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Marisol Cano Busquets Violencia contra los periodistas Configuración del fenómeno, metodologías y mecanismos de intervención de organizaciones internacionales de defensa de la libertad de expresión Marisol Cano Busquets TESIS DOCTORAL UPF / 2016 DIRECTORA DE LA TESIS Dra. Núria Almiron Roig DEPARTAMENTO DE COMUNICACIÓN A Juan Pablo Ferro Casas, con quien estamos cosidos a una misma estrella. A Alfonso Cano Isaza y María Antonieta Busquets Nel-lo, un árbol bien plantado y suelto frente al cielo. Agradecimientos A la doctora Núria Almiron, directora de esta tesis doctoral, por su acom- pañamiento con el consejo apropiado en el momento justo, la orientación oportuna y la claridad para despejar los caminos y encontrar los enfoques y las perspectivas. Además, por su manera de ver la vida, su acogida sin- cera y afectuosa y su apoyo en los momentos difíciles. A Carlos Eduardo Cortés, amigo entrañable y compañero de aventuras intelectuales en el campo de la comunicación desde nuestros primeros años en las aulas universitarias. Sus aportes en la lectura de borradores y en la interlocución inteligente sobre mis propuestas de enfoque para este trabajo siempre contribuyeron a darle consistencia. A Camilo Tamayo, interlocutor valioso, por la riqueza de los diálogos que sostuvimos, ya que fueron pautas para dar solidez al diseño y la estrategia de análisis de la información. A Frank La Rue, exrelator de libertad de expresión de Naciones Unidas, y a Catalina Botero, exrelatora de libertad de expresión de la Organización de Estados Americanos, por las largas y fructíferas conversaciones que tuvimos sobre la situación de los periodistas en el mundo. A los integrantes de las organizaciones de libertad de expresión estudia- das en este trabajo, por haber aceptado compartir conmigo su experien- cia y sus conocimientos en las entrevistas realizadas. A los profesores colombianos Víctor Manuel Moncayo, exrector de la Universidad Nacional de Colombia; Gabriel Jaime Pérez S. J., exdecano de la Facultad de Comunicación y Lenguaje de la Pontificia Universidad Javeriana de Bogotá; Juan Luis Mejía, rector de la Universidad Eafit de Medellín; Gonzalo Sánchez, director del Centro Nacional de Memoria Histórica de Colombia; Maryluz Vallejo, profesora de la Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, y Miguel Ángel Bastenier, profesor de la Escuela de Periodismo del diario El País, por sus generosas presentaciones de mis candidaturas a formación de maestría y doctorado en la Universitat Pompeu Fabra de Barcelona. V Al equipo de profesores de la Universitat Pompeu Fabra y al director del Doctorado en Comunicación, doctor Jaume Guillamet, por sus aportes y el tiempo compartido durante mi estancia en Barcelona. Así mismo, a los compañeros del doctorado y a los académicos con quienes debatí ideas, problemáticas y desarrollos de esta investigación en congresos y encuen- tros en Barcelona, Bilbao, Bogotá, Copenhague, Medellín, Montreal, San José de Costa Rica, Santiago de Compostela, Sevilla y Túnez. A Jorge Humberto Peláez S. J., rector, y Luis David Prieto, vicerrector aca- démico de la Pontificia Universidad Javeriana de Bogotá, por la confianza y el soporte dado a este proceso con un profundo sentido ignaciano. A los profesores de la Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Clemencia Na- varro y Luis Carlos Trujillo, por sus acertados consejos y acompañamien- to en la definición y puesta en marcha de estrategias de procesamiento de datos y análisis cualitativo de información con apoyo de herramientas informáticas. A Natalia Gamboa, joven antropóloga colombiana, por su disciplina y compromiso en la asistencia al proceso de codificación de la vasta infor- mación documental examinada en esta investigación. A Gustavo Patiño, por su minucioso trabajo de corrección de estilo, a Diana Murcia por interpretar gráficamente mis ideas y hacer una producción editorial de calidad para este documento con el apoyo de Juan Silva. A Amparo Castro, que dio tranquilidad a mi vida cotidiana, le puso sabor y llegó con el aroma de una rica taza de café siempre en el momento justo. A mi familia colombiana por compartir y disfrutar, desde otra orilla, esta experiencia académica. A un tesoro que me dio la vida: esa familia catalana que adoro e hizo de nuestra estancia con Juan Pablo en Barcelona un instante feliz de nuestro paso por el mundo. VI Resumen Esta investigación aborda el tema de la violencia contra los periodistas a partir de un estudio comparativo de diez organizaciones internacionales de defensa de la libertad de expresión. Mediante una metodología cualitativa y el empleo de técnicas de investigación como el análisis documental, el análisis de contenido y la entrevista estructurada, se busca construir un marco global analítico de la lucha frente a la violencia contra los periodistas en la primera década del siglo XXI. Se estudian y examinan conceptos, políticas, metodologías de trabajo, mecanismos de intervención, sistemas de medición de libertad de expresión y de seguimiento a los ataques a los periodistas. Se hace un acercamiento a la representación de la violencia contra los periodistas para analizar cómo las organizaciones caracterizan las tipologías de actos de violencia, las causas que la favorecen, los factores de riesgo, el tipo de víctimas y de perpetradores, los contextos políticos y sociales en los que se presenta el fenómeno en el mundo y sus consecuencias. Los resultados muestran que el trabajo realizado por las ODLE es una fuente importante para el conocimiento del fenómeno de la violencia contra los periodistas y que la academia puede contribuir a estudiarlo y a comprender sus dimensiones y significación. Palabras clave: violencia, periodistas, libertad de prensa, organizaciones de libertad de expresión Abstract Violence against journalists constitutes the main topic of the present study in which a comparative analysis was performed on the views and materials produced by ten organizations advocating freedom of expres- sion around the world. A global analytical framework regarding the fight against violence towards journalists, particularly during the first decade of the 20th century, is built. By using a qualitative approach and tech- niques such as documental and content analysis and structured inter- views, the research examines organizational policies, working methodol- ogies, mechanisms of intervention, and the systems used to measure and track freedom of expression and harassment to journalists. To complete the framework, the work analyzes these organizations’ representations of violence against journalists. These include typologies of violent actions, VII causes favoring them, risk factors, and types of victims and perpetrators. Social and political contexts and the consequences of violence against journalists also play an important role in understanding how these ten organizations approach the phenomenon. Findings show that the work done by the organizations defending freedom of expression is an import- ant source of information to understand the phenomenon of violence against journalists. Furthermore, it has been concluded that academics can greatly contribute to the study of this phenomenon so that all its di- mensions and meanings are thoroughly comprehended. Key words: violence, journalists, press freedom, organizations for the freedom of expression Prefacio Cuando la verdad es remplazada por el silencio, el silencio es una mentira. Evgueni Evtuchenko Según datos correspondientes al estado de la libertad de expresión en el mundo, registrados por Freedom House para 2015, solo el 14 % de las personas en el mundo vivía en países donde la cobertura de noticias políticas era robusta, la seguridad de los periodistas estaba garantizada, la intromisión del Estado en los asuntos de los medios era mínima y los medios informativos no estaban sujetos a fuertes presiones legales o económicas. En ese mismo año fueron asesinados más de cien perio- distas en el mundo. Aun cuando el trabajo periodístico siempre ha sido riesgoso y suele desarrollarse en condiciones difíciles, el comienzo del siglo XXI revela una tendencia que muestra cómo los periodistas se han convertido, cada vez más, en objetivo de manifestaciones de violencia de diverso tipo por hacer bien su trabajo. A pesar de que las cifras de periodistas encarcelados, amenazados, exiliados, vigilados y detenidos de manera arbitraria aumentan cada año en los registros de las organizaciones de defensa de la libertad de expre- sión, el fenómeno no es un asunto de cifras. Cuando se comete una agre- sión contra el trabajo periodístico, se empobrece la deliberación pública y las sociedades pierden los beneficios que otorga la posibilidad de partici- par en un debate sin coerción. Al amenazar se envía el mensaje de que se quiere hacer algún daño. Quien intimida pretende que otros hagan algo mediante el amedrenta- miento y la afectación emocional. Por sus reportajes sobre la vida de la población civil chechena, la periodista rusa Ana Politkóvskaya fue dete- nida por soldados rusos que la arrojaron a una fosa y sobrevivió a un intento de envenenamiento. Ella no calló, no hizo lo que otros poderes fácticos querían y fue asesinada, finalmente, en 2006. Las amenazas e intimidaciones a periodistas se dan no solo por la cobertura de temas sensibles de seguridad nacional, operaciones militares, crimen organi- zado, actividad de grupos armados, violaciones de derechos humanos, fundamentalismo religioso o corrupción. Lo que muestra una década de IX informes sobre ataques al trabajo periodístico es que reportajes en los que se denuncia, por ejemplo, la mala
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