Copyright by Jeffrey Wayne Parker 2013 The Dissertation Committee for Jeffrey Wayne Parker Certifies that this is the approved version of the following dissertation: Empire’s Angst: The Politics of Race, Migration, and Sex Work in Panama, 1903-1945 Committee: Frank A. Guridy, Supervisor Philippa Levine Minkah Makalani John Mckiernan-González Ann Twinam Empire’s Angst: The Politics of Race, Migration, and Sex Work in Panama, 1903-1945 by Jeffrey Wayne Parker, B.A.; M.A. Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of The University of Texas at Austin in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy The University of Texas at Austin August 2013 Dedication To Naoko, my love. Acknowledgements I have benefitted greatly from a wide ensemble of people who have made this dissertation possible. First, I am deeply grateful to my adviser, Frank Guridy, who over many years of graduate school consistently provided unwavering support, needed guidance, and inspiration. In addition to serving as a model historian and mentor, he also read countless drafts, provided thoughtful insights, and pushed me on key questions and concepts. I also owe a major debt of gratitude to another incredibly gifted mentor, Ann Twinam, for her stalwart support, careful editing, and advice throughout almost every stage of this project. Her diligent commitment to young scholars immeasurably improved my own writing abilities and professional development as a scholar. John Mckiernan-González was also an enthusiastic advocate of this project who always provided new insights into how to make it better. Philippa Levine and Minkah Makalani also carefully read the dissertation, provided constructive insights, edited chapters, and encouraged me to develop key aspects of the project. As members of my dissertation committee, this stellar group of scholars all provided sage advice for improving the project in the future. A vibrant and supportive community of scholars enriched my experience at the University of Texas at Austin. Marilyn Lehman never failed to provide helpful advice and support as the Graduate Coordinator for the History Department. Professors Susan Deans-Smith, Jorge Cañizares-Esguerra, Virginia Garrard-Burnett, James Sidbury, Jossiana Arroyo, Jonathan Brown, and Seth Garfield shaped my intellectual development through course work. A wonderful group of colleagues and friends provided intellectual encouragement, feedback, and moral support. Blake Scott read several chapters and provided insightful feedback during the writing process. A special debt of gratitude v Lauren Hammond read multiple chapter drafts, offered perceptive comments, and helped push the project through to the end. Takkara Brunson, Cheasty Miller Anderson, and Jesse Cromwell offered crucial feedback and friendship over many years. Evan Ross, Jennifer Hoyt, Alberto Ortiz, Renata Keller, Jesscia Luther, Chris Dietrich, Matt Gildner, Greg Harper, Paul Conrad, José Adrián Barragán, Kevin Auer, Larry Gutman, Ben Narváez, Christopher Heaney, Maria José Afanador, Julia Ogden, Kyle Shelton, Claudia Rueda, Juandrea Bates, and Susan Zakaib also provided support, advice, and encouragement at various stages of graduate school. As an undergraduate at the University of Oregon, numerous faculty members nurtured my passion for history and provided much inspiration at an early stage. I am particularly indebted to Professors Matthew Dennis, Stephanie Wood, Lise Nelson, Robert Haskett, Carlos Aguirre, Elizabeth Reis, Jeffrey Ostler, David Luebke, Glenn May, and Steven Swenson. A special group of colleagues and students at Southwestern University in Georgetown, Texas warmly welcomed me to an energetic community of scholars during the final stages of this dissertation. Faculty members, including Ed Kain, Thomas McClendon, Melissa Byrnes, Bob Gardner, Eric Selbin, and Stephen Davidson, offered exemplary models of teaching and scholarship. I am particularly thankful to Melissa Kravetz for her friendship, advice, and cheerleading during a trying stage. Several institutions provided generous financial support that made this dissertation project possible. A Fulbright Hays Dissertation Fellowship from the U.S. State Department allowed for a critical year of research in Panama. At the University of Texas, the Department of History, the Teresa Lozano Long Institute for Latin American Studies, the Graduate School, and the Warfield Center for African Diaspora Studies vi Department provided various resources for professional development, support, forums for dialogue, and crucial financial backing throughout graduate school. I am also appreciative for the numerous individuals and institutions in Panama that contributed to the successful completion of this project. The cheerful staff at the National Archives of Panama provided vital assistance and patience over several months of research. I am particularly thankful to Director Sara Carvajal. The dedicated and wonderful staff at the National Library of Panama also provided equally generous support, including the ever-helpful Griselda Añino de Valdes in the heremoteca. I am particularly thankful for fortuitous acquaintances with library patrons, including Ricardo Mojier and Marianela Hassán. Staff at the Foreign Relations Archive of Panama, the Archives of Belisario Porras, and the Ricardo J. Alfaro Museum, Archive, and Library expressed interest in the project and eagerly provided needed assistance. At the University of Panama, Porfirio de Cruz, Mauro Salazar, Francisco Herrera, Reymundo Gurdián, Linda Uides, Aida Selles de Palacios, and Antonio Cortés Madrid offered expertise and advice. I also want to thank Noris Herrera, Marixa Lasso, and Carmen Cecilia Llorente. I am grateful to a special cohort of fellow researchers and friends in Panama who provided intellectual vibrancy and good cheer. Blake Scott, Lisette Montoto, Ashley Carse, Matthew Scalena, and Ezer Vierba provided critical feedback and amiable companionship. Glenn McPherson and Alley Woods-McPherson also opened their home and hearts. Ron Griffith, Laura Griffith, and Dayanara Medina also offered much friendship and support. A number of dear friends provided much needed laughter and joy over food and drinks. In Oregon, Nick Ash, Tim Hove, Jared Taylor, and Anil and Emily Naik have served as stalwart friends and supporters of my academic endeavors. Cliff and Sue Ash vii not only provided research leads but also cooked many a delicious meal. In Texas, I could not have survived without the friendship of Miwako Murakami, Leanne Valenti, Jeanine Perla, Rob Culbert, Felicia LeFan-Culbert, Sangeetha Ekambaram, Corey Elrod, Danny Homan, Chris Dietrich, Veronica and Emiliano Jiménez, Gaby Thomas, Nicole DeGreg, and Gabe and Sao Rothchild. I am eternally gratitude for the unconditional love from the best family one could ever hope for. My wonderful family in-law, Hirotaka, Shigeyo, and Yuko Atsusaka, provide constant love, support, and confidence. My siblings, Rob, Greg, and Karina Parker, also offer unwavering love and encouragement. My parents, Bruce and Kathy Parker, never doubted my abilities and encouraged me to reach for my dreams. This dissertation is dedicated to my best friend, soul mate, and true love Naoko Atsusaka for her patience and perseverance over the many years. I could not have done it without her. viii Empire’s Angst: The Politics of Race, Migration, and Sex Work in Panama, 1903-1945 Jeffrey Wayne Parker, Ph.D. The University of Texas at Austin, 2013 Supervisor: Frank A. Guridy This dissertation explores the negotiations and conflicts over race, sex, and disease that shaped the changing contours of the nightlife in Panama from 1903 to 1945. It investigates why sexual commerce on the isthmus evoked an array of masculine anxieties from various historical actors, including U.S. officials, Panamanian authorities, and Afro-Caribbean activists. I argue that the conflicting cultural encounters over sex work remained at the heart of U.S. imperial designs, Panamanian nationalism and state- building efforts, and Afro-Caribbean visions of racial advancement during the first half of the twentieth century. Moreover, these global visions of manliness generated at the local level also took shape in dialogue with each other. This interconnected discourse on manliness highlights the intertwined histories of the United States, Latin America, and the Caribbean in the early twentieth century. Migrant women at the center of the drama, however, became particularly adept at navigating the multiple structures of patriarchal control. They manipulated the legal system, resisted abuses of power, participated in labor organizations, pursued economic opportunities, pressed moral claims, demanded respect, and highlighted injustices. Women embroiled in controversy selected from an array of ideas circulating the region. They also played off competing understandings of manhood in order to achieve their own ends. Often these various strategies of negotiation ix had contradictory outcomes. Active engagement with patriarchal institutions could simultaneously reinforce gender and racial norms while challenging the material reality of daily life. Nevertheless, the failure by the U.S. and Panamanian governments to curtail sexual deviancy and venereal disease underscored the limits of imperial power at a key global crossroads in the Americas. x Table of Contents List of Illustrations ............................................................................................. xiv Introduction