The Panama Canal and Social Justice. INSTITUTION United States Catholic Conference, Washington, D.C

DOCUMENT RESUME

'ED 142 474 SO 010 169 AUTHOR Wilde, margaret D., Ed. TITLE The Panama Canal and Social Justice. INSTITUTION United States Catholic Conference, washington, D.C. PUB DATE Oct 76 NOTE 33p. AVAILABLE FRCM Office of International Justice and Peace, United States Catholic Conference, 1312 Massachusetts Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20005 ($0.50 paper cover)

EDRS PRICE MF-$0.83 HC-$2.06 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS Adult Education; Catholics; Christianity; *Church Responsibility; Conferences; *Developing Nations; Discussion Groups; Foreign Policy; International Organizations; *International Relations; Justice; *Moral Issues; National Organizations; Secondary Education; Study Guides; *Treaties IDENTIFIERS Panama Canal

kBSTRACT The booklet, designed to explore the issues of international justice in the context of the Gospel, reviews relations between the United States and Panama. It includes background materials and a study guide for parish leaders and other educators. The central question pertaining to the Panama Canal concerns the rights of the United States according to the 1903 treaty. This treaty states that the United States can exercise "in perpetuity" power and authority over the ten-mile strip of land along the Canal route. The question over these rights is addressed to those who believe Christians have a valid contribution to make in regard to national and international policymaking. This issue was chosen because it represents a test of how a large and a small nation can relate in an interdependent world, and also because churches in both countries can facilitate debate in and between the two nations. The issue has substantial moral content; the treaty not only restricts Panama as an agent in its own development, but also detrimentally affects its economy. The moral challenge for churches is to see that the test is one of justice rather than one of power. Statements by both U.S. and Panamanian clerygymen, a play, study guide, and summaries of both sides of the argument are included in the text. Statements issued by conferences of both countries and a general statement by the Delegation of National Council of Churches are reproduced in appendices. Books, voluntary organizations, and names of government spokesmen are listed in the bibliography. (KC)

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II J

Margaretil.Wilde, editor.

ON \.. **N. October 1976 of International Justice and Peace

,..N. United States Catholic Conference VQiOffice1312. Massachusetts Avenue, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20005 IS. 50¢

2 CONTENTS page INTRODUCTION 4

CHAPTERS 1. The Current State of the Question 5 The Rev. J. Bryan Hehir 2.The Penarna Canal: A Test Case 8 The Most Rev. Marcos G. McGrath, C.S.C. 3.Yankee Doodle Over There (a one-act play) 12 James R. Jennings 4. The U.S. National Interest: Highlights of the Debate 18 James R. Jennings 5. A Challenge to North American Churches (study guide) 20 Margaret D. Wilde

APPENDICES A A Summary of Past and Present Treaties 24 B.Interim Agreements 26 C. Panama-U.S. Relations 28 Administrative Board U.S. Catholic Conference 28 D. A Declaration 29 Fanamanian Bishops Conference 29 E. A Statement 30 Delegation of the National Council of Churches 30

BIBLIOGRAPHY/RESOURCES INTRODUCTION

Do Christians have a valid contribution to make in and Christian ethics more faithfully than can any the realm of national and international policymaking, individual Christian. not aspolitical and economic experts but as Chris- It is hoped that most readers will come to this book- tians? let as members of a cominunity of faith, that is, as a This book is addressed to those who believe we do. group that shares basic principles of Christian ethics, The btirden of proof is on us, in a world of increasing and that within that community each one's perceptions technical specialization and deference to expertise. In of the situation described here will be enriched and dis- ordertomerit respectfor an informed, prophetic tilled into a Christian perspective on the issue. Christian viewpoint on political and social issues, we The Panama Canal and Social Justice is Rub fished must show ourselves capable of considering the facts by the U.S. Catholic Conference, which has adopted some of which are unclear and the subject of per- a position on the Panama Canal issue: The position sistent debate among expertsin the light of Scripture supports neither the extreme of Panamanian national- and the Christian faith, and suggesting practical, real- ism nor that of full U.S. sovereignty_over the Canal istic courses of action. Zone, but recommends a new treaty involving major We propose to take the Panama Canal issue as a concessions of controlto Panama. That positionis test case: to study the facts set forth on both sides, reproduced in Appendix C. Other appendices include and to see whether it is possible to arrive at a position statements by the Panamanian bishops and the Na- that does justice to the legitimate interests of all con- tional Council of Churches of Christ which represent cerned, according to our Christian interpretation of many U.S. Protestant churches. It is significant that all justict three groups, despite differences in nationality and Th Tg.booklet is designed as a resource for group dis- creed, have independently reached essentially the same cussion. "A Challenge to U.S. Christians," chapter 5, position after long study and discussion of the issue. suggests guidelines for that process. It is based on the This booklet has been compiled from that view- beliefthatthe church, as community of faith, by point;it does not claim to take a wholly impartial bringing a diversity of interpretations and experience view. We have, however J. Bryan Hehir and James R. to the issue at hand, can reflect the light of Scripture Jennings who contributed interpretive materials, and I as editortried to reflect both sides fully and faithfully. Margaret D. Wilde

4 4 CHAPTER THE CURRENT STATE OF THE QUESTION

The Rev. J. Bryan Hehir

The basic problem: to renegotiate the current treaty Appendix B.) Briefly stated, the principles call for the over the Panama Canal or to let it stand as itis. The following elements in a new treaty: author, J. Bryan Hehir, is Associate Secretary of the Elimination of the "in perpetuity" provision; Office of International Justice arid Peace of the U.S. Termination of U.S. exercise of sovereignty and Catholic Conference: He outlines the moral reasons jurisdiction in the Canal Zone, with the United why Catholic leaders in this country have come out in States granted rights,facilities and territoryas favorofrenegotiationandforeseestragicconse- ire,Ided to operate and defend the Canal during the quences if it is not done. life of the treaty; Background of the Issue -0,IncreasingPanamanianparticipationinopera- ticn and defense of the Canal with eventual re- The renegotiation of the 1903 "..reaty between the version of operation and control of the Canal to United States and Panama has become an issue of Panama at the end of the treaty; domestic politics in the United States, with suktantial opposition expressed in Congress aild in ,311%.. sectors A just and equitable shaH of the economic, bene- of public opinion. fits from the Canal to be acctorded to Panama:*:,,,. The Hay/Bunau-Varilla Treaty of 1903, revised in. As described by U.S. negotiator, Ambassador Ells- 1936 and 1955, granted the United States the righ: to worth Bunker, the negotiation prous envisioned a build, operate and defend a canal across the Isthmus three-step movement: 1) the determination of princi- of Panama and to exercise "in perpetuity," the power ples, which was achieved in the Kissinger-Tack agree- and authority "which the United States would possess ment; 2) discussion of conceptual issues grouped un- and exercise if it were sovereign" in a strip of land ten der the principles;and 3) determination oftreaty miles wide along the Canal route. (S..e Appendix A.) language.1 The discussion of conceptual issues has The purpose of a new treaty would be to abrogee proceeded from 1974 to the present. Two authoritative the "in perpetuity" clause and to establish a new busis but incomplete accounts have been made public re- of cooperation between the United States and Panama, garding the status ofthe discussion of conceptual in which the Panamanian exercise of sovereignty in the issues: Canal Zone would be clear in theory and practice. The 1) Ambassador Bunker stated on September 15, treaty would cover a defined period, at the end of 1975, that conceptual agreement had been reached on which Panama would take over the maintenance and Panamanian participationinthe operation ofthe operation of the Canal. Canal, defense of the Canal, and certain aspects of The United States indicated a willingness, in princi- jurisdiction."Conceptual agreement has yettobe ple, to renegotiate the treaty through President Lyndon reached on economic benefits, the land and waterways B. Johnson in 1964; in 1967, treaty drafts were drawn needed by the United States for defense and operation up but never acted on by either country. New negotia- of the Canal, the option to expand the Canal or build tions were begun in June 1970, and produced a joint 3 new sea-level canal, and the duration of the treaty.2 statement of principles signed by U.S. Secretary of The Ambassador was careful to note that details of the State Henry A. Kissinger and Panama's Foreign Min- agreed upon issues still remain undefined and modifi- ister Juan Antonio Tack on February 7, 1974. (See cations are possible.

5 '2) The Panamanian Negotiating Commission re- The issue presents unique opportunities for local leased a report on September 20, 1975 (see Apmmdix churches in each place to act as a bridge on a highly B), which listed areas of agreement on juri sensitive political question. On biblical, moral, legal administration and defense.3 The CommEcsion also and political grounds, the local churches have both a listed a much wider range of disputei s: a) the legitimate right and an excellent opportunity to play duration of the treaty, b) defense land and a mediating role. waterways, d) compensation, e) the status of Canal In 1974, the Administrative Board of the U.S. Cath- Zone residents, f) expansion and/or new works, g) olic Conference issued a statement supporting a new neutrality, and h) the hydrographic basin for water treaty. (See Appendix C.) The key topics which sur- supply.4 face for discussion are: 1) Panama's exercise of sovereign rights and 2) the impact on Panamanian politic.) Why This Issue? and socio-economic life of the present situation. The decision of the U.S. Catholic Conference to se- The sovereignty issue has been at the heart of the lect and highlight the Panama Canal issue is based on Panama question since 1903. Both the conditions un- two factors. First, the nature of the issue as a question der which Panama submitted to the treaty and the 'of international social justice:Itisa highly visible continuingintrusionsonPanamaniansovereignty test case of how a large and a small nation can relate which the treaty legitimizes call for moral examination. in an interdependent world. Second, the churches in In a still decentralized world, sovereignty is the means Panama and the United States are in a position to fa- by which a nation preserves its identity and marshals cilitate reasoned debate within each country and civil itsresources to defend itsinterests and protectits dialogue between the two countries on a significant rights. political issue having substantial moral content. Panama is severely hampered in all these respects

4 44.

Att : i =-10 Celebration in Colon, Panama, a few years after signing U.S.-Panama Canal Treaty.

6 because the heartland of the nation and its principal justice and seeks through sheer size, influence and resource are beyond its control and influence. The con- power to maintain a diplomatic anachronism, the cer- tinual stress in the teaching of Pope John XXIII and tainty of political-legal conflict, and the high possibility Pope Paul VIthat nations should be the principal of military conflict, are evident. Such an outcome, agents of their own developmentmakes the Church when a reasonable alternative is available, could only particularly sensitive to this limitation on Panama's be labeled a diplomatic tragedy for both parties. right to pursue a responsible and free role in an inter- The second level affects the whole of U.S. relations dependent world. with Latin America and the rest of the world. Support. The political issue of sovereignty also has socio- for the Panamanian position from other Latin Ameri- economic implications for the development of Panama. can nations has been demonstrated in the United Na- As indicated in the 1974 statement, the Treaty of 1903 tions, the Organization of American States, and bilat- not only limits Panama's political identity but deprives eral statements. This issue isatest case for U.S.- the country of much of its most valuable land and re- Latin American relations in the immediate future: to source development. succeed herewill not guarantee success on other The issues at stake are those which the Synod of fronts, but to fail here will prevent progress on other Bishops described intheir document Justice in the issues. World as issues of international social justice: that is, As a test case, the Canal issue takes on all the sym- issues ir which the relationships among nations direct- bolic overtones associated with North-South issues in ly affect the domestic development of a country.5 Both internationalrelationstoday. These issues bear as the sovereignty question and its socio-economic impact much upon political dignity and independence as on are problems of international social justice; on both economic benefits. The test of the Panama case is how counts the Treaty of 1903 can be called into question. large and small nations can relate to each other with In the past and present, considerations such as the mutual respect, in a new, non-colonial, international legitimate right of sovereignty and the requirements of context. social justice have been subordinated to be a pure test Footnotes .of power among nations. Two of the significant moral challenges facing 4.1te Church today are to identify the IRemarks by Ambassador Ellsworth Bunker to the Canal Zone Civic Organization, September 15, 1975. Available from the Panama issues of justice and to stand against any pure power Canal Information Office, Department of State, Washington, D.C. dynamic which would disregard the claims of justice. ltbid. A similar account is provided in "Panama Canal Treaty Negotiations," Current Policy, #0, November 1975. Available from What Is at Stake? the Department of State, Washington, D.C. 3The position of the U.S. Department of Defense was expressed The significance of the current negotiations between by General George S. Brown, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff the United States and Panama can be understood at in September 1975: "The Joint Chiefs and the Department of De- two. levels. The first involves, primarily, the two na- fense are committed to working out a new treety: we fully support tions..kemselves: Panamanians see their case as an Ambassador Bunker's negotiating efforts." issue 7.simple, elemental justice which should be ac- 4For additional analysis of the state of negotiations see:a) "A New Panama Canal Treaty: A Latin America Imperative," author- corded to- any nation-state. The justice claim is difficult ized by the House of Representatives Committee on International to refute': the original treaty was never signed by Pan- Relations, 1976, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, amian delegates; its terms were exceedingly one-sided D.C., b) S. Rosenfeld, "The Panamanian NegotiationsA Close- in favor of the United States; in a changing world the Run Thing," Foreign Affairs, October 1975, pp. 1-13, c) T. Franck United States has first refused, then half-heartedly and E. Weisband, "Panama Paralysis," Foreign Policy, #21, 1975, pp. 168-187. agreed to consider bringing the treaty into line with 3III Roman Synod of Bishops, Justice in the World, 1971. Avail- modern reality. able from the Publications Office, U.S. Catholic Conference, Wash- If the United States simply disregards the claim to ington, D.C.

7 7 CHAPTER THE PANAMA CANAL: A TEST CASE

The Most Rev. Marcos G. McGrath, C.S.C.

Marcos McGrath4rchbishop of Panama, is known Injustice, National and International for his advocacy of national autonomy and social jus- There is tice, his admiration for U.S. historical principles, and a double state of injustice and extortion his even-handed, sensitive criticism when we depart affecting the bulk of our peasant, Indian and worker from those principles. population in Latin America. The firstis inner oppression: that of the few ?r our countries who inno In this text, adapted from a 1974 speech to the Car- small measure still live off the many, or who, living negie Endowment for International Peace, Archbishop better, simply forget about a structure which favors McGrath places the Panama Canal issue in the context them and holds others down. Within our borders, the of a longstanding imbalance of economic and political rich will justify their lives and their actions and cite all power between the United States and Latin America. they do for the poorwhose plight, in this version, is He shows how that imbalance is manifested in the the result of their own laziness and general ineptitude. Panama Canal. Panama's principal natural resource is Then there isthrother oppression of our peoples its geographic position between the Atlantic and Pacif- which is due to international, especially inter-American, ic Oceans. However, the United States, not Panama, derives most of the benefi: from that resource. Based structures which oppress. In this case, it is the United States which, benefiting from thisstructure, main- on a treaty never signed by Panamanians, the Canal tains it; not only subsidizes U.S. commerce but also provides all the while, it seems to be public opinion in the United States that their country is generouslyas- land, at a cheap price, for fourteen military installa- sisting the southern nations, whose sorry plight and tions.These installationsare concerned more with training Latin American military leaders than with de- ingratitude are the fruit of their own dishonesty,or fending the Canal. laziness, or communism, or something similar. Experts on inter-American relations know the facts. The full text of Archbishop McGrath's speechis available from the U.S. Catholic Conference, and in- But the people of the United States do not. History, in U.S. schools, concentrates on the United States and its cludes a large portion of his earlier article, "Ariel or origins in northern Europe. Latin America is but a Caliban?" published in Foreign Affairs, October 1973. vague shadow cast by the yet black legend of Spain. North Americans have a strong conviction that their government has given hu je sums of money to our na- Rdigious spokesmen must address human, spiritual. tions; that this money ha3 been lost by corrupt and and moral issues. They must do so honestly, inpur- ineffective governments;that our people are un- suit of peace, through justice and understanding. To- grat-,ful for this largesse; that this foreign aid had best day, itis urgently necessary that those who hold for stop so that we learn to sink or swim by ourselves. high moral principles, for justice and peace among all It is a stark reality that 25 percent of the world's peoples, join hands in each land and across all fron- population are now consuming 75 percent ofthe tiers, in this world without borders in which we now world's goods. The United States with 6 percent of live. the world's population consumesover 30 percent of The Canal issue is a test case.I speak as a Pana- the world's goods. There is blatant waste in the face of manian interested in the welfare of his country, and as cruel wantwithin nations, and among nations and a man concerned with inter-American and international hemispheres. justice and understanding, but above all as a Christian The underlying world economic structure continues given a task of leadership in the Church, convinced to be colonialist: that is, the developed nations export that there is here a clear-cut issue of justice. manufactured goods and import usually unprocessed

8 prime materials, placing tariff restrictions upon the im- the aid of suffering peoples around the world. What is portation of processed or manufactured goods from more, by its origin, spirit and many declarations, the the less developed nations. The efforts of the prime United States is committed to :nternational justice and producersfor instance, of crude oilto exact a higher the elimination of colonialism inAfrica, Asia and price from buyerS to the north have roused pious arognd the world. cries of protest: "Extortion!" Suddenly northerners But this same people and their leaders,in large fear that they may have to depend on foreign produc- measure, ignore many of the facts about Latin Amer- ers. Do they ignore the extortion and economic de- ica, and specifically about Panama. An aging "Teddy" pendence they exercise upon the poorer lands? Roosevelt proudly proclaimed, "I took Panama," and Objective economic reports establish an annual defi- thus created a mood which still persists. "We built cit for Latin 'America, initstrade with the United the Canal and it's ours." "We bought the Canal Zone States, of approximately three quarters of a billion and we won't cede an inch." "We could no more give dollars. How can this be balanced by the bare $300 back the Canal Zone than Alaska or Hawaii!" "Those million assigned annually by the United States for aid? people .in Panaina never had it so good. All they have The bulk of this is loan money, given at near com- we've given them!" "Why not turn them back to mercial interest, which so heightens Latin American Colombia?" "Give up any part of the Canal Zone foreignindebtednessthatsome nationsarehard or the Canal and the whole continent will go over to pressed to cover their debts, even with new loans. the Communists." A former director of the U.S. Agency for Interna- How terribly unjust that the U.S. people and some tional Development (AID) has pointed out that very of !ts leaders are so badly informed: unjust to them little money is turned over in cash by AID. More than and unworthy of the good will they have and profess 80 percent is spent on its own personnel, on U.S. tech- for world justice; unjust for the people of Panama, ; nical advisors, and on materials bought in the United unfortunate and difficult now that we are trying to 'States and shipped in U.S. bottoms. Even development work for a new and more just Canal treaty. loans at 2 percent interest can beco:ne exorbitantly ex- What are some of the relevant and evident facts of pensive when the borrower must spend a large part the case? First of all, the indekndence of Panama is of the monies on "services" which refund the monies not an attificial creation of President Theodore li.ou:.e- into the U.S. economy. vclt. The Herran-Hay Treaty, proposed by the United Multilateral aid agencies should be free of these States and rejected by Colombia, was the occasion; the trammels, but they are not. The Inter-American Devel- presence of the U.S. Navy impeding the Colombian opment Bank, for example, determines its aidmostly forces was the means by which the independence loans, most of them at semi-commercial ratesby vote. group in Panama was able to assert itself. But increas- The United States has 40 percent of the voting power, ingly over half a century, the leadership in what was a fact painfully felt by nations whose requests were then the Colombian department of Panama desired turned down because they had nationalized previously independence and had made unsuccessful attempts to U.S.-controlled interests. obtain it. These leaders desired self-government to bet- This reflects the post-colonial issue of a nation's ter the situation of Panama in education, commerce .right to control its natural resources, a right affirmed and other ways, complaining rightly that the centrai by the United Nations and in papal encyclicals. The Bogota government was severely neglecting Panama. United States manifests concern at the small capital It is well to recall, too, a bit of the nineteenth century control exercised within its own frontiers by foreign history about an isthmian canala history contained investors. But it finds it hard to understand the resent- in a series of internatiunal agreements. In these, the ment, leading to government takeovers, toward U.S. United States sought to ward off any kind of inter- or other foreign control in some of our nations of the national control. bulk of industry and commerce, including that based Secondly, the Treaty of 1903 which still governs upon prime natural resourceil. the Canai was drawn up and signed without the par- One could go on and on: The growing power of the ticipation of any Panamanian. This must be one of the multinational corporations, with annual budgets often greatest anomalies of its kind in the history of inter- larger than these of the countries in which they oper- national law. Philippe Bunau-Varilla, himself a French ate; tariff barriers; the arbitrary determination of world citizen, represented the old French canal company. He monies by the richer nations, with virtually no consul- was anxious to get the new canal treaty so as to sal- tation with the poor; the yearly increase in the gross vage for his operation what the United States would national product of the United Statesusually greater pay the old French company for rights and materials. than the entire GNP of India, a nation of 55e million He lobbied for the canal in the United States when the people. The gap truly widens. How can this make for treaty with Colombia was rejected as unfavorable to conditions of international peace? Colombian interests. Bunau-Varilla offered his services to the indepen- The Case of Panama dentist group in Panama, which appointed him am- The U.S. people and their leaders have certainly, bassadorplenipotentiaryto Washingtontoobtain time and again, proven their generosity in coming to recognition of Panamanian independence, but with

9 9 st-;ct instructions regarding the elements of a treaty. Canal Zone and are only partially erspLyel By the time the Panamanian delegates, empowered to Accordingtotestimony pre, mte.1tothe U.S. sign a treaty, arrived in Washington, the treaty had House of Representatives September 22-2.3, 1971, the been drawn up by Bunau-Varilla and offered to Secre- military investment in the Clnal Zone ($4.8 billion) tary Hay, who found it so favorable that he immedi- more than doubles the total c-viiian investment ($2.2 ately accepted it, had it approved by the Senate with- billion). This military expel*e goes far beyond any out any change, signed by himself and Bunau-Varilla. notion of the defense of th,. rnal; the U.S. Southern The treatystartled many:itnot only gave the Command located Al ear, is a training center for military United States all it had requested, and had been denied from all over Latin America and a nerve center of mili- by Colombia, but much more. U.S. statesmen and oth- tary contact througkout the continent. Military bases ers, such as the British ambassadoi in Washington, established within a nation should be the object of ne- remarked publicly on the severe imposition this treaty gotiation. Panpma quite naturally objects to the large wrought on Panama. The Panamanian delegates, on military evtablishment functioning within its borders discovering the treaty already signed, objected, but to without adequate information, negotiation or com- no avail. The new ruling junta in Panama protested, pensation. but to no avail. It was clear that they would accept Approximately 20 percent of Panama's gross na- the treaty or risk losing U.S. recognition and their tional income derives from the Canal Zone economy, newly found independence. principally in indirect forms such as salar:es and sales. The rise and fall of this income, according to changes Who.Benefits? in building and other operations within the Canal Zone, has a strongly distorting effect on the Pana- There is no denying that the presence of the C,,nal manian economy simply because these changes are en- has brought economic and social benefits to Panan,a. . tirely outof Panamanian control. Personally, I am aware of the many social and charil Land, income, etc. in the Canal Zone are exoner- able servic.es provided to our people by persons and in- ated from all Panamanian taxes;thus the national stitution's in the Canal Zone. But the benefits to the government cannot extract revenues from the main United States have been considerable, apparently far natural resource of the nation. What little the govern- greater; and what is more, they have been unilaterally ment has been able to accomplish in the'development determined.by the United States. Here are a few facts: of economic infrastructure and socio-economic devel- The savings to the United States Military Forces opment has been financed largely by foreign capital, in the use of thc Canal in the sixty years since its inmost of it from U.S. sources. This has not only built auguration are calculated in excess of $11 billion. up a large foreign debt, but also limits the fieedom of Toll fees on the Canal were frozen at the 1914 Panama in negotiating on the Canal. level on the principle that the Canal should be non- profit, after repayment of the initial investment made A Question of Values by the United States. Since 70 percent of the goods I 'would like to close with a few observations on the that transit the Canal come from or go to U.S. ports, human and social values involved, from the Pananiani- the present non-commercial fees represent a $700 mil- an viewpoint. lion anr ual saving to U.S. commerce; Panama is sub- Pa lama, whose princiol natural resource is its posi- sidizing the richest nation of the world and world com- tion bridging the oceans, has no adequate harbor or rnerce in general. port facilities, no trans-isthmian train or oil pipeline, The toll fees also subsidize many educational and though they exist in the Canal Zone and are only part- other social services for Canal Zone employees, though ly used. these pay federal taxes for that purpose, as well as for The growth of Panama's two major cit;es, Panama U.S. military personnel in the Canal Zone. City on the Pacific and Colon on the Atlantic,is The 500 square miles of the Canal Zone represent blocked by the Canal Zone. Teeming tenements face the heartland, the most valuable economic resource, of open fields or virgin junglesspace unused, reserved, Panama. Much of it is wasted. Sixty-eight percent of denied. Panama City has had to grow unnaturally the land is reserved for military purposes, most of it along the coast five miles and then cut inland because not used at all; 3.6 percent for Canal installations; 3.2 of the Canal Zone, creating a clumsy triangle, bottling percent for miscellaneous uses; 25 percent is not used. traffic, and testing the patience of every city planner For this territory, including fourteen military bases, the and citizen. United States has paid an annual $1.9 million, com- Panamanians, to go from one part of their country pared to $20 million annually which it pays for three to the other, must cross an area that looks like a for- bases in Spain. eign land, though legally itis not: that land has its Neither Panama City nor Colon has adequate own police, courts, post office, stores, across the very port facilities at its disposal; nor does PanarA pos- waist and heart of the nation. Are those things just or sess trans-isthmian oil pipelines or railroads. It is now hir? Are they necessary to Canal operations or its de- contemplating huge expenditures for ports and a pipe- fense? I think not. line, even though these facilities already exist in the The real danger is that the new treaty will be blocked

10 appar- poured through those slight fissures in the wall! .e the U.S. This fissure which is the Canal could be the same. Ele of more Ignore it, or oppose it through neglect of the facts, llow a few and iou might well unloose similar torrents in the the trc.. hen' I. iere. in-rtst 200 years ago, the United States proclaimed iedia of the e 2rincii.le of national dignity and independence; it harm. Not i.mighl two world wars to free other nations from acause the, :jolitcal servitude, without any territorial aims for it- re few that self;it declared the Philippines independent, and after the people World War II led the cause of independence for old edia do no European colonies. Now let the United States recognize Panama's claim did the in- to genuine and complete national independence. In so er into the doing, it will find its interests in the Canal sbfficiently iut political guaranteed, and its respect in the world, espetially rentshave in this New World of the Americas, refurbished.

"Wm

ews digging canal across Panama isthmus, 1913.

11 CHAPTER YANKEE DOODLE 3 OVER THERE

James R. Jennings

A . This play is based on serious research, though it is strong nations of designs against weaker ones, detect-. written as a fantasy and requires of the reader both ed jingoism and imperialism, and was easily the least imagination and a sense of humor. imperialistic of American Presidents.2 The author, James R. Jennings, is Political Advisor in the Office of International Justice anl Peace of the Props Catholic Conference. Two small tables and two chairs, one each for Dan- I $le historical basis fcr the discussion between the dee and the Doctor; a large book placed on the Doc- main characters, Mr. Dandee and the Doctor, is tor's table; a large table with twu chain), for Cleveland documented in footnotes. The positions attributed to and O'Sullivan, forming a triangle with the smaller Gro-.er Cleveland and John L. O'Sullivan are consis- tables. Beside the large table is an easel, with two post- tent with the attitudes of the two men as reflected in er boards: one is blank, and one has a large map nineteenth century historical events, but they are taken (which you can sketch) of Panama, with the Canal largely from the current debate on the issue. The posi- Zone clearly marked. tions are identified in Chapter 4, "Highlights of the Debate." Script 'lour study group may. want to stage .he play as an (As the play begins, Dandee and the Doctor are seated informal reading to stimulate discus5ion/ref1ection. at small tables. A large book lies open on the table before the Doctor.) DANDEE I'm not sure why I'm here. I'm not even Cast of Players sure where I am. (Pause) But it's even worse than Y. D. Dandee:, An associate of Captain Gooding, re- that. (Longer pause) I know I have to do some- putedto have been popular with the ladies. Also thing, but I don't know what to do. known as "Gringo," "Doughboy," "GI. Joe," and, DOCTOR know; it's here in this book. more recently, "Grunt." While trying to be a good sol- DANDEE What's in the book, Doctor? dier, he preferred by many accounts (remember Catch- DOCTOR A lot of things about you and what 22?) to stay alive and to do the right thing. you've done. DANDEE Well, maybe that's why I'm here. To find Doctor: A wise, prudent and dispassionate observer. out what hapFened. Dedicated to helping people, and to keeping himself DOCTOR Don't you know what happened, Mr. physicallystrong,mentallyawakeandmorally Dandee? straight. In a word, a good scout. DANDEE I'm not sure. Sometimes IthinkIdo. John L. O'Sullivan: An editor of a mid-nineteenth Other times I think it was just a dream. centuryperiodical.Reportedtohavecoinedthe DOCTOR What do you remember? phrase, "manifest destiny." He was followed by DANDEE About the dream? such illustrious Americans as James Polk, Alfred Ma- DOCTOR Yes. han, William McKinley and Henry Luce, whose fame DANDEE (Pause) Well, in one of them I remember far ,autstripped him and whose policies converted the I was sitting in a large theater filled with people phrase into an American way of life. thousands of peoPle. On the stage, a little man in a giant yellow hat was singing. When he finished, Grover Cleveland: A Pi'esident of the United States he bowed to the audience, and I stood up and be- late in the nineteenth century. He tended to suspect gan to clap. A second later,I realized that I was

12 12 the only person in the theater who was clapping. of us poured into Mexico. The whole thing was I was the only person making a sound. My clap- over in about two years. ping made a hollow clacking sound.Istopped DOCTOR It wasn't a very popular war in the Unit- dapping and I closed my eyes. In a flash I opened ed States. them, ancl everyone in the theazer was staring at DANDEE Why not? We never lost a battle. We got me. I stood there paralyzed. California, Nevada, Utah, and parts of New Mex- DOCTOR What did you do then? ico, Arizona, and Colorado out of itand only DANDEE Nothing. lost about 12,000 men. DOCTOR What do you want to do now? DOCTOR Five months before the war ended, Con- DANDEE I don't know. I know that I don't want gress passed a resolution condemning the war as much. A job. A roof over my head. A chance for unnecessary and unconstitutional.5 my kids to go to school. If there is anything left DANDEE Idon't remember anything about that. over, I'd like to be able to load the family in the (Pause) All I remember is the Monroe Doctrine car on Sunday and.take them to church and go for and Manifest Destiny. Conestoga wagons and a drive in the country.3 prairie schooners. Sailing ships arid sealing wax. DOCTOR What else do you want to do? The China Sea and Tokyo Bay. DANDEE (Pause) I'm not sure. I know I shouldn't DOCTOR Those were great times. But what were gettoo involved with other people, especially you doing in Tokyo Bay? foreigners. They always seem to be getting into DANDEE (Pause) I'm not sure. Al IsI know is in fights.I don't think I should get messed up in July 1853, we steamed into Tokyo Bay with four their squabb1es.4 Navy ships as big as life.9 When we docked and DOCTOR What do you think you should do? marched on to the pierthere were about 300 of DANDEE I think I should lead an active, vigorous uswe were all armed with muskets and side life. To be a man you have to be where the action arms. We were all big men; Commodore Perry is. You have to be strong and brave and be able selected us for our size and military appearance. to fight. If the time comes, a man should be will- We overwhelmed the small Japanese soldiers who ing to serve his country.5 crowded around us even though there were more DOCTOR Have you served your country? than 5,000of them armed with swords and DANDEE Of course, I've served. I've served 'em all. spears. Then the Commodore landed. He handed General Lafayette, Grant and Lee. Marshall and President Filmore's lettertothe chief Japanese Westmoreland. I've been everywhere. In every representativf.19 clime and place where we could take a gun. At DOCTOR WHIR did the letter say? Lexington and Shiloh. Havana and Belleau Wood. DANDEE Told them to change their laws. Open Anzio and Hiroshima. Manila and Matamoros. their ports for trade with the United States. Told Seoul and Saigon. the Japanese to take their time to decide and we'd DOCTOR Matamoros? What happened there? be back in the spring for their answer. DANDEE (Pause) Ifs not clear to me what did hap- DOCTOR What did the Japanese do? pen there. Matamoros was a small Mexican town DANDEE They said, "Maybe." across the Rio Grande. We were there under the DOCTOR Then what happened? command of Captain Thornton in the spring of DANDEE Nothing. 1846. Mexico had warned us that if any Ameri- DOCTOR What do you mean, "nothing?" cans were caught on Mexican soil, they'd be shot. DANDEE Nothing! The place went dead silent. One day, Thornton sent us out on a scouting par- Nobody said anything. Finally, the Japanese asked ty and we were ambushed. About twelve of the if the four U.S. ships would returtir Perry said, men were killed; some were captured and the rest "No, there would probably be more than four of us escaped. ships in the next time." The guns of our ships in DOCTOR One soldier atthe time wrote inhis the Bay were aimed at the crowds on the dock and diary: "We have no right to be here ...It looks the people on the shore. like the government sent a small 'force here on DOCTOR Were you scared? purpose to bring on a war, so we can have a pre- DANDEE I guessso! We figured, ifanything text for taking California and whatever else we broke loose, it would be a fight to the death. choose."6 DOCTOR What happened? DANDEEIMaybe so. I never heard that before. DANDEE The Japanese se-iid, "You will leave now, DOCTOR The Matamoros incident is what started at once." And so we left. But we came back in the the Mexican War.7 spring. DANDEE Is that so? DOCTOR Yes, and the Japanese signed their first DOCTOR When Taylor heard what happened, he treaty with a foreign country without a shot being notified Washington and President Polk asked for fired;a whole new era was opened between the a declaration of war on Mexico. Western nations and Japan.i! You were lucky. DANDEE We really went to it. More than 100,000 DANDEE I don't know anything about that.I do

13 13 know that afterthat we went everywhere. We O'SULLIVAN Excuse me, Doctor? CouldIsay a were in and out of China, South America, the word? Caribbean, Mexico, Hawaii.12 DOCTOR (Doctor finally looks at O'Sullivan) Yes, DOCTOR What were you doing in these places? what is it? DANDEE Protecting American interests from attack O'SULLIVAN May I say something? and helping to restore order. We landed in Pan- ama five times in a period of 50 years, even before (Doctor and O'Sullivan continue to look at each other we ever dug the Canal. while Dandee speaks) DOCTOR What was happening in Panama? DANDEE I remember, I was walking along a coun- DANDEE The last timebefore we built the Canal try road just outside a small town. I could hear we Went in back in 1903. I was aboard the Nash- threshing machines in the field beside the road ville, under Commander John Hubbard, docked in and the farm hands were laughing and calling to Kingston, Jamaica, when we got orders to go to one another. Some of them waved to me. The sun Panama.13 We had often been ordered there for was bright and birdsfilledtheair. Across the standby duty during uprisings. It was lousy duty road was an old farm house and on the front and six of our crewmen went AWOL as soon as pordi a small boy playing with a dog. As I walked word got around that we were headed back to by,Icould hear loud scuffing sounds coming Panama. When we docked at Colon on the Atlan- from behind the house like men wrestling and tic side of the isthmus, everything was quiet in pulling at each other. town; we didn't even post a street patrol. The DOCTOR (Speaking to Cleveland and O'Sullivan) night we docked,a Colombian gunboat came Are you gentlemen here to help Mr. Dandee? along side and put several hundred troops ashore. CLEVELAND I think so. The following day, Torres, the Colombian Com- O'SULLIVAN. Absolutely! Dandee has been intim- mander,demandedrailtransportationofhis idated. Perhaps even liedto. Over the years he troops across the isthmus to Panama City to put has made a great contribution to this country and down arebellion. When Hubbard told him he to the rest of the world. And now his courageous couldn't use the railroad, Torres threatenedto acticns are being turned against him and people kill every American in town. are falsely accusing him of being an imperialist. DOCTOR Ithought the United States supported Panama is atest case. He is being told that he Colombia in its efforts to put down revolution should give away the Panama Canal. in Panama? CLEVELAND I must say that I disagree with every- DANDEE So did I, Doctor. But this time I guess it thing O'Sulliv,an has said, wi'.h the exception that was different." We took up our battle position I also think Panama is a test case for Mr. Dandee. in the railroad station, and we waited. About an DOCTOR (Turning to Dandee) Shall we proceed, hourlater,Torressurrendered.. Nothing hap- Mr. Dandee? pened. Not a shot was fired. DANDEE I don't know what they're talking about DOCTOR Who won? (Pause) I stopped in front of the farm house and DANDEE I don't know.15 thenInoticed a man with a large box camera mounted on a tripod was standing in the front (Cleveland enters and walks to his chair and sits down. yard. Suddenly, another mar an Indian in full O'Sullivan enters carrying Iwo large poster boards. dress, feathers and all- -r.ame running from behind Places them on the easel, the blank one covering the the house and raced toward the road. Another map of Panama. Walks tohis chair and sits down. man, wearing a cowboy hat, was chasing him. Dandee and Doctor sit in silence until O'Sullivan and DOCTOR I think it's all quite simple, Mr. Dandee. Cleveland are seated.) It's all here in this book. After more than 70 years DOCTOR What happened after that? the people of Panama want a new treaty which DANDEF It's all hazy. I don't remember too clearly. will give them more direct control over the Panama (Pause) I just know that I have to do something, Canal and the Canal Zone. But not everyone in but I don't know what I'm supposed to do. the United State:- is agreed. Four questions seem DOCTOR What eke do you remember? to be raised by the debate. Do you know what DANDEE I remember the Gold RUsh and the Gold they are, Mr. Dandee? Standard. The Yellow Peril and Green Berets. DANDEL Istill don't know what you're all talking O'SULLIVAN Excuse me, Doctor? about. (Pause) I remember in the excitement the DANDEE I remember Uncle Tom's cabin. Cabin in little dog began barking and ran after the Indian. the Sky. Pie in the sky. American apple pie. Amer-. The cowboy stopped, aimed his gun at the Indian ica's favorite game. Three strikes and you're out. and fired. The bullet hit the dog in the back of Three Men on a Horse. Manila paper and Panama the head and sent him flying into the air. The boy hats. Banana republics and banana splits. ran to the bleeding animal, knelt down beside it CLEVELAND Excuse me, Doctor? and began to cry. I closed my eyes and continued DOCTOR Do you remember anything else? to walk down the road. And immediately, the

14 sound of the boy's sobbing stopped. But I could than one percent of the U.S. GNP. If the Canal hear the birds and the farmhands singing. were to close, the effect on U.S. commercewould DOCTOR The first question is sovereignty over the be inconsequential. Canal Zone. DOCTOR Perhaps in those terms, it's more vital to O'SULLIVAN That's ridiculous, Doctor. Sovereign- the people of Panama. ty is not an issue. The record isabsolutely clear. CLEVELAND Of course. The Canal's traffic con- The United States bought and paid for the Canal. tributes 30 percent of Panama's GNP and 40 percent of its foreign exchange earnings. Besides in (O'Sullivan rises, walks toeask:, removes the first relative commercial terms, the operation of the poster board. Second poster board is a map of Panama. Canal is much more vital to Nicaragua, El Salvador He points to Canal Zone on the map of Panama.) or Ecuador than it is to the United States. O'SULLIVAN No part of the Canal is situated on DOCTOR Are you getting any of this, Mr. Dandee? Panamanian territory. We bought it. We've paid DANDEE As we walked down the road surrounded for it. It's ours. by great billows of dust, I looked up and saw a large clear blue patch of sky. An airplaneone of (O'Sullivan turns to walk back to his chair. When those sky writersflew through the blue patch Dandee begins to taik O'Sullivan stops, stands still, and behind the plane in little white puffs of smoke waits for Dandee to finish. Then returns to his chair.) was written the words: "If you mustchoose right- DANDEE As I walked down the road, my mouth eousness or peace, choose righteousness."Then I became very drydry as cotton. I began to cough could hear and feel a strong breeze blowing across and I coughed so hard tbat my chest ached and it my face and the blue patch in thesky was covered felt like it was going to explode. When I opened again with the billowing clouds of dust. my eyes I saw that I was inthe middle of great O'SULLIVAN The really critical issue, Doctor, is clouds of dustlike a giant dust storm.I could U.S. national security. The Canal is the jugular hardly see my hand in front of my face. As I con- vein of the Americas. In the current struggle for tinued to walk, I noticed that other men were in world domination, the Canal has become a focal the dust storm with me, but they weien't cough. point. As part of the coastal line of the United ing. They just had their eyes straight ahead and States, its defense is just as important as the pro- they walked; it was more like they were marching. tection of the Chesapeake Bay. We must have the And I was caught up in their marching rhythm. capability of moving naval forces and commercial And as I did, rt., coughing stopped. We were still supply ships from one ocean to the other. The in heavy dust clouds, but I wasn't coughing any- Panama Canal figures prominently iri these plans. more. CLEVELAND Of course, the Canal is important to ship movement. But conditions are changing. The (O'Sullivan takes his seat) newest ships are much larger than theolder ones. CLEVELAND Doctor, no wonder Mr. Dandee is More than 3,000 of the newer, laiger ships can't paralyzed, if he's being fed this kind of nonsense pass through the present Canal.Rail traffic acros. by Mr. O'Sullivan. The facts are quite the oppo- the continent to ocean ports can make a big differ- site. The United States does not own the Panama ence. If the Canal had notbeen available during Canal Zone. Since 1904, the U.S. government has the Vietnam War, alternativeshipping routes consistently recognized the Canal Zone as Pana- would have had no adverse effect on our efforts manian territory, not U.S. soil. The original Treaty in Indochina. The Canal has decliningvalue as is quite clear about this. We were granted the use a military asset. of the Zone in Panamanian territory and the rights DANDEE Finally, we came to a large bandstand in to exercise authority over the region as if the Unit- the middle of the road. Three old men and a boy ed States had sovereignty. were playing, "My country 'tisof thee." In front O'SULLIVAN It's the commercial value of the Canal of the band stood a tall man with a beard who to the United States that is an important issue. looked like Lincoln. As we trooped by the stand, Seventy percent of the Canal's traffic either starts he said over and over again, "We are the world's or ends in the United States. About twenty per- last great hope." As we were passing by, quick as cent of the U.S. trade goes through the Canal. If a flash, Lincoln disappearedand a short muscular tlie United States lost control of the Canal,it man with a flag tattooed onhis chest shouted at would be a deep concern to us as well as to impor- us, "I am not a bumbling giant.I am not!" We tant American shipping interests. walked by with uur heads down and I could still CLEVELAND That's really old hat. The Canal, in hear the band music. fact,is not vital to America's commercial inter- DOCTOR (Addressing Cleveland and O'Sullivan) I ests. read where Gen. George Blown, Chairman of the O'SULLIVAN It's damned convenient. Joint Chiefs of Staff, said that the U.S. Depart- CLEVELAND No question about that. But "vital," ment of Defense was committed ioworking out a new treaty with Panama. Mfthat's something else. ;The Canal accounts for less 15 CLEVELAND That's correct. couldn't make out whether it A O'SULLIVAN You're both talkingnonsense. You bration. I could hear sounds sound like you think we can signover the Canal maybe firecrackers. I couldn't to the Panamanians and expect that they can op- pening. Suddenly a man came erate the Canal and that they will allow us to use dust cloudsrunning right at it. Surrender U.S. sovereignty over the Canal Zone He stopped, pointed a gun at and violence will probably be the order of the day. blank. The man walking next I know the kind of people the Panamaniansare. and fell on his facedead. Let's be realistic. In the past, Panama has beena DOCTOR(Addressing Dandee) land of endless intrigue and turmoil. During the it. Either a new treaty with Par last seventy years Panama has had 59 presidents. Canal, or go with what you'vl CLEVELAND I'm delighted that Mr. O'Sullivan your chances. Which will it be, wants to talk about reality. The fact is the Panama -17.E. Are them:- my choices? Canal is no longer considered to be defensible. It DCA:TOR I think so. could be closed for extended periods of time by the DANDEE What about the dead m use of relatively simple weapons. To minimize the O'SULLIVAN That's only a drean Canal's vulnerability, it is essential that there be CLEVELAND I don't know anyth a friendly local environment. In other words, Pan- DOCTOR What are you going to amanians must see that they have a stake in the DANDEE No, that's not :he q Canal's continued, uninterrupted operation. tion is, what are you all goinl O'SULLIVAN That's blackmail; it's nonsense. to a funeral. The rest of it is for CLEVELAND No, it's common sense. DANDEE Up ahead, beyond the clouds of dust, I The play ends. Discussion might bes could hearpeople shouting and screaming.I

'rt

e;+ E C ?A "1-r4fiTutZz'a"" e

Visit by U.S. Naval Squadron to Panama City, 1909.

16 16 vas a riot or a cele- like pistol shots or tell what was hap- running out of the me and shouting. me and fired, point to me spun around Well, I guess that's arna and a peaceful got . ..and take Mr. Dandee? an in the road? 1. ing about him. do? uestion. The ques- 5 to do? I'm going you all to decide. ;in. patches to the State Department, Perry also urged American an- Footnotes nexation of what were then called the Liuchiu Islandsthe principal one now is called Okinawawhich were under Chinese sover- 1Albert K. Weinberg,Manifest De$tiny,Quadrangle Books, Chi- eignty."Foster Rhea Dulles, "American Interest in China," in Wil- cago, 1963, p. 111. liam A.Williams, The Shaping of American Diplomacy,Rand Mc- zOn Cleveland's suspicions of strong nations: Samuel Flagg Be- Nally, New York, 1970. mis, ed.,The American Secretaries of State andtheirDiplomacy, 1i-1:terry's orders (from President Fillmore] forbade him to use Vol. VIII, Cooper Square Publishers, N.Y., 1963, p. 301. On jingo- force, except as a last resort; but the Kanagawa Shogun who then ism and imperialism: Allan Nevins,Grover Cleveland,Dodd Mead ruled Japan was so impressed by the display lef U.S. ships that, con- and Co., New York, 1966, p. 404. On his lack of imperialism: trary to precedent, he consented to transmit the President's letter Robert H. Ferrell,American Diplomacy, W.W. Norton, New York, to the Empenat. ... Conferences wereheld at the little village ol 1969, p. 362. Yokohama where gifts were exchanged: lacquers and bronzes, por- .3From a description of what "the average fellow in the world" celain and brocades, for a set of telegraph instruments, a quarter- wants, in the remarks of President Lyndon B. Johnson to American size steam locomotive complete with track and cars, Audubon'sBirds and Koreanservicemenat Camp Stanley, Korea,November1, 1966. and Quadrupeds of America,an assortment of farming implements 4"Europe has a set of primary interests which to us have none or and firearms, a barrel of whisky, and severI cases of champagne. a very remote relation. Hence she must be engaged in frequent con- Thus old Japan first tastedthe blessings or western civilization. troversies, the courses of which are essentially foreign to our con- Japanese progressives who wished to end isolation persuaded the cerns.... Why, by interweaving ourdestiny with that of any part Emporer to sign an agreement allowing the United States to estab- of Europe, entangk our peace and prosperity in the toils of Euro- lish a consulate. ... "Samuel Eliot Morrison,The Oxford History pean ambition, rivalship, interest, humor, or caprice? Itis our true of the American People,Oxford University Press, New York, 1965, policy to steer clear of permanent alliances with any portion of the pp. 579-80 foreign world. ... "from George Washington'sFarewell Address, 121 helped purify Nicaragua for the international banking house 1793. of Brown Brothers in 1909-1912. I helped make Mexico and especial- 5"The good man should be both a strong and a brave man; that ly Tampico safe for American oil interests in 1916. I brought light is, he should be able to fight, he should be able to serve his country to the Dominican Republic for American sugar interests in 1916. as a soldier, if the need arises... . The question must not be merely, I helped macce Haiti and Cuba a decent place for the National City is there to be peace oi war? The question must be, is the right to (Bank' boys to collect revenue in.I helped in the rape of half a prevail? . .. And the answer from a strong and virile people must be dozen Central American republics for the benefit of Wall Street. ... 'yes,' whatever the cost."Theodore Roosevelt,History as Litera- The Spanish-American War was a high point in my life when I went ture,David M. Kenniket Press Corp., Port Washington, N.Y., 193, to it at the age of sixteen to defend my home in Pennsylvania against pp. 144-148. the Spaniards in Cuba.''General Smedly D. Butler, twice a recipient °David M. Pletcher,Diplomacy by Annexation: Texas, Oregon of the Congressional Medai of Honor, address at the American Le- and the MexicanWar, University of Missouri Press, Columbia, Mis- gion Convention, 1931. souri, 1973, p. 376. 13Hubbard'sorders:"Maintainfree and uninterruptedtransit i"Americans may as well admit that in 1846-1845 they fought a lof the railroad'.Ifinterruptionisthreatened by armed force, wat of aggression against Mexico.. . . President Polk touched off occupy the line of railroad. Prevent landing of any armed force the war when he ordered General Taylor to the line of the Rio with hostile intent, either Government or insurgent. . . "W. Grande. He hoped to provoke the Mexicans and managed to do it. Storrs Lee,The Strength to Move a Mountain,G.P. Putnams Sons, The war was an act of aggression by the United States for the pur- New York, 1958, p.33. ''Insurgent Panamanians in Panama City captured the Colom- pose of conquering territory from a helpless neighbor. . .. The war against Mexico was not a just war."Robert H. Ferrell,American bian generals, placed them under arrest, and declared Panama free Diplomacy, W .W. Norton, New York, 1969, pp. 216-217. and independent from Colombia. The Republic of Panama was °Freshman Congressman Abraham Lincoln proposed, inDecem- born.Ibid.,pp. 45-63. ber1847, that the Polk Administreion demonstrate that the Thorn- "Three days after the revolt, the U.S. extended official recognition ton ambush had actually occu'rred on American soil, since Polk jus- to the new Republic of Panamabefore many residents of Panama tified the declaration of war on this basis. The outcome of the House knew they were citizens of an independent nation, before Colombia debate was passage in 1849 (85 to 81) of a resolution introduced had any clear conception of what had transpired. . . . A reporter by Congressman John Quincy Adams declaring the war tobeun- cabled, 'The peoplehere are franticwith delight atthe United necessary and unconstitutional.Karl Jack Bauer,The Mexican War, States' recognition of the de facto Government of the Republic of 1846-1848,Macmillan Co., Riverside, New Jersey, 1974. Panama.Allduringthedayfireworks were everywhereex- °Edward M. Barrows,The Great Commodore,Bobbs-Merril, ploded ..."Ibid., p. 61. New York, 1935. See also G. A. Mellander,The United States in Panamanian Poli- 10"As a consequence, both of settlement on the western coast tics,the interstate Printers and Publishers, Inc., Danville, Illinois, and the high drama of the clipper ship era. Americans looked to- 1971, pp: 25-35. ward Asia in the middle of the 'nineteenth] century as they would 13The reasons for the precipitous tecognition of Panama by the not again until its close. William H. Seward, Secretary of State, pro- United States were given by Theodore Roosevelt: "First, our treaty jected the idea that our commerce with Asia, having brought the rights; second, our national interest and safety; and third, in the Ancient Continent near us, 'created necessities for a new position interest of collective civilization.. .. We policed the Isthmus in the perhaps connections or coloniesthere.' Commodore Perry shared interest of its inhabitants and of our own national needs and for these imperialistic views and his epochal voyages to Japan first the good of the entire civilized world." Doris Graber,Crisis in Di- raisedthe question of possible overseas expansion.Inhisdis- plomacy,Public Affairs Press, Washington, D.C., 1958.

17 THE U.S. NATIONAL INTEREST: 4 HIGHLIGHTS OF THE DEBATE

James B. Jennings

The following selection of arguments supporting exercise authority whichthe United States would and opposing a new treaty was prepared by James R. possess and exercise as ifit were the sovereign. The Jennings in his research for the one-act play, "Yankee clear meaning of these words is that the United States Doodle Over There." Independently of the play, how- is not the sovereign. Rather, it has jurisdiction over a ever, it provides a useful summary of opinions on both portion of territory which remains Panamanian. In- sides of the argument, from the viewpoint of U.S. na- deed,. this was recognized by both governments in tional interest. Article 3 of the 1936 Treaty where the Zone is described as territory of the Republic of Panama under the jurisdiction of the USA. The following four questions are raised in the de- John Blacken, First Secretary of the U.S. Em- bate over the Panama Canal Zone in the Congressional bassy in Panama, Congressional Record, May Record, October 7, 1974, HR 9720. 22, 1975, S9068. 1. Will the new treaty mean a surrender of U.S. sover- 2. Will the new treaty adversely affect U.S. commer- ereignty over the Canal? cial interests? Yes Yes "The record is absolutely clear. The United States "Some 15,000 vessels from 55 nations transit the bought and paid for the Panama Canal. It is our prop- Canal annually and 70% of its traffic either starts or erty. It belongs to the people of this country.... We terminates in the U.S. While 16.8% of U.S. trade goes bought it; we have paid for it. It is ours. Neither the through the Canal, it handles 37% of the trade of President nor the State Department has the authority Chile, 32% for Colombia, 27% for Costa Rica, 51% for to dispose of this property except by an act of Con- Ecuador, 66% for El Salvador, 30% for Guatemala, 76% gress." for Nicaragua, 41% for Peru, and 29% for Panama. SenatorStromThurmond,Congressional Important shipping interests have expressed their deep Record, March 29, 1974, S4733. concern over loss of control over the Canal Zone by "No part of the Canal is situated on the Panamanian the United States and oppose its surrender. Similar territory. If that were indeed the case, then there might opposition can be expected .from other maritime na- be some question of injustices involved in renegotia- tions,including those of Latin America that have tion of the treaty and the elimination of the concept of the most to lose." perpetuity;however,thatisemphatically not CongressmanDanielFlood, ,, the Congressional case. Record, October 7, 1974, HR9720. !bid, S4730. No No "The adjective most frequently applied to the Canal "Since 1904 the U.S. government has consistently by some Americans is 'vital.' In terms of U.S. trade, recognized that the Canal Zone is Panamanian, not however, the numbers would justify more modest de- United States territory. The United States was granted scription. Convenient. Useful. The Canal is econom- use of this zone of Panamanian territory and rights to icallyvitalto Panama (30% of Panama's GNP and

18 18 40% of its foreign exchange earnings are directly or in- A ranking State Department expert in Panamanian directly attributed to the Canal and related installa- affairs now terms the Canal a military asset of declin- tions), perhaps to Nicaragua and a few Latin Ameri- ing value. Residual utility will remain for some time, can countries, but not the United States. Foreign trade largely because of the constraints of U.S. West Coast accounts for less than 10% of U.S. GNP, the Canal port faciiities, particularly in munitions-handling." affects less than 1% of the U.S. GNP. By volume, less Robert Cox, cited, pp. 138-140. than 5% of the total world trade transits the Canal. By value, the proportion would be little more than 4. Will the new treaty weaken the U.S. pOsition by 1%; an increasing percentage of more expensive cargo exposing the Canal to political instability and vio- is being transported by aire.g., 10% of U.S. foreign lence? trade. The fact is the countries most likely to be ad- Yes versely. affected by increased toll rates if Panama were to so decidethat is,Latin Americanshave unani- "This U.S. territory has long served as an area of mously endorsed Panama's call for greater sovereignty stability in a land of endless political turmoil. Surren- over the Canal. Latin Americans have never before der of U.S. sovereignty over the zone will r.ot improve been as united and outspoken in support of ?anama's but worsen the situation, probably extending violence grievances against the United States. (Most countries to the lock walls of the Canal. I know the kind of which use the Canal are interested mainly in efficient people the Panamanians are." operation and reasonable tolls)" Congressman Flood, Congressional Record, Robert Cox, "Choices forPartnershipor September 24, 1975, 1-19052. Bloodshed in Panama," The Americas in a "During the last seventy years they have had 59 Changing World, (Linowitz Commission Re- presidents in a land of endless intrigue and turmoil." port.) Quadrangle, 1975, pp. 132-155. Congressman Flood, Congressional Record, 3. Will the new treaty prejudice our national secur- April 24, 1974, 56205. ity?. "Other Zonians rejected that ('This government is Yes Communist') as a description of Panamanian strong- man Omar Torrijos, but agreed that he is a dictator "The Panama Canalisthe jugular vein of the whose rule is capricious and unstable. Several cited Americas. In the current struggle for world domina- arrests of specific Panamanian friends orrelatives. tion, the Panama Canal, as a cucial element in Ameri- ... Noneof the stories can be officially corroborated, can seapower ...has become a focal point. ... As a but Torrijos' exile of 13 dissidents last January and his part of the coast line of the United States its defense speedytrialof an allegedterroristlast month did is just as important as the protection of the Chesa- nothing to allay Zonians' fears." peake Bay. The real issue involved is not U.S. control Joanne Omang, "Defensive Zonians," Wash- vs. Panamanian, but continued U.S. sovereigncontrol ington Post, June 6, 1976. vs. USSR domination. As to its physicalvulnerability, the Armed Forces of the United States successfully No protected it during two world wars as well as during "If Americans have a national interest in protecting the Korean and Vietnam wars." a distant enterprise that is marginally useful in their Congressman Flood, Congressional Record, defense Jnd affects less than 1% of their GNP, the October 7, 1974, HR9720. Panamanians might have even greater interest to pro- No tect the Canal. It is on their territory, provides about a third of itheir GNP, and constitutes their primary na- "The Canal remains a prime consideration in the tional resource." planning for and accomplishment of the safe and Robert Cox, cited, p. 152. timely movement of naval units between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. ...However, in 1970, there were about 1300 ships afloat, under construction or on order which could not enter the Panama Canal locks. There were approximately 1750 more ships that could not pass through the Canal fully laden because of draft limitations due to seasonal low water level.... The denial of the Canal to both defense and commercial shipping for two years could have a serious adverse effect on the national defense. ... Aformer service officer of the U.S. Budget Bureau Military Division estimates that alternative models of shipment would have had no adverse effect on the Vietnam war effort and that additional costs would have been negligible.

19 19 CHAPTER A CHALLENGE TO U.S. CH 1STIANS (Study Guide)

Margaret D. Wilde

MM.

"There are two important resources for Christian tive on the debate. If you choose this approach, a brief decision-making," a professor of mine used to tell his evaluation at the end of each session can be helpful. students:"the Bible and the daily newspaper." But Other groups may preferto adopt some sort of after he handed out the semester's reading list, the stu- parliamentary procedure. In either case,ithelps to dents knew that to understand the Bible and the daily agree beforehand on the process and on the degree of newspaper, we would have to spend a lot of time read- commitment expected of each member (meeting times, ing theology, economics and politics. preparation, outside research). Even that is not sufficient, because it is cn individu- The two focal points in this study guide are the al effort. A better way to discern God's will is in com- political issues and the Bible. The process should be a munity, that is, in a group willing to share their per- movement back and forth between Scripture and con- spectives on contemporary reality and their Scriptural temporary reality, between "the Bible and the daily insights. newspaper." The Bible was written, -God's word was This chapteris a guide for that sharing process. spoken, between twenty and thirty centuries ago, to a What position to adopt regarding the Panama Canal people who never heard of the Panama Canal. But the treaty, what action to take, is up to the .readers. There Bible was written, God's word was spoken, for all is no pre-packaged set of recommendations here; there times; its lessons are applicable here and now, and can are suggested questions, and Biblical themes to start help us to understand what is happening in our time, you on a collective search for the light of Scripture on in this particular situation. those questions. How your group makes this back-and-forth movement between the Bible on the one hand, and economics and politics on the other, will depend on the way A Word About Process you are used to thinking. People who like to have Ideally, your discussion will serve as preparation for things neatly lined up in categoriesthe secularcon- action. But whether or not you decide to take action, siderations in one box and the spiritual considerations the discussion can be important in and of itselfif it in anotherwill want to divide the sessions according- leads to a better understanding of the process by which ly. You will have a problem deciding which to take ethical decisions are made. first, but you can make it work if you try. So you will want to take time, at the beginning and Probably a more effective waybut more difficult throughout the discussion, to talk about that process. isto tackle both groups of questions together. It's Given a particular set ot choicesfor instance, whether harder to maintain an orderly discussion thatway, since group discussions have a way of wandering off or not to renegotiate the Panama Canal treatyhow do into irrelevant topics; but there is Christian citizens discern God's will? What questions a strong chance do Christians ask that might not occur to other citi- that the more free-wheeling discussion style will lead zens? to insightsboth on the issue and on the process If yours is a newly formed group, one that has not that would not otherwise have occurred. worked together before, you will also want to be aware of your own process. Some groups are comfortable Asking the Questions with a "group dynamics" style of discussion, in which The right answer to the wrong question can still be leadership is shared and the members openly disaiss a wrong answeras anyone knows who has had to how their evolving relationships affect their perspec- undergo cross-examination by an unsympathetic law-

20 2 0 - yer. An important focus in the searchfor justice is to es of your group, to shift emphasis orclarify the ask the right questions. meaning? Make your own list of questions on news- As you read this book and study outside resources, print or poster boards for use at each meeting, leaving your first task is to decide on thevalidity of the ques- plenty of space in between to add subquestions or tions that are being asked. Look again, as a group, at new ores. the chapter entitled "The U.S. National Interest: High- Reflecting on the Scriptures lights of the Debate." Four questions are asked there: Will the new treaty mean a surrender of U.S. sov- Once your group has decided on the basic questions that seem to frame the issue most appropriately, the ereignty over the Canal? next step isto seek the light of Scripture on those Will the new treaty adversely affect U.S. com- questions. "Not as the Pharisees do," using the Bible mercial interests? merely to prove a point or support a particular posi- Will the new treaty prejudice our national secur- tion. Throughout the process, it is important to keep ity? in mind the role of Scripture in forming moral judg- Will the new treaty weaken the U.S. position by ment. As James M. Gustafson notes: exposing the Canal to political instability and vi- The Christian community judges the actionsof olence? (The mirror image of this question is: persons and groups to be morally wrong, or at least Would the absence of a new treaty weaken the deficient, on the basis of reflective discourse about U.S. position by exposing the Canal to political present events in the light of appeal, to this variety instability and violence?) of material as well as to other principles and experi- These have been the main questions raised in the ences. Scripture is one of the informing sources for U.S. debate on the Canal treaty; they are important moral judgments, but itis not sufficient in itFelf questions. From the point of view of U.S. citizens, to make any particular judgment authoritative. they may be the most important questions; they are Theology and Christian Ethics clearly concerned with the three basic rights of the (Philadelphia: Pilgrim Press, 1974, p.134) DeclarationofIndependencelife,libertyandthe pursuit of happinessas well as with property rights, In a spirit of humility and openness to thepossil;il- also highly respected in our society. But the quest for ity that there may be things in God's word to surprise justice requires us to consider the issue from a broader us, what light can Scripture shed onthe issues in- viewpoint as well. volved in the Panama Canal? Three scriptural themes Now look at the one-act play, "Yankee Doodle Over are suggested here for review andreflection;if you There," which is based in part on those questions. In think of others, they should be introduced as well. the play, it is the Doctor who asks questions from a 1. Dominion over the earth: One of the principal different perspective: "What were you doing in those issues has been the question of sovereignty. Who places (China, South America, the Caribbean, Mexico, owns, who has the right of control overthe Canal Hawaii)?" "What was happening in Panama?" "Who Zone? won?" In the creation story, in the Book of Genesis, God They sound like the questions a parent might ask gave his children dominion over every movingthing, his or her children when they come in from an after- and over all the plants. With that dominion, or sover- noon in the parkwhether it's a fight or afootball eignty, went a certain responsibility: they were to take game they're reporting. SinceChristians 5ee them- care of the land and use it well. Whenthey did not use selves as God's children, it's a useful comparison. So it according to his instructionswhen they ate of the let us add a few more questions to the first set: forbidden fruitit became very clear that their "owner- What were we doing in Panama? Why were we ship" of the land lasted as long as God was Fleased by the way they used it, and no longer. there? Read the first three chapters of Genesis, with the What was happeningthere, among thelocal following questions in mind: people? What does sovereignty mean? What are the rights Who won? What did weand theygain or lose? and obligations involved in control over the land? There are other questions that God might ask his What do we know about the way in which the children about Panama: United States has used the Canal Zone? In what Did you play fair? way has U.S. use of the Zonebenefitted people Did you learn anything from the experience, that in this country and in others, in economic, polit- might help the United States improve its relations ical and military terms? Has it been harmful to with Panama and other countries in the future? anyone, and ifso, how? Ifthe government of Panama regained control over the Canzl Zone, So far we have identified four questions from a U.S. perspective, and five from a broader point of view. Are how would that situation change? there other questions that should be asked? Should the How would God judge the U.S. claim to sover- wording of these questions be changed for the purpos- eignty over the Canal Zone, based on the argu-

21 2 1 ments that (a) we bought it, and (b) we helped He has sent me to bring the glad tidings to the poor, Panama separate from Colombia? Flow would He to proclaim liberty to the captives. judge Panama's claim, based on the arguments Recovery of sight to the blind that (a) they depend on the land and the Canal as and release to prisoners, a principal national resource, and (b) the Ameri- to announce a year of favor from the Lord. cans are foreigners and don't belong there? (Luke 4:18,19). Who, in the last analysis, is really sovereign in Early in his ministry, Jesus used this quotation from the Panama Canal Zone? the prophet Isaiah to describe his own ministry: "To- 2. The uses of power: The Old Testament is essen- day this scripture passage is fulfilled in your hearing." tially about the struggle of God's people to win the (Luke 4:21) land he had promised them, and to keep it in the face Mary knew, even before he was born, that this was of incursions by neighboring peoples. From Moses on, what he was about. She was quoting Scripture too through periods of exile, captivity and warfare, God's the Song oE Hannah and several Psalmswhen she power went with the people of Israel, or seemed to marveled: abandon them, depending on whether or not hewas He has shown might with his arm; pleased with their behavior. he has confused the proud in their inmost I Samuel, chapter 17, tells of one time when the thoughts. power of God .was with the Israelites against the Phil- He has deposed the mighty from their thrones and istines. the Israelites were outnumbered and cOwering raised the lowly to .high places. until a boy named David, who had no business The hungry he has given every good thing, being there where grown men were fighting, stepped while the rich he has sent away empty. forward to accept the challenge of Goliath, the Philis- (Luke 1:51-53) tine leader. It would be an oversimplification to think of God's The boy won, and went on to become a powerful justice as a great leveler, designed to take power and king. But he did not always use his power wisely; in wealth from those who have it, to give to those who one case he used it to usurp the property (for a wife lack it. The story of the talents (Matthew 25:14-30) was property) of a powerless man named Uriah, one contradicts that view: there the enterprising servant of his soldiers.II Samuel, chapters 11 and 12, tells was rewarded, and the one who buried his coin to pro- what happened. God sent a prophet named Nathan to tect it was punished: "For to everyone who has will rebuke him; Nathan told him about a rich man who be given more.... took a poor man's propertyin this case, a lamb. "For God's sake," exclaimed King David, "the man should Indeed, in most of the Bible the amount of a per- be executedor at least pay it back, four times over." son's possessions does not seem to be the measure of Nathan answered: "You are the man." justice, although Jesus does warn about excessive at- The real point of the story is not about property tachment to possessions (see Matthew 6:24; 19:23f; ownership but about the use and abuse of power. I Timothy 6:10). The measure seems ratherto be There can be no clear assumption that the United whether or not people have what they need to live full States has usurped foreign property, as there was lives; and whether they have more than they need, de- when David took Uriah's wife; that question must be priving others of the basic necessities (James 2:15f; discussed separately. Here we are talking about the I John 3:17). This is the sense of Isaiah 65, where the power relationships between the United States and prophet describes the "new heavens and a new earth" Panama. that God wills for his people: Read the stories of David, with the following ques- No longer shall there be in it tions in mind: an infant who lives but a few days, Many Americans are worried that if we give in to or an old man who does not round out his full Panama, the United States will appear on the lifetime... world scene as a bumbling giant, easily intimi- They shall live in the houses they build, dated by little bullies. Did Goliath lose because and eat the fruit of the vineyards they plant; he was a bumbling giant? Or were there other They shall not build houses for others to live in, reasons? If so, what were they? or plant for others to eat. In the years between young David's heroic mo- As the years of a tree, so the years of my people; ment, and King David's shame, how had he and my chosen ones shall long enjoy the produce changed? How had his power affected him? of their hands. How has the United States used its power in the In the prophets and in the Gospel, "knowing the Canal Zone? Lord" and "doing justice" were very close to meaning one and the same thing. Jeremiah, speaking for the 3. Social Justice: Lord, said, "The days are coming. ..when I will make The spirit of the Lord is upon me; a new convenant with the House of Israel . ... No therefore he has anointed me. longer will they need to teach their friends and kins-

22 2 2 , men how to know the Lord. All from least to greatest the United States,nd the image of building a shall know me ...." (Jeremiah 31:310. Jesus saw him- house for another to inLabit? If many Panaman- self, and Paul later saw him, as the embodiment of the ians do not have the basic necessities for a full new *convenant of which Jeremiah spoke (Luke 22:20; life, to what extent is the United Statesand our I Cor. 11:25; II Cor. 3:6). support of the existing class structure in Pan- In the time of the new covenant, that is during the amaresponsible? Christian era, all will come to know the Lord. But what What does it mean to be a Chtistian, a minister does that mean? Jeremiah tells us: "The Lord says, 'He of the new covenant? What does it mean to know did what was right and just, and it went well with the Lord? Is justice a hallmark of the new cove- him.' Because he diipensed justice to the weak and nant people, and if so, what does justice mean in poor, it went well with him. Is this not trueknowledge this situatith- ' of me?" (Jeremiah 22:15f). And then we have the word of the prophet Micah, A Final Word with great finality: Centuries ago, our civilization developed an under- You have been told, 0 man, what is good, standing that there were two subjects that polite peo- and what the Lord requires of you: ple should not bring into conversation: Leligion aad Only to do the right and to love goodness, politics, because either one could lead to conflict. Your and to walk humbly with your God. group is undertaking to talk about religion andpoli- (Micah 6:8) tics; there's no way you're going to avoid conflict. In- deed, if there is no conflict, the chances are that every- Read these passages and ask: one in the group shares the same pre-conceived no- To what extenthastheUnitedStates been tionsfor or against a new treaty, and about what a "proud of heart" in our dealings with Panama? new treaty should includeand you'd betterexamine Supposing thenegotiations ona new treaty those assumptions. break down altogether, to what extent might Pan- So be prepared for conflict, and if possible, estab- ama claim God's justice on their side for open lish an understanding about the right and wrong way rebellion against U.S. domination of the Canal to express disagreement. This, too, is part of the proc- Zone? ess of understanding God's will; speaking thetruth in e Is there a valid comparison to be made between love, Christians should find that it is possible to dis- Panama's economic and political dependence on cuss religion and politics.

47.

4 Arc'. Litlt 4'7

- " t' ;-

Aerial view of Gatun locks on Atlantic side of Panama Canal.

23 23 Appendix A A SUMMARY OF PAST AND PRESENT TREATIES

The following list of U.S. and Panamanian rights it: the terest and the amortization of the principal of the cost of Canal Zone, as they have evolved through three major treat- such works within a period of 50 years, upon which time ies, was prepared by EP1CA (the Ecumenical Program for the system cf sewers and water works shall revertto and Inter-American Communication and Action) and appears in become the properties of the cities of Panama and Colon. The People's Primer: Uniting Panama (EPICA, 1500 Farra- 10) To enforce in perpetuity sanitary ordinancespre- gut Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20011; updated version, scribed by the United States in the cities of Panama .and Col- 1976). on and the territories and harbors adjacent thereto in Case 'the Republic of Panama should not be, in the judgment of the United States, able to maintain such order. Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty, 1903 11) In perpetuity, to maintain p.;olic order in the cities Rights Received of Panama and Colon and the territories and 'harbors adja- 1) In perpetuity, to a zone of land and land under water cent thereto in case the Republic of Panama should not be, 10 miles in width and extending 3 miles into the Caribbean in the judgment Of the United States, able tz maintain such and 3 miles into the Pacific Ocean, plus certain small islands order.. in the Bay of Panama, for the maintenance, operation, sani- 12) To Make-it-se of the towns and harbors of Panama and tation, ard protection of a canal across the Isthmus of Pan- Colon as places of anchorage, and for making repairs, for ama. loading,unloading,deposition,ortransshipping cargoes 2) In perpetuity, the use, occupation, and control of either in transit or destined for the service of the Canal and any for other works pertaining to the Canal. other lands and waters outside of the Zone which may be 13) Freedom from taxation upon the Canal, the railways necessery and convenient for the construction, maintenance, and auxiliary works, tugs, and other vessels employed in the operation, sanitation, and protection of the Canal. service of the Canal, shorehouse3, workshops, offices, quar- 3) All the power and authority within the Zone and within ters for laborers, factories of all kinds, warehouses, wharves, the limits of all auxiliary lands and waters which the United machinery and other works, property. and effects appertain- States would possess and exercise if it were sovereign, to the ing to the Canal or railroad and auxiliary works, or their of- entire exclusion of the exercise by the Republic of Panama ficers or employees, situated within the cities of Panama of any such sovereign rights, power, or authority and Colon, and freedom from taxation upon officers, em- 4) All the rights of the New Panama Canal Company and ployees, laborers, and othindividuals in the service of the the Panama Railroad upon purchase ofthe Company's Canal and railroad and auxiliary works. rights, privileges, properties, and concessions. 14) To import at any time into the Zone and auxiliaty 5) A. all times and at its discretion to use its police and its lands, free of customs duties, imposts, taxes, or other charg- land and naval forces or to establish fortifications for the es, and without aw restrictions, all materials necessary and safety or protection of the Canal, or of the ships that transit convenientintheconstruction,maintenance,operation, it, or the railways and auxiliary works. sanitation, and protection of the Canal and all provisions 6) To use the rivers, streams, lakes, and other bodies of necessary and convenient for employees in the service of water in the Republic of Panama for navigation, the supply the United States and their families. of water, or water power or other purposes as may beneces- 15) The right to purchase or lease lands adequate and sary and convenient for the construction, maintenance, op- necessary for naval or coaling stations on the Pacific coast eration, sanitation, and protection of the Canal. and on the western Caribbean coast of the Republic ot Pan- 7) A monopoly in perpetuity for the construction, main- ama at certain points to be agreed upon. tenance, and operation of any system of communication by means of canal or railroad connecting the Caribbean Sea and Concessions the Pacific Ocean across Panamanian territory. 1) Guaranteed the independence of the Republic of Pan- 8) To acquire in the cities of Panama and Colon, by pur- ama. chase or by the exercise of the right of eminent domain, any 2) Granted the right to have official dispatches of the lands, buildings, water rights, or other properties necessary Government of Panama transmitted over any telegraph and and convenient for the construction, maintenance, opera- telephone lines established for Canal purposes and used for tion, and protection of the Canal and of any works of sani- public and private business at rates not higher than those tation, such as the collection and disposition of sewage and required from officials in the service of the United States. the distribution of water in the said cities of Panama and 3) $10 million in gold coin of the United States and an Colon, at the discretion of the United States. annual payment of $250,000, beginning nine years after the 9) To impose and collect water rates and sewerage rates date of the exchange of ratifications. which shall be sufficient to provide for the payment of :n- 4) Granted the Republic of Panama the right to transport

24 6 over the Canal its vessels and its troops and munitiont 3f 9) All private birtiness enterprises in the Zone, with the war at all times without paying charges of any kind. The ex- exception of concerns having a direct relation to the opera- emption is extended to the auxiliary railway for the trans- tion, maintenance, sanitation, or protection of the Canal, portation of persons in the service of the Republic of Pana- other than those existing at the tirne of the signature of the ma, or of the police force charged with the preservation of treaty, are prohibited. public order outside of the Zone, as well as to their baggage, 10) United States extends to merchants residing in Panama munitions of war, and supplies. full opportunity for making sales to vessels at terminal ports 5) United States assumes the costs of damages caused to of the Canal or transiting the Canal. owners of private property of any kind by reason of the 11) United*States will permit vessels entering at or clearing grants cwttained in the treaty Or by reason of the opera- from ports of the Canal Zone to use and enjoy the dockage tions of the United States, its agents or employees, or by and other facilities of the ports for the purpose of loading reason of the consttuction, maintenance, operation, sanita- or unloading cargoes and receiving or disembarking pas- tion, and prutection provided for in the treaty. sengers to or from territory under the jurisdiction of the 6) After 50 years, the system of sewers and waterworks Republic of Panama. constructed and maintained by the United States shall revert 12) Republic of Panama is given right to collect tolls from to and become the properties of the cities of Panama and merchant ships in the ports of Panama City and Colon, even Colon. though they later pass through the Canal. 13) United States will furnish to the Republic of Panama Treaty of 1936 free of charge the necessary sites for the establishment of Rights Received customhouses in the ports of the Canal Zone for the collec- 1) jurisdiction of a corridor from Madden Dam to the tion of duties on imports destined to the Republic and for Canal Zone. the examination of merchandise ane passengers consigned to 2) Unimpeded transit across the Colon corridor (provided or bound for the Republic of Panama. Panama is given ex- for in the treaty) at any point, and of travel along the cor- clusive jurisdiction to enforce the immigration or customs ridor, and to such use of the corridor as would be involved laws of the Republic of Panama within the sites so provided in the construction of connecting or intersecting highways 14) Republic of Panama is given the right to determine or railroads, overhead and underground power, telephone, what persons or classes of persons arriving at ports of the telegraph and pipe lines, and additional drainage channels. Canal Zone shall be admitted or excluded from its jurisdiction. Concessions 1) Renounces the guarantee of Panamanian independence. 2) Renounces the right to expropriate without restriction Treaty of 1955 additional land for Canal use. Henceforth, in the event of Rights Received some unforeseen contingency, should the utilization of lands or waters additional to those already employed be necessary 1) Exclusive use without cost, for a period of at least 15 for the maintenance, sanitation, or efficient operation of the yLars, of a military training and maneuver area (approxi- Canal, or for its effective protection, the two governments matelY 19,000 acres) in the Rio Hato region. will agree upon such measures as may be necessary to take. 2) Panama waivesthe right, under article XIX of the 3) Renounces right of "eminant domain" in cities ot Pan- 1903 convention,tofree transportation over the Panama ama and Colon. Railroad ofpersonsintheserviceof the Republic of 4) Renounces right to intervene to maintain public order Panama, or of the police force charged with the preserva- in the cities of Panama and Colon. tion of public order outside of the Canal Zone, as well as to 5) Renounces unlimited tight to defend Canal. In the event their baggage, munitions of war, and supplies. that the security of the Republic of Pat-lama or the Canal is 3) Panama waives certain treaty rights in order to enable threatened, the matter will be the subject of consultation the United States to prohibit or restrict the use of a contem- between the two governments. plated new strategic highway within the Canal Zone by com- 6) Increases annuity from $250,000 to $430,000. mercial transisthmian traffic. 7) Persons not connected with the operation or adminis- 4) Panama waives certain treaty provisions in order to en- tration of the Canal are not to rent dwellings in the Canal able the United States to extend limited post exchange privi- Zone belonging to the Government of the United States or to leges to military personnel of friendly foreign countries visit- reside in the Zone. ing the Canal Zone under U.S. auspices. 8) Sale of goods imported into the Zone or purchased, pro- 5) A lease for a period of 99 years without cost to two par- duced, or manufactured there by the Government of the cels of land contiguous to the U.S. Embassy residence site United States is limited to persons employed by the United in the city of Panama. States in the Canal Zone and members of the Armed rorces 6) Panama will reserve permanently as a park area certain of the United States, and their families. Contractors operat- land in front of the U.S. Embassy office building site in Pan- ing in the Zone and their employees and persons engaged in ama City. religious, welfare, charitable, educational, recreational, and 7) A reduction of 75 percent in the import duty on alco- scientific work may purchase such items only when they ac- holic beverages which are sold in Panama for importation tually reside in the Zone. into the Canal Zone.

25 2 5 Concessions U.S. citizen employees of Canal Zone agencies, except mem- 1) The annuity is increased from $430,000 to $1,930,000. bers of the Armed Forces of the United States, who do not 2) Subject to certain general conditions, Panama is enabled reside in the Zone are withdrawn. to levy income taxes on the following categories of person- 7)The U.S. Congress will be requested to enact legislation nel employed by Canal Zone agencies: (1) Panamanian citi- authorizing establishment of a single basic wage scale for all zens irrespective of their place of residence and (2) citizens U.S. and Panamanian employees of the U.S. Government in of third countries who reside in territory under the jurisdic- the Canal Zone and providing for uniform application of the tion of Panama. Civil Service Retirement Act to citizens of the United Sates 3) Renounces monopoly with respect to the construction, and citizens of Panama employed by the U.S. Government in maintenance, and operation of transisthmian railroads and the Canal Zone. highways, with the provision that no system of interoceanic 8) The United States will afford equality of opportunity communication by railroad or highway within territory un- to citizens of Panama for employment in all U,S. Govern- der Panamanian jurisdiction may be financed, constructed, ment positions in the Canal Zone for whicn theyarequali- maintained, or operated directly or indirectly by a third coun- fied and in which the employment of U.S. citizens is ntyt re- try or nationals thereof unless in the opinion of both parties quired, in the ;',udgment of the United States, for security such action would not affect the security of the Canal. reasons. 4) Renounces treaty right to prescribe and enforce sani- 9) Citizens of Panama will be afforded opportunity to par- tary measures in the cities of Panama and Colon. ticipate in such tra:ning programs as may be conducted for 5) Certain lands, with improvements the eon, previously employees by U.S. agencies in the Canal Zone. acquired for Canal p-iws tincluding PaiElla Point and the 10) Articles, materials, and supplies that are mined, pro- Panama Railroad yard an,..; iAtion in the city of Pariama) but duced, or manufactured in the Republic of Panama, when no longer needed for such purposes, are o be transferred to purchased for use in the Canal Zone, will be exempted from Panama and there is to be a gradual transfer to Panama of the provisions of the Buy American Act. the New Cristobal, Colon Beach, and Fort de Lesseps areas 11) The U.S. Congress will be requested to enact the neces- in Colon. sary legislation for the construction across the canal at Bal- 6) Canal Zone commissary and import privileges of non- boa of a bridge.

Appendix B INTERIM AGREEMENTS

As early as7974,it became evident that public opinion in countries on April 3, 1964, agreed to under the auspices of the United States would balk at any major revision of the ex- the Permanent Council of the Organization of American isting. treaty, and that the issue would involve party politics States acting provisionally as the Organ of Consultation. thus makingfinal agreement unlikelyuntil afterthe The new treaty would abrogate the Treaty existing since 1976 elections. 1903 and its subsequent amendments, establishing the neces- In an effort to establish the progress already made, and sary conditions for a modern relationship between the two to reassure both sides, U.S. Secretary of State Henry A. Kis- countries based on the most profound mutual respect. singer and Panamanian Minister of Foreign Affairs Juan Since the end of last November, the authorized representa- Antonio Tack issued an "Agreement on Principles" dated tives of the two governments have been holding important February 7, 1974. That statement is reproduced in full in conversations which have permitted agreement to bc reached this section. on a set of fundamental principles that will serve to guide It is followed by a September 7975 report by the Pana- the negotiators in the effort to conclude a just and equitable manian Negotiating Commission on the present status of treaty eliminating, once and for all, the causes of confli the negotiations. Reproduced here is an unofficial transla- between the two countries. tion, taken from the Star and Herald, English-language news- The principles to which we have agreed, on behalf of our paper of the Canal Zone. respective governments, are as follows: 1) The Treaty of 1903 and its amendments will be abro- gated by the conclusion of an entirely new interoceanic canal Agreement on Principles treaty. 2) The concept of perpetuib will be eliminated. The new (February 7, 1974) treaty concerning the lock canal shall have a fixed termina- The Republic of Panama and the United States of America tion date. have been engaged in negotiations to conclude an entirely 3) Termination of U.S. jurisdiction over Panamanian ter- new treaty respecting the Panama Canal, negotiations which ritory shall take place promptly in accordance with terms were made possible by the Joint Declaration between the two specified in the treaty.

26 2 6 11,0111111MOIIIMV 4) The Panamanian territory in which the Canal is situated National Guard will assume those functions. shall be returned to the jurisdiction of the Republic of Pan- c) There will be no North American laws, courts or judges. ama. The Republic of Panama, in its capacity as territorial Only the Panamanian law will be enforced. coveveign, shall grant to the United States of America, for d) Fire-fighting, license and plate issuance and postal serv- the duration of the new interoceanic canal treaty and in ac- ices will be provided by Panama exclusively. cordance with what that treaty states, the right to use the e) There will be no boundaries nor any map of the Isthmus lands, waters and airspace which may be necessary for the of Panama will be drawn in which the designation "Canal operation, maintenance, protection and deferse of the Canal Zone" appears. and the transit of ships. On the Subiect of Administration: 5) The Republic of Panama shall have a just and equitable a) The Panama Canal Company disappears and an entity share of the benefits derived from the operation of the Canal will be created in which both countries will be represented. in its territory. It is recognized that the geographic position b) Panamanian workers may be promoted to all positions of its territory constitutes the principal resource of the Re- relating to the operation, maintenance, sanitation and admin- public of Panama. istration of the Canal. 6) The Republic of Panama shall participate in the admin- c) The employment of Panamanians in the administration istration of the Canal, in accordance with a procedure to be of the Canal will be carried out in an increasing manner, so °agreed upon in the treaty. The treaty shall also provide that that upon the termination of the Treaty, the Canal will be Panama will assume total responsibility for the operation of operated exclusively by Panamanians. the Canal upon the termination of the treaty. The Republic On the Subject of Defense: of Panama shall grant to the United States of America the a) The defense of the Canal will be carried out jointly by rights necessary to regulate the transit of ships thrOugh the both countries. In the event of an armed attack by third pow- Canal and operate, maintain, protect and defend the Canal, ers, the United States will have primary right of defense only and to undertake any other specific activity related to those while the Treaty is in force. ends, as may be agreed upon in the treaty. b) Panama's military participation will be on an increasing 7) The Republic of Panama shall participate with the scale and that of the United States on a decreasing scale. United States of America in the protection and defense of the c) Under no pretext will there be nuclear arms on the ter- Canal in accordance with what is agreed upon in the new ritory of the Isthmus nor will such territory be used for any treaty. acts of aggression. 8) The Republic of Panama and the United States of d) The concept of the neutrality of the Canal is incorpor- America, recognizing the important services rendered by the ated. interoceanic Panama Canal to international maritime treffk, Points of Disagreement and bearing in mind the possibility that the present Canal could become inadequate for said traffic, shall agree bilater- Duration of the Treaty: Panama proposes a period of ally on provisions for new projects which will enlarge Canal duration for the treaty that will not be extended beyond the capacity. Such provisions will be incorporated in the new end of this century. The United States, in its latest proposal, treaty in accord with the concepts established in principal 2. accepts a period of 25 years as duration for the Canal treaty, but one of 50 years for the defense of the waterway. Further Henry A. Kissinger the United States insists that after 50 years, the United States Secretary of State of will have the right to continue defending the Canal for an in- The United States of America definite time, which is tantamount to perpetuity. Panama has emphatically rejected this proposal. Juan Antonio Tack, Defense Sites: The United States proposes that the exist- Minister of Foreign Affairs of ing 14 military bases be maintained. As a negotiating posi- The Republic of Panama tion, Panama proposes the existence of up to three defense sites provided that such sites will not be close to the cities of Panama and Colon and that they come under a schedule of dismantling during the period of duration of the treaty. Land and Waters: Panama proposes, for purposes of ad- Report By The Panamanian Negotiating ministration of the Canal, a strip bordering on the Canal Commission on the Present Status of the (also subject to Panamanian jurisdiction) for warehouses, Negotiations maintenance shops, etc. This strip is equivalent to 10 percent, approximately, of the land which at present constitutes Points of Agreement the Canal Zone. The United States proposes, for purposes On the Subject of Jurisdiction:It has been agreed that, of administration and defense, a section of lands and waters three yeats after approval of the new treaty, the Canal Zone that is equivalent to 85 percent of the present Canal Zone. disappears and Panama assumes jurisdiction over that ter- Panama has rejected this proposal. ritory. Specifically, the following has been agreed upon: Panama proposes that the ports of Balboa and Cristobal a) There will be no Canal Zone Government. The Gov- come under Panamanian jurisdiction,the participation of ernor and the administrative apparatus will disappear. the Entity that administers the Canal being permitted for b) There will be no North American Police because the purposes of the operation of the Canal and the transitof

27 27 Sf ships. The United States proposes that the administration latest presentation, the United States proposes as its unilat- entity of the Canal retain control over those ports. eral right the carrying out of the expansion of the present Partarna has rejected this proposal. Canal of New Works. Compensation or Annuity: The United States proposes a Panama has rejected this proposal. system of annuity based on tonnage which amounts approx- Neutrality: Panama has proposed that the neutrality of imately to 35 million Balboas annually. Panama has rejected the Canal must be effective and must be guaranteed by all this proposal and insists that this subject will be discussed countries through the United Nations. The United States only after what is agreed on jurisdiction and defense. had accepted this Panamanian proposal, but has changed Status of Zonians: The United States proposes systems that position initslatest proposal and now proposes to aimed at maintaining the privileges of Zonians and exclud- maintain what it understands as neutrality in relation to the ing them from Panamanian jurisdiction. Panama has rejected exclusive inteiests of the United States. this proposal and has set forth the alternative that the pres- Panama has rejected this proposal. ence of those citizens disappear gradually, while retaining Hydrographic Basin: Panama has conducted, on its own certain guarantees for their jobs but without detriment to account, a study of the Hydrographic Basin which provides Panamanian jurisdiction. water for the Panama Canal. The purpose is to reforest that Expansion or New Works: In the eight-point Tack-Kiss- basin with trees and sufficient vegetation in order to main- inger declaration,it was agreed that both countries would tain the volume of the rivers, so that when the Canal passes agree in the new treaty on the expansion of the present into Panama's hands it will not be in disuse for lack of a Canal or on New Works (Sea Level Canal). However, in its sufficient volume of water.

Appendix CPANAMA-U.S. RELATIONS

11111=11WMIMIM.. In February1975,the Administrative Board of the U.S. opment of its people. In his 1963 encyclicalPacern in Terris, Catholic Conference released the following statement. The Pope John XXIII emphasized this basic principle of interna- Administrative Board, composed of48members (three car- tional justice which had been strongly affirmed in the pre- dinals, eight archbishops and the rest bishops) is chaired by vious year's declaration of the U.N. General Assembly (Res- the President of the U.S. Catholic Conference, Archbishop olution 1803, XXVII, December 14, 1962). Nations, the Holy Joseph L. Bernardin of Cincinnati. Father stressed, "have the right to play the- leading part in the process of their own development" and "no countrymay Steement by the Administrative Board unjustly oppress others or unduly meddle in their affairs." United States Catholic Conference The principal natural resource of Panama is and always The United States and the Republic of Panama are cur- has been its geographic location and its configuration. The rently engaged in active negotiations regarding a treaty in- Treaty of 1903 established a monopoly, "in perpetuity," in volving the Panama Canal. It is a moral imperative--a matter favor of another government over the principal naturalre- of elemental social justicethat a new and a more just treaty source of the Republic of Panama. be negotiated. The question, therefore, lies in whether or not we acr,.ot The history of these negotiations spans a 70-year period, the fact that Panama is a free and independent nation. As bPginning with the original Treaty of 1903 by which the such, her claims over the Canal area are a simple conse- United States assu-ned virtually sovereign and perpetual quence of her basic right. In other words, if we accept the control over the heartland of the Panamanian Isthmus. More rights of Panama over her territory, then instead of Panama recently, "L February 1974. the two nations cigned the Kis- negotiating with the United Statesto obtain for herself singer-TaL. Agreement on PrInciples, which provides a sig- some compensation for the use of the Canal and the Canal nificant basis for a new treaty. Zone, it might be reasoned that negotiations should be the Why is a new trelty imperative? In the first place, the other way around. The main benefits from the Canal should 1903 Treaty is, in itself, of dubious moral validity, drafted accrue to Panama, as a nation with principal control over its as it was when international affairs were frequently deter- natural resources, and afair compensation should accrue mined by precepts of powel. Since that time, and despite the to the United States for its investment in Panama. 70 years that have passed in this century in which other peo- Besides the political, social and cultural consequences of ples have achieved their independence or have established the 1903 Treaty that argue strongly for a fundamental re- functional control over their territory,this Treaty has revision of U.S.-Panamanian relations, economic considera- mained essentially unchanged at the insistence of the more tions are also considerable. It is worth- reviewing, inthis powerful of the two parties. regard, some of the main benefits that accrue to each side as In the second place, a more fundamental issue is the right recently cited by the Archbishop of Panama, Marcos Mc- of every nation to utilize its natural resources for the devel- Grath, C.S.C.:

28 The Canal Zone, which measures roughly 10 by 50 Republic of Panama derives from the Canal Zone economy, miles in area, is the heartland, the most valuable economic mostly in indirect form, through salaries and sales. The rise area of Panama. Present Use represents a significant waste and fall of this income according to fluctuations in building of this natural resource: only. 3.6 percent of the land is oc- and otr operations within the Canal Zone, factors beyond cupied by Canal installations; some 25 percent is not utilized the control of the Republic, has a strongly distorting effect at all, and 68 percent is designated for military use. For this upon the Panamanian economy. entire territory, including 14 military bases established with- Since property and income in the Canal Zone are ex- out any negotiations with Panama as to their location, the empted from Panamanian taxes, the governir,..nt of Panama United States pays an annual $1.9 million, as contrasted, for is denied a major source of revenue. As a result, it has not example, to $20 million paid annually for three bases in been fully able to undertake programs of economic infra- Spain. structures and iocio-econornic development, particularly for Since 70 percent of the goods that transit the Canal the impoverished rural areas. come from or go to U.S. ports. the non-commercial fees, While these observations do not attempt to treat all ques- frozen until this year at the 1914 level, have represented an tions relating to the Panama Cana issue, they do serve to annual saving to U.S. commerce of $700 million. In this place the qw.stion within an overall context of inteitiational way, Panama, a poor nation, is subsidizing the richest nation social justice. of the world and world commerce in general. For peace in the world, which can come only with justice The savings to the U.S. Armed Forces ir. the use ei the in the world, it is essential that we citizens of the United Canal in the 60 years since its inauguration are calculated States, including our elected representatives, approach tho in excess ot $11 billion. Panama Canal issue with the same moral sensitivity we The U.S. military investment in ohe Canal Zone is more would apply to issues of justice within our own society. than double the total civil investment, an expense that goes Our national response to the new treaty Will be a signifi- far beyond any notion of mere 'defense of the Canal. In fact, cant test of that sensitivity. Not only the rest of the Amer- 'the U.S. Southern Command, located in the Canal Zone, is icas, but the whole world will be watching. The fundamental a training center for military from all over Latin America rights of the people of Panama, as well as the high ideals and and a nerve center of military contact throughout the conti- long-range interests of the United States, require a new and nent.Surely,military basesestablished within anation just treaty. It cdn become a sign of and a significant con- should be the object of negotiation. tribution toward world peace based upon justice and frater- Nearly 20 percent of the gross national income of the nity between peoples.

Appendix D A DECLARATION

The Catholic Bishops of Panama, meetingin August It must be pointed out that the relations between the peo- 1975,issued the following statement on the negotiations to- ples of Panama and the United States have been generally ward a new treaty. The members of the Panamanian Bishops friendly and positive throughout this period. However, the Conference are the six local Ordinaries of the six ecclesiasti- growing self-awareness of the people of Panama as citizens cal territories of the Republic of Panama, and the Auxiliary of a free and sovereign country has, as was to be expected, Bishop of Panama City. awakened an ever-increasing impatience when faced with the anachronistic situation .imposed upon this country by the zamanian Bishops Conference 1903 Treaty. Since the birth of our country, the Panama Canal and ev- There wac a time when the fact that international relations erything related to it has influenced the life and decisions of were goy( .ned by force rather than reason, although ques- Panamanians. The existence of the Canal has undoubtedly tioned by many, was taken for granted. This was a period been the occasion of remarkable improvement in the lives of when European powers colonized Asia and Africa and when Panamanians, especially in the cities of Panama and Colon, the United States Armed Forces intervened a number of times in matters of health and material welfare. in several Caribbean countries. But times have changed and a At the same time, and from the beginning, the leaders of new international morality has emerged, based on the funda- our country have exptessed their profound dissatisfaction mental principles of the U.N. Charter which upholds respect with the way the 1903 Treaty was negotiated, without the for the territorial integrity of each nation-state, the right of co..scious and free participation of Panamanian representa- the self-determination of peoples and the sovereign right of tives, and furthermore, with the manner in which its clauses states over their natural resources. have been unilaterally interpreted by the authorities of the The modern idea of the sovereign state, born in Europe United States of America, both in Washington and in the after the Renaissance, was implemented in the United States Canal Zone. in the 18th century. Somewhat later, it was adopted by the 11,. Is: 29 2 9 other American nations, and has become increasingly mean- implications of the case. It seems to us that the coming days ingful to crfferent countries throughout the world, including are very important if this whole issue is to become a corner- all of the former colonies which have now become free. Doc- stone for international justice and not a stumbling block fior uments which enjoy moral authority, such as papal encycli- the nations. We, Panamanians, must learn to hold con- cals and U.N. Resolutions, have urged that each country be sciously to the sovereign rights of our country. We must do recognized as free to exercise its right to self-determination. this by means which lead to justice and peace and which evi- It was to this concept that the U.S. Secretary of State re- dence a mature awareness of our affirming our national ferred on the occasion of the signing of the eight basic points sovereignty, while neither ignoring nor neglecting our inter- for a new treat (February 8, 1974), when he mentioned that national duties. power politics at the international level was no longer viable In fact, in our day, even the youngest countries are con- and the time had come for a politics of consensus based on scious that their great problems converge on an international mutual respect. plane, and it is here that they can be solved. From the beginning, the Catholic Church in Panama has The Canal is a service rendered to all nations. All its users, affirmed the indepentience and sovereignty of this nation by supporting Panamaniansovereignty,implicitlytrust by not establishing the Canal Zone as a separate ecclesiasti- that our country will r.ontinue to guarantee them the con- cal entity. This principle has always been followed. The stant, efficient and indiscriminate use of the Canal on the Zone has always been considered a part of what used to be basis of reasonable tolls and neutrality. the oply diocese of Panama which was coterminous with the A serious obstacle to the successful negotiation of a new country's boundaries. Throughout the different periods of treaty is the lack of information and of historical vision of crisis and conflict, the Catholic Church of Panama has been some personsincluding some highly-placed legislatorsin present with both prayer and support, seeking justice in the United States. In this regard, we believe that the truth an atmosphere of harmony and peace. This was true, espec- speaks for itself. As the U.S. Catholic Bishops have ob- ially, during the 1964 incidents when it not only stood by served, efforts to inform the U.S. public are highly desirable those who suffered physical wounds and spiritual grief, but so that all persons of good will can see the justice of the made every effort to channel national feeling towards a just case We are of one mind with them that a new and just settlement by means of massive demonstrations, known as treaty will be good for both nations and for their peoples, **Meetings with God and Country," which took place in and that it will serve as an example of understanding and Panama and David. equity which will contribute significantly to world peace. Lately, the Panamanian Bishops Conference and the Arch- It is necessary that we, in Panama, continue to be truly bishop of Panama, by means of speeches and declarations, united in spirit on matters which so fundamentally affect have attempted to stress the need for an equitable new treaty the future of our country. We ought to listen to one another which will recognize effective Panamanian sovereignty over as we freely discuss the practical problems involvel It must all its territory and which will assure a just solution to all not be said that the treaty was not widely discussed by the parties. These efforts have led to similar declarations not Panamanian people. On.the other hand, let us seek the best only in Panama but also by the Administrative Board of the way to negotiate, not based on partisan political considera- U.S. Catholic Conference and other religious groups in both tions, but on the ciear precepts of national and international countries. This is eloquent testimony. It points to the justice justice. of the case and underscores the importance of a reasonable At the same time that we insist on the justice of our case and eluitable negotiation whien can serve as a model and in- at the international leval, we must expect that the'appropri- centive to settle so many other matters of justice between ate measures be taker. to assure all Panamanians of an equit- North and Latin America and throughout the world. able share in the economic and other benefits of the new The strong national endorsement and the unanimous sup- treaty. port of the Latin American ountries in favor of a new treaty In conclusion, we urge all the faithful to pray persevering- as a priority question regarding relations with the United ly so that the current negotiations will result in a convincing States at this time confirm the importance and far-reaching example of justice and peace before all nations.

Appendix E A STATEMENT

A fifteen-member delegation of the 'National Council of ments; some also met with Foreign Minister Aquilino Boyd Churches (NCC), an organization formed by 31 Protestant and members of the commissicn working toward the new and Orthodox communions, returned from a visit to Panama treaty. in April 1976, and issued the following statement. They had One member of the teamEugene Stockwell, head of the met with a wide variety of church groups in Panama, and NCC Division of Overseas Ministries and son of a Metho- with representatives of the U.S. and Panamanian govern- dist missionary in Latin Americasummarized the dilemma

30 30 this way: "What would it be like for us if France still held a complete transfer to Panama of Canal administration should five-mile strip each side of the Mississippi River from the take place as soon as possible and certainly by the year Gulf of Mexico to Canada: It's a similar situation." 2000. Some U.S. citizens resident in the Canal Zone have been major contributors to hostility in the United States toward Delegation of the National new treaty negotiations. This influence on U.S. public opin- Council of Churches ion by the U.S. employees in the zone is excesiive and large- The 1903 Treaty under which the United States as- ly motivated by personal concerns which do not take into ac- sumed the right to build, administer and defend the Canal count the greater isso.2s of justice for the Panamanian peo- through the Isthmus of Panama, and as it has been amended ple. and implemented by the U.S. Government, represents a seri- The existence uf the Canal Zone deprives the Republic ous injustice to the Republic of Panama and itspeople. For of Panama of the benefit of its principal natural resource, its example, no Panammiall signed the original Treaty. The unique geography and strategic location, and therefore hin- Republic of Panama was forced to relinquish effective sov. ders the development of the nation. ereignty over a ten-mile wide strip of territory that cut Pan- The political and military use of the Canal Zone by the ama inhalf. The United States established military and United States, for example, the training of Latin American training bases in the Canal Zone totally unrelated to the de- military personnel, the support of intervention in other Latin fense of the Panama Canal without treaty authorization or American countries, etc., is a deterrent to the liberation and the consent of the Republic of Panama. self-determination of other nations of Latin America. The present Treaty is a hindrance to the improvement In treaty negotiations, the United States should not im- of U.S. relations with Latin America and other nations of the pose on Panama its military priorities, requiring concessions world. not related to the defense of the Canal. The existence of a Canal Zone in Panama governed by a Military bases and military training installations deemed foreign power is a colonial situation. Therefore, the struggle by the Panamanian government to be unrelated to and un- of the Republic of Panama and its people to assert sover- necessary for the defense of the Canal should be closed down eignty isa struggle against colonialism and itsinherent immediately. racist oppression. We perceive that the great majority of Panamanians, We support the negotiation of a new treaty that will regardless of other differences, fully support the negotiations dearly affirm the effective sovereignty of the Republic of for a new treaty as a necessary step toward the liberation Panama over its entire territory and its right to derive greatly and self-determination of Panama. increased benefits from the operation of the Canal. U.S. churches have a responsibility to inform and edu- It is in the long-term interest of the United States as well cate their constituencies about the facts concerning U.S. in- as the Republic of Panama that a newrelation be developed volvement in Panama so that they may take appropriate which leads to Panamanian control of the Canal. Therefore, actions as aware Christian citizens.

31 31 BIBLIOGRAPHY/RESOURCES

Books and Articles In preratationof The Panama Canal and Social Justice, EPICA (Ecumenical Program for Inter-American Communi- a variety of reading lists and card catalogues were consulted. cation and Action, 1500 Farragut Street, N.W., Washing- For serious students of an issue, there is no substitute for ton, D.C. 20011) is a volunteer action group dedicated to that kind of research; most of the books listed in the foot- awareness-building on Latin American issues through doc- notes of the chapters of this book an.: the following list of umentation and community mobilization. additional sources are availablein university and public An EPICA task force has issued a community mobiliza- libraries. tion packet including useful articles and advice on how to organize support for a new Panama Canal treaty as well as "Controversy Over Proposed Panama Canal Treaty Revi- how to approach key legislators on the issue. The main sion:Pro andCon," The Congressional Digest, April, item in the packet is a "people's primer," entitledUniting 1976. Panama: A New CanalTreaty. An updated version 'of the "Controversy Over Proposed Revisions of the Panama Canal primer is now at press and should be available by October Treaty: Pro andCon," The Congressional Digest, No. 1976. The summary of the 1903 Treaty and later revisions, vember, 1972. included in this booklet as Appendix B, is reproduced from the primer. Early, Lawrence 0.Yanqui Politics and the Isthmian Canal. Another product of EP1CA's effortsisthe National UniversityPark,Penn.:PennsylvaniaState University CommitteeforPanamanianSolidarity,withaffiliated Press, 1971. groups scattered across the United States. For the name Liss, Sheldon B.The Canal. NotreDame, Ind.: University of of the group nearest you, write Diane de Graf fenreid at Notre Dame Press, 1967. EPICA. Low, Helen C. "The Panama Canal Treaty in Perspective." The Americanism Education League (P.O. Box 5986, Buena Washington, D.C.: Overseas Development Council, 1976. Park, California 90622) takes a contrasting view, opposing U.S. negotiation of the Canal treaty. Mellander, G.A.The United States in Panamanian Politics. Danville, Ill.: Interstate Printers and Publishers, 1971. Latin American Studies Department at a university near you can provide a wealth of resources for your study group. "Panama Canal, 1971." Hearings before the Subcommittee Onc or more of the professors and graduate students may on Inter-American Affairs of the House Committee on be available as speakers or resource peorile for the dis-, ForeignAffairs,September 22-23,1971.Washington, cussion. They may know of recent reports of publications D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1971. on the Panama Canal issue. The foreign stuclent office of the university can also Voluntary Organizations tell you if there are Panamanian students at the university. A number of church-related and secular organizations Such students can enrich your discussion with their par- have committed themselves to studying and advocating a ticipation, as will students from families livingin the position on the Panama Canal issue. They will be glad to Canal Zone (who are probably U.S. citizens and therefore respond to requests for additional information, guidance in not registered with the foreign student office). researching specific questions, and support for the mobilization of public opinion. Government Spokesmen All U.S. negotiation on treaties with foreign govern- The Washington Office on Latin America (110 Maryland ments is the responsibility of the U.S. Secretary of State. Avenue, N.E., Washington, D.C. 20002) is jointly spon- Information on the background and status of the negotia- sored by the U.S. Catholic Conference and the National tions can be obtained by writing to the Director, Office of Council of Churches of Christ in the U.S.A. WOLA's Panamanian Affairs (ARA/PAN), Department of State, small staff informs Congressional and other government Washington, D.C. 20520. personnel of the churches concerns for human rights and The official representative of the Panamanian Govern- social justice where U.S. aid to Latin America is concerned. ment in the United States is the Ambassador of Panama. It also puts out a regular bulletin to inform U.S. citizens Information on the Panamanian position can be obtained about events in Latin America, action in Washington, and through the Embassy of Panama, 2862 McGill Terrace, how to affect that action as citizens. N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008.

32 Should the United Statessigna new treatywitil Panama over the operation and use of the Panama Canal? Although negotiations have been in process since June 1970, U.S. public opinion is divided and the question has be( ome an issue in U.S. domestic politics.

The U.S. Catholic Conference, the Panamanian Bish- ops Conference, and other church leaders of various nationalities and confessions have supported renegotiation of the treaty. This booklet tells why, and challenges U.S. Christiansto consider the issue themselves: to participate in a search for justice and recon- ciliation as part of their Christian witness.

Margaret D. Wilde, a consultant and translator of theological works, studies theology in Argent;na and graduated from Union Theological Seminary in New York. She has served in the West Indies as communi- cations consultanttothp Caribbean Conference of Churches, and is now on assignment to a church- sponsored social service program in Paraguay.