Operations Grant ETA eThekwini Transport Authority PTNOS Public Transport Network Operating Subsidy GMS Growth Management Strategy PTOG Public Transport Operations Grant GPRS General Packet Radio Service PTOS Public Transport Operating Subsidy GPS Global Positioning System RTMC Road Traffic Management Corporation ICDG Integrated City Development Grant SACN South African Cities Network ICT Information and Communication Technology SATS South African Transport Services IDP Integrated Development Plan SDF Spatial Development Framework IPTN Integrated Public Transport Network SPLUMA Spatial Planning and Land Use IRTN Integrated Rapid Transport Network Management Act LAA Land Availability Agreement StatsSA Statistics South Africa MBT Minibus Taxi TOD transit-Oriented Development MIG Municipal Infrastructure Grant UK united Kingdom MTRC Metro Transit Rail Corporation USDG urban Settlement Development Grant NDG Neighbourhood Development Grant WHO World Health Organization NFC Near Field Communication NLTA National Land Transportation Act vii Author profiles xford xford echnical echnical xford and an Erasmus and an Erasmus xford ransitions, where he assisted he assisted where ransitions, reasury, at the Government T the Government at reasury, is also a practicing land-use planner, with a particulara with planner, land-use practicing a also is housing income and mixed-use middle on focus developments. economist whose research is a political Harber Jesse works He currently human settlements. on focuses T in National Advisory Centre. He has previously worked at the at worked has previously He AdvisoryCentre. T Integrated for Institute around framework a new academic with developing positions and has held executive transitions, democratic He holds a organisations. other non-profit in several O and economics) from politics PPE (philosophy, Policy– in Public degree and a joint Master’s University of Social the Institute from Development International and the Institut Rotterdam University Erasmus at Studies He is a FitzRandolph Internacionals. d’Estudis Barcelona O College, Scholar of St Hilda’s Mundus Scholar. economist with over Amanda Jitsing is a public sector of experience in public finance, evaluation, 10 years across She has worked policy making and regulation. and in South Africa, of government spheres three all Development Southern African within the regionally the public she leads (SADC). Presently, Community a Economics, at DNA policy and finance practice in development record track with a strong consultancy was Amanda joining DNA Economics, to issues. Prior own and Regional own and Regional AS) in London. For six For AS) in London. ransport Studies. He is ransport Studies.

erraplan T erraplan

reasury, an experience that provided provided that experience an reasury, own. His research interests are in the in the are interests own. His research

is a researcher and and is a researcher aul Denoon-Stevens

uthor profiles uthor

rban Governance Advisor at the at Advisor rban Governance Beg is an U atima F (GIZ). Zusammenarbeit für Internationale Gesellschaft of Hamburg the University economics at She studied of the School at of development economy and political (SO Studies African and Oriental T at working planner town is a researcher at the South African the South African at is a researcher Bickford Geoffrey the public transport portfolio. managing Cities Network, as a transport planner for worked previously Having a firm, he has consulting environment built a global of transport challenges appreciation strong particularly has a BSc Honours in Urban and He urban areas. facing towards working currently is and Planning Regional in T of Philosophy a Master StuartP A on transport budgets and financing she worked years, T National at policy and understanding of the sector her with an in-depth transport With public urban being an subsidy system. on the issue work she continues to focus, development of public transport future by the possible and is excited cities. South African land- between in the relationship interested particularly and transport systems. use patterns T Planners, Cape management, and land-use of land assembly areas He government. of local the context within principally viii How to Build Transit-oriented Cities: Exploring Possibilities

a project manager at the Auditor-General. She has a keen interest in understanding the workings of intergovernmental fiscal systems.

Rehana Moosajee is an independent consultant and international speaker who focuses on helping organisations and individuals to get results beyond expectation by adding heart to everything they do. Between 2006 and 2011, she was the Mayoral Committee Member for Transport in the City of Johannesburg and was reappointed to the portfolio after the 2011 local government elections until her resignation in February 2013. During her tenure, Rehana and her team established the Transport Department as a stand-alone department, and were responsible for transport during the Confederations Cup 2009, FIFA World Cup 2010 and the African Cup of Nations 2012. The team delivered Africa’s first full bus rapid transit system (Rea Vaya) in under three years. She remains passionate about people-centred, participatory and holistic approaches to development.

David Schmidt is a Director of Strategies for Change, an independent consultancy specialising in leadership, innovation and strategy. He has been a prominent figure in developing regional and city strategies in South Africa and in facilitating multi-stakeholder collaboration. He has worked with the taxi industry for the past three years, supporting them in their negotiations with the City of Cape Town about the introduction of the MyCiti BRT project. He has degrees in public management, economics and law. ix Preface Sithole Mbanga, South African Cities Network CEO Cities Network Mbanga, South African Sithole How do we promote public transport as aspirational transport public as aspirational promote How do we transport use? private to alternative and a viable for and incentives the planning tools are What and human settlements land use, improved transport integration? facilitate would arrangements institutional What this integration? innovation drive mechanisms exist to funding What environment? in the built and integration of and future) understand the needs (current Do we them engage public transportand how do we users in the planning and implementation centrally more process? using renewable the opportunities are for What to advances and technological energy sources the public transport experience? improve ʪ ʪ ʪ ʪ ʪ ʪ But how can this be achieved? What are the steps and the steps are What this be achieved? But how can efficient and an have cities that building for incentives Specific public transport network? integrated effective are: be asked need to that questions ʪ ʪ ʪ ʪ ʪ ʪ these critical unpack begins to publication This timely in role essential an play transport will questions. Public in inheritance socioeconomic and spatial the addressing help define the city of the future. also It will South Africa. make we get this right, as the investment to have But we There legacy. environment our built determine now will the world, over all from learnt be to lessons many are While in South Africa. the continent, and right here from this book begins account, be an exhaustive not aiming to and opportunitiesfor cities in lessons on these reflect to transport public and integrated efficient of pursuit their and access. inclusivity mobility, improves that A). T own) and the Gautrain. Theown) and the Gautrain. ransport (NL Act ransport Strategy of 2007, and 2007, of ransportStrategy T A recognises that metro municipalities are well well are municipalities metro that A recognises T

shwane and MyCiti in Cape T and MyCiti in Cape shwane

introduction of these world-class transport of these world-class modes suggestsintroduction in particular South Africa, possesses metros, that the major complex implementing for the vision and capacity these However, transport arrangements. institutional oftowards the building just the first step are developments by the White as envisaged transport system, an integrated the Public of 1996, Paper he 2010 FIFA World Cup provided the perfect for impetus provided Cup World The 2010 FIFA of transport as the bus options, such a range introducing Yeng A Re in Johannesburg, Vaya (Rea systems transit rapid in T Developing integrated public transport networks is transport public networks integrated Developing is in South Africa, but, over the world complicated a of addressing by the challenge further complicated and fragmented a to contributed has that legacy spatial the enormity of the urban landscape. While sprawling also this challenge has been acknowledged, problem in and invest envision, major opportunity a to presents city of the future. African the South create which allow lifestyles, public transport-oriented Creating and improved engagement social connectivity, better for urban vision. for our future key is seen as efficiency, Preface and T Land the 2009 National The NL the necessary develop the ability to and have located transportpublic networks. integrated creating for capacity planned (and are follow that investments The massive of public the potential acknowledge the future) for economic, financial the spatial, transform transport to areas. inefficiencies in urban and environmental Our cities are alive May 2030

Welcome to a special edition of Urban flexibility of the community transport Alive sees over one million passengers Mobility that showcases the City Alive sector with high quality rapid bus and pass through its doors daily. We spoke complex, winner of the international rail networks along strategic corridors to resident Jacques Venter, who says Design for Life award for best new mixed and major truck roads. he doesn’t own a car anymore, ‘I no use and income development in 2030. Urban Mobility decided to go and longer feel I have to have one and I find out what makes the City Alive hated paying so much for parking. It’s City Alive wins the development distinct and to hear the easier to take public transport and, if international Design for views of those who live, work and play public transport won’t get me there I Life award in this part of the city. know I have my bicycle’. Mr Venter is What impressed the judges the most was not alone in appreciating his bicycle. the way in which ‘diverse housing options Demand for City Alive-type Mayor Thando Molefe caused a small were skilfully and creatively integrated developments is growing stir on his first day in office, refusing the with retail, commercial, educational Our first stop is with Mr Zulu, the traditionally allocated parking bay, and and recreational facilities, to produce founder and CEO of Transit World opting instead for a mayoral bike rack. liveable, accessible and inclusive spaces Developers, the company behind the (As a result, his staff jokingly presented for all who live, work and play in the City Alive complex. He has used public him with a ‘bicycle chain of office’.) city’. They also praised the fact that the transport all his life and is jubilant development contains both low-income that occupation is at 95% across the Even the mayor is on his bike development, just one day after the housing and traditional middle-class We caught up with the mayor at the official launch. ‘The response has apartments, which are ‘indistinguishable opening of the revamped minibus rank, been outstanding,’ he says, ‘but I am from each other’. part of the Central Square station. not surprised by the demand for our City Alive is the latest in a series of ‘Cycling is a way for me to connect developments that have propelled South transit-rich properties. We are going with the citizens and really get to grips Africa to the forefront of urban integrated to see more and more people moving with what is going on in the physical public transport and development. to transit-oriented developments urban spaces. Keeping fit and healthy It is just one more example of how because of astronomically high petrol is an added benefit. It also helps that partnerships between the private sector, prices coupled with dramatically public transport allows me to take national government and cities have improved public transport services.’ my bicycle where ever I go’, he said. transformed (and are transforming) South Africa’s cities. Underpinning More and more people use Accompanying the mayor was the head these developments is the South African public transport of the City Transport Authority, Letishia Public Transport Model, which is fast The improved public transport network Moodley, who explained that the city becoming the standard for affordable means that more and more people receives a portion of the rental income and functional urban transport systems are choosing not to own and drive from the City Alive development, under throughout the developing world. The private vehicles – the Central Square a structured agreement for value model marries the cost effectiveness and intermodal station just next to City capture. The money is ring fenced and Urban Mobility A publication of the SA Cities Network May 2030 used to cover the operating shortfall and operators benefit, which sets up a Businesses stay open late of the public transport network. What virtuous cycle: more passengers, more Upon leaving the minibus rank, we this does is create a ‘reinforcing cycle operator profitability, more investment are struck by how vibrant and busy of growth, as the City is able to spend in newer, more fuel efficient and the streets are, in an area which was surplus revenues on improving the bigger vehicles, leading to improved considered too dangerous to walk public transport experience’. service and growing passenger about in, especially at night. The numbers. This improvement has transport service has extended its CityGo card simplifies encouraged transport authorities to hours, and so businesses are now able public transport embrace the minibus taxi industry to operate later in the evenings, as Also at the opening was the national as partners, hence the revamped patrons and staff are assured a safe trip Minister of Housing, Letimile transport exchange. home until all hours. We stop to chat to Hlongwane, who was proudly We asked Sam Mofokeng, who a street trader, Ellen Benefeld, who has showing off her CityGo card, which operates 16 taxis, about how things just completed her rental agreement she describes as her ‘new car key’. ‘If have changed. ‘Our on-board wifi with the city for an apartment in the development. Smiling, she says, ‘It I don’t have it with me, I feel stuck!’ and television screens mean that has all come together for me, I live she exclaimed. CityGo cards, which our passengers have access to just here (pointing to her apartment exist under different names across information and entertainment,’ which can be seen from her stall), so all cities in South Africa, provide enthuses Mr Mofokeng, ‘while the my transport is free, my kids’ school access to minibus taxis, buses, on-board cameras and vehicle is nearby, business is good and I’m trains and bike-share bicycles. tracking systems have improved looking to grow.’ ‘Even better,’ she explained, ‘as fares safety by 150%’. A recently launched are integrated across all modes of app allows operators to run their Everyone wins transport, I can choose which fare fleet more efficiently: bookings With so much hype surrounding City package suits me best – this card along the route can be combined, Alive’s award, you could be forgiven has revolutionised my life.’ and so minibus taxis can collect a for thinking it was just a publicity full load of passengers from their show. Instead, we found that everyone Technology has homes or workplaces, or from stops benefits from the development and revolutionised the on the street. ‘My taxis are now that South African cities are justifiably minibus taxi industry fully loaded and, even better, my leading the world in integrated Even more revolutionary is what’s drivers are more careful on the road urban development. We applaud happened in the minibus taxi because I receive an immediate alert the leadership, vision, determination industry, with the introduction of new if any passenger gives the driver a to collaborate, the commitment technology that has transformed the bad rating,’ says Mr Mofokeng, who to innovation and the boldness to lives of minibus taxi passengers and is planning to add a further 10 taxis implement, even when early efforts drivers and operators. Passengers to his fleet this year. seemed to yield limited results. xii How to Build Transit-oriented Cities: Exploring Possibilities 1 7 2 3 5 9 4 8 6 11 12 Introduction 10 Geoffrey Bickford Geoffrey Introduction 2 How to Build Transit-oriented Cities: Exploring Possibilities

Introduction

A major change is required in order to avoid a future characterised by further segregation, inequality, inefficiency and deprivation of access

A great deal of progress has been made since largely galvanised by the hosting of the FIFA World Cup, 1994, but South Africa is far from achieving the much remains to be done. There is a growing awareness Reconstruction and Development Programme that, despite the understanding that transport and land (RDP) goals of ‘breaking down apartheid use are mutually dependent (Bertolini, 2012), transport geography through land reform, more investment alone will not automatically generate spatial compact cities, decent public transport and the restructuring. A host of factors enable and facilitate the development of industries and services that growth of transit-oriented cities – investment in improved use local resources and/or meet local needs’. public transport is but one, albeit critical, ingredient in Despite reforms to the planning system, colonial the transformation agenda. and apartheid legacies still structure space across different scales.’ (NPC, 2011: 260) The urban future looks problematic, if cities continue to do business as usual, i.e. delivering transport South African cities are in a challenging position, as interventions in isolation from other built environment they have shifted towards a more sustainable transport solutions. A major change is required in order to avoid landscape, but the general structure of the built a future characterised by further segregation, inequality, environment remains largely unaltered. And, while a shift inefficiency and deprivation of access. Enabling and has occurred within transport thinking in the country, incentivising all stakeholders to plan and implement in 3 7 2 3 5 9 4 8 6 11 12 Introduction 10 frican land use- frican land The South A relationship transport is The history of the land use-transport relationship the advent cities. Before unique in South African relatively was cities of South African the growth of the car era, public transport, historically which to related strongly stakeholders. of range a by delivered been always has car in increase the rapid War, the Second World After spatial the altered dramatically use and ownership and South the world, landscape of cities throughout With an unprecedented no exception. cities were African private for catering networks in road investment of level urban peripheral the more movement, vehicle-based across sprawl rapid prompting became accessible, areas of apartheid the same time, the introduction cities. At and discriminating the deeply planning enforced spatial racial Although compartmentalising of settlements. of feature a long-standing been had discrimination public transport services the forcible in South Africa, the urban periphery to people black of many removal the outward expansion of urban areas. exacerbated living in cities were people The majority of black the access dependant on public transport to structurally earn an income). do in order to to city (which they had movement the controlled transport thus facilitated Public cities on a daily labour in and out of South African of black vehicle of private with the prioritisation basis. However, of spatial transformation for South African cities: how cities: African South for transformation of spatial is it whose business transformation, define spatial to the necessary achieving are conditions for and what urban spaces. transformed ransformation is a multi-dimensional concept, ‘a fluid, concept, ‘a fluid, is a multi-dimensional ransformation he purpose of this series of papers is to delve into how into delve to The purpose of this series of papers is South in the current environment the built transform to is not meant to This publication urban context. African or as a manual act outlook, a comprehensive provide is already (there change for advocate or even framework, it support change is needed). Rather widespread that that could occur within some of the areas what explores of public transport pertinent the transformation are to reflects chapter cities. The introductory in South African of public transport in South African state on the current the built of transforming context cities within the broader historic a brief pre-1994 providing After environment. transport interventions post-1994 the contextualisation, by an exploration explained, followed are and outcomes of cities. The chapter role of the transformation of transport in in a discussion on the role culminates and the meaning environment the built restructuring a more integrated, sustainable and equitable manner and equitable sustainable integrated, a more Such a shift change. drive to the impetus provide will context-specific innovative promoting thinking – in growth an alternate and championing solutions urban place cities – will South African for trajectory inclusive of sustainable, the forefront at South Africa arena. the global within development and productive cannot be underestimated. the enormity of the task Yet T and is perhaps process open-ended, multi-levelled by the notion of “tension- captured most effectively The 2000: 171). (Williams, ridden planning-in-motion”’ contention, requires is thus one that path transformative by iterative If driven and exploration. re-imagination break that implementing and learning of processes transformed approaches, business-as-usual from away achievable. undoubtedly are outcomes 4 How to Build Transit-oriented Cities: Exploring Possibilities

infrastructure, public transport investment declined, Essentially, the land use-transport relationship present resulting in deteriorating public transport service quality. in South African cities has become one that is oriented The consequences of poor public transport services were towards the private vehicle, even in transit-dependent increasingly felt by peripheral black communities, as communities. Awareness is growing about the many the majority of white urban residents were able to afford socioeconomic, environmental and spatial issues caused private vehicles. by private vehicles in cities across the globe (Cervero, 2001; Newman and Kenworthy, 1996; Vasconcellos, 2003). The situation of black communities was made worse by However, even with the noticeable increase in investment the settlement patterns of peripheral black townships, in public transport, the challenge will be to overcome the which were not transit-oriented and instead resembled predominance of vehicle-oriented city growth. a perverse suburban style, largely consisting of a single house per stand. The result was that transit-dependent communities were forced to live in vehicle-oriented The post-1994 agenda settlements. As these relatively low density peripheral areas grew, public transport became increasingly The newly elected democratic government understood less feasible and less accessible. This poor land use- that part of the inherited urban challenge was the poor transport relationship paved the way for the rapid integration of land use and transport, and the dominance growth of the minibus taxi, as a flexible alternative that of private vehicle infrastructure. It recognised that most provided a public transport service in a car-oriented people were captive users of very poor quality public environment. transport services, yet investments catered for the minority of private vehicle users. Since 1994, a clear Despite the arrival of democracy in South Africa in policy shift towards prioritising public transport has 1994 and a good understanding of these problematic occurred (Wilkinson, 2006). The emphasis has also been land use-transport relationships (as discussed in the on strengthening the integration of land use and public next section), the status quo has remained stubbornly transport; this thinking comes through clearly in the in place. The delivery of subsidised RDP housing1 has White Paper on National Public Transport (1996), which largely taken place on the periphery, exacerbating the states that ‘transport can also play a leadership role, for mismatched land use-transport relationships in poorer example in acting as a catalyst for development or in urban areas. Continued under-investment in public correcting spatial distortions’. This notion, that transport transport has reinforced the dominance of private can drive spatial restructuring, underpins South African vehicles across South African cities, and private property urban policy and strategy. The White Paper also investors have responded by developing vehicle- highlighted the awareness of the inherited consequences oriented developments. of ill-aligned public transport and urban development:

1. RDP housing refers to housing units built under the Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP), the socioeconomic policy framework implemented by the post-1994 democratic government. 7 5 2 3 5 9 4 8 6 11 12 Introduction 10 ommunities to live in vehicle ced to nt c transit depende were for nts oriented settleme fforts to deliver on the deliver on to Efforts vision: the increasing responsibility of cities the outcomes but 1994, after was clear policy shift The SouthIn clear. less been have level government local at and sustainable integrated more to transition Africa’s the to seen as essential are governments cities, local and improved to in particular, and, agenda new growth local public transport services. However, integrated existing in in their infancy, are structures government and despite a decade, just over for form their current be done. to remains much work progress, some promising out a 20- Plan (NDP) lays Development The National shift the to and attempts outlook development year in 2040 that Africa a South at arrive to trajectory, growth and liveable sustainable productive, inclusive, is more a play will and development City growth (NPC, 2011). Therefore, path. a new growth in galvanising role pivotal the is addressing urban areas of the plan for the core of public transport and land use, resulting in highly in highly transportof public resulting and land use, and the landscapes, spatial and unequal inefficient along developments denser mixed-use prioritise need to transport of public transport corridors. The devolution was areas, metropolitan in the especially responsibilities, outcomes. improved achieving to seen as critical o promote the use of public transport over private private the use of public transport over o promote o encourage more efficient urban land use more o encourage T and imbalances spatial correcting structures, commuting to distances and times for travel reducing direction. a limit of about 40 km or one hour in each T of 80:20 a ratio of achieving with the goal car travel, car usage. public transportbetween and private Land use and transport development are are and transportLand use development of a fragmentation owing to not integrated planning the administration, for responsibilities aspects of land of the various and regulation and regulations. operations use, infrastructure, of apartheid and the legacy This fragmentation density development, low to policies has led urban and settlements dislocated spatially commuting long in inordinately resulting sprawl, high levels, occupancy low times, and distances The recovery. cost transport costs and low which supports approach single housing current the densities not achieve will plots units on single housing and and conflicts between required, be resolved. transport to policies need ʪ ʪ ʪ public transport service was clear: The message levels a customer from be addressed and needed to poor were The constants of transportperspective. policy in post- of integration been the lack apartheid have Africa South In accordance with this understanding, ‘spatial restructuring’ with this understanding, ‘spatial In accordance to combat required would be densification means that prioritisingthe public transport-land use divide, through publicalong land-use developments mixed infill, denser, strategic spatial Paper’s transport corridors. The White passenger transport included: for objectives ʪ 6 How to Build Transit-oriented Cities: Exploring Possibilities

ever-growing spatial inefficiencies and inequalities that Devolution persist across all South African cities. The growing socio- The devolution of the transport function to the lowest spatial divide is resulting in severe resource inefficiencies appropriate level of government has long been seen and entrenching high levels of socioeconomic inequality as essential in improving transport services. The within the DNA of South African society. underpinning principle is that a single entity can more effectively plan and manage a transport network than Acknowledging the important role of cities in achieving having multiple stakeholders delivering different modes the NDP vision, an Integrated Urban Development and services in a single area. The National Land Transport Framework (IUDF) is currently being drafted to provide a Transition Act (NLTTA) No. 22 of 2000 made provision for more coherent direction for coordinating interventions at the formation of Municipal Transport Authorities, but did the city level. The IUDF is a framework that ‘builds on and not provide directives on devolving the contracting and seeks to take forward the work of the National Planning regulatory services from provincial government or the Commission by developing a strategy to operationalise rail services from national government. Thus, even where more integrative urban management’ (DCoG, 2013: 8). municipal transport authorities were developed, they It strengthens the prominent role envisioned for cities were largely ineffective (Cameron, 2005). The National in transforming South African urban spatial patterns. Land Transport Act (NLTA) No. 5 of 2009 commits to the Transport is acknowledged as a major contributor to devolution agenda and provides direction on devolving shaping future urban growth, (NPC, 2011: 266): road-based contracting and regulating functions from the provincial level, but does not provide clear directives Transportation networks are critical to the on rail (Schmidt and McKenzie, 2012). So, although the spatial transformation of urban areas. There NLTA supports devolution, many questions remain. has been progress in some cities in delivering new public transport infrastructure, but the Devolving the transport function to local government major shift from supporting private cars to level, especially in the larger metropolitan areas, incentivising public transport is yet to happen, remains important, but some resistance and uncertainty and insufficient attention has been given to remains around devolving bus operating contracts integrating modes of transport and coordination (including minibus operating licences) from the across municipalities. provincial sphere and rail planning and operations from the national sphere. This has thus inherently limited This emphasis, on cities as the drivers of transformation, the ability of cities to have a widespread influence has been in place since 1996, and so it is worthwhile over public transport in their respective jurisdictions. to look at the progress made by cities over the past However, some metropolitan local governments are two decades. beginning to act in accordance with the NLTA and to take on more transport functions and responsibilities. In the short term, the most likely transport function to 7 7 2 3 5 9 4 8 6 11 12 Introduction 10 T) systems T systems infrastructure, but how densification but how densification T infrastructure, ) feeder services T) feeder densification and the systems in certain the BR areas, T systems municipal an opportunity for provided have T investments ransport Infrastructure and Systems Grant (PTISG) Grant and Systems ransport Infrastructure lanning emphasis on corridor Planning emphasis on corridor development has become corridor development Since 1994 planning. In line with the White with spatial synonymous transport along land use and mixed densification Paper, spatial of majority the in promoted been have corridors the spatial which are (SDFs), frameworks development plans development component of cities’ integrated More municipalities. for planning tools the leading (IDPs), promoted have municipalities metropolitan recently, achieve to way as a D) (TO development transit-oriented popular D is an internationally TO restructuring. spatial consisting of a mixture of rail and bus, to serve the as to bus, and rail of mixture a of consisting to were governments Local transportpublic backbone. and the Public of IRPTN development, be the drivers T (BR transit bus rapid developing for was established services that would complement rail, which already which already rail, services complement would that in certain existed areas. was the An important strategy component of the non-motorised for of infrastructure development transport (NM for finance corridors. The PTISG included along NM developing in has resulted the grant Although might occur is unclear. BR multimodal for catalysts been have to do not appear Nevertheless, the restructuring. or spatial integration BR in the role-players prominent become more cities to will ahead of public transport. The challenge provision to and modes various between integration ensure to be with urban growth. the alignment strengthen ransport Strategy ransport Strategy he 2010 FIFA World Cup provided the impetus for public public for the impetus provided Cup World The 2010 FIFA T The Public transport improvements. Given that the fragmentation of service provision across across serviceof provision fragmentation the that Given major a is Africa South in transportpublic networks the integration and accessibility, mobility to challenge of various modes and services has been a prominent However, of public transportobjective transformation. be challenging. to has proved integration multimodal paved in 2007 plan produced action and accompanying public rapid of integrated the development for the way transport (IRPTN) (Schmidt and McKenzie, networks corridors, transit rapid create was to 2012). The intention ntegrated rapid public transport public transport rapid Integrated networks Devolution also creates an opportunity for cities to cities to an opportunity for creates also Devolution If city environment. built in the transformation drive by developing adequately, prepare governments quo can status the systems, and integrated innovative since the human settlements especially be challenged, However, being devolved. function is concurrently silo-based a under operating systems that is risk the with sphere different a on to passed simply are system this from away Moving in outcomes. no change to little innovation exploration, require will ‘lock-in’ institutional solutions. alternative implement to and bold attempts in this book will presented studies The exploratory how around thinking developing to invaluable prove drive effectively can more government local metropolitan transformation. environment built public transport-led be devolved from provinces seems to be bus contracts contracts bus be to seems provinces from devolved be local test licences. This will taxi operating and minibus and systems. capacity government 8 How to Build Transit-oriented Cities: Exploring Possibilities

term used to describe dense, mixed land use, pedestrian delivery of services. This pressure is arguably going to and cyclist priority precincts that are inextricably linked increase with the devolution of the human settlements to public transport systems. and transport functions to local level.

TOD thinking seems to be growing in importance The highly dispersed, mono-functional land use layouts across some of South Africa’s largest metropolitan of cities adversely affect not only government systems municipalities. However, to date, despite planning but also residents. People have to travel long distances intentions, transit-oriented corridor development to and from places of work, which translates into higher is limited. Although public transport-based access travel costs and less time and money to spend on other and mobility has improved over the past five years, social or recreational aspects that result in more fulfilled private vehicle-based access still seems to be driving lifestyles. The reality in South Africa is that many of the development processes and decision making, often poorest people in urban areas live in the most peripheral working in direct contradiction to planning intent. This locations of cities and are most disadvantaged by the long publication is an attempt to grapple with how cities can travelling distances (Behrens and Wilkinson, 2003). begin to build transit-oriented cities that capitalise on the access and mobility benefits provided by improved Spatial transformation is at the core of addressing the public transport systems. Building dense liveable issues faced in South African society. While the tendency communities around public transport infrastructure has been to suggest that transport can lead to spatial enables greater portions of the population to access restructuring, as presented in the White Paper, the reality transport services and also makes public transport more is more complex. Transport and land use are mutually financially sustainable. dependant (Bertolini, 2009; Newman and Kenworthy, 1996), and public transport can serve as a catalyst to land intensification but will not automatically achieve The role of transport in spatial restructuring or transformation. spatial transformation Spatial transformation in a South African The IUDF Discussion Document highlights the enormity context of the spatial challenge facing South African cities, The transformation required in South Africa is not stating that ‘it is harder in 2013 to reverse apartheid merely spatial and physical, but also socioeconomic geographies than it was in 1994’ (DCoG, 2013: 16). The and environmental. Within the spatial context of South infrastructure and service levels required for such Africa cities, important considerations are the particular disparate spatial layouts of cities are enormous and, in a location and network distribution of public transport resource-constrained environment, place huge pressure improvements and affordability levels, which are crucial on state systems. City systems are particularly affected, for a more equitable distribution of improved access as local government is largely responsible for the to opportunities in cities. Transport has a fundamental 7 2 3 9 5 9 4 8 6 11 12 Introduction 10 o be sure, Even with transit, however, any given site must site given any however, transit, with Even in the region with every other site compete still many of one only is transit Since development. for may other sites many development, driving factors T developers. to attractive more prove government local – most notably the public sector by working a site demand at market – can elevate of the necessary more conditions for create to existing demand But without strong development. it, transit help create to policies or coordinated even development appropriate not drive will alone in land costs. increases to if it leads development transit-oriented This can make areas, in low-income a particular challenge weak. is usually market estate the real where such as crime, social problems or perceived Real conditions physical and deteriorated problems, simply will Either investment investment. deter will development the of quality the occur or not new development As a result, be compromised. is neighborhoods low-income in transit-rich lacks the full and often achieve to very difficult designsite such as appropriate set of features, maximize would and pedestrian connectivity that Under these conditions well- efficiency. location a key can constitute investments planned transit or revitalization piece of an economic development of supporting but a host policies,package, necessary. also are and investments incentives, In South Africa, transport investments will be required be required will transport investments In South Africa, equitable more drive in order to areas in lower-income the highlighting use-transportland arrangements, D-type think about conditions necessary TO need to for alities est ’s larg ross ross ance ac an municip metropolit growing in import growing some of South Africa e b D thinking seems to TO mproved public transport is but one public transport Improved component of transformation economics planning, the (from commentators Many argued that fields) have and property development transport is a fixed-line in high-quality, investing put, Simply intensification. development for catalyst a platform offers line transport infrastructure the fixed to support capacity increased through densification, for mobility and accessibility high-density developments, to confidence long-term benefits, and by providing alone transport investment However, investors. private as restructuring, spatial generate not automatically will on reflecting 27) (2002: and Autler explained by Belzer D experiences in America: the TO role to play in reducing the large and growing levels of levels and growing the large in reducing play to role transport also can Public society. in exist that inequality and Globally benefits. sustainability environmental bring transport contributor is the second largest in South Africa, people and so moving gas emissions, greenhouse to on natural pressure less places that and goods in a way importance. is of paramount A and systems resources a prosperous create can aspect is how transformation key Sustainability residents. urban for future healthy and weaves implicitly that a constant thread is therefore Building of this publication. the narrative throughout central is urban spaces and sustainable inclusive more transformation. effective achieving to 10 How to Build Transit-oriented Cities: Exploring Possibilities

development. Building or upgrading public transport and Ohland, 2004). By acknowledging that a host of systems has ‘the potential to ‘restructure’ cities through factors and stakeholders are involved, a solid foundation providing the capacity needed to support high intensity can be created to ensure that energy is directed at each of growth and development’, but land-use intensification the various areas and that there is synergy between the does not automatically follow. In other words, public various factors. Coordination and integration are terms transport investments do not always lead to faster that resound through post-apartheid policy and strategy development but ‘can have a positive impact on land documents, but achieving these concepts in practice has values and commercial rents’. As an example, the proved difficult (DCoG, 2013). MyCiti (BRT) investment in Cape Town is unlikely to lead to development in the short-medium term without Necessary conditions of transformation supporting development strategies, policies, tools and Strengthened integration of transport and land use mechanisms (Behrens and Grey, 2013: 38). is essential to the transformation of cities. TOD is an important tool for achieving this integration, and Spatial transformation has been at the core of post- experiences elsewhere illustrate the value of having apartheid urban policy (Wilkinson, 2006) and its aim certain supportive factors in place. These range from is relatively clear: a concerted effort to restructure the facilitating and enabling factors (e.g. political and built environment around the principle of inclusivity institutional architecture, funding mechanisms, land is needed to address the socio-spatial inequalities use and planning tools) to operational elements (e.g inherited from apartheid planning. However, the socio- integrated ticketing and technological enhanced political spatial challenges can make decisions difficult. services). All these factors contribute to improving Spatial inefficiencies have been exacerbated by the the quality of public transport services, which in turn decisions to locate low-cost housing on the periphery of increases confidence in public transport as an attractive cities, where land is more affordable. Yet these decisions and viable transport option, which is essential to driving cannot be assessed in isolation of the land dynamics developer interest. This publication examines some of at play in South Africa through the land legal system, these supportive factors. land-use planning frameworks and the principles underpinning land-market functionality. A particular Politics and institutions political system, institutional arrangements and various Examples of effective land use and public transport funding mechanisms underpin these elements and also integration from around the world share common elements contribute to spatial outcomes. of strong leadership and highly coordinated institutional arrangements involving a variety of stakeholder groups. Therefore, to galvanise a shift in built environment outcomes, Importantly, ‘siloed’ approaches to city building will not energy must be directed at each of the facets which play a result in urban growth structured around and oriented fundamental role in driving spatial transformation (Dittmar towards public transport. Rehana Moosajee looks at what 7 2 3 5 9 4 8 6 11 12 10 11 Introduction aul Denoon- D. While recognising that that recognising While D. TO land management alone cannot transform the built built the transform cannot alone management land by Stuart P the chapter environment, possible startinga at looks It point. provides Stevens of the principles can realise that incentives and tools co- improve to D and how they can be packaged TO land use, property between development ordination cities. and public transport South African in are transport outcomes The understanding that many issues raises cross-cutting dependent on many most questions about which issues are strategic environment. of the built pertinent the transformation to not exhaustive, while studies, This series of exploratory affect of issues that a range insight into provide will and institutional political including transport outcomes, mechanisms, and funding financial arrangements, tools, implementing and planning management land by These issues are and innovation. and technology indeed one another and are from no means isolated this series of papers The hope is that interdependent. real the into insights thought-provoking provide will exist in possibilities that exciting and challenges development the car-oriented confront to attempting cities. begin building transit-oriented and to tendencies and management systems: planning tools tools planning systems: Land management and incentives to on the proximity focus to tends D development TO the other principles and neglect and density, transit transport land use and improving to central are that D has been in which TO Indeed, the way integration. the strength has diluted in South Africa interpreted of A package substantially. of the concept quite regarded is widely complimentary and incentives tools and shape to which in manner effective most the as through growth direct avid avid manda Amanda looks at technological solutions in the minibus solutions technological at looks examines the role of Harber examines the role Jesse own, while ublic transport finance and investment finance ublic transport echnologies and operations echnologies ISG has been the main source of public public of source main the been has PTISG the date, o oday information technology is a fundamental aspect of aspect fundamental is a technology information oday integrated ticketing and fares. and fares. ticketing integrated T T public transport users are Increasingly, urban lifestyles. simply is communicated seeking service that information transport and public via ICT platforms, and accurately improve to on technology drawing are operators can in which technology ways services. many are There existing transport services. improve D be used to Schmidt in project using the experience of a pilot taxi industry, T Cape transport spending within South African cities. However, cities. However, transport spending within South African under is being placed transport projects funding for to required subsidies are large operation as scrutiny, run services, inefficiencies. in part because of spatial An important funding starting the broader point for invested have cities how unpack be to discussion would been. In have the outcomes in public transport what and transportpublic about financing, chapter her themes and insights key a number of Jitsing explores government and local provincial help national, will that of funding the design and application improve to mechanisms. P T is meant by sustainable urban mobility and what is required required is what mobility and urban sustainable meant by is in especially coordination, institutional stronger achieve to certain of the transport to function devolution light of the leadership of type the examines She municipalities. can be functions how transport-related and required, and vertically. both horizontally integrated 12 How to Build Transit-oriented Cities: Exploring Possibilities

References Challenge of Urban Government: Policies and Practices. Washington DC: World Bank Institute.

Behrens R and Grey P. 2013. A case for smarter city DCoG (Department of Cooperative Governance). growth: A strategic analysis of Cape Town’s phase 2013. Towards an integrated urban development 1a BRT system and its supporting land use framework: a discussion document. Pretoria: DCoG. environment. Proceedings from the 32nd Southern African Transport Conference (SATC), Pretoria, 8–11 Dittmar H and Ohland G. 2004. The New Transit Town: July 2013. Best Practices in Transit-Oriented Development. Washington: Island Press. Behrens R and Wilkinson P. 2003. Housing and urban passenger transport policy and planning in South Newman P and Kenworthy J. 1996. The land use African cities: a problematic relationship? In transport connection, Land Use Policy 13 (1): 1–22. Harrison P, Huchzermeyer M and Mayekiso M (eds) Confronting Fragmentation: Housing and Urban NPC (National Planning Commission). 2011. National Development in a Democratising Society. Cape Development Plan. Pretoria: The Presidency. Town: UCT Press. Schmidt D and McKenzie K. 2012. Transport Reform Belzer D and Autler G. 2002. Transit oriented and Spatial Integration: A Diagnostic and Scoping development – moving from rhetoric to reality. Report. Discussion Paper prepared for the Brookings Institution Center on Urban and Metropolitan Policy Vasconcellos E. 2003. Urban Transport, Environment, and the Great American Station Foundation. and Equity: the Case for Developing Countries. London, UK: Earthscan. Bertolini L. 2012. Integrating mobility and urban development agendas: a manifesto, disP - The Wilkinson P. 2006. Transit-oriented development: a Planning Review 48 (1): 16–26. strategic instrument for spatial restructuring and public transport system enhancement in South Cameron J. 2005. The case for municipal transit African cities? Proceedings from the 25th Southern authorities revisited. Proceedings from the 24th African Transport Conference, Pretoria, 10–13 July Southern African Transport Conference (SATC), 2006, pp. 223–233. Pretoria, 11–13 July 2005. Williams JJ. 2000. Urban transformation, Cities (17) 3: Cervero R. 2001. Integration of urban transport and 167–183. urban planning. In Freire M and Stren R (eds) The 17 21 31 14 16 15 19 18 32 24 27 22 23 25 26 29 30 20 28 13 creating transit-oriented cities requires bold leadership

1 Rehana Moosajee Rehana reating transit-oriented transit-oriented Creating bold leadership bold THROUGH cities 14 How to Build Transit-oriented Cities: Exploring Possibilities

Introduction

Urban Mobility is recognised as A formidable challenge facing cities across the globe

Unless mobility habits change, ‘[t]raffic congestion will provide a labour pool, i.e. within commuting distance bring cities worldwide to a standstill’ by 2025 (Arthur and returning to dormitory townships to sleep. Transit D. Little and UITP, 2014: 4). The use of private vehicles infrastructure was designed to bisect ‘group areas’, continues to rise, with ‘6.2 billion private motorized trips to provide further barriers to any interaction among every day in cities of the world’ (ibid); public transport residents of different races. offers a way to help cities to improve urban mobility, which is the number one priority for cities wanting to By 2025, attract investors (Arthur D. Little and UITP, 2014: 6). worldwide

Urban mobility is recognised as a formidable challenge traffic congestion will bring cities facing cities across the globe, but in South Africa the situation is exacerbated by the country’s history. The shape and form of South African cities in 2014 have to a standstill been determined by apartheid ideology, which sought to separate people of different ‘race groups’. All economic centres were associated with ‘white’ settlements, but the segregated groups had to be sufficiently close to

1. The paper draws primarily on the practical experience of the author in leading and championing Transport Transformation in the City of Johannesburg Metropolitan Municipality and the learning derived in the period 2006–2013, as well as desktop research resources (Arthur D. Little and UITP, 2014; DoT, 2012; Frank et al. [n.d]; Litman, 2012, 2014; Price, 2001. 15 crea t ing ransi t-o rien ed ci ies re Figure 1: Apartheid legacy: spatial engineering through policy Buffer zones = Industrial areas Highways 'Gaps' (empty space) qu ires b o ld leadership CBD 1900-1940 white suburb Influx control Residential control Restrictions on purchases

14 Locations 1950s-1970s 15 1970s 16 Townships Group Areas Act 17 Self-govering 18 homelands Dormitory type residential areas 19 20 'The matchbox house' promoted 21 22 23 24 Source: Tsela Tshweu Design Team [n.d.] 25 26 27 28 29 The absurdity of apartheid spatial planning flies in the key lever in the transformation of the built environment 30 face of sound city development policies and international in South African cities. 31 32 best practice on transport planning and land use. Yet, over the past 20 years of democracy, the practice However, spatial transformation of democratic spaces of locating the poor on the periphery of economic is not only about overcoming the spatial legacy of opportunity has largely continued and has worsened apartheid but also about a radical departure from car- the burden of transport costs on poor households. The centric principles and policies. It is about fundamentally emergence of decentralised economic hubs close to changing the way in which residents interact with each affluent suburbs has added to the problem by effectively other, the shared spaces and urban fabric. In other increasing travelling distances, times and costs for the words, transit-oriented development (TOD). The TOD marginalised poor. Today, the apartheid city form is a Standard outlines the following eight criteria for urban stark reality that must be confronted, dealt with and development (National Treasury, 2013): transformed. Public transport has the potential to be a 16 How to Build Transit-oriented Cities: Exploring Possibilities

1. Develop neighborhoods that promote walking [WALK] A near-perfect mobility system 2. Prioritize non-motorized transport networks [CYCLE] does not yet exist in the world today … 3. Create dense networks of streets and paths [CONNECT] 4. Locate development near high-quality public transport [TRANSIT] Clearly no city in the world (or South Africa) has the 5. Plan for mixed use [PLAN] perfect mobility system as described, but South African 6. Match density and transit capacity [DENSIFY] cities can start moving in the right direction. Cities need 7. Create compact regions with short commutes [COMPACT] to set immediate priorities and medium to longer term 8. Increase mobility by regulating parking and road use objectives because continuing on the current private car- [SHIFT] dependent trajectory is not an option.

This chapter aims to encourage city leaders, decision The dream urban mobility system makers in other spheres of government and all A near-perfect mobility system does not yet exist stakeholders in the mobility value chain to: in the world today […] A hypothetical best-in-class ʪʪ recognise that cities are key players and at the urban mobility system would: forefront of transforming urban mobility, space- 99 Be as affordable as Hong Kong, with a similar making and quality of life of residents, modal split and level of smart-card acceptance. ʪʪ acknowledge that urban mobility is operating in It would also have as few vehicles as Hong Kong. a fragmented environment and that institutional 99 Ensure air is pure as Stockholm’s reform is important, 99 Promote cycling like Amsterdam ʪʪ foster better linkages between a variety of urban 99 Be as safe as Copenhagen strategies and financing mechanisms, 99 Have best-in-class bike sharing as ʪʪ accept that innovative mobility solutions require demonstrated in Brussels and Paris integration rather than improvements in single 99 Have a public transport service as frequent as transport modes, the London Tube ʪʪ invest in the creation of the requisite skills for 99 Have best-in-class car sharing as the transformation of transport and the built demonstrated in Stuttgart environment, 99 Have as minor an impact on climate as in ʪʪ encourage innovation and holistic approaches to Wuhan space-making and mobility solutions. 99 Ensure travel times as short as they are in Nantes. This chapter starts by looking at what is meant by Source: Arthur D. Little and UITP, (2014: 21) sustainable urban mobility and then explores the elements necessary to transform public transport and the built environment within South African cities, 17 crea t ing ransi t-o rien ed ci ies re in light of the devolution of the transport function to collaboration and developing the administrative capacity certain municipalities. The most important element is necessary to manage complex transport projects. Vertical to have visionary pro-public transport leadership and to integration means having sound intergovernmental integrate transport-related functions both horizontally relations and getting buy-in from civil society and and vertically. Horizontal integration will entail breaking interest groups, thereby embracing an active citizenry. the silo mentality, creating a culture of learning and qu ires b o ld leadership Sustainable Urban Mobility

As South African cities work on transforming their mobility systems and spatial form, global experience provides four pillars that could lay a solid foundation for a sustainable urban mobility system .

Figure 2: System-level framework for sustainable mobility 1 14 Develop a political vision and urban mobility 15 objectives that are supported by all key public and 16 private stakeholders; establish a transparent, viable 17 18 and stable regulatory framework with clear allocation 19 1 of roles and responsibilities; and ensure transport 20 planning is coordinated with other city policies. 21 22 Vision Strategy 23 & Ecosystem 2 24 25 Invest in a sustainable mobility offering, rather than 26 27 replicate the mistakes of developed cities. 28 29 30 3 31 32 2 3 Make businesses and individuals aware of the sustainable travel and location choices; introduce Mobility Supply Mobility Demand and enforce parking policy (to steer mobility choices); (solutions & lifestyles) Management define appropriate land-use policies to influence long-term mobility patterns and encourage TOD.

4

Maximise fare revenue by driving demand for public transport through increasing the quality of the 4 services offered; prioritise public funding for capital investment into projects that demonstrate policy Public Transport Financing benefits and long-term viability; leverage private funding and innovation where possible Source: Arthur D. Little and UITP (2014: 21) 18 How to Build Transit-oriented Cities: Exploring Possibilities

For South African cities, a useful place to start the journey Pro-public Transport (of transforming the built environment by leveraging Leadership transit development) would be to consider the following: 1. Commit to breaking the cycle of car dependency Transport in South Africa is a reflection of power relations and building cities with a new transit hierarchy and in society. The public discourse about transport mirrors a vision of what that end-state would look like. a disproportionate emphasis on the issues of private 2. Invest in building political champions who vehicle users, to the exclusion of the vast majority of the understand the need for change and have sufficient population who use public transport, walk or cycle. What confidence to provide bold and visionary leadership. is needed is visionary pro-public transport leadership. 3. Understand the skills required to drive large- scale transformation and invest in leaders across The current reality is that political and technical disciplines to create the requisite capacity at city decision-makers are often indifferent to public and administration level. non-motorised transport because of their attachment 4. Create an active culture of community-centred to (and the convenience of) their cars. In South Africa, approaches to planning and delivery, which breaks the overwhelming majority of policymakers and internal silos and is steeped in a desire for ongoing implementers are car captive. The car has become an learning and development. aspirational status symbol, viewed by many as the key 5. Implement plans with the necessary budgets for to the ultimate freedom in mobility – with no restrictions creating efficient and effective urban centres that of waiting times, scheduled stops and limited hours of balance new capital projects with improvements operation. Furthermore, for a long time public transport to existing modes. has been considered the means of mobility for the poor, 6. Create institutional form and organograms, and while transit nodes in cities are often seen as areas of monitoring and evaluation mechanisms at city crime and grime, and pockets of decay. level that focus on smart growth and citizen- centred development. Decision-makers tend to view city-making through the lens of car ownership and easy access to a private vehicle A vital element in the transformation of public transport and yet, in most South African cities, less than a third and the built environment is leadership. of households own a car. In other words, the majority of citizens use public transport. It is incumbent upon those Commit to breaking the cycle who are shaping city planning and policy to experience the reality that citizens face on a daily basis. This cannot of car dependency and building cities be achieved by having the occasional, highly staged with a new transit hierarchy experience during transport month, when an Executive Mayor, MEC, Minister or City Manager takes public transport. Decision-makers should heed the advice of 19 crea t ing ransi t-o rien ed ci ies re Jane Jacobs who said 50 years ago, ‘go out there and Figure 3: The reverse traffic pyramid see what works and what doesn’t work and learn from reality. […] spend time in the streets and squares and see how people actually use spaces, learn from that and use it’ (Anderson-Oliver, 2013). Only when they are steeped in the lived experience of commuters will political and qu ires b o ld leadership administrative leaders understand the daily frustration faced by commuters, which has in the past exploded into violent outbursts, with users venting their anger by destroying infrastructure. While using public transport on a daily basis may not be practically possible, leaders in government (particularly in the transport sector) should experience the system first hand as often as they can. 14 15 Furthermore, to arrive at a vision of people-oriented 16 17 rather than car-oriented cities, the shortcomings of the 18 19 current system need to be understood, alongside an image 20 of the alternative system that supports walking, cycling, 21 22 public transport, mobility and access. This represents 23 24 a radical shift from the current car-based approaches 25 to planning and space-making. However, continuing 26 27 on the current trajectory of car-based planning is 28 29 unsustainable from an environmental, quality of life and 30 effective city perspective. City governments of today owe 31 32 it to the generations of tomorrow not to make the city- Source: The Bicycle Innovation Lab development mistakes of the past. (http://www.bicycleinnovationlab.dk/?show=jpn)

Car ownership in most SA cities Cities need urgently to move away from one-person- is restricted to one-car to more equitable modes of transport, especially given the rapid rate of urbanisation and the costs to the economy and society of traffic congestion and road fatalities. The hosting of the FIFA World Cup 2010 or less of households enabled some South African cities to begin this journey, in that city but greater urgency is required. 20 How to Build Transit-oriented Cities: Exploring Possibilities

The International Association of Public Transport (UITP) encourages cities to double the market share of public transport by 2025 (Arthur B. Little and UITP, 2014). To achieve this, South African cities need to benchmark the current modal split, set targets with stakeholders and introduce a variety of mechanisms (both ‘carrot’ and ‘stick’) to encourage car users to walk, cycle and use public transport. However, recent developments, such as the Gautrain, Rea Vaya and MyCiti, will not be enough on their own. Other changes are needed, for instance, suitable pedestrian access at destinations on the Gautrain bus or Rea Vaya routes (e.g. at the Design Quarter, Nicolway Shopping Centre or Campus Square). Many developments continue to plan for private-car access only and often make pedestrian access extremely inconvenient. In some cases, office parks insist that those entering on foot leave their identity documents at security checkpoints!

Simultaneously, the problems of the current public transport system need to be acknowledged and understood, i.e. the system is fragmented, has limited South African cities need to encourage car users to walk, cycle and hours of operation and vastly different standards. What use public transport. However, recent developments, such as the Gautrain, Rea Vaya and MyCiti, will not be enough on their own. is required is improved integration, common standards, affordability and effective information dissemination that leverages technological advancements. However, such action would require a degree of boldness and the ability to navigate some deep vested interests. Cities also need to confront the myth about the lack of South African cities need to make policy decisions that well-located land for residential, employment creation unashamedly favour public transport, cycling and walking and food security purposes. For instance, the amount of and to provide leadership that gets everyone behind the well-located land currently being used to ‘house’ cars in vision and implementation of a fundamentally different multi-storey parking lots is land that, if used differently, way of moving, living and being. could radically transform space, use and quality of life. 21 crea t ing ransi t-o rien ed ci ies re Breaking the Silo Mentality and planning, infrastructure development, compilation of standards for operators, licencing and regulation, The responsibility for the planning, provision and regulation communication and promotion, and disbursement of of public transport in South Africa is widely dispersed subsidies based on monitoring and evaluation. between the three spheres of government, a range of parastatals and private operators. As the Constitution and At the same time, it is imperative that the country moves qu ires b o ld leadership other legislation make different spheres of government away from a one-size-fits-all approach to transport responsible for different aspects of the transit system, the in cities. In conjunction with neighbouring cities and approach tends to be ‘we are all responsible so someone provincial authorities, each city needs to grapple with else will catalyse transport improvements’. who takes responsibility for what. It is also not useful for cities to simply replicate what other South African cities The importance attached to matters of transport, more are doing without testing solutions against their broader specifically public transport, differs vastly from city to development objectives and specific local conditions. 14 city. Transport is a stand-alone department in some 15 cities but, in other cities, is strongly linked to the roads Cities are required by law to have an integrated approach 16 17 function or resides with engineering services and the bulk to planning and development for both long-and 18 19 infrastructure provision. When cities equate transport with short-term planning. Yet, although all cities produce 20 a road-building function, in all likelihood the planning will integrated development plans and citywide growth and 21 22 be restricted to the mobility requirements of private car development strategies, in most cities the reality is that 23 24 users and the responsibility seen too narrowly as about the integration of these plans is often an after-thought. 25 moving vehicles, not people. What cities need to have is The integration is an attempt to use common language 26 27 a transport department that favours public transport and and diction with very little effective coordinated planning 28 29 receives the necessary resources and emphasis in the in the day-to-day activities. 30 overall city vision, plans and budgets. 31 32 In general, cities divide the mandate of governing Cities cannot afford to have a transport organisation and providing city services into line departments and that is divorced from other city-related activities and functions. Although practical, this mechanism often planning. Cities have sufficient authority through the leads to fragmentation, gaps in city-wide planning and National Land Transport Act to become the champions coordination and even territorial contestation. Too often one of transforming mobility and simultaneously spatial department is oblivious to the impact of its projects and planning, land use and the quality of built environment. plans on other city departments. The lives of citizens are not It will require the establishment of a single organisation compartmentalised, and thus much higher levels of inter- at city-level that is responsible for all land transport departmental planning and coordination are required. functions (road and rail) in a city or province: policy 22 How to Build Transit-oriented Cities: Exploring Possibilities

The solution to overcoming this fragmented approach cities, National Treasury developed an Urban Networks is to create customer-centric scorecards for city Strategy (UNS). The UNS represents a shift away from departments and senior managers. These scorecards the Neighbourhood Development Grant and works would advocate for active citizenry and consider city in partnership with other grants, such as the Public delivery from the perspective of a citizen who has to Transport Infrastructure and Systems Grant and the interact with different departments in a city. Cities need Urban Settlement Development Grant. The UNS is ‘a to understand how their stakeholders experience their pro-poor/pro-growth investment approach’ that aims service offerings and create both vertical and horizontal to ‘shift infrastructure investments towards the creation integration to close gaps. of efficient and effective urban centres that will increase economic growth, create employment and increase In acknowledgment of the strategic role of urban access to urban amenities, especially for the poor located centres in transforming inefficient and unsustainable in marginalised settlement areas, such as townships’2.

Figure 4: The Urban Network

Source: http://ndp.treasury.gov.za

2. http://ndp.treasury.gov.za/default.aspx 23 crea t ing ransi t-o rien ed ci ies re This evolution in thinking at national level is useful, but Integration and collaboration is also important at city the approach must be one of collaboration, discussion level, especially building understanding of integrated and guidance. These interventions will not be sustainable outcomes across departments, as described below. in the long-term if cities perceive them as one sphere of government attempting to direct urban development, Transport and Planning: with no appreciation of the capacity and ability available The requirement for a coordinated and structured working qu ires b o ld leadership at municipal level. Cities must grapple with overcoming together of the planning and transport departments the apartheid spatial form and, in so doing, build cannot be over-emphasised. The experience of the capacity and institutional knowledge. The developing Singapore Land Transport Authority offers some useful and developed world offer exciting examples of cities lessons, in particular how functional coordination thinking more creatively about how to harness the was realised between the Singapore Land Transport changing circumstances of the urban poor and to plan Authority and the land development authority (the in collaboration with communities, so that households Urban Redevelopment Authority), based on a common 14 have sufficient flexibility to shape their own spaces as and fully integrated five-year master plan. Other lessons 15 their social and material circumstances change. include the release of state land for private development 16 17 and sale on 99-year leases, the state’s ability to control 18 19 Figure 5: An example of integration across departments development rights, and linking transport project 20 implementation to land release (DoT, 2012). 21 22 23 24 Planning & In the South African context, zoning, incentives, 25 Environment densification, planning of social and community 26 27 amenities should all be interrogated through a public 28 transport lens. Planning should encourage as many 29 Corporate Safety 30 Services activities as possible on or in close proximity to the 31 32 transit system. Good connectivity and public transport should mean that educational and social amenities are Transport easily accessible to communities – if facilities are built at inaccessible locations, they will be under-utilised. Health & Private developers should be given specific codes for new Human Community Settlements Development buildings and developments, and understand the city’s expectations regarding the provision of cycling lanes, Economic pedestrian-friendly infrastructure and public transport. Development Another way of promoting non-motorised and public & ICT transport is through parking ratios and limiting the available parking spaces. 24 How to Build Transit-oriented Cities: Exploring Possibilities

Transport and Environment: Significant health The modal shift, from one-person-one-car culture to benefits can result from that of sharing resources, walking, cycling and using mass transit, is as important for the planet as for urban people using public transport mobility. Therefore, the environmental department instead of private cars must share in the plans of the transport department and play an important advisory and monitoring role The economic development department must understand (in respect of air pollution, traffic noise exposure and the potential of the transport sector to create direct and the overall preservation of a high quality habitat). The indirect jobs and can assist with transformation; for environmental department should be active in shaping instance, working with the minibus taxi sector, so that city decisions regarding fuel types, job creation, and they can become operators in mainstream transport applying for carbon credits for green projects. Transit opportunities. The economic development department hubs should be designed with green principles, such as can also share with other stakeholders the impact of rainwater harvesting, solar power and maximum use of road safety and congestion on costs, productivity and, natural light, and encouraged recycling, in view of the ultimately, the economy. quantities of waste generated by commuters. Transport and Human Settlements Transport and Health Historically the price and availability of land have dictated Significant health benefits can result from people using housing developments in cities, particularly for lower public transport instead of private cars: commuters income groups. In the quest to provide shelter to the are more active, less likely to suffer from respiratory large number of households living in informal structures, ailments (because of the reduced air pollution) and less the emphasis has been on building the structure rather at risk of car-related accidents. Indeed, research has than the location and integrated planning. Too often found that ‘over the long term, land use and transport large new settlements are built far from affordable and policies can provide significant health benefits’ (Frank accessible transport systems, without paying sufficient et al., [n.d.]). attention to the mobility needs of residents. Transport is often an after-thought, and so these developments do Transport and Economic Development not include dignified waiting spaces for commuters or A city’s economy is profoundly affected by congestion, have clarity on (and access to) the main modes available productivity, energy costs, access to education and to the community. employment, efficient prioritisation of facilities and the movement of freight. Collaboration between economic The essential pedestrian infrastructure, cycling lanes, development and transport in understanding freight public transport infrastructure and operations should and logistics movements and providing the requisite all be considered at the planning phase of human infrastructure for freight movement is important. settlements. The lack of consultation and planning for 25 crea t ing ransi t-o rien ed ci ies re mobility at the inception of projects leads to unplanned and resources commuting to and from meetings, the and uncoordinated human settlement developments, municipality could introduce online meetings and other resulting often in turf wars among informal transport innovative governance approaches. operators. Transport planning should to be more actively involved in the potential new settlements being planned Transport and Corporate Services by the human settlements department, to ensure that A municipality, particularly in larger cities, is an important qu ires b o ld leadership the municipality acquires land on transport nodes and employer and so must understand the transport habits corridors so that better-located settlement opportunities of its own employees and advocate for a greater use are available. of public transport, walking and cycling among its own work-force. The practice of travel allowances and Transport and Community Development subsidised parking spaces, which encourages car use, The community development department can include has to be reversed. The municipality should rather be transport subsidies to commuters in its poverty using its remuneration structure to incentivise car- 14 alleviation projects. The department needs to deepen sharing, walking, cycling and the use of public transport. 15 the understanding of those in the transport department 16 17 about the particular needs of children, people with 18 19 disabilities and the aged. Joint promotion of social 20 amenities, such as theatres, libraries, community centres, 21 22 sporting facilities and museums etc., that are on transit 23 24 routes will increase uptake of services offered. 25 26 27 Transport and Information 28 29 Communication Technologies (ICTs) 30 The rollout of ICTs (e.g. fibre optic, wireless and broadband 31 32 connectivity) at transit hubs could, in the short term, give widespread access to communities without having to make the infrastructure immediately available at individual household level. Functional multi-purpose nodes at transit interchanges and on trains and buses that include Wi-Fi, internet access and cell-phone charging stations could all help in bridging the digital divide. Variable working hours, telecommuting and more effective use of technology would not only have an impact on mobility but also reduce the operational costs Transport planning should to be more actively involved in the potential for departments. For instance, instead of spending time new settlements being planned by the human settlements department 26 How to Build Transit-oriented Cities: Exploring Possibilities

Transport and Safety Ultimately, the silo approach to city planning and The internationally accepted way of enhancing safety is to service provision must be replaced with a collaborative have ‘more eyes and more activity on the street’. Having approach, which considers the needs of citizens, families safe walking routes to schools in local communities could and communities in a holistic and integrated manner. re-create a culture of children walking to school and satisfy parents and community members that enough thought has been given to safety of children. A city Creating a Culture of culture must be fostered of streets as shared spaces with Communication, Learning and the rights of pedestrians, cyclists and public transport Collaboration users rights being seen as important. For instance, cars should not be parked on sidewalks and in bicycle and South African cities are not alone in their attempt to public transport dedicated lanes. An important first transform the culture and to undo policy and planning step is to build a citywide culture of transit nodes that decisions that have led to diminished quality of life, poor are high-quality environments rather than areas of use of space and overall inefficient cities. Across the crime, grime and degeneration. The visibility of safety globe, cities are grappling with similar issues.3 personnel in public transit spaces is also vital. To realise a shift from private to public transport will require safe In the daily pressures and grind of running a city, walking, cycling and public transit environments. policymakers and implementers need to actively set aside time to share information about best practices and ideas (and how to adapt them to the local reality), and to reflect on innovative problem-solving approaches. Suitable physical spaces, scheduled time and exciting ways of learning and sharing must be built into the institution. And, expensive study tours are not necessary – shared learning can take the form of portals, online learning forums, chill rooms and creative spaces where a culture of excitement, fun and daring is fostered. Cities should create a love for learning among employees at all levels and foster a culture of aligning personal goals to professional development, so that life-long learning, growth and development become part of city culture. Rather than be fearful of making mistakes, city departments should be encouraged to be innovative, bold and daring (but not reckless). In this way, apartheid Safe walking routes to schools in local communities could re-create a culture of children walking to school. spatially planned cities can be transformed into new

3. Many of these issues were raised at the ‘Spatial Transformation of Cities: Johannesburg as laboratory’ held in Johannesburg, 4–6 March 2014 http://www. sacities.net/joburg_spatial_transformation/. 27 crea t ing ransi t-o rien ed ci ies re dynamic and integrated cities that foster inclusivity, Transport projects involve liveability and a sense of ownership among those who live in the neighbourhood and the city. large sums technical of money complexity Departments and projects should be encouraged to share knowledge and best practices with each other and with qu ires b o ld leadership external stakeholders, in order to ramp up, scale, replicate and transfer skills through action-based learning. Cities that collaborate with external stakeholders from the perspective of a learning organisation are likely to gain the respect of partners. This approach must include a high levels project willingness to listen to and learn from the variety of of coordination management stakeholders a municipality interfaces with. Fostering 14 a culture of collective problem-solving with partners 15 and stakeholders regarding the many spatial and 16 Developing Administrative 17 mobility challenges that cities face creates ownership Capacity 18 19 of the challenge beyond the municipal department. 20 Stakeholders with varied interests are actively engaged Transport projects generally involve large sums of 21 22 in owning the problem and in assisting the city to create money, technical complexity and require high levels of 23 24 solutions that have maximum buy-in. This is not to coordination and project management. When cities are 25 underestimate the competing (and often contradictory) also leveraging transport as a catalyst for built environment 26 27 interests of different stakeholders, but the city can be transformation, additional complexities and competing 28 29 the facilitator of authentic conversation and provide the needs of stakeholders arise. Before embarking on these 30 platform to work together through complex issues in projects, cities need to understand their in-house capacity 31 32 order to achieve the broader vision of a transformed city. and skills, including engineering, technical and project management capacity, as well as community engagement, When the centrality of communication must be understood economics, financial, legal and communication skills. spatially transforming cities and their mobility systems. Coaching, mentoring and appropriate career pathing Ongoing communication within the city, between the should be in place to attract and retain the requisite city and other spheres of government, and between the skills. The municipal team must be sufficiently skilled to city and its various stakeholders should be adequately be able to manage and question recommendations from budgeted for, appropriately staffed and seen as part of consultants and other professional experts whose services the critical mission of the department. may be procured for the duration of the project. 28 How to Build Transit-oriented Cities: Exploring Possibilities

The teams tasked with driving transport and city Transformation of transport and transformation will ideally be drawn from a variety of built environment is not restricted to departments and disciplines and have a whole-systems approach to driving transformation. Transformation changing the mode of transport used of transport and built environment is not restricted to changing the mode of transport used. It must Creating an integrated, affordable, accessible, reliable and also give active expression to commuter dignity and efficient transport system across modes is not a short- a customer-centred approach in service provision, term assignment. It requires the stamina and commitment without being at the expense of working conditions to continuously engage and drive the vision forward. for public transport workers. Not all stakeholders will Communities and neighbourhoods that receive or benefit welcome transport transformation, and so city teams from transport projects are not homogenous and contain have to understand why (and which) stakeholders may complex dynamics. Therefore, city implementation teams resist change. They need to be sensitive to the needs will have to be skilled in navigating community dynamics of different groups, listen to concerns and objections and building maximum consensus. with a view to finding solutions, while staying firmly focused on the outcomes of a transformed transport Then, once the projects arrive at the operational phase, system and built environment. No single stakeholder the required skills and standard operating procedures grouping should be allowed to hold city development and manuals must be in place. These skills need to to ransom and, while every effort should be made to be be developed during project implementation. Bringing inclusive, build consensus and find win-win solutions, academia, transport experts, transport operators, the teams should be prepared for the eventuality of property developers, and representatives from labour, legal challenges and highly public contestation of business, ratepayers’ and civic organisations, and transformative efforts. Therefore, the project planning commuters on board in transport and city transformation should include support to team members to help will create an environment that needs to be sensitively them to stay centred and focused during challenging managed. It calls for courageous leadership from city periods. If the cities do not have the required skills, an policy-makers and implementation teams. active plan needs to be in place to create and develop as much in-house capacity as possible – continuing to rely on private-sector expertise is unsustainable. Encouraging Sound Different cities in South Africa can also compare, share Intergovernmental Relations and draw on each other’s experiences, not in a spirit of ‘one-upmanship’ but rather of mutual respect and By virtue of transport responsibilities traversing the desire for continuous improvement. three spheres of government, the respective roles and 29 crea t ing ransi t-o rien ed ci ies re functions must be clear. Although the Constitution as PRASA/Metrorail who have embarked on fleet and speaks of the independence and inter-dependence systems refurbishment. For these investments to serve among the three spheres, the daily reality is that local goals beyond mobility, active collaboration and joint government is often treated as a tier of government and planning between the city and parastatals responsible experiences ‘big brother’ approaches from other spheres. for airports, rail and ports will be required. The Yet transport provides a useful springboard to give envisaged planning authorities should actively promote qu ires b o ld leadership expression to the spirit of intergovernmental relations as spatial transformation, urban regeneration and practical envisaged in the Constitution and legislation. solutions for the needs of both the formal and informal sectors that are involved in transit spaces. The political and administrative leadership at the three spheres need to share a common vision of an integrated, The regulatory and licencing function, currently vested affordable, accessible and efficient transport system in the provincial departments, must be dealt with to that is multi-modal but planned and operated with the ensure stability and competition for routes rather than 14 end user in mind. Public investment in transit corridors on routes. All spheres of government need to work 15 and nodes should be used for land value capture4 and with the minibus taxi sector, in order to improve and 16 17 broader socioeconomic and political objectives, e.g. transform existing service-level offerings, showcasing 18 19 using transit to foster social cohesion, access to amenity new technologies and ways of organising that could 20 and economic transformation. enhance the industry’s profitability and bring it into 21 22 the subsidised regime. Simultaneously, cities must 23 24 Not all cities are ready for the devolution of powers have a greater voice in relation to the provincial bus 25 and functions related to public transport. However, as subsidies, a function that should eventually devolve to 26 27 the City of Cape Town is a front runner in this regard, municipalities. 28 29 important learnings will emerge that can gradually 30 be shared with other cities. In the interim, active There is no one-size-fits-all solution for intergovernmental 31 32 intergovernmental cooperation and collaboration is coordination. In the instance of Gauteng province, which key. Better synergies between funding cycles, more has three contiguous metropolitan municipalities, the discretion to municipalities in how to use grant funding need for cross-city collaboration and integration with and less onerous reporting requirements will all go a provincial plans is important. Each city should seek the long way in making transport investments that help to most appropriate and practical solutions rather than change the built environment. adhere to a prescriptive regime that does not take into account the city’s capacity, developmental stage and Cities also need to begin to play a more active role in future growth prospects. agreeing service-level standards with parastatals, such

4. This is a public financing technique that ‘captures’ a part or all of the increases in private land values resulting from public investment. The additional revenue can be used to finance infrastructure for economic growth and urban development, or for poverty alleviation. The infrastructure financed in turn leverages private investment in the area as it improves. http://www.urbanlandmark.org.za/research/x58.php. 30 How to Build Transit-oriented Cities: Exploring Possibilities

Obtaining Buy-in from Civil understanding among civil society leaders on the Society and Interest Groups complexity of transport and city transformation. More effort, time, budget and skills need to be devoted to Many civil society groupings have both direct and indirect marketing and communication, from the start of the interests in public transport and the built environment. project to the start of operations. The Rustenburg IRPTN They range from commuter representative groups to provides a benchmark for two-way communication, organisations for people with disabilities, ratepayers’ while the Singapore Land Transport Authority’s website and residents’ associations, schools, business, organised contains some simple and effective methods to keep labour, faith-based organisations, women’s groupings, the public informed about new initiatives and ongoing safety-related structures, youth formations and public improvements to the transport system, its interface transport operators across modes. Naturally, these various with land use and getting communities involved. groupings have inherent tensions on a range of matters.

For a city to drive a transport and built environment Conclusion transformation agenda, political representatives and the administration must create opportunities for interfacing Throughout the world, cities are facing the challenge with sectors and between sectors. A wide range of of urban mobility. For South African cities, the situation stakeholders must be included at the strategy and is made worse by the country’s history, as apartheid policy formulation phases and, as far as is practicable, ideology determined the urban shape and form. It is the views and inputs of stakeholders should shape the not sustainable to continue along the same path of city’s policy and vision. Thus it is important to create a car-based planning. Cities need to start moving in the formal structure where stakeholder organisations can right direction, by committing to break the cycle of car interface with the city, raise concerns, get updates and dependency and to build cities that are people-oriented explanations, and interact with each other. rather than car-oriented.

Particular groups will be vehemently opposed to a pro- To achieve this will require visionary pro-public transport public transport agenda, and ongoing engagement will leadership, which means that policymakers and be needed in order to build the collective understanding implementers use public transport as often as possible of the benefits in terms of quality of life of citizens, and make policy decisions that are unashamedly in economic growth, sustainable environmental practice favour of public transport, cycling and walking. All three and overall city functionality. The city should use a government spheres need to support the same shared variety of methods to build the requisite understanding vision of integrated, affordable, accessible and efficient and broad consensus among the diverse groupings. An transport system that is multi-modal but planned and open-door approach (together with a joint problem- operated with the end user in mind. Cities also must solving and solution-seeking response) builds an adopt an integrated approach in reality (not just on 31 crea t ing ransi t-o rien ed ci ies re paper). This means breaking the silo mentality and encouraging a collaborative approach, which considers the needs of citizens, families and communities in a holistic and integrated manner.

Cities also need to encourage collaboration, learning qu ires b o ld leadership and communication, and to build the necessary skills for driving large, complex projects. These skills must include communication and community engagement skills, as the city needs to involve stakeholders and interest/civil society groups in the process of developing an integrated public transport system.

14 Clearly the ‘how’ of making public transport everybody’s 15 business and transforming the built environment is 16 17 a complex task. It requires a focus on infrastructure 18 19 and people, on technical knowledge and soft skills, on 20 accepting the past and driving a vision of a transport 21 22 system and city that is radically different to the one that 23 24 was born on 27 April 1994. No doubt the task is daunting. 25 Yet city leaders have no choice but to take a fragmented 26 27 and ageing transport system designed to divide and 28 29 use it to transform cities into spaces for all – where city 30 dwellers in all their diversity can come together and 31 32 share transit-spaces and a built environment. In so doing, the cities we hand to our children will be more humane than the ones we inherited. 32 How to Build Transit-oriented Cities: Exploring Possibilities

References Price G. 2001. A local politician’s guide to urban transportation. Paper posted at the Victoria Transport Policy Institute (VTPI). Online available at Anderson-Oliver M. 2013. Cities for people: Jan www.vtpi.org/localpol.htm. Gehl. Blog post. Available online at: http:// assemblepapers.com.au/2013/06/13/cities-for- Tsela Tshweu Design Team. [n.d.] Faster, harder, smarter people-jan-gehl/ (15 May 2014). - a vision for sustainable human(e) settlements for all South Africans. Paper for the Department Arthur D. Little and UITP (International Association of Human Settlements: Social Contract Planning of Public Transport). 2014. The Future of Urban and Development Workstream. Online available at: Mobility 2.0. Online available at www.adl.com/ http://www.bkia.co.za/news/faster-harder-smarter- FUM2.0 a-vision-for-sustainable-humane-settlements-for- DoT (Department of Transport). 2012. Building Leaders all-south-africans/ in Urban Transport – World Bank and Land Transport Authority. Overseas Travel Report on Trip to Singapore (15–21 January 2012).

Frank L, Kavage S and Litmann T. [n.d]. Promoting public health through smart growth. Paper for the Victoria Transport Policy Institute (VTPI). Online available at www.vtpi.org/sgbc_health.pdf.

Litman T. 2012. Evaluating Criticism of Smart Growth. Report for SmartGrowthBC. Online available at www.vtpi.org/sgcritics.pdf.

Litman T. 2014. Evaluating transportation land use impacts. Paper for the Victoria Transport Policy Institute (VTPI). Online available at www.vtpi.org/ landuse.pdf.

National Treasury. 2013. TOD Standard Draft v.0.7. (March 2013). Pretoria: National Treasury. Online available at: http://ndp.treasury.gov.za/About%20 NDP/Forms/Learning%20Resources.aspx 51 41 37 47 52 53 35 39 36 34 42 55 43 38 45 54 50 56 40 44 49 48 46

33 Using Public Transport funding to create inclusive cities Amanda Jitsing c Publi Using ort funding to to funding port Trans lusive cities clusive in create 34 How to Build Transit-oriented Cities: Exploring Possibilities

Introduction

Despite democracy, … decades of under-investment in public transport mean that South Africans still face enormous challenges in moving from one place to another

Every day, millions of South Africans use inaccessible, Two decades since the end of apartheid, some progress unsafe and unreliable public transport that was designed has been made in relation to public transport. A shift in to reinforce racial segregation, with the singular purpose policy landscape is evident. Policymakers acknowledge of moving workers in and out of cities and towns. For that public transport should be integrated into the built black South Africans, public transport routes were environment in order to develop inclusive and compact meant to discourage intra-urban mobility and keep cities. Most importantly, local government is best placed workers out of white suburbs and areas. In contrast, to plan and deliver public transport services. This is the apartheid state supplied cheap transport services because public transport networks will invariably affect to the ‘white’ suburbs with relatively low densities. The the urban form of cities and towns over the long term. ramifications of this system of segregation persist today. Without better integration between land-use patterns, Despite democracy bringing the freedom to travel and human settlements development and public transport, work anywhere, decades of under-investment in public cities run the risk of creating a fragmented urban form transport mean that South Africans still face enormous or, at worst, entrenching apartheid spatial patterns. The challenges in moving from one place to another. economic costs of either of these scenarios are enormous to both the country and, ultimately, to the citizens. 35 Using Pu blic Transp o r

Reforming public transport in South Africa is about This chapter focuses on the role of public transport providing the majority of citizens with a safe, reliable and funding in achieving this overarching goal. Realising this affordable way of commuting, but these reforms will take vision is not an easy feat for a public transport sector, different forms depending on the commuters targeted. which was fashioned by decades of apartheid and left t f u nding to crea Large-scale investment in transport infrastructure is to its own devices until as recently as 2007, when the necessary to bring public transport services to historically public transport strategy was published. Four critical disadvantaged communities but, at the same time, will questions emerged from a review of the evolution and invariably make public transport unaffordable for these the current landscape of public transport policy and t e incl

commuters. Therefore, some form of subsidisation will funding mechanisms in South Africa. u sive ci t ies be needed. 1. Can funding mechanisms be used to encourage modal integration within cities? Although providing public transport services to the majority 2. Can public transport funding mechanisms be of South Africans remains the main objective of the country’s designed to enhance integration within the built 34 policy framework, it is not the only one. Public transport environment to create inclusive and integrated cities? 35 must also offer convenient and reliable commuting in 3. Is there scope for leveraging private sector funding 36 37 order to lure car owners away from private transport. For for public transport? 38 39 instance, in the City of Johannesburg (the economic hub of 4. How can funding mechanisms be used to create low 40 the country, where about 42% of commuters travel to work carbon public transport networks in cities? 41 42 in a private car), public transport policy and plans should 43 44 be designed to break the cycle between rising incomes and This chapter aims to contribute to this debate about 45 private travel (City of Johannesburg, 2013: 17)1. Ultimately, the future of public transport funding. Its aim is not to 46 47 the overarching goal is that public transport should become give definitive answers but rather to explore a number 48 49 the mode of choice for all citizens, overcoming barriers of of key themes and insights, which will help national, 50 class and income and helping to build integrated, connected provincial and local government improve the design and 51 52 and inclusive cities. application of funding mechanisms. 53 54 55 in the City of Johannesburg 56 Background the economic hub of the country

42% Historical perspective of commuters The apartheid regime designed public transport travel to work networks to perpetuate racial segregation. The Bantu in a private car Transportation Act (No. 53 of 1957) governed the delivery of public transport. Under this legislation, employers

1. This information is from the Gauteng Quality of Life Survey conducted in 2011. With the completion of the Gautrain, this figure may be noticeably lower. 36 How to Build Transit-oriented Cities: Exploring Possibilities

were obliged to contribute towards subsidising the South African Transport Services (SATS), to reflect the costs of transporting workers to and from their places multimodal nature of the company, and was allowed to of work (Buthelezi, 2014). These subsidies allowed bus operate on commercial principles (Transnet, 2011). operators to transport thousands of commuters from Bantustan towns to metropolitan cities on a daily basis This decision has undoubtedly had a long-term impact on (Smith, 1992). the passenger rail industry, which is still evident today. In pursuing commercial sustainability, SATS attempted to As subsidies were allocated on a per passenger basis, bus stem the financial impact of its loss-making commuter operators were inclined to overload buses and skimp on rail by minimising the cost of operating and maintaining maintenance to make higher profits. The bus operators stations. Over time, this led to a decline in the quality were largely unregulated and were not held accountable and reliability of rail services. It also delayed investments for the quality, reliability or safety of bus services in railway infrastructure and rolling stock (Teljeur, 2006), provided to historically disadvantaged communities. which meant that by the turn of the new millennium, Most of the buses operators were also given perpetuity ageing and inadequate rolling stock made commuter contracts, which entrenched their monopoly over routes rail an unreliable form of transport for its 2.2 million and guaranteed their revenue flows. daily passengers (DPME, 2014).

This system of bus subsidisation introduced under The manner in which passenger rail infrastructure and apartheid continues to influence bus services. Routes bus routes were designed made travel for purposes other are over-serviced and carrying capacity is underutilised than work extremely difficult for black South Africans. at certain times of the day. Bus services remain As townships grew, the minibus taxi emerged to provide unintegrated with other modes of transport. Even feeder services to the long range bus and train services. worse, because bus subsidies offer an affordable way for Minibus taxis also offered quick access to economic nodes commuters to live further afield and work in the city, where businesses was located for township residents. they encourage urban sprawl. When it was eventually deregulated in 1987, the minibus taxi became an integral part of the public transport In addition to bus services, the apartheid government system, offering commuters quicker journeys into cities built passenger rail infrastructure to transport workers and intra-urban feeder services (Edwards, 2007). Unlike from the furthest outlying towns and rural areas into other modes of transport, the minibus taxi industry does urban nodes. Moreover, passenger rail enabled apartheid not receive a subsidy and has remained financially viable planners to maintain a large buffer zone between cities by setting fares on a profit basis. townships and rural areas. The South African Railways and Harbours, which was established in 1961, built and Furthermore, during the 1970s and 1980s car ownership operated much of the passenger rail infrastructure and grew, as income among the white population increased. To services. In 1981, the company was restructured into the cater for car users, municipalities built new roads and spent 37 Using Pu blic Transp o r

set out in the White Paper and, in particular, to address the subsidy system. In line with Section 25 of the Act, municipalities were required to establish transport

authorities that would: t f u nding to crea

ʪʪ rationalise the subsidised services within and between nodes; ʪʪ determine the extent of subsidisation; t e incl

ʪʪ rationalise services across borders to improve u sive ci t ies interprovincial transport; ʪʪ minimise competition between subsidised bus services; ʪʪ structure subsidised concessions to attract 34 competitive bidding; Today, South Africa has a good municipal road network, which 35 36 requires significant resources for maintenance. ʪʪ ensure that routes and route networks are used 37 optimally; and 38 39 large amounts on upgrading and maintaining existing roads. ʪʪ facilitate the development of a future integrated 40 Today, South Africa has a good municipal road network, transport system. 41 42 which requires significant resources for maintenance. 43 44 These reforms proved difficult to bring about because 45 of the perpetuity bus contracts, which encouraged 46 47 Policy and legislative reforms inefficient operations and route choices. The NLTTA 48 49 The White Paper on the National Transport Policy sought to change the system, from awarding bus 50 recognised that some form of subsidisation of public contracts on a per-passenger basis to introducing 51 52 transport was needed for poor and marginalised competitive contracts, awarded on the basis of per 53 communities and distinguished between ‘commercially kilometre travelled. This reform has two advantages. 54 55 viable passenger transport’ and ‘infrastructure for social First, it removes the incentive for operators to inflate 56 access’. It argued that commercially viable public transport their passenger figures and overcrowd buses. Second, it should not be subsidised and espoused the principle of allows government to reimburse operators on a ‘cost- cost recovery where the user bears the full cost of using plus’ basis – that is their direct operating costs plus the service (RSA, 1996). However, it also made the case for any acceptable margin – making expenditure more reforming the way public transport was subsidised. predictable for government. The idea was to encourage bus operators to control and monitor their operational The National Land Transport Transition Act (NLTTA) No. expenditure by seeking out efficiencies. 22 of 2000 was introduced to give effect to the principles 38 How to Build Transit-oriented Cities: Exploring Possibilities

Unfortunately, a number of problems beset the reform The shift from perpetuity to tendered contracts led to the of the bus subsidisation. Bus operators responded to the loss of approximately 40% of jobs in the bus sector. In competitive tender system by cutting operating costs. the end, in 2000, government put the tendered contract Cost-cutting exercises are not in principle a bad thing, system on hold, following the large public outcry and if they improve efficiencies, but in this case they led to vehement opposition by labour unions (DoT, 2013a). substantial job losses, which were highly unpopular. Since then, bus operating contracts have been renewed Bus operators reduced the number of employees, on a monthly basis. In March 2013, the DoT estimated lowered wages and benefits, and outsourced a large that two-thirds of funding for bus subsidies was spent on part of their services to individual bus owners. Yet interim contracts (DoT, 2013a). even with these cost-cutting measures, the cost per kilometre of tendered contracts was significantly higher This situation creates uncertainty and makes any long- than expected because the size and capacity of vehicle term capital investment risky for bus operators, while fleets were not geared towards an efficient bus service, government is unable to use its contracting powers to while routes were not optimised to use the full carrying promote modal integration. Worryingly, as long as this capacity of these fleets. Ageing bus fleets meant that uncertainty exists, it is nearly impossible to optimise or their operating and maintenance costs were high and, introduce new routes to either promote densification or under the per-kilometre subsidy system, bus operators meet the demands of commuters. Unless this situation is had little incentive to upgrade and renew their fleet. resolved soon, the result will be an ageing and unreliable bus fleet that remains isolated and unintegrated with Over the next 20 years other forms of public transport.

approximately Cities are facing overwhelming demands to maintain existing infrastructure while developing new transport networks to R257-billion meet the needs of a rapidly urbanising population. Back in of investment will be needed to improve road-based public transport systems 1996, the White Paper recognised that decades of under- an investment in public transport infrastructure had created & estimated R90-billion severe backlogs. More recently, a study commissioned by the investment will be needed to address DoT estimates that approximately R257-billion of investment Metrorail’s operational infrastructure backlogs will be needed over the next 20 years to improve road-based public transport systems in South Africa (DoT, 2012). Equally worrying is the estimated R90-billion investment needed to address Metrorail’s operational infrastructure backlogs. A large proportion of this investment programme will be spent in metropolitan municipalities. The question is how this considerable investment will be funded. 39 Using Pu blic Transp o r

Investment in public transport infrastructure is closely Investment in public transport linked to the affordability of the transport service for infrastructure is closely linked to the users and taxpayers alike. The White Paper argues for the principle of ‘user-pays’, but this principle is likely affordability of the transport service t f u nding to crea to cause further inequities when a large proportion of for users and taxpayers alike. public transport users are from poor households. It also proposes reducing the levels of subsidisation and Since then, substantial amounts of funding have been promoting competition among bus operators (RSA, 1996) spent on establishing BRT systems in Johannesburg, t e incl

However, the White Paper did not set a clear direction Cape Town and Nelson Mandela Bay. The rapid u sive ci t ies for the funding of public transport, resulting in a policy investment has re-invigorated the sector and is slowly vacuum that endured until the release of the Public changing perceptions around public transport. That said, Transport Strategy in 2007. the investment has been less successful in promoting modal integration as part of building IPTNs. Therefore, 34 The Public Transport Strategy was crafted to accelerate the next section looks at the role of funding mechanisms 35 improvements in public transport by establishing Integrated in promoting modal integration. 36 37 Public Transport Networks (IPTNs) over a 13-year period. 38 39 These networks are designed to introduce a variety of 40 modalities – including priority rail corridors and bus rapid 41 Funding as an enabler 42 transit (BRT) systems – into cities, to provide passengers of modal integration 43 44 with quick and reliable public transport services. 45 Governance and funding arrangements for public 46 47 The strategy contains a number of targets, with the transport in South Africa are innately complex because 48 49 most noteworthy one being the expansion of the BRT public transport is a concurrent function that transcends 50 system to 12 cities by 2014/15. The strategy describes the national, provincial and local government. In addition, 51 52 infrastructure funding arrangements as relying solely various public entities play a part in delivering public 53 on funding from the fiscus but gives little indication of transport. For instance, the Passenger Rail Agency of 54 55 who bears the cost and responsibility of maintaining and South Africa (PRASA) provides passenger rail services 56 operating public transport networks (DoT, 2007). Despite across the country delivering commuters to stations in these omissions, the strategy gained further credibility cities. when the National Treasury tied the Public Transport Infrastructure and Systems Grant (PTISG) to the targets Table 1 summarises the governance and funding roles set out in the plan. The need to develop public transport of each sphere of government in relation to the different networks was made even more urgent by the country’s modes of public transport. commitment to FIFA ahead of the 2010 World Cup. 40 How to Build Transit-oriented Cities: Exploring Possibilities

Table 1: Governance and funding responsibilities for public transport

Service National DoT Provincial DoT Metropolitan municipality

Bus services (BRT ǓǓ Sets public transport policy ǓǓ Contracts bus operators and ǓǓ Plans public transport systems and metro and framework disburses subsidies (PTOG) and land use interprovincial bus ǓǓ Provides guidance on ǓǓ Oversees and monitors ǓǓ Builds, maintains and operates services) contracting bus services performance of bus operators bus stops and other related ǓǓ Disburses the Public Transport ǓǓ Gauteng: coordinates across public transport infrastructure Infrastructure Systems Grant metros ǓǓ Contracts bus operators and (PTISG), the Public Transport ǓǓ Some provinces contribute disburses subsidies (PTNOG) Network Operations Grant financially to the services they ǓǓ Funds metro bus services (PTNOG) and the Public contract ǓǓ Transport Operations Grant Contributes financially to IPTN (PTOG) operations

Road network ǓǓ Sets policy framework ǓǓ Maintains provincial road ǓǓ Maintains municipal road ǓǓ Promotes information sharing maintained network and benchmarking ǓǓ Funds provincial road ǓǓ Funds maintenance through a ǓǓ Disburses conditional grants maintenance from their combination of own revenue or and earmarks funding for road equitable shares and conditional grants. e.g. Urban maintenance conditional grant Settlement Development Grant (USDG) and the Municipal ǓǓ Funds South African National Infrastructure Grant (MIG) Roads Agency Limited (SANRAL)

Non-motorised ǓǓ Sets NMT policy ǓǓ Customises NMT policy and ǓǓ Customises NMT policy and transport (NMT) ǓǓ Provides special allocations includes in Integrated Public includes in Integrated Public towards NMT Transport Policy Transport Policy ǓǓ Develops funding models for ǓǓ Develops funding models for NMT NMT

Minibus taxis ǓǓ Sets policy on the ǓǓ Regulates public transport ǓǓ Integrates taxi services into recapitalisation of taxis operations (taxi associations integrated transport plan ǓǓ Disburses funds towards taxi and operators) recapitalisation

Rail ǓǓ Sets out rail policy ǓǓ Integrates rail services in ǓǓ Integrates rail services into ǓǓ Regulates rail services, prices integrated transport plan integrated transport plan and services ǓǓ Oversees Gautrain ǓǓ Involved in specifying service ǓǓ Disburses capital funding for management agency and funds level standards within expansion and renewal of rail operational shortfall according jurisdiction infrastructure and PRASA’s fleet to ridership guarantee as well as operational subsidy

Source: Miscellaneous policy and legislative framework 41 Using Pu blic Transp o r

In general, public transport draws on a variety of Infrastructure grant funding sources, often used in conjunction with one First mooted in the 2005/06 budget, the PTIG’s predecessor another (National Audit Office, 2012). Public transport – the Public Transport Infrastructure Systems Grants infrastructure and operations are funded from the (PTISG) – was used to fund some of the more pressing t f u nding to crea fiscus, private sector and user charges. The source public transport infrastructure projects for host cities ahead of funding depends on policy aims, the historical of the 2010 FIFA World Cup (National Treasury, 2006: 800). context, the service that is funded and the risk-sharing arrangements. In its latest iteration, the PTIG is allocated to municipalities t e incl

for the development of IPTNs (National Treasury, u sive ci t ies 2014). As Figure 7 shows, its growth has been rapid, Conditional grants totalling about R20.2-billion in expenditure on public Throughout the world, national governments are transport infrastructure between 2009/10 and 2013/14. increasingly using conditional grants to direct funding Understandably, some of this expenditure was driven by 34 towards specific priorities. The conditions attached the need for a functional public transport system in host 35 to these grants are stringent and regulate how and cities ahead of the 2010 FIFA World Cup. Following the 36 37 when public funds are spent. For national government, surge in expenditure by the early adopters of the BRT, 38 39 conditional grants are powerful instruments that growth in expenditure is expected to moderate, as existing 40 minimise the risk of non-performance by tying funding projects near completion and several cities complete their 41 42 to strict conditions. For cities, however, conditional IPTN plans (National Treasury, 2014). Yet funding the 43 44 grants can be inflexible sources of funding, that can expansion of existing BRT networks and the rollout of new 45 restrict their ability to plan and implement integrated IPTNs will place large demands on the national fiscus. 46 47 transport networks. 48 49 Figure 6: PTIG growth between 2009/10 and 2015/16 50 In general, conditional grants can be allocated for building 51 2009/10 2 450 52 capital infrastructure or, alternatively, for subsidising 53 the cost of operations. Investment in public transport 54 2010/11 3 750 55 infrastructure (whether BRT systems, roads or rail) has 56 2011/12 4 750 largely been driven by conditional grants in South Africa. The Public Transport Infrastructure Grant (PTIG) has 2012/13 4 850 mostly funded the IPTNs, but other cross cutting grants, 2013/14 4 750 such as the Urban Settlement Development Grant 2014/15 4 950 (USDG) and the Municipal Infrastructure Grant (MIG), also contribute to the financing of road-based public 2015/16 5 010 transport infrastructure. Source: National Treasury database Note: In 2012/13, the PTISG was spilt into the PTIG and PTNOG. Therefore, figures after 2012/13, reflect the PTIG only 42 How to Build Transit-oriented Cities: Exploring Possibilities

The PTIG promotes government’s devolution agenda by are difficult instruments to get right and, when designed allocating funding directly from the national fiscus to poorly, can create inefficient public transport systems. municipalities. In its current form, the PTIG funds three Thus the level, structure and quantum of the subsidy types of expenditure: become critical when setting up IPTNs.

1. The development of comprehensive IPTN plans, In its broadest terms, the Public Transport Operations which must demonstrate integration with other Grant (PTOG) and Public Transport Network Operations modalities and create transit systems that are Grant (PTNOG) are two subsidy instruments used to fund passenger centric, accessible and affordable. the operational costs of public transport operators. The 2. The construction of fixed infrastructure as part of the PTOG is allocated to provinces, and a large of part of the IPTN, including the immovable infrastructure such grant is used to fund private bus operators in metropolitan as bus stations, depots, boarding bridges, ‘kassel’ municipalities. As Figure 2 shows, the allocation to the kerbs2 and lane enforcement enhancements. In the PTOG is substantial: on average R4.6-billion over the start-up phase of the IPTN, the PTIG can be used to medium term, with 20% of all PTOG funding earmarked procure vehicles that will be used by contractors, with for cities by 2016/17. The problem with this arrangement the grant funding streams being used as collateral is that, until recently, cities had little influence over bus to finance the purchase of vehicles.3 In addition, the operators that serviced their jurisdiction because the funding can be used to build NMT infrastructure, operational subsidies were paid by province. such as pedestrian precincts and cycling lanes to complement other modes of transport. Figure 7: Growth in operating grants to municipalities and 3. The setup costs of operational and business provinces systems (e.g. ticketing system, financial and information technical systems) necessary for the 900 2013/14 functioning of the service. 4 500 920 2014/15 Operating grants 4 850

Capital outlays for establishing IPTNs are sizeable. For 1 920 2015/16 the private sector, funding large capital investments (e.g. 5 010 the purchase of buses) only becomes viable if the return 1 350 2016/17 on investment is attractive or guaranteed. Therefore, to 5 300 entice private operators, governments subsidise public PTNOG transport, so that the private operators can earn an PTOG acceptable return on their investment, but transport Source: National Treasury database services remain affordable to users. However, subsidies

2. These are concave-section kerbs for bus stops served by low-floor buses, first introduced in the German city of Kassel. They allow the buses to dock as close as possible to the kerb without damaging the tyres. 3. While this may be appropriate during the establishment of the IPTN, international experience suggests that in the long run, cities should adopt an owner- operator model, where the costs and risks associated with purchasing and maintaining vehicles shift to the public transport operator (World Bank, 2011). 43 Using Pu blic Transp o r

The devolution of PTOG to the City of Cape Town (when But what of the minibus taxis? Given the considerable it finally happens) will be a landmark change in the investment and value of this mode of transport, there delivery of public transport. If the function is devolved are clear arguments for formalising the minibus taxi to other metropolitan municipalities, all cities will be industry in a city’s IPTN. Between 2006/07 and 2012/13, t f u nding to crea able to rationalise their routes, add new routes to the the industry scrapped 54 159 taxis, while government has bus system and optimise the use of buses during peak spent R2.7-billion on its taxi recapitalisation programme and off-peak hours. that was proposed in 1999 to improve the safety of travel for one of the most popular modes of public transport.4 t e incl

In a similar way, the devolution of operational rail Minibus taxis have remained profitable by adopting u sive ci t ies subsidies from PRASA to metropolitan municipalities practices that make them a somewhat unsafe and will help foster greater integration between rail and unreliable form of transport. For instance, overloading road-based public transport. For cities, being able to is a common practice, as the marginal revenue of each influence the scheduling, operating times and service additional passenger adds to the profits of the taxi 34 standards in rail will allow them to integrate rail services operator. However, taxis have also developed efficient 35 with road-based public transport. practices to load passengers and share routes, which 36 37 reduce operational costs. 38 39 Administering a subsidy system is a new and foreign 40 terrain for cities, and so, in devolving the function, Although subsidising a service, which would have 41 42 national government must ensure that cities have the otherwise been financially sustainable, is never a good 43 44 necessary capacity to manage and monitor these new idea, incentives are needed to encourage minibus 45 functions. The capacity is not only about administering taxis to participate in the IPTN. One way is to offer a 46 47 the financial aspects of the subsidy, but also about once-off capital grant to allow taxi owners to fit their 48 49 improving the contracting and monitoring of public vehicles with the technology required to participate in 50 transport services. Building contracting and monitoring the IPTN. This capital grant could also be linked to the 51 52 capabilities will allow cities to leverage the subsidies to taxi recapitalisation programme, so taxi owners who 53 improve modal integration and passenger experiences. opt into the IPTN receive both the scrapping allowance 54 55 Therefore, national government should fund part of and the capital grant. Nonetheless, integrating minibus 56 the costs of establishing the capability to administer taxis into the IPTN may create additional operational subsidies in cities, which is likely to be well-spent money. costs for these operators. Therefore, in preparing their IPTNs, cities need to undertake additional research 54 159 to determine whether minibus taxis will require some taxis were scrapped by form of financial support and how best to introduce this the industry between system of subsidisation. 2006/07 and 2012/13

4. MSN News. 2013. ‘Taxi recapitalisation efforts will take another nine years: minister’, 16 August 2013. Online available at: http://news.howzit.msn.com/taxi- recapitalisation-efforts-will-take-another-nine-years-minister 44 How to Build Transit-oriented Cities: Exploring Possibilities

The grant framework could be used as a lever to improve Leveraging the grant framework for modal access and commuter experience. For instance, the design integration of the PTOG could include an incentive component. This The PTIG and PTNOG work together to fund the capped incentive would reward those cities that are infrastructure and part of the operations of the IPTNs. able to improve (or maintain) commuter satisfaction However, like all conditional grants, they are inflexible levels and demonstrate better modal integration. Part funding sources subject to strict conditions. This of the incentive could be passed on to public transport inflexibility is illustrated by comparing the PTIG and operators (e.g. buses and minibus taxis), who would in its predecessor – the PTISG, which combined funding turn be rewarded for efficient and on-time services. for capital expenditure on IPTNs and certain types of operating expenditure. With a single grant (the PTISG), The PTNOG is another operating grant disbursed by cities had some flexibility to shift expenditure between the fiscus. This newly established grant came about the capital and operational components. This was as a result of the spilt between the infrastructure and especially useful in the early years of IPTNs, when cities operational components covered by the PTISG. Cities can were uncertain about the levels of ridership and cost of use this grant to fund ancillary and indirect operational maintenance. Funding could be used to cover certain costs, such as security services, station management, operational costs and alleviate the financial burden on ticketing services and the control centre operations cities. The PTISG was then spilt into the PTIG and PTNOG, associated with the IPTN. However, the PTNOG may not with the intention of providing greater transparency and be used to defray any direct operating costs (e.g. labour, certainty over operational funding (DoT, 2013b), but fuel and vehicle maintenance). as a result cities are no longer able to accommodate lower-than-expected fare revenue in the first years of Supplementary grants such as the PTNOG work in the IPTN operations. interesting ways. They subsidise operational costs while allowing financial risks to be shared between national The trade-off between expenditure control and flexibility and local government. Municipalities are required to becomes an important issue when pursuing modal cover the cost of direct operations and so can reduce integration. Modes of transport in South Africa have their financial obligations if (a) they are able to run developed in response to the spatial patterns of cities. their buses in an efficient and cost-effective manner and Specifically, long-range bus and minibus taxi services (b) they manage to transfer some of the financial costs will remain a feature of the transport landscape for the and risks to public operators. foreseeable future. Although proposed BRT systems will capture part of the market share of these two modalities, Cities are no longer able to accommodate bus services and minibus taxis can operate as feeder lower-than-expected fare revenue in the services. Therefore, strong arguments can be made for integrating BRT, bus and minibus taxi infrastructure to first years of the IPTN operations. create a seamlessness commute. 45 Using Pu blic Transp o r

For cities, this means developing IPTN plans that allow Fiscal allocation transit between bus stations, minibus taxi ranks and Passenger rail is funded through an allocation made BRT stations. These plans would allow cities to cover by national government to PRASA, which in 2014/15 additional infrastructure investment associated with amounted to R11.1-billion for upgrading rail infrastructure t f u nding to crea modal integration. However, the problem is that cities and purchasing new rolling stock. PRASA also gets an have been slow to develop their IPTNs, which in many operational subsidy of R3.9-billion to fund the shortfall instances focus on BRT systems and give less attention between its fare revenues and operational costs. to other modes of transport. t e incl

Under the previous administrative arrangement, when u sive ci t ies This issue can be dealt with in two possible ways through the Metrorail fell under Transnet, the operational subsidy grants. First, grant conditions should include a requirement was given on a cost-plus basis, where a management to demonstrate the approach and sequencing of modal fee was added to compensate the rail operator. Although integration within the IPTNs. This would allow cities the this arrangement has probably continued, international 34 flexibility to access the PTIG for infrastructure that may 35 be built in later phases but is an important stepping stone 36 37 for modal integration. National government officials are 38 39 likely to argue that this will open up the PTIG to all sorts 40 of claims and requests for funding. But, without a grant 41 42 framework that encourages modal integration across 43 44 all forms of public transport, the IPTNs risk becoming 45 a BRT-driven system, which may not be appropriate for 46 47 all cities. A rigid PTIG framework also risks discouraging 48 49 private operators from participating in the IPTN. 50 51 52 Second, all infrastructure grants that fund road- and 53 rail-based public transport should be linked to a city’s 54 55 IPTN. In practice grants, such as the USDG, MIG and 56 Neighbourhood Development and Partnership Grant (NDPG) should require (as part of their conditions) any planned infrastructure to cater for different modes of public transport and include modal interchanges. Incorporating this type of consistent messaging into the grant framework for road- and rail-based public Long-range bus and minibus taxi services will remain a feature of the transport will encourage modal integration. transport landscape for the foreseeable future. 46 How to Build Transit-oriented Cities: Exploring Possibilities

experience shows that operational subsidies are best Own revenue allocated on the basis of per passenger kilometre For most cities, operating bus services is a costly exercise. travelled. This approach is useful for many reasons, not Between 2009/10 and 2013/14, the South African cities least because it enables intermodal comparisons and spent a combined R6.5-billion on public bus services eliminates the perverse incentives associated with a per- (see Figure 9 for a breakdown per city). passenger subsidy.

Figure 8: Operating expenditure on public buses (2009/10-2013/14*)

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

0 Buffalo City Cape Town City Of City Of Ekurhuleni eThekwini Mangaung** Nelson Johannesburg Tshwane Metro Mandela Bay**

2009/10 2010/11 2011/12 2012/13 2013/14 2014/15 2015/16

Source: National Treasury local government database * Revised estimate of expenditure for the 2013/14 financial year **data was not available for Mangaung and Nelson Mandela Bay

The City of Johannesburg spent on average R431-million Similarly, the City of Tshwane’s operating expenditure per annum to operate their metro bus service and cater will increase towards the end of 2013/14 financial for any shortfalls on the Rea Vaya. This expenditure has year as the A Re Yeng BRT is rolled out. No operating thus far been funded by their equitable share and local expenditure is recorded for Buffalo City and Mangaung, tax revenue. Between 2012/13 and 2013/14 the City of as these municipalities are in the process of developing Cape Town’s operational expenditure increased rapidly, their IPTN plans, or in Nelson Mandela Bay municipality, although the drivers behind this steep rise are unclear. where the BRT is no longer operational. 47 Using Pu blic Transp o r

Over the next decade, as the costs of operating bus way to get around the country’s sprawling cities. This car- services increase, cities will have to make provisions captive market requires smooth roads and a host of traffic- to fund the shortfall between operating costs and user directing and calming measures, all of which come at a charges. These shortfalls will place additional pressure cost to cities. Between 2009/10 and 2013/14, South African t f u nding to crea on the already constrained city budgets. However, all hope cities spent approximately R23-billion on maintaining is not lost: cities have opportunities to extract additional road and instituting traffic measures, or about four value from their investment in public transport. Possible times the amount spent on funding bus services (Figure revenue streams for cities include mechanisms such 10). Ekurhuleni spends the most on road maintenance, t e incl

as business taxes, land value capture, station rents, air as a result of the high level of industrialisation in the u sive ci t ies rights and advertising, but more research is needed to municipality, which means that scores of heavy vehicles understand when and how these mechanisms can be use municipal roads and are responsible for road wear used without stifling the economy of cities.5 and tear. This volume of vehicle traffic is worrying, not only for Ekurhuleni but for any cities seeking to move to a low- 34 Cities also have to spend money on roads and other traffic- carbon future. It is critical to get citizens out of their cars 35 associated measures because cars are the most convenient and onto public transport. 36 37 38 39 Figure 9: Operational expenditure on roads (2009/10–2013/14*) 40 41 1600 42 43 1400 44 45 1200 46 47 48 1000 49 50 800 51 52 600 53 54 400 55 56 200

0 Buffalo City Cape Town City Of City Of Ekurhuleni eThekwini Mangaung Nelson Johannesburg Tshwane Metro Mandela Bay

2009/10 2010/11 2011/12 2012/13 2013/14 2014/15 2015/16

Source: National Treasury local government database * Revised estimate of expenditure for the 2013/14 financial year

5. Refer chapter 'Using land-use management to create transit-friendly cities' 48 How to Build Transit-oriented Cities: Exploring Possibilities

In general, road maintenance in metropolitan municipalities However, fares are not just about cost recovery. Experiments is funded from the fuel levy, equitable share and/or their in behavioural economics reveal that user charges can own tax revenues. Since 2006/07, the fuel levy is now influence the travel decisions of commuters. For instance, a direct charge against the national revenue fund and cities such as Chengdu in China offer free public transport allocated to metropolitan municipalities on the basis of to commuters between 5am and 7am to discourage fuel sales in their jurisdiction (National Treasury, 2008). private travel and ease congestion during peak time.6 The intent behind the fuel levy is to make sure that road An experiment in Singapore found that rewards coupled users in cities fund the maintenance of the roads that with lower user charges could be used to spread peaks. they use. The fuel levy poses an interesting conundrum The scheme was designed by the University of Stanford for cities because, as the share of private travel declines to determine the response of commuters to incentives: and public transport rises, their allocation of the fuel Singaporeans were rewarded with loyalty prizes for levy will eventually decrease. Although this is unlikely to using public transport outside peak time, with ticket happen over the medium term, it becomes problematic if holders receiving triple credits if they travelled outside municipalities rely on the fuel levy to fund other types of the peak.7 This incentive scheme was highly successful, expenditure, which appears to be the case. The fuel levy as commuters responded by renegotiating their hours allocation to cities grew from R6.8-billion in 2009/10 to of work in order to take advantage of the lower public around R9.6-billion in 2013/14. Over the same period, transport fees. expenditure on road maintenance increased from R4.2 to R4.5-billion. The difference between the fuel levy In general, public transport operators apply some allocation and expenditure on road maintenance suggests form of fare differentiation based on time of travel. that funds for road maintenance were diverted towards Differentiating by time of travel involves a tricky balance other expenditure. Ideally, the fuel levy allocation should between setting public transport fares low enough be ring-fenced to fund road maintenance and public to encourage citizens to use it and high enough to transport within cities. This would encourage cities to discourage peak time use. Fare differentiation is not a make available a dedicated stream of own revenue to new concept in South Africa. Passengers using metro fund public transport initiatives. buses, Metrorail and the Gautrain are given the choice of purchasing a daily, weekly or monthly ticket. In this way, passengers benefit from cheaper daily fares when User charges purchasing weekly and monthly tickets, while operators Historically, user charges were set to recover the are better able to manage their operations and cash flows operational costs of public transport services. In the case when passengers pay in advance. BRT systems tend to of bus services geared towards low-income communities, differentiate fares according to the time of travel. Strong fares were used to recover the difference between the peak periods draw steeper fares, as capital costs need to cost of public transport and the subsidy. be significantly higher to meet the additional demand.

6. China Daily. 2012. ‘Free bus rides offered to ease road congestion’, 11 October 2012. [Online] Available at: http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2012-10/11/content_15808457.htm 7. Railway Gazette. 2012. ‘Singapore offers loyalty prizes to ensure off-peak metro travel’, 1 February 2012. Online available at: http://www.railwaygazette.com/ news/urban/single-view/view/singapore-offers-loyalty-prizes-to-encourage-off-peak-metro-travel.html 49 Using Pu blic Transp o r

The nature of public transport means that higher capital the commuters by asking them to select between two investments is needed to accommodate peak periods: categories – standard and frequent traveller. Frequent more buses, infrastructure and systems are needed to travellers receive additional discounts on fares if they accommodate short peaks in transport demand but are use and load their MyConnect card regularly. By allowing t f u nding to crea then underutilised in off-peak times. commuters to identify their own travel patterns, the city applies price differentiation to secure a regular ridership Table 2 illustrates the fare differentiation by time of travel for its bus services. In addition to identifying categories of for the Rea Vaya and MyCiti. The Rea Vaya differentiates commuters, MyCiti differentiates fares according to the t e incl

between commuters travelling at peak and off-peak time of travel. u sive ci t ies times, whereas MyCiti establishes the travel pattern of

Table 2: Comparison of Rea Vaya and MyCiti Fares

Fare differentiation Less than 25 km Cost per km More than 25 km Cost per km 34 35 Peak R11.50 R0.46 R12.50 R0.21 36 Rea Vaya 37 Off peak R10.35 R0.41 R11.25 R0.19 38 39 40 Fare differentiation 20–30 km Cost per km 30–60 km Cost per km 41 42 Standard – Peak R12.70 R0.42 R14.30 R0.24 43 44 Standard – Off peak R10.50 R0.35 R11.70 R0.20 45 MyCiti 46 Frequent – Peak R9.80 R0.33 R10.90 R0.18 47 48 Frequent – Off peak R8.00 R0.27 R9.00 R0.15 49 50 Sources: www.reavaya.org.za, www.myciti.org.za and own calculations 51 52 53 The analysis of the cost per kilometre reveals some to encourage sprawl and delay much needed urban 54 55 interesting insights. When comparing standard fares, transformation, unless concerted efforts are made to 56 Rea Vaya is cheaper over longer distances. However, halt this trend. the MyCiti frequent traveller fares outperform the Rea Vaya on all distances in both peak and off-peak times. more buses, infrastructure and The cost per kilometre is also much lower over long distances and purposively set to support historically systems are needed to accommodate disadvantaged communities who live on the urban edge short peaks in transport demand but are of cities. However, as with the subsidised bus service, the then underutilised in off-peak times BRT system is likely over the short and medium term 50 How to Build Transit-oriented Cities: Exploring Possibilities

Metrorail differentiates its fare based on the frequency comprehensive fare policy that covers the fare structure of travel. Commuters can purchase single, return, weekly across all road- and rail-based transport modes. or monthly tickets. It also offers concessions to scholars and pensioners who pay between 40% and 50% less The challenge for South African cities is to look than a full fare. Metrorail offers three services: Metro, beyond their existing practices, to structure fares that MetroPlus and Express. The MetroPlus service is a promote public transport and penalise private travel. premium class travel and offers passengers greater This requires interrogating the array of user charges comfort, while Metro is the economy class fare. The fare available to them to achieve these objectives. For per kilometre for economy service is significantly lower instance, cities could consider selling discounted bulk compared to the BRT: over a 30-kilometre train trip, transit passes to employers, who in turn can use them average fares per kilometre are estimated at 23 cents, to subsidise the travel costs of their employees, or using or about half the price of a BRT ticket (Metrorail, 2014). congestion and parking charges to discourage private travel into the city. As the fiscal framework changes, cities will invariably be under more pressure to fund operational activities, which may require them to review how user charges (or Towards built environment bus fares) are set. When designed well, user charges are integration a powerful tool for cities to influence the use of public transport. In designing their fare systems, cities have to Distances and density are two important factors for balance the competing objectives of cost recovery from public transport, as together they determine the cost of the user and the promotion of public transport – which public transport and, ultimately, influence affordability. in itself is not an easy feat. Distance and density relates to the city’s urban form, and how this form changes over time will influence where Affordability remains a major concern for the millions public transport networks are built and what services of South Africans who use public transport. To maintain are provided. Conversely, investments in public transport affordable public transport services, cities will have to influence where people choose to work and live. monitor the average commuting cost for the different modes of transport and the price sensitivity of commuters Internationally, spatial planning methods, such as transit- to increases. This will become especially difficult when oriented development (TOD), have emerged but are different modes of transport offer different fares for similar difficult to implement when existing spatial patterns are lengths of travel. Therefore, cities will need to encourage firmly entrenched in the landscape of cities. Where this competition for the market and not in the market, through happens, governments have focused on and attempted well-designed IPTNs that carve out the market for each to guide any new developments by creating strong links mode of transport. Additionally, cities will require a between transport and land-use planning. Funding arrangements are then tied into these comprehensive 51 Using Pu blic Transp o r plans over a five-year period. For instance, in Australia the Using funding instruments to create additional plans state government compiles a comprehensive transport around the built environment (as in the case of the and land-use plan, with funding instruments and BEPP, which is now a requirement for both USDGs and sources of finance tied to specific and approved projects the ICDG) also creates an additional compliance burden t f u nding to crea in the plan. Each project must meet certain criteria that on cities (National Treasury, 2014). demonstrate how it contributes to the spatial vision of the city and integrates with other built environment functions. Although funding should not dictate the urban form This detailed and sequenced approach to planning and long-term spatial planning, the conditional grant t e incl

allows cities to understand how transport and land-use framework is a powerful instrument and can be better u sive ci t ies interventions will change the city’s urban form over the designed to promote built environment integration. next five years (South Australia, 2013). In practical terms, this means that all conditional grants (including the PTIG and PTNOG) should include South African sprawling cities were not planned and built ‘integration’ conditions that all cities must meet when 34 to meet the needs of a large majority of the population. developing new infrastructure or subsidising operations. 35 Therefore, integrating public transport with the built This could include minimum density ratios for priority 36 37 environment is crucial to building compact, inclusive, transport infrastructure. Other grants such as the USDG 38 39 connected cities. The first necessary step towards this should include conditions that call for any planned 40 vision was to strengthen the planning environment. human settlement development to be aligned to the IPTN. 41 42 Although some progress has been made through the Conditions may also include maximum commuting time 43 44 spatial and integrated development planning framework, and distance to transport points, in line with the standards 45 much more needs to be done. Funding mechanisms set out in the White Paper. The purpose of these conditions 46 47 cannot improve the quality of integrated planning but is to ensure that investments in public transport prioritise 48 49 can be used to recognise and give weight to these plans. infrastructure that leads to a compact urban form. 50 51 52 However, the tendency has been for funding to dictate 53 planning instruments. For example, the Integrated City 54 Leveraging private participation 55 Development Grant (ICDG) is a positive grant meant in public transport 56 to reward cities for integrating their built environment functions to achieve a more compact urban form. It Historically, governments have funded public transport requires cities to develop Built Environment Performance from taxes and, to a lesser extent, user charges. The sheer Plans (BEPPs) in addition to their IDPs, which arguably scale of investment required in public transport means undermines the essence of an integrated development that government cannot be solely responsible for financing plan and, more importantly, suggests that integration infrastructure investment. In some countries, public- depends on the existence of a separate grant framework private partnerships have built and efficiently operated that rewards cities for their attempts to integrate. BRTs, for the most part without any form of subsidisation. 52 How to Build Transit-oriented Cities: Exploring Possibilities

One example is the TransMilenio system in Bogotá, an plan improvements, implement expansion and manage integrated BRT system that uses busways, stations and the system. Bus operators are responsible for all direct terminals adapted for large-capacity buses, and fare capital and operational costs associated with providing integrated operations with smaller buses on the outskirts and maintaining bus services. They purchase buses in of the city. The system consists of 12 lines covering line with pre-determined specifications contained in 112 km throughout the city and is one of the world’s concession contracts, hire bus drivers and maintain their largest BRT systems. The city government is responsible fleets. They operate both trunk and feeder lines (World for providing and maintaining infrastructure (e.g. trunk Bank, 2011: 10). Under this arrangement, efficiencies lines, stations, terminals and effecting the necessary within the BRT system have driven down fare prices and road works), while private operators provide the bus made travel in Bogota among the cheapest in the world services on a concession basis. TransMilenio S.A. is a (Figure 11). More importantly, it ensures that operations public entity, wholly owned by the city government, and are financially sustainable over the long term. established to oversee the performance of bus operators,

Figure 10: Fare comparison across multiple countries

4,00

3,50

3,00

2,50

2,00

1,50

1,00

0,50

0,00 Kiev Lima Paris Delhi Seoul Tokyo Rome Berlin Beijing Manila Sydney Bogotá Nairobi Jakarta London Tel Aviv Tel Mumbai Istanbul Bangkok Manama New York Budapest Frankfurt Shanghai São Paulo São Barcelona Hong Kong Mexico City Amsterdam Los Angeles Los Buenos Aires Johannesburg Kuala Lumpur Kuala Rio De Janeiro Santiago De Chile Santiago

Source: UBS (2012) Note: Fares based on a minimum of a 10-stop or 10-kilometre bus ride. 53 Using Pu blic Transp o r

In South Africa, the Gautrain experience shows that unreliable, which frustrates not only passengers but private sector investment in public transport is possible, also government. but the public sector carries disproportionate risks. 3. The risk-sharing arrangements must be appropriate

The Bombela Concession Company holds the 20-year to each party’s risk appetite. Private sector t f u nding to crea concession to design, build, partially finance and operate companies are driven by bottom lines and profits, the Gautrain (Gautrain, 2011). Private sector investment and so they are often unwilling to take risks without in the Gautrain accounts for approximately 11% of the a commensurate level of return on investment total infrastructure cost, with the remainder being in public transport infrastructure and operations. t e incl

financed by government. The concessionaire derives Similarly, government cannot be expected to bear u sive ci t ies its revenue mainly from ticket sales but also has in most of the risks associated with delivering public place a patronage guarantee (Dachs, 2011). The latter transport. Sharing risks, in a way that suits both the guarantees the concessionaire revenue if ridership falls public and private sector, requires willingness by below a certain threshold and is part of the risk-sharing both parties to engage and negotiate – but mostly a 34 arrangements included in the concession contract. commitment to working together. 35 36 37 In most instances, the private sector partner is unlikely To date, the experience of cities in leveraging private 38 39 to be willing to finance the large capital costs associated sector participation in the public sector has been a less 40 with immovable public transport infrastructure. However, than happy one. Cities have found it difficult to work with 41 42 investing in vehicles and operating public transport the newly formed taxi structures on the BRT and have 43 44 networks may be attractive for the private sector. For this struggled to find suitable private operators for the BRT 45 to happen, three aspects need to be in place: control centres. Nonetheless, these initial problems offer 46 47 1. Government has to clearly define its plans, identify valuable lessons for cities in determining the approach 48 49 the roles and responsibilities of different spheres to negotiating and determining the right level of risk 50 and agree on the role of the private sector. At city sharing between public and private sectors. 51 52 level, IPTN plans should ideally outline financially 53 viable projects and routes where private operators 54 55 could operate or maintain infrastructure. Encouraging low carbon 56 2. The private sector also requires regulatory and public transport contractual certainty. The South African experience with the interim bus contracts demonstrates the Urban sprawl exacerbates environmental pollution – impact of contractual uncertainty on private sector as car usage rises, so too does the noxious smog that investment decisions. Most bus operators on these envelopes a city. Public transport in itself is the green types of contracts have opted not to invest in option. In general, all measures aimed at increasing upgrading, renewing or maintaining their fleets. the availability and affordability of public transport As a consequence, the service is increasingly will reduce greenhouse gas emissions in three ways: 54 How to Build Transit-oriented Cities: Exploring Possibilities

(1) The relative cost of public transport comes down, public transport and the fragmental spatial patterns left which leads to higher uptake, so long as the public by apartheid, car ownership has become an aspirational transport networks meet the needs of users. (2) The level choice for many South Africans. As incomes have risen, of emissions reduces with a shift from private to public so too has car ownership. For those that already own transport, provided utilisation rates are reasonable. cars, lifestyles and choices are built around private travel. With more people using existing public transport, the reduction in emissions from cars outweighs the Building IPTNs is a necessary step towards changing negligible increase in emissions from public transport. perceptions about public transport. Over time, these IPTNs As transport emissions are directly related to fuel use, can also play an important role in changing the urban any measures to encourage off-peak usage will reduce form, to compact, low carbon, inclusive and connected emissions. (3) Densities increase and distances reduce, cities. Although some progress has been made in as TOD and built environment integration take hold. All developing IPTN plans, what is lacking is a comprehensive of this points to the fact that public transport is the ‘low approach to funding public transport, which considers all carbon option’ in most cases. sources of funding and does not just rely on the national fiscus to fund IPTN infrastructure and operations. Grant frameworks can be used to encourage low carbon public transport by influencing the building programme While international evidence points to the difficulties and by offering operators incentives to use more energy- in getting the private sector to fund the large capital efficient processes and vehicles. The PTIG does this to outlays needed for public transport infrastructure, the some extent, by requiring all buses funded by the grant private sector has a meaningful role to play in financing to comply with EURO IV emission standards. In addition, movable assets, systems and operating the network. In the PTIG funds non-motorised forms of transport that addition, cities can use their fare policies and an array have almost no carbon footprint. Similar conditions of other instruments, such as value capture, to finance could be replicated and included in the PTOG, once it is public transport investment. devolved to metropolitan municipalities. While the fiscus remains the primary source of funding for public transport, the grant framework clearly offers an Conclusion opportunity to encourage modal and built environment integration. However, this means that cities have to Millions of South Africans who use public transport have strengthen their IPTNs to demonstrate modal integration. to put up with unreliable and unsafe services, and face The current grant instruments (such as the PTIG) should long commutes across multiple modes of transport. also be flexible enough to allow cities to sequence the For them, better public transport is about knowing that development of public transport infrastructure, e.g. for the service is accessible, affordable, reliable, safe and buses and the minibus taxi, provided it is clearly linked hopefully fast. But, after decades of under-investment in to the IPTN. The conditions in the grant framework 55 Using Pu blic Transp o r

presentations/STMCE2011/William_Dachs_ (which currently consists of multiple grants funding road- Gautrain%20A%20Case%20Study.pdf based transport) are equally important and should be consistent in their pursuit of modal and built environment DoT (Department of Transport). 2007. Public Transport t f u nding to crea integration. In this way, the grant framework can be used Strategy. Online available at: www.gov.za/ to add weight to existing planning instruments and not documents/download.php?f=127080 dictate new plans and compliance requirements that place onerous requirements on cites. DoT. 2012. Business Case for an Investment Programme t e incl in Road Based Transport, Pretoria: DoT.

Getting public transport right is vital to South African’s u sive ci t ies economic and political future. For this to happen, all DoT. 2013. Briefing on public transport subsidies. Online spheres of government need to be more assiduous in available at: www.pmg.co.za developing public transport funding arrangements that promote modal and spatial integration. If the funding DoT. 2013. Guidelines for the PTIG and PTNOG, Pretoria: DoT. 34 continues to constrain the country’s commitment towards 35 public transport, the vision of a transformed South African 36 DPME (Department of Performance Monitoring and 37 city will remain elusive for generations to come. 38 Evaluation). 2014. Chapter 5: Infrastructure. 39 40 In 20-Year Review. Online available at: http:// 41 www.thepresidency-dpme.gov.za/news/ 42 References 43 Documents/20YR%20Chapter%205%20 44 Infrastructure.pdf 45 Buthelezi S. 2014. Public transport policy failing the 46 47 South African taxi industry. Online available 48 Edwards PN. 2007. South Africa 2003-04: apartheid at: http://www.thesbu.com/blog/entry/public- 49 as infrastructure. Online available at: http:// 50 transport-policy-failing-the-south-african-taxi- 51 infrastructuration.blogspot.com/2007/04/apartheid- 52 industry 53 as-infrastructure.html 54 55 City of Johannesburg, 2013. Strategic Integrated Gautrain. 2011. About the Gautrain. Online available at: 56 Transport Plan Framework. Online available at: http://www.gautrain.co.za/about/about-gautrain/ http://www.joburg.org.za/images/stories/2013/May/ concessionnaire/#sthash.gP2KZShc.dpuf CoJ%20SITPF%20Draft%2013%20May%202013.pdf National Audit Office. 2012. Funding for local transport: Dachs W. 2011. Gautrain: A case study. Online an overview. Online available at: www.nao.org.uk/ available at: http://alive2green.com/conference- local-transport-funding-2012 56 How to Build Transit-oriented Cities: Exploring Possibilities

National Treasury. 2006. Vote 33 Transport. Online Transnet. 2011. South Africa: A Railway Country. Online available at: http://www.treasury.gov.za/documents/ availble at: http://www.transnetfreightrail-tfr.net/ national%20budget/2006/ene/Vote%2033%20 Heritage/150years/150YearsRail.pdf Transport.pdf UBS. 2012. Price and Earnings Report. Online available National Treasury. 2008. Local Government Budgets at: www.ubs.com and Expenditure. Online available at: www.treasury. gov.za World Bank. 2011. The TransMilenio system in Bogota. Online available at: http://siteresources.worldbank. National Treasury, 2014. Budget 2014 Estimates of org/INTURBANTRANSPORT/Resources/Factsheet- National Expenditure: Vote 37 Transport. Online TransMilenio.pdf available at: http://www.treasury.gov.za/documents/ national%20budget/2014/enebooklets/Vote%20 37%20Transport.pdf

RSA (Republic of South Africa). 1996. White Paper on National Transport Policy. Online available at: http://www.taxi-library.org/white-paper-pretoria.pdf

Smith DM. 1992. The Apartheid City and Beyond: Urbanization and Social Change in South Africa. Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press.

South Australia. 2013. Land and Transport Plan. Online available at: http://www.landandtransportplan. sa.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0020/117434/ Central_and_Inner_Adelaide.pdf

Teljeur E. 2006. Administered Prices. Pretoria: National Treasury. 71 74 61 72 73 76 75 67 70 62 59 63 69 58 65 64 60 68 66

57 Transforming the Minibus Taxi Industry through Technology axi axi David Schmidt David inibus T inibus the M Transforming echnology T through Industry 58 How to Build Transit-oriented Cities: Exploring Possibilities

Introduction

the public transport network of the immediate future will need to be a hybrid system, comprising the different modes

The key idea driving urban public transport reform in The Public Transport Strategy (DoT, 2007) says very South Africa is the establishment of integrated public little about the MBT industry and how its capacities and transport networks (IPTNs). These networks are also strengths can be used within a multi-modal network emerging as the foundation for organising urban servicing a range of settlement types and needs. An spatial transformation and concentrating future urban assumption of the strategy is that the city, as controlling development around key nodes and corridors of the authority, will incorporate all trunk and feeder services emerging public transport network. However, a public into the IPTN, in terms of a gross contract, which would transport network is only as good as the public transport allow the city to control and manage scheduled services modes that service it. And, while considerable resources throughout the network. are currently being used, both to strengthen the rail mode under PRASA and to establish city-controlled bus The high level of integration, with a single multi-modal rapid transit (BRT) systems, a central element is missing: ticketing system or a complete subsidised and contracted the strengthening of the critical minibus taxi (MBT) multi-modal service, is very much a long-term goal. component of the network – the largest transport mode While this may be a desirable goal, the necessary used by passengers. financial and institutional resources will not be in place 71 74 61 72 73 76 75 67 70 62 59 63 69 58 65 64 60 68 Transforming the Minibus Taxi Industry through Technology 66 59

65% , train and, train T assengers in s, compared to 21% who 21% to s, compared T own, where a number of the a number own, where 21% verview an areas in South Africa A) in Cape T A) in Cape 14% sector provides a relatively cheap, flexible and cheap, flexible a relatively provides T sector metropolit nsport p % of public transport s are the single largest public transport mode serving the single s are T Ts Bus axi Association (PT axi Association rains MB T his is followed This is followed in practice. tested were solutions technology remarks. and concluding steps by some recommended ndustry O Industry MBT MB of public 65% areas, in metropolitan cities: South Africa’s transport passengers use MB 4). 2014: the bus (StatsSA, who take and 14% use trains public transport split – between the modal Interestingly, the MB car passengers, and between and private bus public transport – has changed very modes over little the same as in 2003. exactly and is almost the past decade The MB It poor communities. service, to convenient particularly fragmentation spatial to response a creative represents It is the urban poor. of public transport for and the lack an important opportunity also business and employment with an estimated people, marginalised economically for – achieved than R16.5-billion of more turnover annual public subsidisation. without any he four areas are then drawn together in a summary together then drawn are areas The four The solutions. of the technology describing each table the by reviewing is examined of these solutions feasibility with the Peninsula project -funded pilot of an EU outcomes T

T T T , rail, BR , rail, T

sector has the T sector ) ICT ( T industry and presenting tion and T mode. The MB hnology hnology tion tec What are the needs in the South African MB the South African the needs in are What context (including opportunities(including and constraints)? context the challenge? address do to can technology What for the benefits of the identified solutions are What transport authorities and for for cities and citizens, the taxi industry? ommunica ʪ ʪ ʪ ma the use of new infor c ential has the pot tor sec The MBT through e massively improv to herefore, the public transport Therefore, future. the foreseeable for a hybrid be to need will future of the immediate network (MB modes the different comprising system, the use of new through massively improve to potential (ICT), geared technology and communication information bold political combined with transport management, to the industry. from responses and innovative leadership sector, four areas of potential performance improvement are performance improvement of potential areas four sector, safety enforcement, and detail: regulation in more explored integration, and intermodal management fleet and security, theof each In interactivity. and information passenger and out: teased questions are the following areas, four ʪ ʪ ʪ After a brief overview the MB of After supporting the MB the argument for and developing he logical consequence is that a key next-generation next-generation key a consequence is that The logical supportpublic transport intervention is to major MB in the improvements and bus) working together in a complementary manner, in a complementary manner, together and bus) working This of integration. levels increasing with incrementally which is unashamedly the chapter, is the assumption of a piece of policy advocacy. 60 How to Build Transit-oriented Cities: Exploring Possibilities

At the same time, the MBT industry is beset by significant Yet parts of the MBT industry have consolidated and challenges. Inadequate regulation and enforcement reached a more mature stage of institutional development. has resulted in over-trading on many routes, which has A new generation of forward-looking leaders appears spawned high levels of taxi violence and compromised to be emerging, while the potential for partnership and efficiency and profitability. This in turn reinforces the innovation (although uneven) is growing. lack of vehicle maintenance, poor driving practices, and low skills and training in the sector, which is widely seen Government policy towards the MBT industry has been as being unsafe and having poor customer service. somewhat ambiguous, vacillating between seeing the MBT as a key part of the mobility solution and as a A decade ago, the industry was characterised as the problem sector. It is important to note that MBT operations vanguard of black entrepreneurship in South Africa and as were essentially illegal until 1987, when the reality of the the BEE success story. The industry has subsequently lost emerging industry was accepted and allowed for the first that cachet and is often described as a problematic sector, time. Having acknowledged the reality of the MBT sector, resistant to regulation and innovation, and unwilling to government’s first major initiative was to build MBT adopt new technologies because of various factors. These interchanges and associated infrastructure, particularly factors include low levels of trust, low skills and capacity, after 1994. Up until 2005, this was probably the major and the domination of vested interests with little interest public transport intervention, and a strong focus in many in modernising and formalising the industry. cities, but has declined in emphasis over the past decade. The operational management and maintenance of these facilities have often been poor since then.

Complementing the focus on MBT infrastructure was a gradual consolidation of the MBT regulatory regime. The permit system was refined, with the intention of addressing conflict in the industry and reducing over- trading. Key principles included (1) only one association would be allowed to operate on any single route (to avoid inter-association conflict), and (2) the cities, through their transport planning functions, would determine appropriate levels of MBT ‘supply’ on a route, to ensure that the demand could be met while minimising over- trading. However, large parts of the MBT regulatory system are dysfunctional, and significant levels of piracy, non-compliance with operating licence requirements and disregard of traffic regulations prevail. 71 74 61 72 73 76 75 67 70 62 59 63 69 58 65 64 60 68 66

61 Transforming the Minibus Taxi Industry through Technology T T modes, T mode can s as ‘fluid like water. water. like s as ‘fluid T is ideally suited to dispersed dispersed to suited T is ideally modes. With its flexibility, adaptability adaptability flexibility, With its modes. T operator described MB T operator sector is sufficiently flexible to adapt to the adapt to flexible is sufficiently T sector industry to evolve in terms of safety, cost efficiency, cost efficiency, of safety, in terms T industry evolve to a very useful feeder system to the rail and BR the rail to a very system useful feeder services more’ and that ‘last kilometre the providing provide. servicesscheduled cannot viably patterns density spatial and low dispersed The relatively MB the cities make of South Africa’s characteristic a critical element of the overall public transport public mix. of the overall element a critical transportpublic can modes rapid expensive, More higher- core along term be sustained in the long only he MB density corridors. T mode flexible which need a more areas, lower-density rail, of the levels the investment require does not that BR and bus the MB demand, to and responsiveness than better some mobility requirements address also public transport ‘hub and spoke’ scheduled traditional, to ‘spokes’) (the routes modes, which run on defined other to transfers (the ‘hubs’), where major interchanges A made. are on the same mode or other modes routes MB leading hey take the shape of whatever container they find container whatever the shape of They take outcompete always will we in. This is why themselves point is that of transport’. The essential other forms the MB of both passenger and public changing requirements public transport mode. the key remain policy and will the industry in ‘contain’ The public policy issue is how to and other modes complements optimally a manner that of service. levels improving delivers the of the potential dysfunction has limited Regulatory MB and service conditions working range, service quality, a necessary is arguably regulation Effective profitability. and protection predictability stability, condition, providing , where , where T initiative has been T initiative he coverage of the of coverage The T industry the remain will mode is potentially also also T mode is potentially s with new vehicles, as well as well s with new vehicles, T ) facilities, could potentially could potentially T) facilities, , supported by improved non- , supported by improved T s as the largest public transports as the largest mode, most notably BR T mode, most notably T and rail investments will not be sufficient will investments T and rail industry will remain the largest form of urban of form largest the industryT remain will industry is incorporated as shareholders of the as shareholders T industry is incorporated operating companies. T operating nsport an public transport m of urb est for larg eeable future. es the for for ustry will rin the willema ustry ind The MBT planned BR the MB displace to the MB mode. Furthermore, largest single mode of public transport for the current the current mode of public transportfor single largest transporthorizons. planning increase their respective shares of public transport shares their respective increase in various city integrated passenger trips, as envisaged as the urban population transport plans. Similarly, people class, more middle stabilises and becomes more a car-competitive unless car, by private commute will if these even emerges. However, public transport system shifts happen, the MB modal motorised transport (NM motorised public transport for the foreseeable future. Other modes, future. the foreseeable public transport for and BR such as rail he MB The eveloping the Developing for Argument Sector MBT as to improve service quality and legal compliance. compliance. service legal and quality improve to as emphasis, shifted of cities have Since 2010, a number or replace that public transport on investments focusing the MB complement Government’s most recent MB most recent Government’s taxi recapitalisation, which sought to incentivise the incentivise to which sought taxi recapitalisation, of older MB replacement the MB BR 62 How to Build Transit-oriented Cities: Exploring Possibilities

from over-trading needed to justify investment in and slowly within the speed limit are considerably lower innovation and new practices. Some critical elements per kilometre than racing in order to run additional of a regulatory framework are already in place, in peak trips or driving dangerously. A well-maintained, particular two key principles. The first principle is that relatively new vehicle also has lower operating costs only one association per route is permitted. The intent per kilometre compared to an old, poorly maintained of this principle was to reduce violent conflict between vehicle. However, to achieve these benefits, operators associations competing on the same route. However, the working on a route will have to cooperate in order to added advantage is that it creates the basis for members achieve the efficiencies of running a better service and of the association to work together to manage their share the benefits. The essential point is that the need individual vehicles jointly to improve efficiency – and for improvement should be framed as a commercial ultimately to organise them into single companies to rationale for ‘embracing change’, not as a regulatory and operate optimally their jointly owned fleet. The other punitive ‘case for change’. principle is that operating licences are issued based on supply and demand and that only enough licences Improving the regulatory and enforcement regime has to meet passenger demand on a particular route are proved to be very difficult for provincial governments, to be granted. If properly implemented, this principle who have been responsible for this function thus far. creates the certainty and protection from unregulated However, the shift of regulatory, contracting and competition required to improve safety, driving practices planning roles to cities (allowed by the National Land and vehicle quality.

The economic logic of MBT improvement A challenge in the MBT industry is resistance to change, and previous efforts to introduce monitoring technology in the industry met with strong resistance. Yet there is also a powerful economic logic for the industry to evolve and modernise. Irrespective of the number of MBTs trading, the number of potential MBT passengers (and thus the potential revenue) on a particular route is more or less constant in the short-term. Over-trading results in reduced profitability, not only because this revenue is shared among a larger pool of operators, but also because MBTs incur significantly higher costs per km, as they are competing against each other for the fixed pool of passengers, rather than cooperating to deliver a better service. The operating costs of driving safely 71 74 61 72 73 76 75 67 70 62 59 63 69 58 65 64 60 68 Transforming the Minibus Taxi Industry through Technology 66 63

1 T services. operating licence licence T operating regulation and enforcement and enforcement regulation T R) that details (CPTR) that ransport Record s: regulatory monitoring and enforcement, safety, safety, enforcement, and monitoring regulatory s: T his must be updated annually and must take into into and must take annually This must be updated and demand of MB the supply account he lack of a reliable and stable national data data national and stable of a reliable The lack MB on which all platform The current accessed. and is stored information unstable, and is outdated platform data national entrymaking data by the various Provincial Entities (PREs) time-consuming and Regulatory unreliable. weak, administratively PREs are provinces In many processes decision-making poor systems, have levels and significant information, based on limited of issuing, renewing of corruption in the processes licences. and amending operating As the and demand information. supply Poor a must prepare a municipality planning authority, T Public Current the transport services of jurisdiction. all in its area egulatory monitoring and enforcement monitoring egulatory ʪ ʪ ʪ here are four major areas where introducing proven ICT proven introducing where major areas four are There performancethe complianceand improve can technologies MB of integration, intermodal law compliance, security and traffic and interactivity. and user information R with MB problems many The the countryacross include: ʪ ʪ ʪ industry that is more integrated with other public public other with integrated industryis more that service a better transport to and delivers modes, operators. the for returns and much higher passengers ICT through Improvements

T -led MB -led A provisions A provisions industry, in T industry, T sector to ensure safer, safer, ensure to T sector A) No. 22 of 2000, Section 23. A) No. 22 T A) No. 22 of 2000) creates the creates of 2000) A) No. 22 he cities will need to need to The cities will T industry. T ransportation Act (NL Act ransportation National Land T National -based transport management has the potential to to the potential has -based transport management ransportation Act (NL Act ransportation 1. ICT in the MB innovation major catalyse create a major impetus for cities, as the new managers as the new managers cities, for impetus a major create improve to bold steps take to system, of the regulatory capacity notwithstanding the institutional the situation, the from over be taken will that and funding deficits when the function is transferred. provinces service, quality better and integrated efficient, more more These new technologies in this chapter. as outlined later some least at for compensate to the potential have also and systems regulatory current of of the inadequacies ICT the potential realising personnel. However, potential for a new purposeful approach driven by the driven purposeful approach a new for potential current with the associated the problems cities. Given be very the cities it would quo, risky for status regulatory of an agenda without having on the function take to the NL In this regard, reform. substantial T Reform is achievable in return for relatively low levels levels low relatively for in return is achievable Reform and real are and the benefits investment, of financial compliant legally and more cheaper – a safer tangible reform will require considerable levels of collaboration of collaboration levels considerable require will reform by the cities and the MB than arrangements formal more accept need to will turn, and transparency as greater ones, as well the current passengers.their and regulators both to accountability a deepening of partnership the require between This will metropolitan national, at cities and the taxi associations levels. route and even invest patient and consistent effort to improve regulation improve to effort and consistent patient invest promote to of incentives the right package develop and to The MB and innovations. behaviours desired 64 How to Build Transit-oriented Cities: Exploring Possibilities

The CPTR becomes the basis for issuing operating The most obvious technology licences by the PRE. Current practice is to use rank to support improved regulation and route surveys to determine such information, which is not very accurate. is GPS technology ʪʪ The lack of systems that provide law enforcement officers with immediate and accurate information Another technology with major potential is on-board about the regulatory status of a particular vehicle. counting technology. A South African company has For example, operators may have only one valid developed a passenger counter using sensor equipment operating licence but commonly use duplicate and software that detects people and is supplemented licences to operate a number of MBTs. by two internal cameras monitoring the sliding ʪʪ Weak and often corrupt law enforcement, with door and front rows and the back rows (Van Zyl and arbitrary and inconsistent encounters with MBT Labuschagne, 2008). drivers and operators, as traffic officers do not have the information to manage the interaction properly. The technology outlined above is in line with the Public Transport Strategy and its associated Action Plan, which Many of these issues have a strong institutional dimension envisages that MBTs will have electronic equipment that cities will need to address as part of taking over the installed and monitored by the regulatory authorities regulatory function. However, institutional change (DoT, 2007). management is not part of this chapter’s brief. Nevertheless, adopting ICT technologies to support regulation can The technology brings significant benefits for the city, facilitate these institutional changes. operators and drivers.

The most obvious technology to support improved For the city, GPS plus passenger counters fitted to an regulation is Global Positioning System (GPS) technology, MBT radically changes the ability to monitor and enforce which is well-established internationally, as well as compliance with the route conditions of MBT licences, in South Africa, where vehicle tracking is required for passenger load limits and speed regulations. Having security, fleet management, or driver monitoring. GPS installed in all MBTs on a route or an area would give the city an accurate and comprehensive picture of all As part of their BRT rollout, major metropolitan cities, MBT passenger trips, which could be used in compiling such as Johannesburg, Cape Town and Tshwane, have CPTRs. The provision of real-time information about put in place state-of-the-art control centres, which have MBT movement patterns, enabling the identification of the capacity to monitor MBTs provided with GPS and to problems, could also help traffic management. assess their compliance with their route conditions, as well as speed regulations. 71 74 61 72 73 76 75 67 70 62 59 63 69 58 65 64 60 68 Transforming the Minibus Taxi Industry through Technology 66 65 makes it possible to to it possible makes 3 viour. jor ve ma rly with cularly arti and linked to a control centre using internet using internet centre a control to T and linked driver beha gard to safety issues, p re rly ha s clearly MBT o deal with the security issue, cameras can be installed can be installed with the security issue, cameras o deal improve driving behaviour, through monitoring the the monitoring through driving behaviour, improve patterns. cornering and braking acceleration, vehicle’s device in the a small install is to is required that All a processing to submits the data that vehicle motor reports behaviour. on driver unit, which then generates and practices bad penalise reportsThe to used be can is used incentivise good driving habits. This technology and is market insurance vehicle motor in the global by Discovery Insure in South Africa being pioneered expertise. local using largely in discussed is (which telematics maintenance Vehicle to be used can also detail in the section below) more particularly roadworthiness, vehicle assess and improve management. and tyre brake to with regard T in the MB facing instance, one camera For technologies. protocol the passengers. facing and two the driver forward over on-boardan on stored are cameras the from Images a and can be forwarded to days three up to for computer Service (GPRS). Radio Packet using General centre control Progress in low-cost telematics in low-cost Progress tyre failure, while overloading can alter vehicle dynamics vehicle can alter overloading while failure, tyre and can cornering) and distances stopping (including concern, for The other control. driver in reduced result is crime on taxis. and drivers, both passengers and so to negotiate a split split a negotiate to so and T s are also often poorly maintained poorly often also s are T

2 drivers often drive at speeds considerably higher speeds considerably at drive often T drivers elematics is a combination of the words telecommunications and informatics. It refers to the integrated use of computers and telecommunications technology. It technology. telecommunications and use of computers the integrated to It refers and informatics. telecommunications of the words is a combination elematics s clearly have major safety issues, particularly with with issues, particularly major safety have s clearly Arrive Alive website - http://www.arrivealive.co.za/pages.aspx?i=2850. website Alive Arrive T of a vehicle. and behaviour status movement, the location, monitor and thus can be used to vehicles, to relating information and store send, receive can be used to T vehicle monitoring allows them them allows monitoring vehicle or the operators, 2. 3. regard to driver behaviour. An Automobile Association Association An Automobile behaviour. driver to regard 70 000 minibus that calculated study of South Africa double Africa, in South occur annually taxi crashes other passenger involving the number of accidents vehicles. MB afety, security and traffic law security and traffic Safety, compliance might resist this technology because it will because it will this technology might resist drivers MBT It compliance. for accountable them much more make than is owners more pay to they have mean also may income earned because the actual the case currently a of benefits income the if However, transparent. be will and driver between shared are system regulated better for the driver. a net benefit is potentially there owner, of income between owner and driver, based on accurate based on accurate owner and driver, of income between information. F lower used to and can be movements assess driver to The passenger- vehicles. on premiums insurance the calculate them to enables also technology counting MB the by earned income than the speed limit to reduce trip time and to secure secure and to trip time reduce than the speed limit to but MB loads, more Reckless driving by taxi drivers is considered one of the is considered driving by taxi drivers Reckless of 6.9% for problems importantmost transport-related households and 9.7% of Gauteng passengers, 9.9% of all 90). Not only 2014: (StatsSA, households Cape Western do MB and overloaded. Poor maintenance increases the risk of increases maintenance Poor and overloaded. and brake of as a result particularly and injury, accidents 66 How to Build Transit-oriented Cities: Exploring Possibilities

These technologies bring considerable benefits to the The % of public transport users making regulatory authorities, the operators and passengers. transfers during their journey

2003 26.5% For regulatory authorities, the use of these technologies will reinforce good driving practices, reduce the frequency 2013 17.1% of accidents and increase the overall security of the system. Driver behaviour telematics provides a wide Intermodal integration range of information that can be used to formulate MBT The car competitiveness and cost-efficiency of the public policy and regulation. Information from the cameras can transport network is highly dependent on the degree also be used to evaluate accidents or other incidents, of intermodality that exists to make transfers between including theft or other criminal activities. modes as seamless, simple and fast as possible. Currently, in South African cities, intermodal integration is very For operators, the benefits of improving their drivers’ limited, especially with MBTs, apart from ensuring close driving practices are significant. Improved driving proximity of rail, bus and MBT interchanges in major practices reduce fuel consumption, and hence fuel nodes. There is no alignment of schedules, no shared costs, and result in less wear and tear on vehicles, which ticketing system and very poor common information lowers maintenance costs. They strengthen the hand of about schedules and routes across the different modes. operators in negotiating insurance rates. The cameras This limits the ability of the MBT sector to support rail and GPS plotted information can also potentially protect and bus trunk services in areas where a significant taxi operators themselves against traffic law enforcement percentage of public transport is intermodal and where officials who engage in fraudulent enforcement. MBTs are the only public transport service available.

Passengers will benefit from the additional security and The percentage of public transport users making transfers improved driver behaviour. during their journey declined from 26.5% in 2003 to 17.1% in 2013 (StatsSA, 2014: 4). This probably largely reflects the increasing importance of whole journey services The % of train users making transfers that MBTs are able to provide, where a single MBT taxi collects passengers close to their homes and drops them close to their destination. However, this also suggests inefficiencies, as TMB s are running long-haul journeys, 42% which larger vehicles such as buses can provide more make at least efficiently. As anticipated, less flexible services, such as transfer in the rail, require a much higher level of intermodality, with 1 42.4% of train users making at least one transfer in the course of a journey course of a journey (StatsSA, 2014: 47). 71 74 61 72 73 76 75 67 70 62 59 63 69 58 65 64 60 68 Transforming the Minibus Taxi Industry through Technology 66 67 system system T to pick up people pick up T to , bus and rail modes modes rail , bus and s using a DR using a s T T , BR T software is a proven flexible scheduling flexible is a proven T software technology is rapidly evolving and is already being already is and evolving rapidly is technology T that enables access to MB to access enables that but which charges separately for each trip made on a trip made each for charges separately but which do exist, technologies ticketing mode. Suitable single smart the money and cards, where such as multimodal smart on the phone mobile card, and stored are ‘ticket’ buy to cellphones passengers use their where ticketing, them by SMS. then sent to which are tickets, DR car-sharing schemes and specialisedused by carpools, new Thanks to bus services impaired. the mobility for in information on-screen (such as GPS, developments that services software), can be created and routing vehicles of the individual the requirements to directly more respond DR passenger. book a journey via a call passengers whereby application, or a smartphone, website and then the system centre, a particular bookings in and organises the area aggregates for the bus or MB most efficient schedule pick- with prescribed be fixed, may The route a route. along passengers in an collecting flexible, up points, or more locations. their respective from area for clustered services ideal route are fixed The traditional certain for but not parts areas demand South of travel of low- reality cities. The widespread sprawling Africa’s on the urban periphery settlements density informal fixed- to suited not are that needs mobility creates services, either a cost or bus or rail from schedule MB perspective. need passenger represent an intermediate service the complements that an intermediate represent transportpassenger particularly modes, conventional This areas. times or in weak-demand low-demand at taxis the service by metered from offered is different allows passengers allows 4 fleet to meet passenger T fleet T). mode with other modes and more T mode with other modes and more s serving the trunk-type mode, so that mode, so that s servingthe trunk-type s and other modes with a single card or s and other modes with a single T T ransport (DR icketing and fares for equitable access' for more about integrated ticketing. about integrated more for access' equitable for and fares Ticketing 'Integrated See chapter systems would have this functionality. However, a However, this functionality. have would T systems technologies can facilitate greater greater can facilitate established ICT technologies wo to access MB access to need to and funding challenges institutional of range can be system integrated a fully before be overcome card a single to have would be A first step achieved. ltimately, Ultimately, device such a cell-phone. payment alternative a single where ticketing, integrated have the idea is to modes of transport one or more on travel allows ticket The technology operators. by one or more provided and is available, ticketing integrated fully achieve to the for smart being adopted current card systems BR 4. integration of the MB integration of the MB efficient deployment and Demand system ticketing needs: a multi-modal T Responsive system ticketing A multi-modal T he overall efficiency of public transport public efficiency of mobility The overall 15% (14.4%) 2013 nearly in be decreasing: appears to for minutes 15 than more wait to had passengers of in 4.4% of transport public first increase their an trip, mobility is Accessing since 2003. areas metropolitan by the illustrated for passengers, as difficult more also taxi, nearest the to walk to the time taken in increase of a fifth (22.4%) In 2013, over stations. bus or train get to 30 minutes than more for walk to households had 17.6% to compared station, train the or to rank taxi the to This in 2003. station) train (to and 17.4% taxi rank) (to feeder comprehensive a more provide suggests a need to of MB system distances to considerable walk to passengers have fewer public transport. access 68 How to Build Transit-oriented Cities: Exploring Possibilities

because other passengers, who have similar requests Intermodal integration using these technologies within a given zone, share the MBT. Therefore, the journey brings benefits to passengers, transport authorities may take longer than a metered taxi, but the advantages and taxi associations. are that the service can be of high quality, cheaper, almost door to door and available on a regular basis. Passengers will save time and money, and public Smart cards can also be incorporated into DRT services transport will be more convenient, if electronic ticketing to help identify passengers, to serve as electronic tickets (whether partially or fully integrated) is available and and to provide proof of transport performance where the DRT systems create new pick-up and drop-off points MBT is running a contracted service. closer to homes or workplaces.

For transport authorities, integrated ticketing will enable them to implement more complex pricing strategies that can influence passenger behaviours (e.g. shifting more passengers into off-peak periods), to distribute income among the operators or different modes, and to obtain extensive passenger information that will help improve services and schedules. DRT will also help improve transport planning and management, as more efficient feeder services for the rail and BRT networks will be possible, thereby optimising the strengths of the MBT and minimising system costs.

For taxi associations, electronic ticketing will reduce the risk associated with cash payments and make splitting income between the driver and operator easier and more objective. In particular, it can create an incentive to move away from the ‘target system’, where drivers have to provide owners with an agreed daily payment, which is an important cause of much observed reckless driving behaviours. DRT will also help improve profitability: managing all the MBTs on a route as a single fleet will avoid inefficiencies of over-competition, particularly in off peak periods. 71 74 61 72 73 76 75 67 70 62 59 63 69 58 65 64 60 68 Transforming the Minibus Taxi Industry through Technology 66 69 tion

ma vel infor assengers. a m of tr ommon for e l rout moda multi- ally, Glob e mostplanners are now th c p used by able 3 summarises the various technologies outlined 3 summarises the various technologies able he benefits of improved passenger information are are information passenger The benefits of improved considerable. public transport and makes intermodality It promotes planning Journey and understandable. accessible more and dynamic, and so public transport accurate is more of the new nature The interactive competitive. is more public provides also technologies passenger information them to choice, allowing transport users with greater and enabling them particular and drivers vehicles rate in use particular The potential not to choose vehicles. to and developed, and explored been not really has area this of partnerships a range enter to cities is scope for there significant change. effect to T in the South African and assesses their feasibility above context. All these systems require a strong ‘back-office’ ‘back-office’ a strong require these systems All transport public and traffic real-time so that component, and updates and processed, is collected information transportare immediately and conditions on traffic communication available users via the to circulated the have cities of the metropolitan channels. Many management their traffic through do this to capacity and on-board planners The route centres. control and affordable accessible provide simply monitors this information. circulating channels for T servicesT s, very little T , bus or train, , bus or train, T and Metrorail passengers in recent recent in passengers Metrorail and T imetables are available in accessible accessible in available are Timetables ser information and interactivity ser information passenger information is currently available, apart from available, is currently passenger information MB about the Knowledge taxi ranks. signs at route Globally, multi-modal route planners are now the most are planners route multi-modal Globally, by passengers. used information of travel common form on printed passengers in the past relied While access to computers or desktop centres call timetables, passengers can information, and other travel schedule via smart phone en-route information travel now access planners can either be static Such route applications. services on regular under normal information (providing or dynamic or disruptions) conditions but not on delays passengers of changes advise to information (updating Such dynamic, conditions). and traffic in schedules to now be conveyed can also information real-time MB on the monitors passengers via LCD U the information in improvements steady Despite BR bus, to available the to related and is static most of the information years, schedules. fixed BR the (GoMetro), Metrorail for form electronic bus services, not updated and most scheduled but are and cancellations delays, accommodate time to in real users of MB changes. For other schedule by informally, times is spread and departure routes planners route multi-modal of mouth. Functional word for a variety of applications Yet available. not yet are users access devices let and other digital cellphones and journey times routes, about taxi information connections. intermodal or stations boards at information via electronic or even on roads. 70 How to Build Transit-oriented Cities: Exploring Possibilities

Table 3: Technological assessment

Regulatory and planning Technology Application examples Operator opportunities opportunities

Monitoring and regulation systems

Automatic vehicle location Widely applied technology Insurance reductions and Route and traffic law devices that is extensively used in driver monitoring. compliance. bus operations management including BRT and vehicle tracking.

Passenger-counting systems PTA pilot project (South Accurate revenue Accurate passenger African innovation). information. information.

Vehicle recognition systems Already extensively used Fleet management. Provides enforcement using cameras linked to internationally for traffic law officers with extensive vehicle databases. enforcement. information when linked to working data bases. Can be used to verify route compliance.

Safety and security systems

On-board CCTV camera On-board CCTV cameras are Driver monitoring, revenue Accident reports, driver systems often with forward now extensively used within verification, safety. behaviour monitoring, and passenger-facing units the sedan taxi industry improved safety and security. that enable internal security internationally and are and outside incidents to be increasingly a mandatory monitored. requirement in many cities. Australia has been a leader in this area.

Driver behaviour telematics This technology, which has Reduced fuel consumption. Safer driving behaviours and systems. been used by operators with Reduced insurance driver behaviour analysis to large fleets, is now being premiums. support regulatory change. mainstreamed particularly Safer driving behaviours. in the area of motor vehicle insurance. Discovery Insure is a local leader.

Drug and alcohol testing Extensively used Safety. Safety. devices internationally by regulatory agencies and operators to test drivers. 71 74 61 72 73 76 75 67 70 62 59 63 69 58 65 64 60 68 66 71 Transforming the Minibus Taxi Industry through Technology egulatory and planning and egulatory R opportunities N/A More efficient passenger More movement. Supports improved car Supports improved public transport. competitive Public interest interest Public announcements and public transport information. Can be extended to taxis to be extended Can . appropriate where Strengthens PT car Strengthens competitiveness. More passenger choice and More voice. at rank but can be done but can rank T at perator opportunities Operator Proactive maintenance maintenance Proactive costs. reduces No longer necessary to fill necessary fill No longer to MB route. along Better revenue management. management. revenue Better sharing. subsidy for Potential Advertising revenue. Improved passenger service. Improved Improved passenger service. Improved Service feedback. quality

A. T rack rack T T industry by axis and Uber. A. Application examples Application Such systems are are Such systems being used by increasingly C- operators. large fleet of provider local is a leading this technology. Extensively used in car- Extensively as sharing schemes such CarShare. Zapcar, Electronic ticketing is already ticketing Electronic used internationally extensively publicand in South African transport such as Gautrain, and MyCiti. It has Vaya Rea in the MB piloted been also industry and PT by Santaco can allow The technology fare single or ticket a single modes where different across and an integration modal funding mechanism integrated is in place. Extensively used in large Extensively and public transport systems in MB piloted PT Applications in place for for in place Applications modes in South Africa single such as GoMetro. Many applications applications Many but no internationally multi-modal complete yet. planner in South Africa Growing applications such as applications Growing T Better T) – passenger assenger information and interaction systems and interaction assenger information echnology rip evaluation aggregators aggregators rip evaluation T Maintenance and operations and operations Maintenance telematics Co-modality and fleet deployment and management systems and management systems deployment and fleet Co-modality Demand responsive Demand responsive transport (DR booking aggregators. booking aggregators. Integrated electronic electronic Integrated ticketing n-board information On-board information screens P Single-mode schedule schedule Single-mode information Multi-modal journey journey Multi-modal planners T 72 How to Build Transit-oriented Cities: Exploring Possibilities

The STADIUM Pilot Project ʪʪ A ‘last mile’ service to complement other public transport services, by providing transport from Many of the technologies outlined in this chapter major BRT (or rail) stations to the passenger’s final were tested in a European Commission-funded project destination. involving the Peninsula Taxi Association (PTA) based in Cape Town and a consortium of ICT companies. The pilot project confirmed that the monitoring This project formed part of a larger study to assess technology made it possible to track the position, the potential long-term benefits of Smart Transport speed, number of passengers, opening of doors and Applications Designed for large events with Impacts ticket printing of vehicles. The GPS system forwarded on Urban Mobility (STADIUM) in the context of the FIFA the GPS coordinates to a back-office, where they were Soccer World Cup (European Commission, 2012). plotted on a map using Mapinfo and processed to give an accurate track of the travelled route. The system was The project had monitoring, security and demand- able to plot from additional door sensor information responsive components and involved a monitoring when people boarded or alighted. The City of Cape Town control centre linked to a fleet of 19 PTA MBTs. It focused confirmed the usefulness of the tracking information, on the‘last mile’ service, as an extension of the BRT which could be used to determine route adherence. airport shuttle during the World Cup, with a view also to However, the raw data would need to be converted to testing the viability of the technology. a database that links the location data to routes and operating licenses (Van Zyl and Labuschagne, 2008). Each MBT was equipped with a complete set of ICT The passenger-counting technology was also applied in tools, included a GPS antenna and GPRS modem, a door the pilot with some success (ibid). The reliability of this sensor, a passenger-counting device, an LCD monitor for technology caused some difficulties, which is inevitable relaying service information and advertising, webcams with a new technology. The City of Cape Town further for security and a smart card reader aimed at a future confirmed that passenger number information linked integrated e-ticketing system. The technology was to a geographical position could be a helpful input for intended to enable PTA MBTs to offer a broader range of compiling the CPTR. public transport services including: ʪʪ A loop service based on current operations, where The pilot project also provided clear guidance on the the driver deviates slightly from existing routes to costs of installing the technology. The capital costs of pick up potential passengers who book through the the on-board equipment (including installation) came to call centre or using an application or website; R55,000–R60,000 per vehicle. The monthly operating cost ʪʪ A point-to-point service for groups of passengers at was between R3000 and R5000 per vehicle, including on- hotels; site maintenance, advertising management, equipment ʪʪ Employee contract services; lease and sundry costs. The pilot also suggested that the 71 74 61 72 73 76 75 67 70 62 59 63 69 58 65 64 60 68 66

73 Transforming the Minibus Taxi Industry through Technology T industry through technology will will T industry technology through service managed by a call centre, with centre, T service by a call managed A thorough institutional assessment of the institutional A thorough linked function of the regulatory state current metropolitan of functions to the transfers to municipalities. systems information of national The development for ICT platform a much stronger create to the function. managing centres The establishment of public transport control in place). (if not already centres in metropolitan the route, and therefore avoids distractions when distractions avoids and therefore the route, 2012: 30). Commission, driving’ (European A DR security (webcam), devices for on-board high-tech, and (printer rules and fare (monitor) infotainment transport MB by makes validator), contactless of passengers. a wider range to appealing more reparation phase reparation ʪ ʪ ʪ ʪ ransforming the MB ransforming Making it Happen T phases. a number of implementation require P urban improving to be given will attention Systematic actions Possible systems. and enforcement regulatory include: ʪ ʪ ʪ ʪ the benefits of that owners revealed Interviews with ten the owners outweighed for technologies the installed the by monitored being of feelings ‘negative’ any both taxi owners and the that authorities, and regulatory of these the implementation benefit from municipality 2008). and Labuschagne, Zyl (Van applications T A back office A back drivers T drivers stations. T stations. s) and provides the s) and provides and rail services),T and rail T service, integrated with T service, integrated systems generates a generates T systems T service minimises that technology (European (European T technology to continue boarding passengers continue T to service requires that MB T service that requires T service (and BR secure a minimum ‘basic’ number of clients to serve a minimum ‘basic’ number of clients to secure an itinerary scheduled along the day throughout Such a DR upon requests. MB regular in ‘less work to the drivers allows potentially conditions, as the dangerous and less stressful worry to about have constantly does not driver clients met along of potential the attention drawing Commission, 2012: 115). Commission, DR A viable A widespread system of minibus taxis could system A widespread mass transport lines and would supplement areas lower-demand serve to remote be able if optimised with a DR inefficiencies (e.g. empty MB an MB can allow the same time providing at while the route, along passengers, either by making a service booked to changes route real-time or variations route planned optimised by the DR need for an integrated transport system linking transport system integrated an need for with the BR areas the proximate he introduction of BR The introduction DR that showed The pilot if necessary. service only ʪ ʪ ʪ ʪ he study assessment conclusions included the following: included conclusions assessment The study advertising revenue of R6000–R10,000 per month could R6000–R10,000 per of advertising revenue supplemented monitor LCD the through generated be potentially This could device. by the passenger-counting repayment costs and the operating both the monthly cover costs. The PT the capital cover to of a loan able be should municipality a but R75,000, for up set was using existing control a service such largely provide to capacity. centre 74 How to Build Transit-oriented Cities: Exploring Possibilities

ʪʪ The implementation of a range of pilot projects to Consolidation and expansion phase. test the technology applications, evaluating the Once the scheme is functioning effectively on the initial outcomes (including unintended consequences), routes (and the institutional, regulatory and technology to explore the costs and funding of installing and mechanisms have been refined and consolidated), it operating the systems, and to demonstrate the can be incrementally rolled out to other routes. This potential benefits to MBT operators and secure their rollout will depend on the readiness of the municipality buy-in to the envisaged changes. and the taxi associations on a route and will accelerate ʪʪ The facilitation of partnership brokering involving over time: over 5–10 years, the scheme will extend the metropolitan municipalities, the MBT industry to all routes in the metropolitan areas and other and private sector partners, such as the insurance major cities. The model (and its associated systems companies and technology providers. and innovations) could potentially expand to other developing countries, as MBTs will be the dominant Initial implementation phase public transport mode in African urban centres The agreed scheme will be implemented on identified and a key mode in many Asian, Middle Eastern and routes in participating metropolitan areas. This Latin America countries. There are definite economic incremental approach means that a two-tier parallel opportunities for South African companies to export regulatory system will evolve: common regulations the expertise and products developed through this would apply to all areas, but a new monitoring system, kind of intervention. supported by an agreed incentive/penalty arrangement, would apply to the routes participating in the scheme. Participation by taxi associations in the scheme would be Conclusions and Implications voluntary, but all members of the association operating on a route would be obliged to participate. Key elements The establishment of IPTNs is key to the emerging of the new system would include: urban public transport networks. However, the ideal of ʪʪ As a minimum, the installation of an automatic a fully integrated, multi-modal service – supported by a vehicle-location device, on-board cameras and a single multi-modal system – is very much a long-term driver behaviour telematics device in all participating goal. The public transport network of the immediate taxis, linked to a monitoring control centre. future will need to be a hybrid system comprising the ʪʪ Various incentives for participating, such as different modes working together, including the MBTs. preferential ranking, dedicated lane and intermodal As a public transport network is only as good as the access, reduced insurance and other premiums, and public transport modes that service it, and MBTs are financial incentives for compliance. the single largest public transport mode serving South ʪʪ An agreed penalty regime for non-compliance. Africa’s cities, the MBT industry needs to be included. 71 74 61 72 73 76 75 67 70 62 59 63 69 58 65 64 60 68 Transforming the Minibus Taxi Industry through Technology 66 75 T industry harness new to he ability of the MB The ability institutional will, political require will technologies a shift in require This will innovation. and development – operators affected many or mindsets for paradigms operators stand-alone as small seeing themselves from a service to culture a ‘pirate’ from being shareholders, to ethos. Such a formal ethos to an informal from culture, on out carried be to need will and time require changes the enables basis that and experimental an incremental in a gradual be made and change to innovation case for manner. and systematic own and a A empowers A empowers T technology, T technology, s include the s include T sector a way of a way T sector A in Cape T A in Cape regulatory function from function from T regulatory industryT transportpublic a as axi owners who participated agreed that that agreed participated who owners axi T New technologies offer the MB offer New technologies However, the sector faces significant challenges, challenges, significant faces the sector However, and enforcement, regulation inadequate including high levels and consequent in over-trading resulting driver maintenance, poor vehicle and of taxi violence, service. and customer behaviours part of becoming an integral and massively improving of areas The four the urban public transport network. and regulation are: performance improvement potential and management fleet and security, safety enforcement, and passenger information and integration, intermodal enable will that technologies Some of the interactivity. and service of MB integration better and telematics of GPS, passenger counters, introduction supported DR by in the vehicles, cameras planners. route and system ticketing multi-modal and the PT involving project A pilot of these many consortium of ICT companies tested technologies. MB the of size the Given they (and the municipality) would benefit from the benefit from would they (and the municipality) technologies. installed mode, interventions as proposed in this chapter are are in this chapter mode, interventions as proposed to most important the single of focus area arguably distance and trip times and reduce mobility, improve NL The city. inclusive spatially a more create cities to take over the full MB the full over take cities to the provinces. With this shift comes the opportunity With this the provinces. practices change in regulatory about a step bring to and philosophies new tools capacity, improved through accountability. and improved 76 How to Build Transit-oriented Cities: Exploring Possibilities

References

DoT (Department of Transport). 2007. Public Transport Action Plan. Pretoria: DoT.

European Commission. 2012. SA Demonstrator: Assessment of potential long term benefits of STADIUM services. Collaborative Project Grant Agreement 234127.

Giannini M. 2009. Demand Responsive Transport as integration to urban regular transport service: a case in Cape Town. Unpublished.

StatsSA (Statistics South Africa). 2014. National Household Travel Survey February–March 2013, Statistical Release 0320.

Van Zyl J and Labuschagne F. 2008. Attractive methods for tracking minibus taxis for public transport regulatory purposes. 27th Annual Southern African Transport Conference, Pretoria, South Africa, 7–11 July 2008. 91 81 87 79 78 92 82 93 83 95 85 89 94 90 84 96 88 80 86

77 INTEGRATING TICKETING AND FARES FOR EQUITABLE ACCESS

Jesse Harber Jesse AND TICKETING INTEGRATING ACCESS EQUITABLE FOR FARES 78 How to Build Transit-oriented Cities: Exploring Possibilities

Introduction

the recent proliferation of urban public transport modes has left commuters’ wallets bulging with a multiplicity of cards and tickets

The majority of South African commuters travel and the Rea Vaya, the Gautrain, the A Re Yeng and another will continue to travel by multi-modal public transport. minibus taxi. On the journey, the commuter would need The expansion and integration of multi-modal public cash (for the minibus taxis), two EMV cards (for Rea Vaya transport is central to every major urban transport and A Re Yeng) and a contactless smartcard (Gautrain). policy in the country (e.g. City of Cape Town, 2013b; City of Johannesburg, 2013; City of Tshwane, 2007; This fragmentation is not just an inconvenience but is ETA, 2010; Gauteng Roads and Transport Department, contrary to the goals of South African spatial planning. 2013a). However, the recent proliferation of urban public The CSIR’s ‘Red Book’, which contains guidelines on transport modes has left commuters’ wallets bulging with human settlement planning and design, recommends a multiplicity of cards and tickets. Generally, a commuter in the chapter on public transport that ‘[t]he potential will need a separate ticket for each mode of transport.1 for transfer between routes should be maximized’ (CSIR, This means that, for instance, a commuter who lives in 2000: 4). In addition, ‘[s]eamless services that contribute Johannesburg and works in Tshwane could take the to the concept of a centrally operated and controlled following modes of transport everyday: a minibus taxi, public transport system should be developed’, which

1. The exceptions include the Gautrain train/bus/parking system, which uses the Gautrain Gold Card, and the three bus systems in eThekwini, which share the Muvo Card. 91 81 87 79 78 92 82 93 83 95 85 89 94 90 84 96 88 80 INTEGRATING TICKETING AND FARES FOR EQUITABLE ACCESS 86 79 is ‘the possibility offered to offered tariff) possibility (or ‘the is are integration hese are conceptually distinct conceptually hese are T themselves. the fares with or together, alone be implemented and can each implications. and social technical different F by applying destination origin to from travel passengers to mode of transport of the regardless the same fare’ 2008: 28).(Mezghani, public transport systems, In many one fare whereby of ‘through-ticketing’, the form this takes transfers of number any make to passenger the allows time of the modes of transport within a fixed on multiple system transit the Barcelona For example, first boarding. a one-zone for 75 minutes within transfers free allows journey. a six-zone for or 150 minutes journey, use the same ticket is ‘the possibility to integration Ticket origin to from travel in time) to limitation (with possible of the mode of transport (ibid.). regardless destination’, on the works card that a travel is Creditrans, An example the within trains and national trains bus, regional metro, of Biscay. Basque region of integration distinct forms are examples The two system The Barcelona both in theory and in practice. integration ticket without integration fare represents modes but can be issued on different are tickets (different represents system the Biscay modes), while used on all operator (each integration without fare integration ticket ticket). value-holding single a from deducts its fare and ticket combine fare public transport systems Many of An example extent. or lesser a greater to integration integration partialwith fare integration ticket complete ‘t+’ will ticket the single where system, transit is the Paris 3 own fare fare 2 ransport , 2007: 7). , 2007: A) No. 5 of 2009 T ransport (NL Act ransport Strategy calls for multi-modal multi-modal for calls ransport Strategy Progressive here means equitable, i.e. favours the poor. For example, distance-based fares, whereby travelling longer distances costs more, discriminates against against discriminates distances costs more, longer travelling whereby distance-based fares, example, For the poor. i.e. favours means equitable, here Progressive of apartheid planning. on the periphery live spatial of cities, as a result the poor who mostly here. used interchangeably are both terms uses ‘intermodal’; frequently literature but the broader ‘multi-modal’, uses the term policy most frequently South African ntegration, Ticket are Integration, 2. integration of the physical medium used to pay for for pay used to medium the physical of integration of integration intermodal and transportticket) (the 3. Integration consists of two related issues: intermodal issues: related two consists of Integration F and e-Ticketing Integration, he importance of integrating transport modes, fares transport modes, fares The importance of integrating The and policy. in legislation is found and ticketing T DoT’s Public and integration, and ticket fare first defines This chapter e-ticketing of technicalities the explains and e-ticketing, discussing the benefits Then, after point of sale. at and smart ticketing, and tickets, fares of integrating is assessed in South Africa’s transport integration T (eThekwini, Cape largest urban centres three means that ‘a uniform and shared fare and ticket system system and ticket fare and shared ‘a uniform means that transfer can and customers modes, all to [applies] and a minimum of delay modes with travel between discomfort’ 5). (ibid., and physical maximal achieve designed ‘to integration of destinations the range ‘extend and integration’ fare Network affordable a single, for a user to available fare ‘an electronic require will integration Such fare’. a smartcard’ which uses (DoT system payment Land T The National in and ticketing collection fare of interoperability requires T for the Minister and empowers area, given any media. fare for set standards to the transport policy Finally, City Region). and Gauteng a progressive is examined, options for paradox policy presented, followed by some concluding remarks. by some concluding followed policy presented, 80 How to Build Transit-oriented Cities: Exploring Possibilities

allow unlimited transfers between the metro and trains Figure 11: The relationship between fare integration, ticket (within Paris) or unlimited transfers between buses and integration and e-ticketing trams within 90 minutes, but no transfers between the metro/bus, train/bus and train/tram. An example of complete ticket and fare integration is the ‘klippekort’ Fare (clip-card) of Greater Copenhagen, which gives access to integration all modes of public transport for a single fare, although the fare varies according to the zone. Many transit systems are more complicated, with ticket and fare Barcelona

systems that are more or less integrated depending on Copenhagen the fare product bought. For example London’s Oyster card allows an adult traveller who stays in zone 1 to ride London a bus for £1.45 per trip or the metro for £2.20 per trip Ticket (ticket integration; no fare integration). However, the E-ticketing Durban integration total fare will be capped at £8.40 (or £4.40 if only buses Johannesburg and trams are used) if the traveller takes several trips and Cape Town within zone 1 in a 24-hour period. This is a form of ticket and (partial) fare integration.

The other concept is e-ticketing which refers to tickets Technicalities of e-Ticketing at that are ‘sold and stored in an electronic device, such as Point of Use smart cards or mobile phones’ (Puhe et al., 2014: 9 citing Haneberg, 2008). E-ticketing may vary in technical E-ticketing, also called smart ticketing is characterised specification and implementation, which will be by the use of electronic fare media that is more complex discussed later in this chapter, but is also distinct from than a simple magnetised ticket. Although these media fare integration and ticket integration. Barcelona’s fare can in principle take many forms, the two most relevant integration and Helsinki’s ticket integration both use are smart cards and mobile ticketing ‘dumb’ magnetic cards, while relatively complex fare structures are possible without e-ticketing: Barcelona Smart cards has 27 different intermodal tickets offering a range of fare A smart card is a plastic wallet-sized card with an products and passenger-based discounts. Copenhagen’s embedded integrated circuit. This is not new technology: klippekort offers full fare and ticket integration with a the first smart card was patented in 1968, and current card that does not have a magnetic strip and uses only cards are based on patents filed in the 1970s. By 1983 time-stamps and small pieces physically ‘clipped’ from smart cards were used to pay for public telephones in the card. France and were integrated into all French Carte Bleue 91 81 87 79 78 92 82 93 83 95 85 89 94 90 84 96 88 80 86

81 INTEGRATING TICKETING AND FARES FOR EQUITABLE ACCESS he integration of integration The his refers to the piggybacking of ticketing on smartphone of ticketing the piggybacking to This refers no additional require These applications technology. capability in a smartphone, connection internet just an display to and a screen ticket the or receive purchase to be an can ticket a mobile its most simple, At a barcode. a paper which is effectively barcode, email containing a are There bought without visiting a kiosk or station. ticket that smartphone Passbook, also as Apple’s apps, such In principle, them together. and stores e-tickets collect transportpublic they – for usable are barcodes these and air travel for tickets function as ‘virtual’ commonly transport other public in Denmark. Mobile used for are do not uses that for especially has caught on ticketing travel as rail such transactions, quick particularly require concerts, worldwide, parts air travel in many of Europe, attractions. and tourist when on a mobile (even tickets bar-coded simple However, than structures fare complex much more phone) require use ticketing of mobile forms Newer one-ticket-one-ride. phone and the interface the mobile between a two-way by smart cards. Near as is offered point-of-use terminal, is increasingly technology (NFC) Field Communication with smartphones et (Chaumette being integrated chip contactless a embeds technology NFC 2011). al., a smart phone, allowing (similar to in a mobile card) between communication proximity high-speed two-way terminals. point-of-use phone and the Mobile ticket Mobile he smart card used to ride the Rea Vaya is Vaya he smart T ride the Rea card used to the reader. EMV card’s Vaya he Rea card. T of a hybrid one example (and card the to value adding for used is functionality is contactless. collection but fare a PIN), requires ) oday smart oday 4 T After Eurocard, Mastercard, and Visa who together developed the standard. developed and Visa who together Mastercard, Eurocard, After 4. Hybrid smart cards and both with contact works a chip that These cards have high- security for greater This allows readers. proximity insertionrequiring (by of the card in transactions value convenience a PIN) but greater and entering a reader the bus), for (such as paying transactions low-value for the card on by just placing which can be completed Contactless smart cards Contactless their circuitry exposed for have EMV cards, which Unlike an integrated have cards contactless with a reader, contact within the plastic of the entirely is embedded that circuit cards need these Therefore, with an antenna. card along be processed, to a card reader near to be placed to only cards. This proximity called also are this reason and for in the new has been implemented is the standard that as the Gautrain Smart as well South African ID Cards, and is common in public transport systems Gold Card, the world. around Contact smart cards (or EMV cards (or smart cards Contact and debit and pin’ credit of ‘chip the form These can take so and secure, is mature involved technology cards. The worldwide. transactions financial used for the cards are inserting contact of actually inconvenience ‘the However are passengers when off-putting is reader a in cards a barrier/entry at a fare or paying boarding vehicles may the payment complete to The time required gate. a few only usually (in practice, long as quite be perceived 2004: 48). seconds)’ (Blythe, debit cards from 1992 (Puhe et al., 2014). 2014). al., et (Puhe 1992 from cards debit cards are internationally ubiquitous and can be contact can be contact and ubiquitous internationally cards are cards. or hybrid contactless (or EMV), 82 How to Build Transit-oriented Cities: Exploring Possibilities

smart-card capabilities with the processing power and operator can be appropriately remunerated. In non-fare- connectivity of smartphones has enormous potential integrated ticketing systems, each operator need only for e-ticketing: fare products could be bought directly count the number of tickets sold, or (in the case of a value- from a smartphone app or mobile website and would holding e-ticket) deduct the appropriate amount from the be instantly available through NFC. Additional features e-ticket. However, this is inadequate for integrated fares, not possible with other ticketing technology include and particularly through-ticketing, as the value of a ticket user verification using PIN or (on certain phone models) bought to ride one bus and then used on another must be fingerprint; and ‘be-in/be-out’ transport, where the apportioned between the two operators in some way. phone automatically registers a user’s presence on the mode of transport without requiring them to check-in In some cases, a clearing mechanism is not necessary. (Mezghani, 2008). However, NFC ticketing, which some For example, many public transport operators in South believe will ‘revolutionise the speed and ease with which Africa operate on gross-cost contracts and are paid a fixed passengers can use public transport’ (Stroh et al., 2007: amount regardless of how many people use the relevant 6), has had limited real-world trials (Noll et al., 2006). service. In this case fare integration is simple: all ticket revenues go to the funding authority (usually the transport Clearing mechanisms authority of the relevant metropolitan government), In most South African cities, integrated ticketing would regardless of the fare structure or through-ticketing. require coordination between various separately owned However, a clearing mechanism is necessary when and funded transport providers (as is frequently the public transport operators are paid according to ridership case in other countries). Therefore, an extensive back- levels or keep some proportion of ticket revenues. This is end is needed to coordinate the relevant financial and the case even if only one operator on the network is not administrative entities, including a clearing mechanism on a gross-cost contract. A clearing mechanism is also for money collected from passengers, so that each necessary if gross-cost revenues are to be split between multiple transport authorities, as will likely be the case if Gauteng’s transport network is integrated as planned.

Most clearing mechanisms involve assigning a reference price to each mode of transport, and compensating operators according to that price and their relative ridership (Mezghani, 2008). Ridership statistics can be established by manual counting and surveys but are immediately available if the integrated ticket requires a ‘check-in/check-out’ procedure, meaning that ridership can be established more easily, more accurately, and at lower cost. 91 81 87 79 78 92 82 93 83 95 85 89 94 90 84 96 88 80 INTEGRATING TICKETING AND FARES FOR EQUITABLE ACCESS 86 83 The own will eventually use eventually own will hrough-ticketing Through-ticketing , 2007:8). An integrated distance-based fare distance-based fare An integrated 5 own, 2013b; City of Johannesburg, 2013; own, 2013b; City of Johannesburg, A, 2005). Distance-based fares are fair if poor people fair if poor people are A, 2005). Distance-based fares and fare integration is thus an important an thus is step first integration fare and are who people for making public transport work to least-served. currently if equitable not is system fare integrated an However, the most. The most paying still are people the poorest is a system tariff in an integrated-fare straightforward with distance cost increases where distance-based fare, that structure fare This is the integrated travelled. T eThekwini, and Cape Gauteng, T (City of Cape ET but this is shorter distances than rich people, travel of South form The spatial not the case in South Africa. be would distance-based fares cities means that African rich. than more paying people poor with inequitable, this by introducing recognised implicitly City of Joburg travelling people for 2014 in February reduction a fare further than 25km. In principle, fare integration and well-designed tariffs can tariffs and well-designed integration fare In principle, and equitable. accessible transport public more make underservedtransport public into better Extending user costs time, but the commuting reduce will areas may People of through-ticketing. rise in the absence will fewer require that routes less-direct take to choose also the his reduces T economical. more because it’s transfers it less and makes system utility of the trunk-and-feeder minimise and to utilisation network ‘maximise to likely distance and time’ (DoT travel structure may be better than what currently exists but currently than what be better may structure with social and incompatible be inequitable can still transformation ly, tely, tion. ma , ulti ers all modes of ov , 2011; Moodley et al., 2009). 2009). et al., , 2011; Moodley O sy to to sy tional, ea t c able and d be a al shoul quit ma tial transfor a , e and herefore, the extension of smart ticketing in smartof extension the ticketing Therefore, shwane, 2007; GCR 2007; shwane, nline available at: http://www.reavaya.org.za/news-archive/march-2014/1021-rea-vaya-now- at: Online available 2014. March 28 now cheaper than ever’, Vaya ‘Rea 2014. Vaya. Rea April 2014). (16 cheaper-than-ever tha cture are stru ntegration and Integration are/Ticket underst sp supports f a and is r transport ntial go The esse ransport is a major cost to poor South Africans (who poor South Africans ransport to is a major cost 5. hekwini poorer households spend a in eThekwini poorer example, For proportionon transport, of their income and greater on much as times ten nearly spend households black 2009). et al., households (Moodley transport as white T the furthest and this cost is work), for travel to have often identified as a primary of dissatisfaction source frequently 2013; with public transport(e.g. City of Johannesburg, City of T he more dramatic benefits of integration for passengers benefits of integration dramatic The more of smart the convenience ticketing come not from of the fares but ‘the integration integration, and ticket public transport more it makes […] because themselves Johannesburg, (City of affordable’ and more seamless 62). 2013: integration. by fare be accompanied needs to South Africa covers that structure be a fare should goal The essential understand, to easy modes of transport and is rational, all supports transformation. spatial and, ultimately, equitable F Ticketing Smart 84 How to Build Transit-oriented Cities: Exploring Possibilities

Benefits goes a step further, by allowing passengers to top-up or South African cities are taking fare integration, ticket purchase fare products on the go. integration, and smart ticketing as a single package of innovations, and the overall benefits ‘are large and come Operators from factors such as modal shifts, cost savings, increased The potential benefits to operators are equally important revenue, fraud reduction, better service, and improved because ‘[c]onventional means of revenue collection are access to and integration with other services’ (Welde, labour-intensive, can be insecure and cause delays in 2012:136). Passengers, transport operators and the public boarding times and are relatively inflexible’ (Blythe, 2004: transport system as a whole, all benefit. For example, 48). Throughput is much quicker, as smart tickets can be quicker fare validation saves individual passengers time, validated 25% faster than conventional tickets (Urban increases throughput for modal operators and helps ITS Expert Group, 2013). Increased gate throughput planners by making public transport more appealing. reduces delays and increases overall service capacity (Perkins, 2012: 13). Faster passenger loading also means Passengers, transport operators that terminals can be smaller and have fewer validation and the public transport system points without sacrificing service. For example, faster bus loading means that fewer buses are needed to transport as a whole, all benefit. a given number of riders in a given time (Urban ITS Expert Group, 2013). Smart ticketing has the potential Passengers to reduce insecurity, delays and transport uncertainty, The people travelling on the public transport system is cheaper to operate and maintain than conventional gain the most visible benefits of fare/ticket integration ticketing (Ampelas, 2001; Urban ITS Expert Group, 2013), and smart ticketing, as ‘[t]he way in which fares, tolls, and and can dramatically reduce fare evasion (GAL, 2013; other fees for the use of a transport service are collected Turner and Wilson, 2010). is one of the most important aspects in determining customers’ satisfaction with both new and existing Throughput of smart tickets transport schemes’ (Blythe, 2004: 48). Passengers have is much quicker to carry and manage fewer tickets, and only have to deal as they can be validated with a single account or fare product. Switching from paper tickets will dramatically reduce the time taken to process fares (Iseki et al., 2008), as travellers will be able 25% to top-up their smart card at ATMs or in shops, thereby faster than reducing queues at station kiosks, while internet-ticketing conventional will eliminate the need to queue altogether (Urban ITS tickets Expert Group, 2013), albeit only for those with adequate access to internet and financial services. Mobile ticketing 91 81 87 79 78 92 82 93 83 95 85 89 94 90 84 96 88 80 INTEGRATING TICKETING AND FARES FOR EQUITABLE ACCESS 86 85 , 2009: 1). Smart ticketing makes public transport Smart makes , 2009: 1). ticketing T own, and the Gauteng City Region. City Region. own, and the Gauteng ntegration in Integration Intermodal Cities South African (and ongoing are transport developments Although and Nelson Rustenburg such as places in controversial) most the three at looks this section Mandela Bay, in South located urban transport systems, extensive Cape eThekwini, centres: urban largest three Africa’s T have been shown to increase ridership. Done correctly, correctly, ridership. Done increase been shown to have ridership in result can unified ticketing’ and ‘simple 40% up to even 6% and 20%, and by between growing (CB the create and helps 2004) (Blythe, attractive more TS Expert (Urban I modern transport of a system image ticketing of integrated promise The greatest 2013). Group, supportswhich ridership, increased the is goal major the cars and from shift to transport policy, of South African public transport. towards Smart ticketing makes public transport more attractive and helps attractive Smart more ticketing makes public transport system. of a modern transport the image create ransport system as a whole system ransport T public transport the main concerns for South Africa, For users. private-car ridership and attract increase to are and Smith, 1999; (FitzRoy ticketing Both integrated 2009) al., et (Abrate fares 2004) and integrated Matas, Many transport fare structures already differentiate differentiate already structures transportfare Many concessionaryfor pensioners passengers by offering fares fares discounted offers even – Barcelona or students families. Smart members of single-parent ticketing for an targeting of fares: sophisticated more allow would during the only free ride for students might let operator for pensioners hour rush after reduced fares or offer week, the loads who concerta anyone transport to for free or smarttheir are onto options Such concertcard. ticket integration, without smart or ticket possible ticketing ad-hoc arrangements specific require would but each and reduce in the system the complexity increase that can be With smart the complexity ticketing, usability. passengers. for usability thus increasing ‘back-ended’, Smart ticketing makes available large amounts of large available makes Smart ticketing on both a service and operators, to new information 2004). Detailed (Blythe, level passenger an individual use and when passengers about where information improve design, route future transportpublic inform can capacity adjust to operators service and allow levels about meet demand. Information to in real-time supply be to products fare allow also may passengers individual combined with origin/ and can be closely more tailored example, For planning purposes. for information route learners between differentiates system if the ticketing a particular to might respond planners and commuters, by increasing on a particular density of learners route school. and after before service only levels 86 How to Build Transit-oriented Cities: Exploring Possibilities

Cape Town The City’s plans for integration have been underway Of the three urban centres, Cape Town has the highest usage since at least 2001 (Jeffares & Glean et al., 2001). The of private cars. In 2012, of the total daily trips undertaken, intention is to expand the fare system to includes ‘all 52% were taken by private car, 25% by rail, 13% by minibus public transport modes administered by the city’ and to taxi, 10% by city buses and under 1% by MyCiti BRT develop a uniform fare ‘for all public transport modes (City of Cape Town, 2013b). Buses are particularly poorly within the city (i.e., BRT, other contracted bus services, integrated with other modes, and ‘the public transport commuter rail, dial-a-ride etc.)’ (City of Cape Town, system in the City of Cape Town would be greatly improved 2013a: 6). The future integrated fare will work on a through the implementation of integrated operations with zone-based distance tariff, where ‘fare will be fixed at longer operating hours, greater service frequencies and a constant level for a specific travel distance’ (ibid. 10) scheduled services on all routes’ (City of Cape Town, 2013b: with unlimited transfers and fares capped at a certain 94). E-ticketing in Cape Town is limited to the MyCiti BRT, level. Fares will also be differentiated by time of travel which uses the myconnect contactless smart card and so (peak/off-peak), passenger discounts and fare product. fares and ticketing are not integrated. However, the City The system will be based on the myconnect card already promises to ‘roll out the myconnect fare collection system in use for the MyCiti buses. to all road based public transport services as and when these services are contracted’ (ibid., 125). The ultimate aim In short, Cape Town’s public transport is still unintegrated, is to have one ticket that allows ‘the public transport user to but the City has ambitious plans for both ticket and fare purchase one ticket (a myconnect card) that is valid for use integration. As regards e-ticketing in the private sector, on all modes’ (ibid., 128) and, ultimately, ‘a fully distance- the Peninsula Taxi Association is currently testing a based fare structure’ (ibid., 132). smart card-based payment system on 40 minibus taxis traveling between the city centre and the V&A Waterfront. in 2012 The system is based on a contactless EMV system, is OF THE total daily trips compliant with Department of Transport standards, and undertaken in Cape Town could be a foothold for ticket or fare integration between

Private car 52% public transport and taxis. As will be discussed later, such integration outside of public transport is a key feature Rail 25% of smart ticketing. The credit on a myconnect card can

Minibus tax 13% already be used for the purchase of goods and services like any other debit card, albeit with a transaction limit City buses 10% of R200.

MyCiti BRT 1% 91 81 87 79 78 92 82 93 83 95 85 89 94 90 84 96 88 80 INTEGRATING TICKETING AND FARES FOR EQUITABLE ACCESS 86 87 6 estern W Cape national average This congestion is a 7 ad density reasury, 2009: 130). reasury,

egion reasury, 2009). reasury, greater greater than greater than shwane and Ekurhuleni, each with each Ekurhuleni, and shwane uteng’s ro Ga own’s myconnect card, the Muvo Card will eventually be eventually will Card Muvo card, the myconnect own’s is still not in place and each bus service and each uses its own fare not in place is still not planned for, same card and is held on the products when integration fare ‘electronic to a reference other than Cape 2013). Like (eThekwini Municipality, making transfers’ T participating under R200 in stores. purchases for usable major driver behind efforts to promote public transport to promote behind effortsmajor driver (see Garner et in the province integration and modal urban of integrated 2001), as ‘[t]he implementation al., in reduction with the expected along transport systems, urban address to way go a long will usage, vehicle private T congestion’ (National traffic 13x 18x auteng City R Gauteng municipalities, metropolitan contains three Gauteng T Johannesburg, public and separate governments local separate same time, the three the at However, transport systems. awith place, urban single a up make municipalities large cross- and have labour market, integrated closely is density road Gauteng’s result, a As of commuters. flows province than the next most congested 13 times greater than the national 18 times greater and Cape) (the Western T (National average

own, TN. N), which will consist of rail consist of rail TN), which will hekwini is more transit- more own, eThekwini is feeder routes. As of March 2014, 2014, As of March routes. T feeder ransport buses. Like other public transport other ransport buses. Like he Muvo Card allows cash to be loaded for be loaded to cash allows Card Muvo The A, 2010: 6.9). own and the Gauteng metropolitan municipalities, metropolitan own and the Gauteng ransport (IR Network he Muvo website (http://muvo.co.za/about/goods-and-services/) claims that the functionality already exists, but a spokesperson indicated that it was not yet possible. it was not yet that indicated exists, but a spokesperson already the functionality claims that (http://muvo.co.za/about/goods-and-services/) website The Muvo road the Northern the longest has Cape Incidentally, nationwide. and 27.3 Cape 38.3 in the Western to compared of road, cars per kilometre has 498.6 Gauteng cars, with just 3.2 cars per kilometre. but the fewest network

trunk routes on both existing and new tracks, with new tracks, on both existing and new trunk routes and BR stock, rolling on its IR ground just broken only eThekwini had T and Cape municipalities metropolitan Gauteng Unlike integration and ticket e-ticketing eThekwini introduced the new than waiting for bus services, existing into rather public transport Card services. EMV Muvo The contactless bus systems three use on eThekwini’s for available been has since bus fares pay to way 2012 and the only since July 2014. April 1 such service-specific products, or for fares fare individual and Hughes, 2013). The Muvo as 10-trip coupons (Pearton on the travel all for pay to used be eventually will Card medium for be the fare transport and so will network integration fare in eThekwini. However, integration ticket 6. 7. Like Cape T Cape Like an Integrated of implementing is in the process eThekwini T Rapid eThekwini T Cape to Compared undertaken by journeys with 40% of daily dependent, transport by private 33% public transport and only existing transport 2009). The city’s et al., (Moodley different and three rail comprises commuter network older Mynah and Mover bus services: People the newer and Durban T has developed eThekwini’s system in the country, systems public Consequently, haphazard manner. in a somewhat services inefficient with many transport is ‘economically in resulting other, each with competition direct in rail and bus trips and in some instances, unprofitable taxi trips’ (ET 88 How to Build Transit-oriented Cities: Exploring Possibilities

In 2007, of the trips taken in Gauteng, 41% were by private According to Johannesburg’s Integrated Transport Plan, car, 42% by minibus taxi, 12% by bus and 5% by train over the long term ‘fares should be uniform across all (Gauteng Roads and Transport Department, 2013b). Over modes and related more or less to distance travelled’ the last two decades, public transport use has steadily (City of Johannesburg, 2013: 62), while Tshwane policy declined, which is contrary to Gauteng’s undertaking to simply mentions an ‘integrated fare structure’ (City of ‘promote the growth of public transport modal share’ Tshwane, 2007: 7–36). Ticket integration is a medium- (Gauteng Roads and Transport Department, 2013a: 42). term priority for the Gautrain and only one technical New rapid transit links have been introduced in an effort approach is proposed (Churcher, 2009; van der Merwe, to increase public transport’s share of the modal split 2005), whereas the City of Johannesburg identifies the and include the Rea Vaya BRT in Johannesburg, the Rea Vaya card as ‘the only fare system in Gauteng that imminent A Re Yeng BRT in Tshwane, the forthcoming BRT in Ekurhuleni and the Gautrain rapid rail link between a number of stations in Johannesburg, Tshwane and Ekurhuleni. To date, the flagship new rapid transit links are not realising the potential for smart cards, nor are the older services, which still depend on cash and paper tickets. Smart ticketing systems are in use on the Metrobus and the new rapid transit links (Rea Vaya, Gautrain and A Re Yeng), resulting in a proliferation of smart tickets: the Gautrain Gold Card is a non-EMV contactless smart card, the Rea Vaya Card is an EMV/ contactless hybrid smart card (as will be the A Re Yeng Card), the Metrobus Tag is a contactless smart card. Furthermore neither fares nor tickets are not integrated.

However, Gauteng’s ‘One Province One Ticket’ initiative envisages a single fare medium for all public transport and, through ‘One Tariff’, some degree of fare integration. The provincial strategy calls for fares to be harmonised ‘to establish a consistent approach towards fare setting across all networks and modes’ (Gauteng Roads and In Gauteng, over the last two decades, public transport use has Transport Department, 2013a: xxi). However, consensus steadily declined. , which is contrary to Gauteng’s undertaking to across the three municipalities still has to be reached. ‘promote the growth of public transport modal share’ 91 81 87 79 78 92 82 93 83 95 85 89 94 90 84 96 88 80 INTEGRATING TICKETING AND FARES FOR EQUITABLE ACCESS 86 89 8 rogressive a Progressive owards are Policy his section discusses some of the options for achieving a achieving for This section discusses some of the options policy within the South African fare progressive radically urban context. T F In other words, policy needs to encourage the urban the encourage to needs policy words, other In (the urban live currently they where from move poor to good have that places or to periphery)urban centres to fare A distance-based centres. urban transport to links by providing be part can encouragement, of that structure travel and expensive within the city centre cheap travel the make to presumably, the peripheryto in order, such However, poor people. for attractive more centre poor people because inequitable is clearly a solution and relative the thus far; disproportionately travel for be greater will fares cost of distance-based absolute a radical, more even (or fare a flat Conversely, the poor. which distances, long for is cheaper that structure fare the against work actively will be progressive) would for reason the away by taking programme, densification is structure a fare such However, move. to poor people as poor people transformation, spatial drive to unlikely low, land prices are where live continue to largely will long their commute make that which means in places transport be policy could In theory, and expensive. poor people discourages that designed in such a way by making of work, their place settling far from from this practice in However, expensive. more travel distance increase would it because Africa South in work cannot the burden on the poor. aradox ransport regulations for for ransportregulations T Distance-based fares are not covered here because they do not favour the poor (as illustrated above). Also, note that cross-subsidies can make a fare structure structure a fare can make cross-subsidies that note Also, above). the poor (as illustrated because they do not favour here not covered are Distance-based fares fares. low for pay to taxes using sales example, distances). For long travel to those who have favours urban context, (i.e. in the South African progressive more can be more structures to how various fare and so the discussion is confined transport the scope of this chapter, the financing of public is beyond However, else is equal. all assuming progressive, 8. interoperability’ (City of Johannesburg, 2013: 62). of Johannesburg, (City interoperability’ A major plank of the in a paradox. this results However necessary cities in South African transformation spatial the peripheryto from moving – people is densification corridors’ ‘mobility of formation the and – centre the the centre. outside remain who those – for 2011) (NPC, Apartheid spatial planning resulted in the urban poor in the resulted Apartheid planning spatial economies local on distant peripheries, where living mostly wage- into South Africans black force to suppressed, were on the live poor South Africans many Therefore, labour. to and have work, of their place far from urban periphery, by public transport or distances – usually great commute expense. Those who are considerable minibus taxi – and at to the distant to travel find money to have also unemployed fare the current Therefore, work. for look to urban centres inequitable. costs of transport are and the relative structure spatial inequitable of historically with the legacy Along housing, this is a and the economics of land and policy, a Hence, it is also major burden on the poor of South Africa. transformation. large part spatial of the need for P Policy The Transport or inequitable neutral equitable, A policy can be the stay gain more, poor people depending on ‘whether when these gains than rich people, more same, or lose as a proportion of disposable expressed are or losses (Grey taxes)’ less refunds, income, plus income (gross 297). 1975: and Lewis, meets national Department of national meets 90 How to Build Transit-oriented Cities: Exploring Possibilities

Flat fare/fare-free A flat fare can be either equitable or inequitable, An integrated flat-fare structure is a fare payable for depending on the level at which the fare is set. A very all modes of public transport, with unlimited through- low flat fare (as was introduced in Hasselt, Belgium, ticketing, for a specified journey duration. A subset of after budget constraints meant the end of its fare-free the flat fare is fare-free public transport, which is not as system) can have similar effects to a fare-free system. radical as it may seem: more than 60 cities and regions In contrast, a high flat fare can drive away the poorest worldwide offer at least some fare-free public transport passengers, impose high costs on those poor passengers (FPT, 2014). The most prominent example is Tallinn, who have no alternative, and disproportionately favour Estonia, which in January 2013 became the first capital rich passengers. city (and the second-largest city after Changdu, China) to offer fare-free transport for all its residents. Within Passenger-differentiated fares three months traffic congestion decreased by 15%, A fare structure that differentiates passengers is most and within six months public transport ridership was likely to be politically and fiscally acceptable and result up by 12.6% and car use was down by 9% (European in greater equity. Flat fares and distance-based fares Commission, 2013). Outside the OECD, a number of are indifferent to passengers, as passengers pay the Brazilian, Chinese, and Thai cities boast free public same for the same distance, and so are relatively crude transport for residents. at achieving socioeconomic objectives or equity. In the case of a flat low-fare structure, any rich person A public transport system that is fare-free makes who chooses to use public transport will pay less as ticketing and integration dramatically easier. While a proportion of their income than poor people. Under such a system is not inherently progressive because rich a distance-based fare, people travelling from Dainfern and poor both benefit from free transport, the benefits Golf Estate and people travelling from Diepsloot are skewed towards poor people, as rich people will informal settlement (both about half an hour from remain more likely to take private transport. Although Johannesburg city centre) would pay the same fare, but fare-free transport is unlikely in South Africa without the Diepsloot residents would pay more as a proportion a political commitment to greatly expand public of their income. In contrast, passenger-differentiated transport funding, it is nonetheless useful to consider fares can target fares at specific passengers and help in this discussion. achieve equity objectives.

A public transport system that is Internationally, passenger-differentiated fares are found across the UK and Europe. In London, various groups fare-free makes ticketing and (including students, military veterans, apprentices and integration dramatically easier. registered job-seekers) are entitled to travel concessions 91 81 87 79 78 92 82 93 83 95 85 89 94 90 84 96 88 80 86 91 INTEGRATING TICKETING AND FARES FOR EQUITABLE ACCESS own identifies

ted ential ve enormous pot ansion in South Africa ares ha ssenger-differentia Pa f exp for Apart from being progressive, certain of passenger Apart forms being progressive, from economic local to promote could be used differentiation and time- expensive can be work Seeking development. public free job-seekers consuming, and so offering (and for cost of looking the transport decrease would Passenger-differentiated fares have enormous potential potential enormous have fares Passenger-differentiated integrate be used to and could Africa expansion in South for of the The core wage. social the broader transport into security existing social the around built could be system discounted given are recipients grant whereby system, already recipients of grant A database travel. or free as as simple implementation make exists, which would (and an identity document number to a ticket registering discourage to on the ticket, a photo perhaps including This is easier with smart its use by other people). tickets, the system Extending types. with other ticket but possible be as quick as adding would people of other groups to and instance, scholars – for a database their details to be would insurance unemployment receiving people T Cape Similarly, include. easy to relatively and service reductions certain rate poor households for public transport discounts to discounts, and so extending simple. be relatively members of these households would programme, Package Expanded Social Johannesburg’s transport subsidies, which includes already Siyasizana, a passenger- through and extended could be implemented system. fare differentiated Similar systems are already in use in South Africa. In in use in South Africa. already are Similar systems smart colour different makes Metrobus Johannesburg, schoolchildren, commuters, adult to cards available riders. with disabilities, pensioners, and occasional people products with set of fare smart a different Each card offers users frequent example, varying For of concession. levels pensioners get users, and occasional get discounts over the effect what it is not clear a 50% concession. As yet, in transport system and fare-integrated planned ticket- existing passenger- on Metrobus’s have will Johannesburg has already Durban contrast, In fares. differentiated card offers and the Muvo system, a ticket-integrated yet is not Muvo However, fares. passenger-differentiated and so passengers with concessions have fare-integrated, bus service.each discount on a different using a special integrated ticket, while pensioners and pensioners while ticket, integrated using a special a has Paris free. for can travel with disabilities people many to extended also is travel free and similar system, to benefits and unemployment who receive people systems most comprehensive One of the parents. single exists in Barcelona, fares of passenger-differentiated discounts or offers of tickets system a complicated where children categories), pensioners (multiple to travel free of single- members of large families, members under 14, passengers with disabilities, people families, parent school groups with disabilities, people accompanying those who are require often and others. These systems identity card a special for apply to discounts to entitled easy allows card), which then a student to (equivalent be can or (increasingly) tickets discounted of purchase travel. used for 92 How to Build Transit-oriented Cities: Exploring Possibilities

increase the likelihood of finding) work. Evidence also the possibility of using creative fare structures to achieve shows that commuting is relatively price-inelastic, but various public transport goals. non-work travel is not (Baum, 1973). Thus targeting non-commuters for public transport discounts could Smart ticketing proves itself when passenger differentiation encourage shifts in how people move within the city and and time-based fares are stacked on top of a flat or inspire people to make greater use of public spaces. distance-based fare structure. Although complex fare structures and progressive fares are possible without Passenger- and time-differentiated fares smart ticketing (as in Barcelona), smart ticketing enables Combining passenger differentiation with time- ever-finer targeting of fares without inconveniencing differentiated fares could be most useful. For instance, commuters. On top of the progressive measures listed scholars could receive free transport only in the hour above, a smart ticket would make it relatively simple to before school starts and after school finishes. Job- introduce ad-hoc fare products, such as free transport seekers, who are likely to be more time-elastic in their on voting day for registered voters, or including a free demand for transport than commuters, could receive ride to the stadium in the price of a soccer game ticket. In free transport only in off-peak times, supplemented with theory, integrated ticketing would allow fare products to a concession targeting casual workers or day-labourers be tailored right down to the individual rider, enabling a who have to travel at peak hours. Fare discounts could public transport system that charges passengers neither also persuade commuters to travel outside of peak hours, more nor less than they can afford to pay. Although reducing congestion on the public transport system easing the movement of poor people around the city in and distributing demand more evenly throughout the this way might not drive spatial transformation, it will day. Similarly, lunch-hour discounts might mean that mean that the costs of transformation do not obstruct commuters choose to run errands in the middle of the spatial transformation driven by other factors. day, which would reduce evening congestion.

In May 2014, Gautrain announced the introduction Conclusion of time-differentiated fares in three tiers: trips in the ‘red’ period (peak hours) will be the most expensive, South Africa has recognised the importance of integrating trips in the ‘green’ period (off-peak hours) will be the transport modes, fares and ticketing. Plans for integrated least expensive, and trips in the ‘orange’ period will be smart tickets in South African cities are in place and somewhere in between. Notably the most expensive steadily moving forward. Integration relates to integrating ‘red’ fare applies only to trips in certain directions on tickets as well as fares. Fare and ticket integration can the Gautrain. These time-differentiated fares appear to exist independently or be combined to a greater or lesser be an experiment in demand management, rather than extent. When smart cards and mobile ticketing (which the introduction of a progressive tariff, but demonstrate are forms of e-ticketing or smart ticketing) are combined 91 81 87 79 78 92 82 93 83 95 85 89 94 90 84 96 88 80 INTEGRATING TICKETING AND FARES FOR EQUITABLE ACCESS 86 93 ransport policy and integrated ransport policy and integrated his is no silver bullet for South Africa’s public transport Africa’s South for bullet This is no silver institutional, infrastructural, which are problems, tickets Integrated socioeconomic. all above and cultural but money-saver, and a moderate be a convenience will The use of integrated more. be little will by themselves the spatial not address will alone or fares ticketing but can support agenda South African transformation agenda social which has a progressive transport policy, on the poor burden placed the historical alleviate (to local like planning) and objectives by apartheid spatial T economic development. with fare and/or ticket integration, the potential for for the potential integration, ticket and/or with fare transport public for fares smarterbetter-designed and is greater. passengers but they can help ensure end urban poverty, won’t fares fully and can participate access equal the poor have that of their cities. and economic life in the social 94 How to Build Transit-oriented Cities: Exploring Possibilities

References City of Cape Town. 2013a. Draft Fare Policy for Contracted, Road-Based Public Transport. Cape Town: City of Cape Town. Abrate G, Piacenza M and Vannoni D. 2009. The impact of integrated tariff systems on public transport City of Cape Town. 2013b. Integrated Transport Plan. demand: Evidence from Italy. Regional Science and Cape Town: City of Cape Town. Urban Economics, Vol 39(2): 120–127. City of Joburg. 2013. Strategic Integrated Transport Ampelas A. 2001. Automatic fare collection. Conference Plan Framework for the City of Joburg (pp. 1–120). proceedings (pp 1164–1166), IEEE Intelligent Johannesburg: City of Joburg. Transportation Systems, Oakland, California, 25–29 August 2001. City of Tshwane. 2007. Integrated Transport Plan 2006–2011. Tshwane: City of Tshwane. Baum HJ. 1973. Free public transport. Journal of Transport Economics and Policy, 11(1): 3–19. CSIR. 2000. Public transport. In Guidelines for Human Settlement Planning and Design. Pretoria: CSIR. Blythe P. 2004. Improving public transport ticketing through smart cards. Municipal Engineer, 157(1): 47–54. DoT (Department of Transport). 2007. Public Transport Strategy (pp. 1–25). Pretoria. CBT (Campaign for Better Transport). 2009. Consultation response from Campaign for Better Transport (pp. eThekwini Municipality. 2013. Go Durban! Is On Track To 1–5). London. Move The People Of eThekwini.

Chaumette S, Dubernet D, Ouoba J and Siira E. 2011. ETA (eThekwini Transport Authority). 2005. Public Architecture and comparison of two different user- Transport Plan. Durban. centric NFC-enabled event ticketing approaches. Conference Proceedings (pp. 165–177), Smart Spaces ETA. 2010. Integrated Transport Plan Update. eThekwini. and Next Generation Wired/Wireless Networking, 11th International Conference, NEW2AN 2011, and European Commission. 2013. Tallinn becomes “capital of 4th Conference on Smart Spaces, ruSMART 2011, St. free public transport.” Eco-Innovation Action Plan. Petersburg, Russia, 22–25 August 2011. Retrieved May 06, 2014, from http://ec.europa.eu/ environment/ecoap/about-eco-innovation/good- Churcher J. 2009. The Gautrain automatic fare practices/estonia/20130617-capital-of-free-public- collection system within a national environment. transport_en.htm Bombela Presentation. Online available at: www. itssa.org/wp-content/uploads/files/events/…/ John- FitzRoy F and Smith I. 1999. Season tickets and the Churcher.pdf demand for public transport. Kyklos, 52(2). 91 81 87 79 78 92 82 93 83 95 85 89 94 90 84 96 88 80 INTEGRATING TICKETING AND FARES FOR EQUITABLE ACCESS 86 95 own. MA reasury. ransport Authorities). onder MA, Kuppan SA andonder MA, Kuppan ransport Fares in the City of in ransport Fares Pretoria, South Africa, 6–9 July 2009. 6–9 July South Africa, Pretoria, ransport. Report prepared for ET for prepared ransport. Report own. Report prepared for the City of Cape T Cape the City of for prepared own. Report reasury. 2009. Provincial Budgets and Budgets and 2009. Provincial reasury. ransport Authority. Rationalisation of Public T of Public Rationalisation T Cape public transport policy: the case of an integrated 195–217. 24(2): Reviews, Transport Madrid. T in Public T Metropolitan (European household SM. 2009. eThekwini municipal-wide Baker Proceedings findings. behaviour survey: travel travel Transport Southern African of 28th (pp. 135–143) Conference, T National Pretoria: Review. Expenditure services phone short mobile through messages. Conference ICWMC (International at presented Paper Bucharest, Communications), and Mobile on Wireless 2006. July 29–31 Romania, NPC. Plan. Pretoria: Development for eThekwini Paper Africa. for South card: a first T coordination. aspects of inter-modal and regulatory Jeffares & Glean, CSIR and Steer Davies Gleave. 2001. Gleave. Davies and Steer CSIR & Glean, Jeffares of implications and revenue A. 2004. Demand Matas Ticketing on Electronic M. 2008. Study Mezghani Meintsma J, van T GY, Moodley T National K. 2006. Admittance J and Myksvoll J, Calvet Noll 2011. National Commission). Planning NPC (National M and Hughes M. 2013. eThekwini’s muvo Pearton transport policy: institutional S. 2012. Seamless Perkins ransport owards ransit Smartransit ransport Master ransport Master ransport Department. aylor, B. D., & Yoh, A. C. 2008. A. C. & Yoh, B. D., aylor, ransport Department. 2013a. ransport Framework. Johannesburg: ransport Framework. ransport Department. 2013b. ltrepo Pavese Area: A Area: Pavese ransport in the Oltrepo MP25 (25-year Integrated T Integrated MP25 (25-year ransport. Retrieved May 06, 2014, from http:// from 06, 2014, May ransport. Retrieved (Gauteng City-Region Observatory). 2011. Quality City-Region O (Gauteng resolving congestion in Gauteng. In Meeting the in Gauteng. congestion resolving (pp. 16–20). in Southern Africa Challenges Transport IT icket Service for Local Service Local Ticket for 2013. Integrated Pavese). T Public T freepublictransports.com/city/ Study. Feasibility Plan). Johannesburg: Gauteng Roads and T Roads Gauteng Plan). Johannesburg: Department. Land T Provincial and T Roads Gauteng Planning Review, The Town the public interest. 46(3), 295–313. and Benefits of T the Costs Evaluating Berkeley. 2008-14). (No. Cards of Life in the Gauteng City-Region: 2011 findings. City-Region: in the Gauteng of Life survey sample of of Life’ the ‘Quality from Results city-region. of the Gauteng residents . 2014. Cities | Free public transport. Free Public Public public transport. Free Free Cities | . 2014. Gauteng Roads and T Roads Gauteng FPT of the Oltrepo’ Development the for GAL (Foundation SL. 2001. T JP and Burnett Louw Garner D, Gauteng Roads and T Roads Gauteng Iseki, H., Demisch, A., T GCR and transport fares Public 1975. D. A., & Lewis, Grey, 96 How to Build Transit-oriented Cities: Exploring Possibilities

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Welde M. 2012. Are smart card ticketing systems profitable? Evidence from the City of Trondheim. Journal of Public Transportation, 15(1), 133–148. 99 USING LAND-USE MANAGEMENT TO CREATE TRANSIT-FRIENDLY CITIES 98 97 111 117 112 113 114 116 115 118 110 101 107 102 103 105 109 104 108 100 106 Stuart Denoon-Stevens Stuart -USE LAND USING CREATE TO MANAGEMENT CITIES -FRIENDLY TRANSIT 98 How to Build Transit-oriented Cities: Exploring Possibilities

Introduction

the challenge is how to retrofit an urban form, which is built for the motor vehicle, to become suitable for public transport

The accepted wisdom is that the urban form evolves This chapter argues that through integrated transport and according to changes in the dominant mode of transport. land-use planning, three core concepts can be achieved: Before the era of motorised transport, cities were generally ʪʪ Equity of access: A car-centred urban form is limited in extent to a ‘walkable’ area (from city edge to city often inequitable and inaccessible to public transit centre), which was typically a maximum of 45 minutes. The and pedestrians, thus excluding these users from emergence of rail allowed cities to spread, with the urban enjoying the full benefits of the city. form clustering around railway stations, resulting in a ʪʪ Safety (a safe built form): The built environment ‘string of pearls’ urban pattern. Then, the motor car freed and the land-use process have a significant the city to expand indiscriminately, with freeways typically impact on the design of streets and, in turn, on having the largest influence on how cities spread, resulting the behaviour of pedestrians, cyclists, public in the phenomena of urban sprawl. This form of urban transport operators and private vehicle drivers. This development is neither sustainable nor equitable, given that behaviour is one of the leading contributory factors in third-world cities the majority of households do not have of vehicular accidents (or prevention thereof). access to a motor vehicle. In other words, the evolution of ʪʪ Efficiency (improved efficiency and financial urban form has reached a new epoch, and so the challenge sustainability of public transport): The provision is how to retrofit an urban form, which is built for the motor and extent of public transport depends on vehicle, to become suitable for public transport. pedestrians being able to access public transport 99 U SING LAND- SE MANAGEMEN T TO CREA

stops, stations and interchanges within a 20-minute The Goals of Equity of Access, (or ±2-kilometre walk). Safety and Efficiency

While recognising that land management cannot alone Land management’s general mandate comes from two transform the built environment – such transformation key sources, the Constitution and the Spatial Planning also requires political will, competent officials, a and Land Use Management Act (SPLUMA), Act No. 16 supportive institutional environment, adequate resources of 2013 (Sections 7 and 25) which contains some key T E RANSI -FRIENDLY CI T IES and so forth – this chapter provides a starting point considerations for land use management applications, and structure that can guide reforms.1 Specifically, the including: chapter looks at possible tools and incentives that can ʪʪ Create spatial justice, by redressing past spatial realise the principles of transit-oriented development imbalances, specifically through improving access (TOD), and how these can be packaged to foster improved to (and use of) land, and including persons and coordination between land use, property development areas that were previously excluded, in particular 98 and public transport in South African cities. disadvantaged communities and persons. 99 ʪʪ Develop land with minimal impact on public health, 100 101 After establishing why equity of access, safety and the environment and natural resources. 102 103 efficiency are the goals, the chapter looks at what ʪʪ Ensure that land development is within the 104 interventions could increase the safety, accessibility and fiscal, institutional and administrative means 105 106 viability of public transport within metropolitan areas. of the country, as well as the broader notion of 107 108 The procedural mechanisms needed to encourage and environmental, social, economic and agricultural 109 make possible these interventions are then discussed, preservation and sustainability. 110 111 followed by some concluding remarks. ʪʪ Optimise the use of existing resources and 112 113 infrastructure when developing land. 114 through aligning land management 115 with public transporT 116 Within these broad principles, this chapter has identified 117 three key goals that can be achieved through aligning 118 ss ce S c a land management with public transport: equity of a f f e o t access, safety and efficiency. It should be noted that

y y

t

i minimum consideration is given to environmental

u

q

sustainability and health in this chapter, which is not e

due to a perceived lack of importance of these concerns.

e

y f

f c i c n i ke3y goals e Land management arguably has an indirect impact can be achieved on environmental sustainability and health. If the type

1. This chapter should be read in conjunction with Denoon-Stevens (2014), which addresses the issue of land management in Sustainable Human Settlements. These two chapters have been written to deal with different facets of many of the same problems but have consciously been written to be separate yet complementary. 100 How to Build Transit-oriented Cities: Exploring Possibilities

of built environment promoted encourages a greater majority of urban development is tailored primarily to usage of public transport (and thus a lower usage of cater to the motor vehicle, neglecting the multi-modal private vehicles), the knock-on effect will be significant nature of the urban road network (Beukes et al., 2011). for broader environmental goals, such as reducing a This is best reflected in the stark difference between the city’s carbon footprint and reducing air pollution (Geels, travel times of those using private vehicles compared to 2012; Srinivasan et al., 2003). Therefore, creating a built those using public transport. For instance, the average environment that encourages public transport usage (i.e. journey to work takes 40 minutes by car, compared to by creating an equitable, safe and efficient built form) is 81 minutes by train, 70 minutes by bus and 49 minutes the best way to use mobility (within the context of land by taxi (StatsSA, 2014). management) as a means to achieve environmental sustainability and health. South Africa has an unacceptably Equity of access high traffic fatality and injury rate. This is the expression of a broad concept – spatial justice – in the context of transport mobility. It reflects the idea Safety that all residents of a city should be able to access the Creating a safe built form responds to the goal of majority of employment opportunities within a 60-minute reducing the impact of the built form on public health, commute, and quality educational, entertainment, specifically the impact of traffic accidents on drivers, cultural activities and health, welfare and police services passengers and pedestrians in terms of fatalities, within a 30-minute commute. Also included in this goal injuries and cost (WHO 2013). is that transport costs should not be more than 10% of a household’s income.2 South Africa has an unacceptably high traffic fatality and injury rate. In 2010, the country had one of the highest Yet the current urban form in South Africa is generally proportional traffic accident fatality rates worldwide geared to the needs of the wealthy car-owning (ibid), with 13 923 road fatalities between 1 April 2010 and minority, not the majority (67%) of households within 31 March 2011 (RTMC, 2011). Traffic accidents were one of metropolitan areas who use public transport at least the leading causes of non-natural deaths in South Africa, once a month, with 18.7% using buses and 19.9% using accounting for around 2.54% of all deaths in 2010.4 What trains (StatsSA, 2014). Commuters in metropolitan is particularly worrying is that in certain metropolitan areas predominantly use non-motorised transport cities, the percentage of deaths of pedestrians is much (NMT) or public transport to get to work (48.3%)3 or higher than in the rest of the country. For instance, in to school (66.1%) (StatsSA, 2013a). Despite this, the 2012, pedestrians accounted for 35% of traffic fatalities

2. The issues with this crude benchmark as outlined by Venter and Beherns (2005) are noted. 3. Compares to 41.8% who use (or get lifts in) private vehicles and 9.8% who work from home (StatsSA, 2012a). 4. This figure is derived from the cause of death statistics (StatsSA, 2012b) for the total number of deaths in 2010 (which was 543 856), whereas the road fatalities are from the Road Traffic Management Corporation T(R MC, 2011) traffic report – it should be noted that the time periods for these two sources are not synchronous, and so a margin of error must be allowed for. In an ideal setting, the cause of death statistics should suffice but because of the varying reporting standards in South Africa, the figures for fatalities from traffic accidents are only around one-third of those quoted in theT R MC report. The RTMC report has been the primary source of data used, as the RTMC figures are specifically focused on this issue, and use data collected from reputable and verifiable sources (police records, accident reports). 101 U SING LAND- SE MANAGEMEN T TO CREA across South Africa (International Transport Forum, The density of commercial and/or residential land 2013), compared to around 57% in Cape Town5 (City of abutting public transport interchanges underpins Cape Town, 2013) and around 62% in eThekwini6 (derived the supply and viability of public transport facilities. from Erasmus, 2013). Substantial literature supports the notion that public transport is best served by a dense city, with some The design of the built environment, and the extent arguing that a minimum density of 3000 individuals of public transport use, is a critical factor in lowering per square kilometre is required for cost-effective public T E RANSI -FRIENDLY CI T IES accident rates. Dumbaugh and Rae (2009) argue that, transport (UN-Habitat, 2013). One famous example is the for every 1.6 kilometres of arterial road in the study comparison of Atlanta and Barcelona, whereby Atlanta, area (of San Antonio), total crashes increase by 15% and which is 28 times less dense than Barcelona, would need fatal crashes by 20%. At a more micro level, the lack of to build 2800 new stations in order to provide the same pedestrian facilities, crossings and even basic measures level of accessibility to the rail network as Barcelona (i.e. such as an adequate sidewalk contribute to the high 60% of the population within 600 metres of a station), 98 pedestrian accident rate at certain intersections (Albers whereas Barcelona has just 136 stations (Bertraud and 99 et al., 2010). Linked to the safety goal is the issue of Richardson, 2004). 100 101 crime and public transport, which may deter individuals 102 103 from using public transport: according to the Victims This argument is relevant in the South African context, 104 of Crime Survey (StatsSA, 2012b), 11.6% of households with Grey and Beherns (2013) demonstrating how Phase 105 106 claimed that fear of crime prevented them from using 1a of the MyCiti BRT network in Cape Town will not achieve 107 108 public transport. maximum capacity usage in the short to medium term 109 primarily because the density of the built environment 110 111 Efficiency (and modal share) is not sufficiently high to allow full 112 113 Land management has a crucial role to play in achieving usage of the available public transport capacity – in fact, 114 efficiency and financial sustainability, as the viability of only 26% of capacity will likely be used. Furthermore, 115 116 providing fixed-line public transit systems depends on using the proxy of 3000 individuals per square kilometre 117 there being an adequate number of passengers living as the minimum threshold for cost-effective public 118 within the catchment area of a public transport service. transport, Tshwane, Ekurhuleni, Johannesburg and Nelson Mandela Bay all have densities too low to provide Land management has a crucial a cost-effective public transport network, based on data role to play in achieving efficiency from the SACN (2011). and financial sustainability

5. This source does not state the specific time period it was calculated on, hence a margin of error should be allowed for. 6. Erasmus J. 2013. ‘R5,1 bln: Durban’s killer traffic costs.’The Witness. 2 October 2013. 102 How to Build Transit-oriented Cities: Exploring Possibilities

Compared to the ‘conventional’ density profile, whereby Land Management and the inner city is the densest part of the city, South African Public Transport cities have an inverted profile, with pockets of extremely high densities (mostly in townships and informal This section looks at interventions that could increase settlements) and areas of very low densities (mostly the safety, accessibility and viability of public transport in higher-income areas) found on the peripheries of within metropolitan areas. cities (SACN, 2011). As a consequence, the bulk of the metropolitan population travel long distances to access Equity of access their place of work, placing an abnormally large strain Accessibility has long been a concern of urban planners. on the movement network. One definition of accessibility is ‘the ease with which activities may be reached from a given location using a particular transportation system’ (Morris et al., 1979) and has a strong equity dimension. A location that is accessible by motor vehicle might be inaccessible (or have very poor accessibility) by NMT or public transport. Thus the use of the word accessibility specifically refers to the goal of ensuring equal or higher accessibility throughout the city for public transport, and for NMT users over that of private vehicles (Harvey, 1973).

Accessibility is both a macro (city level) and a micro (urban design) concern. At a city scale, accessibility is about encouraging residential and non-residential land use to cluster around public transport interchanges, thereby shortening the added walking time between trip origin and destination (UN-Habitat, 2013). Equally important is the micro dimension that relates to the urban design of the built environment, which can act as a deterrent to commuters. For instance, poorly maintained and too-narrow (or no) pavements, frequent changes in pavement level, busy roads with infrequent crossings, lack of public toilets, and unlit public environments without surveillance (resulting in a perceived threatening environment) deter commuters Accessibility has long been a concern of urban planners. from either walking or using public transport (Hanson, 103 U SING LAND- SE MANAGEMEN T TO CREA

2004). Therefore, to create a truly accessible city will ʪʪ Driveways designed as curb cuts, not as require matching trip lengths at the macro level and interruptions to the pavement, thus prioritising urban design interventions at the micro level. pedestrians (ibid). ʪʪ Speed reduction measures, including raised Given the above, an accessible city should aspire to achieve: crossings, lateral shifts, chokers (curb extensions ʪʪ Most attractors (schools, places of work, municipal that force narrowing of road), and central-island

offices etc.) are accessible within a five-minute walk narrowing (ibid). T E RANSI -FRIENDLY CI T IES from a dedicated public transit drop-off facility. ʪʪ Improved visibility of pedestrians, through lights ʪʪ Dedicated pedestrian paths/routes run between and signals and removing obstacles that obstruct the entrances of places of employment, schools, vehicular awareness of pedestrians (ibid). municipal offices etc. and the public transit drop ʪʪ Pedestrian streets designed to have low speeds, and off area. limited pedestrian and vehicular access points to ʪʪ Access roads to retail and residential areas are high-speed roads (Dumbaugh and Li, 2010). 98 designed for public transport and NMT users and 99 pedestrians, with the car being a secondary not a An alternative approach to the above suggestions is the 100 101 primary concern. shared streets concept, whereby the majority of markings, 102 103 ʪʪ Pedestrian routes are designed to minimise the signs and regulations are removed, which is appropriate 104 actual and perceived threat of crime. for streets with heavy pedestrian usage and a desired low 105 106 ʪʪ Pedestrian routes are designed to ease the vehicular speed (Hamilton-Baillie and Jones, 2005). 107 108 movement of marginalised/disadvantaged groups, 109 including the elderly, mothers and the disabled. Equally important is the perceived and actual threat of 110 111 ʪʪ Amenable and safe-for-cyclists commuter routes crime faced by public transport users along the whole route 112 113 are within 10 kilometres of all major attractors (i.e. from house, to public transport, to final destination). 114 (schools, places of work, municipal offices etc.). Some aspects that increase perceived and actual feelings 115 116 of safety include (Kruger and Landman, 2007): 117 Safety ʪʪ Adequate lighting and subways on pedestrian 118 Within the context of road design and the township routes, which should not cross vacant land and are establishment process, the following aspects could be regularly maintained and managed (to avoid the incorporated to improve the safety of NMT and public ‘broken window’ syndrome7). transport users, some of which are found in the Fan Walk ʪʪ Road layouts that enable pedestrians to use the in Cape Town (see box 1): fastest, most direct route to public transport. ʪʪ Pavements, over- or under-passes, marked ʪʪ Public transport waiting areas with seating, crossings and raised medians (Abu Dhabi Urban signage, lighting and informal trading. Development Council, 2010).

7. Broken window syndrome suggests that the inability to maintain and monitor urban environments in a well-ordered manner will lead to further vandalism and escalation into more serious crime. 104 How to Build Transit-oriented Cities: Exploring Possibilities

Box 1: The Fan Walk, Waterkant Street, Cape Town

There are very few examples of complete, or liveable, streets in South Africa. One notable exception is the Fan Walk in Cape Town, which was retrofitted as part of the 2010 FIFA Soccer World Cup upgrades. This converted an otherwise normal street into one that prioritises pedestrians over vehicles.

2005 Before (1) Plaza abutting un-signalised intersection, resulting in conflict between pedestrians and vehicles. (2) Narrow median in centre of Buitengracht Street, three-way un-signalised intersection. (3) & (5) Normal two-lane road with on-street parking.. (4) Conventional signalised four-way intersection.

2014 After (1) Plaza abutting dedicated pedestrian crossing, intersection only allows one way movement, thus avoiding conflict with pedestrians. (2) Dedicated pedestrian crossing and pedestrian bridge constructed, separating pedestrians from vehicles. (3) & (5) Streets resurfaced, landscaped and street furniture added, thus obstructing and slowing vehicles. Access to Buitengracht closed off, thus reducing the number of vehicles using this street to those accessing the shops on this street. (4) Roadway replaced with redbrick, giving clear guidance to pedestrians, and pedestrian ramps installed, enabling easier access for disabled users. 105 U SING LAND- SE MANAGEMEN T TO CREA

Efficiency serve the residents of a city (UN-Habitat, 2013; Bertraud A viable public transit system can be achieved using two and Richardson, 2004) and so is critical for public transit approaches, which are separate ideologically but can viability. One of the primary ways is to allow higher operate in parallel to one another: increasing density densities closer to public transit interchanges, which has throughout the city and selling ‘air rights’ and land been done in a number of Latin American cities, such as adjacent to the public transport facility. Curitiba, Bogota and Guatemala City. As Figure 13 shows,

these interventions aim to increase the permitted land T E RANSI -FRIENDLY CI T IES The first approach is increasing (residential and non- uses and densities parallel to the bus rapid transit (BRT) residential) density, which undisputedly affects the route, with densities dropping moving outwards from the number of stations/stops and network length required to BRT route (UN-Habitat 2013).

Figure 12: Curitiba’s trinary road system and permitted land uses and density

High Density High Density 98 Commercial business, Commercial business, 99 residential Use residential Use 100 Low Density Low Density 101 Mainly residential Use Structural axis Mainly residential Use 102 ZR4 ZR4 103 104 ZR3 ZR3 105 ZR2 ZR2 106 ZR1 ZR1 107 108 109 1st and 1st and 110 2nd floor 2nd floor 111 shops, shops, 112 businesses businesses 113 114 115 One-way road One-way road One-way road One-way road 116 (Traffic flow, 60km/h) on the axis on the axis (Traffic flow, 60km/h) BRT 117 Dedicated lines 118

Trinary road system Source: UN-Habitat, 2013

However, viability goes beyond simply requiring that the largely due to the dispersion of employment throughout city should be sufficiently dense to promote an efficient the city, resulting in taxis becoming more effective than public network structure. For instance, Mexico City rail or bus (Bertraud, 2010). The lesson for South Africa (which has sufficient density for a sustainable public is that investments made in fixed-line transit (BRT transport system) has seen a shift to collective taxis and or rail) must be matched by a land-use policy that a decline in modal share for rail and bus usage. This is encourages (or requires) major employment generators 106 How to Build Transit-oriented Cities: Exploring Possibilities

to locate within these areas, within a walkable distance the cost of public transit upgrades (African Development of the public transport network (which will likely result Economic Consultants, 2010). The poster child for this in a combination of nodal and corridor development). approach is Hong Kong’s Metro Transit Rail Corporation If not, the investment in these transit assets might not (MTRC), which receives a grant of land/development be recouped. rights for the land on, above (‘air rights’) and adjacent to the station, instead of money from the Hong Kong The other approach is to sell ‘air rights’ and land adjacent government for building new stations (Cervero and to the public transport station or interchange to private Murakami, 2008). The MTRC brought in about US$5.6- sector developers, and to use these developments to fund billion (at constant 2008 value) through selling these development rights to the private sector, equivalent to about half of the MTRC’s total revenue between 2001 and 2005 (Cervero and Murakami, 2008).

This approach not only brings financial viability but also ensures that a significant number of potential public transport users are located literally on top of the public transit network. Other benefits include improved station environments, mixing of land uses (retail–residential– work–transit), and property value created through the transit upgrades, that is captured by the public sector (Cervero and Murakami, 2008).

In South Africa, an example of this type of approach is the proposal to sink the railway in Cape Town between Woodstock and Cape Town station. The ±50 hectares of land above the railway could accommodate around three million square meters of bulk, divided into four precincts with a variety of proposed uses.8 However, such projects are highly complex and would need intergovernmental coordination: this proposal would require the buy- in of Intersite, PRASA, the Western Cape Provincial Government and the City of Cape Town.

8. Cape Times. 2010. ‘R80bn project to transform Cape Town by 2030’. Online available at: http://www.makekadesigns.com/news/r80bn-project-transform-cape- town-2030-0 (9 April 2014) 107 U SING LAND- SE MANAGEMEN T TO CREA

Box 2: Two examples of air rights developments T E RANSI -FRIENDLY CI T IES

98 Source: Google Earth 99 100 101 The Avenir – Boston, USA is a ten-storey, mixed-use development consisting of 241 flats and ±2787m2 of 102 103 retail space built over the railway lines. The development cost around US$150-million but brought in around 104 US$20-million to the transit authority for the use of the land (Friedman, 2012; Trinity Financial, 2014). 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118

Source: Google Earth

Mater Hill – Brisbane: an air-rights development over a BRT station. The air rights were sold to Mater Health Services, which built hospital operating theatres above the busway. This has also allowed for retail development adjacent to the station, providing a synergy where medical, transport and retail services can all be accessed from one location (Rathwell and Schijn, 2002; UN-Habitat, 2011). 108 How to Build Transit-oriented Cities: Exploring Possibilities

Implementing these Goals leases in 2011 (DPW, 2012), while provincial governments through Land Use Management spent around R7.098-billion on the construction of new non-residential buildings in 2012 (StatsSA, 2013b). This section discusses the procedural mechanisms that Instead of giving money to the private sector for leasing can promote, mandate or permit the implementation of or purchasing land, the money would be retained within the measures described in the previous section. It should the public sector and used both to fund public transport be noted that this discussion does not include land- infrastructure and to house public facilities. use incentives, which the author considers to be one of the weakest tools available to the land management Land above and around stations can also be developed sector in the South African context. A more prescriptive for private sector use. A Land Availability Agreement approach towards regulation will be considerably more (LAA) offers a better alternative to simply selling off effective (and viable) than an approach based upon the land (Thellane, 2008, referring to social housing). land-use incentives. With an LAA, the municipality puts the development and construction of land out to tender, but the land is Build new buildings above and adjacent only transferred to the private sector after the on-site to public transport facilities structures have been completed. Both private and public In response to the goal of efficiency (i.e. the challenge sector partners benefit from this arrangement: the risk of creating an efficient and sustainable public transport for the private sector developer reduces, as they have no system), where possible, the public sector should build holding costs or do not need to obtain financing for a new buildings above or on land that is adjacent to large portion of the development; the public sector can public transport infrastructure. Developing the space monitor and have greater control over the final product, above stations and the land adjacent to stations is a minimising any cost escalation due to speculation and complementary strategy to ensuring that public transit profits. The LAA method could be used to increase the is financially viable and a key strategy for increasing the provision of social housing or other public amenities accessibility of public transit infrastructure. such as schools or hospitals in close proximity to public transport or, in other circumstances, to fund the provision The most viable way (at least initially) is to move public of public transport infrastructure. The nature of the sector offices and facilities, which are leasing office space LAA and the final built product will differ substantially, from the private sector, into (new or existing) buildings according to the type of amenities being built. adjacent to or above public transport infrastructure. A policy goal could be to encourage the state to construct Lastly, the zoning scheme needs to be amended, as many new buildings where possible near to public sector zoning schemes do not permit business or residential infrastructure, which would increase the efficiency uses in the same zone as a public transport station of public expenditure and public land. National (or other infrastructure), or only permit these uses as government alone spent around R2.932-billion on ancillary to the site’s primary use as a transport facility. 109 U SING LAND- SE MANAGEMEN T TO CREA

Zoning regulations can be used ʪʪ Include a specific chapter in the zoning scheme to make the city more transit-friendly covering street design guidelines that promote and prioritise pedestrian, public transport and cyclist and help create a safe movement and safety (perceived and actual). and equitable urban form. Having certain broad street design aspects in the zoning scheme is not a new concept. For instance,

The zoning scheme could be rectified by including a Sections 74 and 75 of the old Cape Town Zoning T E RANSI -FRIENDLY CI T IES provision that automatically considers any public transit Scheme specified minimum street widths for certain station (BRT, bus/taxi interchange, or rail station) as types of buildings, while the new City of Cape Town falling into a specific zone (either a specially created Zoning Scheme requires certain types of buildings zone, or a transport or general business zone). Then, to provide Council with a Site Development Plan, the zone in question needs to be modified to allow the including access and parking considerations (City full variety of uses that are likely to occur in a station of Cape Town, 2012). However, as far as can be 98 precinct, and to remove or amend any regulations that ascertained, no zoning scheme has stipulated 99 could impede such uses – for instance, the Cape Town minimum requirements for pedestrian movement 100 101 Zoning Scheme Transport Zone 1 that requires the land in any depth. 102 103 be used predominantly for transport purposes could ʪʪ Impose standards for cycle-friendly roads, with 104 severely threaten the viability of this proposal. varying degrees of intensity depending on the likely 105 106 usage of that route by cyclists. Other measures 107 108 Prioritise public transport and could include requiring office or commercial 109 pedestrians developments to provide bicycle lock-up facilities, 110 111 Zoning regulations can be used to make the city more as well as showers within the building for 112 113 transit-friendly and help create a safe and equitable employees who cycle to work (DfT, 2009). 114 urban form. Transit-oriented development has ʪʪ Amend zoning schemes to include certain 115 116 traditionally been accomplished through amending the minimum standards for pedestrian thoroughfares 117 zoning scheme, relaxing certain regulations and imposing (e.g. minimum pavement width, grade, number 118 new regulations that favour public transport over private of street lights, etc.), according to the assigned vehicles. Locally, this thinking has begun to permeate into zoning or area type. In certain areas, additional current practice. The most notable example is the City of requirements could include verges to accommodate Cape Town’s PT1 and PT2 parking standards, which allow street lighting and trees. for lower parking requirements closer to public transport ʪʪ Require the owner of a building to upgrade the facilities (City of Cape Town, 2012). Some ways9 in which pavements abutting the property in order to meet the zoning regulations could be amended to prioritise the minimum criteria (if the road network does not public transport and pedestrians are offered below: comply with these requirements), when requesting

9. These suggestions draw heavily from the Miami 21 Zoning Scheme (City of Miami, 2013) and SmartCode Version 9.2 (The Town Paper, 2012) but modified for a developing world context, while certain recommendations were derived from Kruger and Landman (2007). 110 How to Build Transit-oriented Cities: Exploring Possibilities

floor area departures or rezoning, or at Council’s Within this area, second dwellings and greater discretion. This protects owners of private land residential/commercial floor area would be with existing rights from unreasonably severe permitted as of right. Specific design stipulations demands from Council, while still obligating owners could also be prescribed, to allow for better applying for new rights to create a higher degree of pedestrian movements, while a limited number of accessibility and pedestrian safety. non-residential land uses could be permitted on ʪʪ Require traffic-calming measures or medians to be general residential properties (such as educational provided in the abutting roads when applying for uses, limited retail, etc.) as of right, based on a a floor area departure or rezoning to a particular percentage of overall land use (e.g. ‘up to 33% of zone. This could be accompanied by sketches the total floor area may be used for …’). showing design guidelines and principles that ʪʪ Offer incentives, such as providing substantial floor must be adhered to in the design of the road and area bonuses for paying into a fund for upgrading pavement upgrades. the pedestrian and public transport infrastructure ʪʪ Require all developments over a certain threshold in the area (similar to what happened in New York). (e.g. construction of more than 30 dwellings units ʪʪ Reduce parking requirements in areas that or more than 1000m2 of floor area) to provide either have adequate public transport capacity a minibus drop-off bay. This should also have or where car capacity is low. The City of Cape locational requirements, for instance requiring that Town is currently implementing this with the PT1 the drop-off bay be within 100m of the entrance of and PT2 zones and could be replicated in other the main building. metropolitan municipalities. For example, a flat in ʪʪ Allow (through the zoning scheme) Council to a standard parking area requires two parking bays, request at its discretion a multi-modal transport but only 1.25 bays in a PT1 zone and only one bay assessment, which would determine the drop-off in a PT2 zone. bay requirement, traffic calming and pedestrian upgrades. This would be similar to the City of Cape Guides do currently exist for the appropriate design of Town’s requiring a Site Development Plan even roads, pavements, and pedestrian and cycle facilities in when the development is permitted as of right. South Africa (e.g. DoT, 2003; City of New York, [n.d.a, b]) ʪʪ Oblige waiting areas at public transport areas but are not legally binding. They also do not distinguish to have certain design requirements, such as between the requirements that municipalities can mandatory provision of seating, signage and space impose on owners with existing rights versus owners for informal traders. This would potentially improve applying for new rights. Also, and most importantly, the amenity and safety of these areas. only the municipality has executive authority to decide ʪʪ Create an ‘automatic’ overlay zone for a prescribed on the appropriate design of municipal roads, given the distance (for instance 800m walking distance) at constitutional division of responsibilities and powers. all rail and BRT stations and taxi interchanges. 111 U SING LAND- SE MANAGEMEN T TO CREA

Figure 13: Radical schematic of zoning scheme proposals applied to a commercial development of 10 000m2

PARKING

1 T E RANSI -FRIENDLY CI T IES Developer required to widen pavement & build speed bump New Pavement Width New Pavement

2 Street lights installed by Councel 98 to increase feeling 99 of safety 100 101 102 103 104 Developer required to provide dedicated 105 ENTRANCE TO 3 pedestrian path to entrance, and build taxi 106 frop off bay within 400m of store entrance 107 DEVELOPMENT 108 109 110 Old Pavement Width Old Pavement 111 112 113 4 114 Lower parking requirement 115 due to proximity of 116 development to public 117 transport facilities 118

5 Signalised Pedestrian Crossing installed at developers expense

PARKING 112 How to Build Transit-oriented Cities: Exploring Possibilities

Encourage dense development in areas Three measures are suggested for SDFs: accessible to public transport. 1. Prioritise public and private investment in areas In response to the challenge of creating an equitable, within the city that are most accessible by public efficient and financially sustainable built form, zoning transit (for example, Johannesburg’s Growth maps and spatial development frameworks (SDFs) Management Strategy (GMS) divides the city into can encourage dense development in areas that are five distinct zones as shown in Figure 15). These accessible to public transport. priority areas could require more detailed land-use plans and shortened land-use processes, as per In terms of spatial transformation, SDFs and zoning Section 21(l) of SPLUMA. schemes have linked but different roles. Whereas zoning 2. Map specific desired densities for future schemes are about existing rights (noting that some developments in the city (as was done for discretion is permitted in the case of new development eThekwini, illustrated in Figure 16, and required by applications), SDFs speak to the creation of new Section 21(f) of SPLUMA). Highest-density areas development rights and guiding capital investment in could be within 15 minutes by NMT or public cities. The role of SDFs is likely to be strengthened when transport of major economic nodes/employment SPLUMA comes into force, as SPLUMA (Section 21) generators, while areas more than 45 minutes away requires the mapping of a municipality’s capital spending could have no suggested development. for a defined five-year period and a spatial plan of the five 3. Impose decision-making guidelines that do not year plan, elevating to a parallel status to that of the IDP. allow any significant residential developments to occur more than a 45-minute commute by public transit from the city’s major economic nodes/employment generators (or the reverse, e.g. development of economic nodes more than 45 minutes from residential areas). This in effect creates a limit to urban expansion that is aligned to, and changes with, the dynamic growth of the city. Developments beyond the 45-minute limit could still be permitted as a site-specific deviation from the (Section 22(2) of SPLUMA). However, the guidelines send a strong message to the public and private sector that such developments would only be permitted as an exception to the norm. 113 U SING LAND- SE MANAGEMEN T TO CREA

Figure 14: Johannesburg GMS 2010 Figure 15: eThekwini density map 2013 T E RANSI -FRIENDLY CI T IES

98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 Johannesburg Growth Management Strategy eThekwini Density Map (eThekwini 2013) 118 (City of Johannesburg 2010) eThekwini provides explicit spatial guidance about what The GMS divides Johannesburg into five zones: public density is appropriate where in the City. The advantage transport areas, marginalised areas, consolidation areas, is that the private and public sectors can use this map expansion areas and peri-urban areas. More importantly as a guide to establish the highest and best use of land this plan shows that growth is focused within the public (with regards to density). This helps prevent the underuse transport areas. Where growth is proposed outside of of prime urban land (and overuse of areas lacking in these areas, the plan clearly states that the developer infrastructure and public transport facilities. will need to make significant contributions to bulk infrastructure upgrades. 114 How to Build Transit-oriented Cities: Exploring Possibilities

The experience of the Johannesburg GMS shows that (g) give effect to municipal spatial development if these suggestions are left at a SDF level, significant frameworks and integrated development plans. spatial change is unlikely. Johannesburg’s GMS is an excellent spatial plan but lacked the incentive and teeth In other words, when SPLUMA comes into force, needed for the proposal to be implemented. Therefore, municipalities will be obliged to use their land-use both the zoning map and the development control management scheme as one of the tools to implement process needs to be reformed. the SDF, which for the purposes of this chapter can include creating a transit friendly city. International experience shows that reforms to the development control process and the zoning map are The question is practically how to do this? To a certain necessary if cities are to develop a transit-friendly urban extent, this issue is addressed by Görgens and Denoon- form. Highly successful, transit-orientated cities, such Stevens (2013), who suggests allowing a shorter land- as New York, Curitibia, Barcelona and Freiburg, share a use process in appropriate areas, as identified by the common thread, that of not waiting for the private sector SDF. Locations would be identified as suitable for to make a development application before changing urban intensification or restructuring, and then a study development rights. Rather, at some point, all of these would be carried out and would form the basis of a cities took control of and amended the zoning map to bulk amendment to the zoning scheme. SPLUMA has encourage density in public transit-friendly locations. made this proposed process much more feasible (and easier to implement), given that ‘Site Specific Proposal’ Some guidance for the South African context is provided could be dealt with as a rezoning application initiated in Sections 24 and 28(1) of SPLUMA: by the municipality, which could be approved subject to the submission of a SDP that complies with the broad A municipality may amend its land use scheme parameters of the rezoning application. In addition, this by rezoning any land considered necessary by is also required by §21 of SPLUMA. (See also Denoon- the municipality to achieve the development Stevens (2014) for suggestions on how to deal with goals and objectives of the municipal spatial environmental authorisations.) development framework. […] In other words, instead of simply coming up with policy A land use scheme adopted in terms of plans for areas where development is to be promoted subsection (1) must […] (which happened with the Gautrain precinct plans or the draft Milnerton South–Paarden Eiland Local Area (e) include land use and development incentives Spatial Plan in Cape Town), the municipality makes a to promote the effective implementation of progressive attempt to rezone the area that surrounds the spatial development framework and other public transit interchanges to increase the permitted development policies; […] development rights. 115 U SING LAND- SE MANAGEMEN T TO CREA

This approach has two main advantages: can help create a safe, accessible and viable public 1. The private sector is far more likely to buy into transport system and built form. these projects, given the far greater development rights (compared to the rest of the City) and An equitable environment can be created by ensuring the very modest and fast development control that the majority of destinations (place of employment, application that is required. This is because the educational institution, etc.) are accessible within a 30 to

benefits now greatly exceed the risks of investing 60 minute commute, depending on the service in question. T E RANSI -FRIENDLY CI T IES in areas and in projects that are traditionally A built environment can be created by retrofitting and considered to be of too little value or too risky to installing safety features on roads and designing roads that undertake (thanks to the reduced holding costs and provide areas of safety and priority for pedestrians. Lastly, an quicker construction timeframes). efficient and financially sustainable public transit system can 2. The density proposed will be closer to the area’s be achieved through developing the land adjacent to and carrying capacity. Instead of relying on the private the space above stations, which both brings in revenue and 98 sector and the public sector’s housing departments ensures a guaranteed market for the public transit service. 99 to make an educated guess of the appropriate 100 101 number of units a site can hold, developers will To achieve these goals through land use mechanisms, 102 103 have certainty regarding what can occur on the site. four key ideas are proposed. 104 Therefore, the brief given to the designer will likely 1. Build precincts not stations. The use of LAA and 105 106 match, or come close to, the maximum number of reform of the zoning scheme will enable the selling 107 108 permitted units, as shown on the SDF/zoning map. of the rights to develop other buildings (hospitals, 109 schools, flats) above and adjacent to stations. 110 111 2. Prioritise public transport and pedestrians, not 112 113 Conclusion private cars, in the zoning regulations. This 114 could be achieved through reforming the zoning 115 116 In exploring the values that should underlie land scheme regulations to oblige developers when 117 management when dealing with issues of mobility, three building to construct facilities for public transit 118 key goals were established: equity of access, safety and and pedestrians (such as taxi drop-off bays and efficiency (or viability). South African Cities Network cities dedicated pedestrian crossings). are performing weakly in terms of providing an equitable, 3. Orient and reform zoning maps, SDFs and the safe and efficient built form. For instance, travel times are development control process, to encourage dense too long and cost too much, the accident rate is extremely development in areas that are accessible to public high (with the majority of fatalities being pedestrians), transport. This has two levels, first proposing on and densities are too low to support a viable fixed line the SDF, followed by proactive rezoning of the public transit system. However, land-use management applicable properties (where the municipality, not the land owner, rezones the land). 116 How to Build Transit-oriented Cities: Exploring Possibilities

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The Town Paper. 2012. SmartCode Version 9.2. Online, available at: http://www.transect.org/docs/3000- BookletSC-pdf.zip (8 May 2014). Conclusion 121 124 127 122 123 125 126 129 120 128 119 Fatima Beg Fatima onclusion C 120 How to Build Transit-oriented Cities: Exploring Possibilities

even people who were previously seen as ‘car captive’ are willing to use public transport given the right service

In the last decade, cities in South Africa have seen major who were previously seen as ‘car captive’ are willing to public transport interventions that are still ongoing. use public transport given the right service. Yet not all Johannesburg and Cape Town have started operating public transport interventions need to start with huge bus rapid transit (BRT) systems that are completely investments in infrastructure, as shown by eThekwini’s changing the perception of the reliability and pace of bus introduction of an integrated ticketing system. services. Many more cities are planning or have started constructing BRT systems or alternative public transport These public transport improvement measures are networks. The Passenger Rail Agency of South Africa necessary because of the spatial and socioeconomic (PRASA) is investing heavily in upgrading and replacing conditions of South African cities. As a result of the infrastructure and coaches to ensure that commuter rail population distribution effects of the Group Areas Act, services are safe and reliable and therefore competitive, historical car-friendly city design and the neglect of compared to other modes of transport. The Gautrain public transport over decades, poorer people live further and its bus services, used by commuters between away from education and job opportunities, and often Pretoria and Johannesburg, show that even people only have unaffordable or unreliable public transport 121 Co ncl u si o n access options. Providing these people with improved ʪʪ The percentage of households that walked more than public transport is crucial for human development, as 30 minutes to the taxi rank increased from 17.6% in well as for economic growth. 2003 to 22.4% in 2013, while those that walked for more than 30 minutes to train stations increased Over the past decade, public transport interventions have from 17.4% to 22.4%. Only those walking more than not only started addressing these historical problems, 30 minutes to bus stops decreased, from 11.2% to but have also shown the limits of public transport 4.4%. Given no significant reduction in rail and taxi interventions in isolation. Simply expanding public services, this suggests that services are not being transport is not enough because spread-out low-density provided to new, spreading settlements, although bus cities require either high fares or high subsidies, which a services possibly have expanded slightly. population with high unemployment1 and poverty rates or a state trying to improve access to other infrastructure While these findings need further exploration, they also and social services cannot afford. indicate that expanding (and improving the quality and 120 affordability of) public transport services may not be 121 The findings of the 2003 and 2013 National Household sufficient to increase accessibility and mobility for all 122 123 Travel Surveys revealed some worrying trends: citizens of cities. Furthermore, public transport usage is 124 125 ʪʪ The percentage of workers who had to wait more limited by how safe and easy it is to use, and how safe it 126 than 15 minutes for some form of public transport is to walk in the vicinity of stops and stations. As long as 127 128 increased from 11% in 2003 to 14.4% in 2013. In how cities are built favours car users, cars will remain 129 contrast, in rural areas only, this percentage was an aspiration for all South Africans, which in turn will the same in 2013 as in 2003. As cities are unlikely increase congestion, pollution and accident rates. to have fewer services and stops now than in 2003, greater congestion and increased sprawl perhaps Public transport needs to be considered in the wider explain why more people in cities are having to wait urban space for cities to be accessible to all with low more than 15 minutes for public transport. congestion, pollution and accidents rates and high levels ʪʪ The percentage of households in metropolitan of safety, convenience and affordability. The debates municipalities that have to travel more than 60 about how South African cities should look and feel like minutes to a medical service increased from 6.6% in the future have begun, triggered by the public transport in 2003 to 13% in 2013. This may be because of the interventions. Johannesburg is planning transit-oriented inclusion of new metropolitan cities and municipal development (TOD) along its Corridors of Freedom, where boundary changes, or because cities are continuing public transport will be combined with pedestrian facilities to grow outwards, with public transport provision and higher density, mixed-use buildings. Projects that were and other infrastructure and services being unable meant to provide walking-friendly areas for the FIFA World to keep up. Cup in 2010, such as the Durban Waterfront or Waterkant

1. The 2011 Census revealed that the official unemployment rate in metropolitan municipalities was between 23.9% and 36.6%, with the national rate being 29.8%. 122 How to Build Transit-oriented Cities: Exploring Possibilities

Street in Cape Town, have shown how public spaces can communication technology and home offices. The public become safe social gathering areas that improve the sector employs many people in the city and so can quality of life for all citizens. Most cities have now started drive behavioural change. This requires strong political to think, and even implement, public transport projects leadership. Moosajee therefore advocates that politicians in conjunction with other built environment interventions. and city officials should use public transport and walk in One example is in Tshwane, where inner-city rejuvenation cities as often as they can, so that they can understand includes closing certain roads to cars in conjunction with the fragmentation of systems, the costs to passengers, providing public transport. the limitations imposed by operating hours and the sense of insecurity within their city. The rollout of BRT and rail infrastructure takes many years and is expensive, while the existing form of cities Cities can be encouraged to move towards denser and cannot be changed quickly and will not be without pedestrian-friendly cities by understanding the costs of opponents. This publication has sought to establish how not changing. These costs include transport subsidies to achieve the vision of a city that is accessible to every for long-distance services, expensive construction and citizen in the face of these limitations. It has looked at maintenance of network infrastructure, lost working and areas that are pertinent to the transformation of public living hours resulting from congestion, illnesses from transport in South African cities, including the political pollution, low accessibility to labour markets for the and institutional arrangements, funding mechanisms, poor and low productivity. While having a national vision the minibus taxi industry, integrated fares and ticketing, is important, and cities should learn from each other and land-use management. as much as possible, Moosajee stresses that each city needs to develop its unique plans and capacity. As each city’s circumstances are different and public transport Political and institutional budgets are limited, each city needs to be able to tailor arrangements its subsidisation for the most effective integration across modes. This requires a single organisation at city-level Rehana Moosajee describes an alternative vision for that is able to make all decisions across transport South African cities, where the most polluting modes modes. Until this is the case, cities must take greater part of transport are used the least and the non-motorised in decision-making at provincial and national level. options are used the most, out of convenience, not necessity. Achieving such a vision does not entail The required integrated public transport will involve completely rebuilding the city. She suggests that collaboration, learning and communication by all municipalities can take small steps, such as not departments, from planning, environment, safety, health, providing employees with travel allowances and parking community development and economic development, to spaces, incentivising car-sharing, walking, cycling and human settlements and transport. Such collaboration is vital, the use of public transport, and considering flexi-hours, as public transport provides access not only to employment 123 Co ncl u si o n but also to health and education facilities, and reduces traffic design and application of funding mechanisms. She deaths and pollution. To improve collaboration between also touches on how funding can be used to lower municipal departments, Moosajee recommends that the carbon emissions from public transport. In the current scorecards of senior managers are revised to ensure cross- public transport system, funding and implementation departmental collaboration. This is an equally valuable are fragmented, despite the sensible principles outlined proposal for senior managers at provincial and national in existing legislative frameworks and increased public level. The scorecards should also be customer-centric, as transport expenditure over the last decade. stakeholders and interest/civil society groups need to be part of the process. Plans need to be fully integrated, which Historical reasons explain the different approaches to will mean interrogating zoning, incentives, densification, subsidising public transport modes, as different levels and planning of social and community amenities through of government hold responsibility for planning, funding a public transport lens. Human settlements must be built and implementing public transport systems. Jitsing’s with public transport access in mind and have pedestrian analysis implies that subsidies are not necessarily 120 and cycling infrastructure. targeted at providing public transport in underserviced 121 areas, or at ensuring equity across population groups and 122 123 Moosajee provides suggestions for ways in which public better health, education, employment and productivity. 124 125 transport can be improved and used for more than just Her view is that change can only come through a 126 mobility. For instance, public transport stations could review of the public transport subsidisation system, 127 128 be used for health testing and awareness, municipal and a funding strategy is needed that outlines the key 129 information dissemination and libraries, and could principles of public transport subsidisation for all modes. accelerate the bridging of the digital divide by providing The strategy should set out the key objectives of public wifi broadband access. Moosajee makes a persuasive transport provision, such as access to specific population case that city leaders have to recognise that there is no groups, improved health outcomes and denser cities. It choice but to use a fragmented and ageing transport also needs to weigh up conflicting principles such as the system and built environment designed to divide in user-pay-principle versus affordability. order to transform cities into spaces for all by locating functions at the right institutions, improving cooperation Changing historically entrenched institutional responsibilities across all stakeholders and setting the right incentives and existing subsidises is difficult. Therefore, like for public transport users. Moosajee, Jitsing suggests that all public transport provision and subsidisation should be managed by one local authority. This will require national government Public transport funding to devolve all public transport functions and funding to local level and to develop a subsidisation policy that Amanda Jitsing explores the role of funding in building splits public transportation funding into the different inclusive and integrated cities, and how to improve the modes. This could be phased-in within a specified time 124 How to Build Transit-oriented Cities: Exploring Possibilities

frame to allow alternative funding mechanisms to be are understood. For instance, offering cheaper or free established and new investments to be made. The public transport during off-peak hours spreads ridership devolution will result in costs that national government and reduces the need for infrastructure. should carry because improving public transport will help government achieve many of its objectives. The strong message from this chapter is that all spheres of government must develop public transport Like Moosajee, Jitsing stresses the importance of funding arrangements that promote modal and spatial integration across government. All public transport integration, including appropriate funding strategies projects should show how they comply with the spatial and institutional and financial arrangements that are vision and what revenue they generate. While funding aligned to achieving the overall objectives. mechanisms cannot improve the quality of integrated planning, they can be used to give weight to the plans, although they should not dictate additional planning The minibus taxi industry instruments. Grant frameworks can be used to improve modal and built environment integration, and so David Schmidt explains that the minibus taxi (MBT) Jitsing proposes that grant frameworks should include industry will remain the largest single mode of public integration conditions, such as the alignment of human transport for current transport planning horizons. MBTs settlement plans to integrated public transport network supply a very useful feeder system to the rail and BRT plans, maximum commute times or distance to transport modes, providing the ‘last kilometre and more’ services access points. that scheduled services cannot viably provide. The need for a more extensive feeder system, which only MBTs The cost of public transport is determined by distance can provide at this stage, is supported by the National and density, which determine the infrastructure and Household Travel Survey statistics quoted at the vehicles needed, as well as occupancy levels. As South beginning of this chapter. African cities will remain fairly spread out for many years to come, the high cost of public transport will persist. The challenge is to ensure that MBTs and other modes Therefore, Jitsing offers some suggestions of how cities complement each other rather than engage in destructive might generate revenue for public transport, including competition. This requires the MBT industry to be business taxes, land value capture, station rents, station regulated, which it already is to some extent. For instance, air rights, advertising, and congestion and parking only certain associations can operate on certain routes. charges. She points out that private sector investment For effective regulation, it is also important that licences in public transport is possible but limited, and requires are based on demand from commuters. Through proper regulatory and contractual certainty, as well as regulation, MBTs can be integrated into the networks, appropriate risk sharing. The provision of public transport which Schmidt shows would make economic sense for can be made cheaper if the behavioural impacts of fares 125 Co ncl u si o n operators, resulting in lower operating costs and a stable The main argument from Schmidt is that the MBT revenue stream. industry should be the single most important area of focus to improve mobility, reduce distance and trip Similarly to Jitsing, Schmidt argues that ICT technology, times, and create a more spatially inclusive city. It needs funded by the state, offers the MBT sector a way of to be integrated into the public transport networks, improving massively and becoming an integral part of assisted by effective regulation and the appropriate use the urban public transport network. Jitsing warns that of technology. However, he advises that such changes integration could lead to higher costs for the minibus take time and will need to be introduced gradually and taxi operators, whereas Schmidt seems to think that it systematically. can be viable for the industry to voluntarily integrate. However, this will require the deepening of the partnership between the cities and the taxi associations Integrated ticketing and fares at national, metropolitan and even route levels. The use 120 of ICT technology can provide the taxi industry with many Every major city’s transport policy promotes the 121 advantages, such as improved safety and security, better expansion and integration of multi-modal public 122 123 fleet management and passenger information. However, transport, which is used by the majority of South African 124 125 for MBT drivers to buy into such a system requires that commuters. However, as Jesse Harber shows, the 126 the benefits of regulation and integration are shared recent proliferation of urban public transport modes 127 128 between drivers and owners. has resulted in a multiplicity of cards and tickets, 129 causing great inconvenience to users. This multiplicity After explaining the different ICT technologies’ is also contrary to the guidelines on human settlement applications, Schmidt provides a good overview of the planning and design, which refer to a uniform and opportunities associated with each. One of the more shared fare and ticket system that applies to all modes innovative opportunities is demand responsive transport, and allows travellers to transfer easily between modes. or transport that can react to the needs of individuals. Harber explores how integrating ticketing and fares can This would allow passengers to book journeys online bring equitable access, as well as increase ridership and the different bookings to be aggregated in order and municipal revenue. He explains the differences and to provide the most efficient route and schedule. TMB s connections between integrated ticketing, integrated could thus continue to be the most flexible transport fares and e-ticketing, using international examples to mode. Technology would also allow passengers to plan illustrate how they work. He also looks at how integrated their journeys and get real-time information. A pilot fares and tickets operate in Johannesburg, Cape Town example from Cape Town showed that the advantages of and eThekwini, the three cities with the most extensive ICT technology can outweigh disadvantages for the taxi public transport networks. industry and convince them to be regulated in that way. 126 How to Build Transit-oriented Cities: Exploring Possibilities

Harber points out the benefits of a truly integrated ticketing alternative transport. Land-use management is crucial and fare system to passengers, transport operators and the for maximising public transport use and enabling public public transport system as a whole. For example, quicker transport interventions to be the change agents for the fare validation saves individual passengers time, increases built environment. In this chapter, Stuart Denoon-Stevens throughput for modal operators and helps planners by argues that integrated transport and land-use planning making public transport more appealing. Integration of can achieve equity of access, safety and efficiency (or fares (if set appropriately) can make public transportation viability). He outlines some interventions that could cheaper for poorer households, which currently spend a increase the safety, accessibility and viability of public large portion of their salaries on transportation. Unlike transport within metropolitan areas. For instance, road many other countries, fares cannot be set according to design and township-establishment processes could distance because in South African cities the poor live far include the provision of pedestrian infrastructure, road away from economic nodes. However, technology can be markings, pedestrian-friendly driveway design, speed used to differentiate fares according to age, work status reduction measures, safety-enhancing lighting and or disability etc., for example through linking smart signals, and comfortable public transport waiting areas. cards to identification documents, school and university registrations and the social grant system. The fares In discussing the procedural mechanisms that can charged can then be subsidised and made cheaper for support the suggested interventions, Denoon-Stevens specific groups. does not include land-use incentives, as he believes they are too weak in the South African context and that Harber discusses these and other options to achieve a a more prescriptive approach would be more effective. radically progressive fare policy, and concludes that It may be true that incentives to change land-use may the potential for better-designed public transport fares have a small impact. However, it may be useful to explore will be greater if smart cards and mobile ticketing are what incentives there are in each city that are currently combined with fare and/or ticket integration. He does not entrenching land-use and may be preventing changes. suggest that integrated ticketing and fares will transform The proposals include building new buildings above the urban space, but they can support the objectives and adjacent to public transport facilities. Here Denoon- of providing the poor with equal access to social and Stevens supports Moosajee’s view that the public sector economic opportunities in cities. could drive the shift to public transport, proposing that government departments move their offices closer to public transport facilities. The development of stations Land-use management could be used to include commercial and cultural spaces, which could generate revenue and make Public transport can create denser cities, so long as living close to public transport even more attractive. the overall cost of living close to public transport is not Municipalities could also look at using land available for higher than that of living further away and needing these type of developments and would have to amend 127 Co ncl u si o n the zoning scheme, so that business or residential uses and citizens’ quality of life. While broadly supportive are permitted in the same zone as a public transport of the changes in public transport provision that are station (or other infrastructure). currently underway, the chapters recognise that progress is neither fast nor comprehensive enough for cities to The zoning scheme could also be amended to transform spatially over the next few years. prioritise public transport and pedestrians, for example through street design guidelines stipulating minimum The following are some of the key themes that emerge as requirements for pedestrian movement, standards recommendations for government officials and political for cycle-friendly roads, drop-off bay requirements, leaders of all three spheres of government, as well as for reducing parking requirements in areas with adequate citizens, businesses and all other actors influencing the public transport and traffic-calming measures. Zoning shape of South African cities: maps and spatial development frameworks (SDFs) can also encourage dense development in areas that are Each city’s vision must be clear and supported by 120 accessible to public transport. For example, significant citizens, politicians and administration. The city 121 residential developments would not be allowed beyond leadership should outline the social costs of not attaining 122 123 a 45-minutes commute to the major nodes. the vision. Cities may share similar visions and proposed 124 125 interventions, but the details will differ, and so policy, 126 Denoon-Stevens argues that equitable, safe and regulatory and financing instruments should provide 127 128 viable cities can be achieved through key land-use some flexibility. Cities also need to take the lead in urban 129 ideas: building precincts (not stations), prioritising transformation, through practical interventions, such public transport and pedestrians (not private cars) and as providing transport subsidies to employees, flexible encouraging dense development in areas accessible to work hours and locating offices close to public transport public transport. All of this is done by maximising the facilities. use of spatial development frameworks, zoning schemes, building approvals, street design standards and other All interventions in the city space should be analysed land-use management instruments. from a public transport, low emissions, spatial and inclusivity perspective. The (un)desired impacts of existing planning tools and regulations, and how Key emerging themes from this these can be changed, must be clear. The regulations publication influencing the built environment of every city need to be scrutinised, to establish whether they promote non- The consensus in this publication seems to be that motorised transport, intermodal integration and spatial compact cities, in which citizens can get everywhere integration. If not, they must be changed so that they easily, are desirable for the environment, the economy actively support these objectives. Aspects here include 128 How to Build Transit-oriented Cities: Exploring Possibilities

road design and township establishment processes, Existing funding streams should be conditional on zoning schemes and regulations, as well as spatial modal and built environment integration. A review of development frameworks. which conditions make most sense to achieve the overall spatial vision, as outlined in the National Development Coordination between all three spheres of government, Plan, would be useful for all grants that fund the state-owned entities and sectoral departments is a urban built environment, infrastructure and operations. prerequisite. Coordination is not only important for Funding should also be flexible enough for cities to make integrating infrastructure and services provision but also choices about which infrastructure and services are for funding. Having different mechanisms for funding needed within the built environment. different modes of transport is counter-productive, when the aim is to ensure that cities integrate modes to provide The investments and regulatory changes being made convenient services to the public in a cost-effective must be accompanied by successful operations. This manner. Having recognised the historical reasons for the involves cities having the appropriate skills and training funding mechanisms, a subsidisation policy must now for new functions and getting integrating ticketing set out the principles and then the required changes and fares right to increase ridership. Distance-based must be phased in. fares disadvantage the poor and so cannot be used to encourage densification in South African cities. However, Devolution of functions to local level is necessary for the fare system can promote spatial integration if the integrating planning, funding and implementation right technology and data systems are used to target of public transport and built environment functions. subsidies. Fare regimes for South African cities should This includes commuter rail. It will then be in the be explored and piloted, while understanding that interest and ability of cities to use all possible levers behavioural impact is important, as fares that maximise to ensure integrated cities that are liveable for citizens ridership, but are spread throughout the day, allow the and to maximise the impact of available resources to most cost-effective provision of public transport. achieve that vision within that city’s context. As long as devolution processes are under way, there should be Integrating the MBT industry, which carries the most clear agreements that ensure cooperation. public transport passengers, can have a large-scale impact on mobility and spatial transformation. The There should not be too many planning instruments, industry should be included in plans for areas not yet although cooperative planning between departments in targeted by bus or rail services, it should make better a city and between different spheres of government is use of ICT technology and be better regulated. The key to seen as very important. Work is needed into how to better success is that integration makes economic sense to the implement existing planning instruments, including taxi owners and drivers. understanding and including citizens’ needs much more. 129 Co ncl u si o n This publication has made very clear how important it is to get public transport right in order to improve the quality of people’s lives. The focus should not only be on big infrastructure, especially in light of the limited fiscal resources and individuals’ affordability. Large investments need to be implemented in conjunction with ‘smaller steps’ to achieve the biggest possible impact. The urgency is to move forward with public transport investments that will make cities accessible to all, and experiments should be allowed, even if they lead to mistakes. The longer it takes, the more cities will be allowed to spread and the more difficult it will become to provide citizens with the services needed to make cities 120 liveable and inclusive. 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129