International Journal of Tropical Insect Science Vol. 31, No. 3, pp. 129–144, 2011 doi:10.1017/S1742758411000257 q icipe 2011
Review Article
Entomophagy and human food security
R.T. Gahukar* Arag Biotech Private Limited, Plot 220, Reshimbag, Nagpur 440 009, India
(Accepted 1 August 2011)
Abstract. Food security is a problem in many developing and less developed countries due to increase in human population and decrease in crop productivity and food availability. Edible insects are a natural renewable resource of food providing carbohydrates, proteins, fats, minerals and vitamins. As such, entomophagy is common in ethnic groups in South America, Mexico, Africa and Asia, where indigenous insects are easily available and are consumed in various forms (raw/processed) or used as an ingredient or supplement in modern recipes. Entomophagy therefore offers an opportunity to bridge the protein gap of human foods irrespective of a few constraints that are discussed. Concerning food security, more attention is needed to assess and revalidate entomophagy in the context of modern life. Further research would be necessary to exploit insect biodiversity and ethno-entomophagy, stop overexploitation of these insects, and initiate actions for insect conservation.
Key words: insect collection, food security, nutritive value, ethnic traditions, commercialization, consumers’ awareness
Introduction with current food reserves at a 50-year low, the demand for food will increase by 50% (Beddington, Food security is fast becoming a problem for human 2010). Searching for new available sources to beings because of booming populations, increase in substitute food can be a viable and requisite step. consumption growth and possible decline in food Likewise, efforts for improving food supply availability. The productivity of agricultural crops is through new technologies would take some time nearly stagnant and chronic malnutrition is ram- for their application on a large scale to make them pant in many poor nations. Natural factors such as feasible/practical, cost-effective and ecofriendly climate change, energy crisis, decreasing soil (e.g. genetically modified crops; geo-engineering; fertility, incidence of pests and plant diseases, and crop genotypes with resistance to pests, diseases man-made situations such as increased food prices, and drought; plants with the capacity of reflecting non-availability of foods, lack of purchasing power sunlight (albedo effect); new chemical molecules; of consumers, disparity in food distribution, and so integrated plant nutrient and pest management on seem to be responsible for food insecurity techniques, etc.). As a global responsibility, at least (Gahukar, 2009, 2011; Kumar, 2010), while global for member countries, the Food and Agriculture demand for food will increase for at least another Organization (FAO) of the United Nations took an 40 years. For example, by 2030, with the human initiative to create a policy and proposed the population rising by six million every month and programme of feeding people with alternative sources including insects (FAO, 2010a,b). The *E-mail: [email protected] organization stresses both physical and economic
Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. IP address: 170.106.202.226, on 02 Oct 2021 at 18:49:33, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1742758411000257 130 R.T. Gahukar access to food that meets people’s needs as well as recent developments to provide supplementary their preference, even though the globalization of information to earlier reports, discusses major the world economy can affect food security challenges and envisages future steps in order to especially in Africa (Kent, 2002). feed people by suggesting to include entomophagy Entomophagy is the term used to describe the in future food security plans and initiatives. process of eating insects as food. Although ‘micro- livestock/mini-livestock’ are not equivalent words to entomophagy, they are sometimes used to Why entomophagy? categorize the insects that can be eaten by human Entomophagy is practised generally for the follow- beings (Paoletti and Dufour, 2002; Paoletti, 2005; ing reasons: Srivastava et al., 2009). At present, edible insects are (1) Insects are found easily in forestland and water a natural food resource to many ethnic groups in resources and can be mass-collected in a short time Asia, Africa, Mexico and South America where whenever their populations are abundant. entomophagy can be sustainable and has economic, nutritional and ecological benefits for rural com- (2) Insects can be reared and multiplied easily in munities. However, entomophagy is becoming small spaces and a short period due to their short uncommon in some regions due to increasing life cycle and high intrinsic growth rate. Edible adoption of modern foods, changed social struc- insects need not be fed on grains so rearing is more tures and changes in demography (Yen, 2010). environmentally friendly than traditional livestock Preference of edible insect species differs as per (Oonincx et al., 2010). Insects reproduce faster than taste, nutritional value, ethnic customs, local traditional livestock. For example, the female house prohibition, family background and easy avail- cricket Acheta domesticus L. (Orthoptera: Gryllidae) ability (van Huis, 2003). Ramos-Elorduy (1997a) can lay from 1200 to 1500 eggs in 3–4 weeks and its reported 1391 insect species eaten worldwide. Later, water requirement is very low, while for beef, the the same author reported 1681 species in 14 insect ratio is four breeding animals for each animal orders (Ramos-Elorduy, 2005) and recently, 2086 marketed (Capinera, 2004). Further, the efficiency of insect species that are consumed by 3071 ethnic conversion of ingested food (ECI) is higher (up to groups in 130 countries (Ramos-Elorduy, 2009). 44% in some insects) than for traditional meats Likewise, the number of edible insects differs in a (Gordon, 1998; Callavo et al., 2005; Chakravorty, region and countries within a region, namely 348 2009). For instance, the house cricket has an ECI twice species in Mexico (Ramos-Elorduy, 1997b), 250 as efficient as pigs and broiler chickens, four times species in sub-Saharan Africa (van Huis, 2003), greater than that of sheep and six times higher than 187 species in China (Chen et al., 2009), 96 species in a steer when losses in carcass trim and dressing the Central African Republic (Roulon-Doko, 1998), percentage are accounted for (Capinera, 2004). 83 species in Ecuador (Onore, 1997), 60 species in (3) In low-income areas, only insects are available in India (Chakravorty, 2009) and Borneo (Chung et al., the period of food shortage, particularly at the 2001), 55 species in Japan (Nonaka, 2005), 50 species beginning of the rainy season when livestock is in Thailand (Yhoung-aree et al., 1997) and 40 species lean, new crops have just been sown and the stocks in Nigeria (Banjo et al., 2006a). Although different of stored produce from the previous crop season figures are available for different insect orders, the become limited. Consequently, local markets are majority of edible insects belong to Lepidoptera, flooded with insects packed in plastic bags and sold Orthoptera, Coleoptera and Hymenoptera. Other as food articles during the planting season (Yen, common insect orders are Isoptera, Homoptera, 2009a). Similarly, in case of natural disasters (floods, Heteroptera, Diptera and Odonata (Ramos-Elorduy, droughts, epidemics of human diseases), ethnic 1997b, 2005; Van Huis, 2003). clashes and wars, packets of insects can be easily Worldwide, entomophagy plays a major role in distributed as an emergency food security measure. human food security and has already been reviewed (4) Insects are mostly mixed with, or often by Illgner and Nel (2000), Craig and Bunn (2001), consumed as, supplement to predominant diets Morris (2004), Nonaka (2005), Bukkens (2005), and based on maize, cassava, sorghum, millet, beans recently by Raffles (2010). Likewise, best sources of and rice, and form an ingredient to produce other information on edible insects are the proceedings of food items (Bukkens, 2005). In Mexico, a ‘tortilla’ (a the FAO workshop (FAO, 2010b) and ‘The Food thin flat bread made from finely ground maize) is Insects Newsletter’ which is no longer published but supplemented with ground mealworm (Tenebrio a compilation of 13 volumes in a book can be referred molitor L. (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae)) larvae to (DeFoliart et al. 2009). In future, there is need of (Aguilar-Miranda et al., 2002), whereas the termite improved nutrition and food security. Thus, con- Microtermes bellicosus Smeathman (Isoptera: Termi- sidering entomophagy as one of the practical and tidae: Macrotermitinae) supplements maize protein viable solutions to food security,this review presents alone in Nigeria (Bukkens, 1997).
Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. IP address: 170.106.202.226, on 02 Oct 2021 at 18:49:33, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1742758411000257 Insects as human food 131 (5) Insect preparations include frying, braising, contain 7–25 g and termites contain 35–65 g/100 g stewing, stewing after frying, boiling and roasting. (Bukkens, 1997; Ramos-Elorduy, 2005). This quan- Eggs to adults are eaten but larvae and pupae are tity is more than in ground beef (27.4 g) or broiled regularly sold in restaurants, and local and retail cod fish (28.5 g) (Banjo et al., 2006a; Okaraonye and markets in urban areas (Chen et al., 2009). For Ikewuchi, 2008). Maximum contents of 100 g amino example, fried grasshoppers in cans and chocolate- acids/100 g dry weight of silkworms’ pupae covered ants are sold in Mexico, chocolate chirpy followed by the bamboo caterpillar Omphisa chips or popcorn with roasted crickets and grass- fuscidentalis Hmps. (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) hoppers (known as chapulines) in the USA, ants (77.5 g) and the house cricket (68.7 g) have been with popcorn in Colombia and maggot cheese in reported (Yhoung-aree, 2010). Caterpillars, grubs of Italy are a local delicacy (Capinera, 2004; Kittler and palm weevils (Rhynchophorus spp. (Coleoptera: Sucher, 2008). Some restaurants in the USA are Curculionidae)) and termites are rich in fat incorporating insects into their recipe books and (Bukkens, 1997). Maximum contents of calcium of menus such as stir-fried mealworms and caterpillar 61.3, 72.4 and 76 g/100 g dry weight have been crunch (a combination of trail mix and fried recorded, respectively, in dung beetle (Oryctes sp. caterpillars; Capinera, 2004; Gracer, 2010). (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae)) grubs (Banjo et al., (6) Apart from local markets, export of insects in the 2006a), palm weevil grubs (Onzikou et al., 2010) form of beetle juice, canned silkworm pupae, and adult house crickets (Vogel, 2010). Maximum caterpillars of hesperid butterflies and immature contents of iron of 27–29 and 35.5 g/100 g dry stages of ants has been initiated by the food weight have been found in termites and caterpillars, industries in developed countries (Ramos-Elorduy, respectively (Banjo et al., 2006a). Similarly, maxi- 1998). mum contents of phosphorus of 226–238 g/100 g (7) Entomophagy had been used regularly by tribes are present in grasshoppers and the giant water bug for centuries as medical treatments and the same Lethocerus indicus Lepeletier & Seville (Hemiptera: practice is being continued in certain countries Belostomatidae; Feng et al., 2000). A high content of (Fosaranti, 1997; Pemberton, 1999; Costa-Neto, magnesium (7.54–8.21 g/100 g) has been found 2000; Chung et al., 2001; Padmanabhan and Sujana, in grasshoppers and weevils (Banjo et al., 2006a). 2008; Feng et al., 2009; Srivastava et al., 2009; Eggs, larvae and pupae of honeybees have a high Chakravorty et al., 2011). Ayieko and Oriaro (2008) amount of vitamins A, B2 and C to the extent of reported that lake flies (Chaoborus spp. (Diptera: 12.44 mg/100 g, 3.24 mg/100 g and 10.25 mg/100 g, Chaoboridae) and Chironomus spp. (Diptera: Chir- respectively (Bukkens, 1997). Calories obtainable onomidae)) are fed to weak children with ‘insect from insects run as high as 776.9 kcal/100 g of biscuits’ to gain strength. insects, often exceeding those from soybean, maize and beef (Ramos-Elorduy, 2005). (8) Insects produce much smaller quantities of A bread containing grubs of the African palm greenhouse gases (GHG, particularly methane and weevil Rhynchophorus phoenicis (F.) provides the nitrous oxide) per kilogram of meat than conven- major and minor nutrients essential for body tional livestock (Oonicx et al., 2010). A pig produces growth (Ekpo and Onigbinde, 2005). In a recent up to 100 times more GHG compared with study in Kenya, wheat buns enriched (5% mix) with mealworms. Emission of ammonia, which causes the termite Macrotermes subhyalinus Rambur the acidification and eutrophication of ground (Isoptera: Termitidae) were better than ordinary water, also appears to be significantly lower. A pig breads for some attributes (e.g. size, colour, texture, produces 8–12 times more ammonia compared aroma) and consumers’ preference. Further, with crickets and up to 50 times more than locusts Kinyuru et al. (2009) found higher contents of (Oonincx et al., 2010). riboflavin (0.17 versus 0.26 mg), niacin (0.90 versus 1.11 mg), folic acid (0.30 versus 0.33 mg), calcium (10 versus 10.83 mg), iron (1.20 versus 1.80 mg) and zinc Nutritive value of insects (2.78 versus 3.23 mg) than in ordinary bread. The oil Apart from the reasons mentioned above, insects extracted from R. phoenicis grubs contains a high have been well recognized worldwide as nutritious level of unsaturated components and exhibits good food since insects provide proteins (amino acids physiological properties due to which it is used as including methionine, cysteine, lysine, and threo- edible oil (Okaraonye and Ikewuchi, 2008; Onzikou nine), carbohydrates, fats, some minerals and et al., 2010). In the case of silkworm caterpillars, vitamins, and have energy value (Capinera, 2004; eating them can be sufficient for daily requirements Johnson, 2010; Xiaoming et al., 2010). For example, of copper, zinc, iron, thiamin and riboflavin, and caterpillars contain proteins to the extent of 50– the deficiency of riboflavin can be fulfilled by 60 g/100 g dry weight, the palm weevil grubs eating those insects containing this amino acid contain 23–36 g, Orthoptera contain 41–91 g, ants (Gordon, 1998). Protein production from insects is
Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. IP address: 170.106.202.226, on 02 Oct 2021 at 18:49:33, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1742758411000257 132 R.T. Gahukar also ecologically sustainable and consumes fewer removed before being consumed. The heads are resources than animal protein (Gordon, 1998). picked off if they are eaten directly. Often, powder is Further research is needed to ascertain whether prepared and mixed with fruits or leaves of wild the production of a kilogram of insect protein is also plants to form a paste (Nonaka, 1996; van Huis, more environmentally friendly than conventional 2003). Tribes in the Central African Republic relish animal protein when the entire production chain is the grubs of cerambycids and dung beetles, which taken into account. are searched for near the roots of banana plants or collected near tree trunks (Roulon-Doko, 1998). Recent developments in insect collection Diptera Techniques and entomophagy Lake flies, Chaoborus edulis Edwards, Chaoborus spp. (Chaoboridae) rise like clouds from Lake Victoria in Coleoptera East Africa. Natives sweep them off from bushes The grubs of R. phoenicis and the coconut and rocks and collect them by whirling baskets. rhinoceros beetles Oryctes rhinoceros L. and O. boas Cake is prepared by grinding the flies, which is then F. (Scarabaeidae) are a common food in the sun-dried (van Huis, 2003). Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) (Onyeike et al., 2005; Onzikou et al., 2010) and Nigeria (Ekpo and Onigbinde, 2005). Dung beetles including Heteroptera Heliocopris bucephalus F. (Scarabaeidae) are collected Collecting water bugs around lights at night near generally in the morning by digging them out water sources is an age-old practice in Mexico from cattle dung, placed into a container filled with where bug eggs are well known for their taste. Two water to soak for 12 h or until no more food rice bugs, Leptocorisa oratorius F. (Coreidae) and remains in their intestines before they can be cooked Nezara viridula L. (Pentatomidae), are relished by (Hanboonsong, 2010). In the Philippines, grubs of farmers in Borneo. They mash the bugs with chillies Junebeetle,Phyllophagaspp.(Scarabaeidae),arefried, and salt and cook them in hollow bamboo stems. stewed, grilled or roasted and often condiments The dish is served as a condiment (Chung, 2010). including onions, pepper and salt are added. Dried In China, the giant water bug L. indicus is roasted grubs are often incorporated into a paste and and eaten whole or ground into a paste with chillies clarified fat is used as butter (Adalla and Cervancia, before eating (Feng et al., 2000). In Sudan, the millet 2010). Frying (after removing the gut content) of the bug Agonoscelis versicolor F. (Pentatomidae) is red palm weevil grub/sago grub Rhynchophorus roasted and consumed. Also, oil made from these ferrugineus and the scarabaeid Chalcosoma atlas L. bugs is used in food preparations (Van Huis, 2003). (Scarabaeidae) is common in Java (Lukiwati, 2010), whereas the most common edible insect in Papua (Indonesia) is the black palm weevil R. bilineatus Homoptera Montrouzier. Grubs are generally consumed raw or In Papua (Indonesia) and Borneo, green and brown after some roasting (Ramandey and Mastrigt, 2010). cicadas (Cicadidae) including Cosmopsaltria waine Similarly, cetonid beetles (Cotilis spp. (Cetoniidae)) Duffels, Pomponia merula Distant, Orientopsaltria and cerambycid beetles (Rosenbergia mandibularis spp. and Dundubia spp. are collected in the morning Ritsema (Cerambycidae)) resting on tall flowering as adults emerge from the underground pupae trees are collected, skewered on a small stick and (Chung, 2010; Ramandey and Mastrigt, 2010). roasted. The longicorn beetle Batocera wallacei At night, a fire is set beneath the host trees (such Thomson (Cerambycidae) is roasted, often before as Pongamia spp.), and cicadas eventually drop onto removing the legs and wing casings and consuming the ground while the tree is being smoked (Chung, the fat-filled abdomen (Chung, 2010; Ramandey 2010). A plastic bag containing some cotton tied to and Mastrigt, 2010). The sago grubs (collected from a long stick is used to collect cicadas in Thailand sago plants) are used as porridge with thin slices of (Hanboonsong, 2010). After removing the wings, ginger or they are stir-fried with soybean sauce and they are roasted over an open fire before eating. shallots (Chung, 2010). Exceptionally, the eggs of Sometimes insects are stir-fried with some salt the stick insect Haaniella grayii grayii (Westwood) and other flavouring, but always without oil (Phasmatodea: Heteropterygidae) are eaten as a (Chung, 2010). delicacy in Borneo (Chung, 2010). In the Kalahari region in South Africa, the San people collect the beetle Sternocera orissa Buquet Hymenoptera (Buprestidae) during its outbreaks. The quarry is Larvae and pupae (and rarely adults) of honeybees roasted in hot ash and sand, and hind wings are and social wasps are roasted/grilled over a fire and
Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. IP address: 170.106.202.226, on 02 Oct 2021 at 18:49:33, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1742758411000257 Insects as human food 133 eaten, whereas adult wasps are canned or rice is served in restaurants in the Philippines (Adalla and cooked with wasps or honeybees in Japan, China Cervancia, 2010). In Colombia, the leaf-cutting ant and Java (Edwards, 1998; Feng et al., 2010). Larvae Atta laevigata F. Smith (Formicidae) (locally known and pupae of the social honeybee Apis cerana F., the as ‘bachaco’) is boiled in salt water and roasted in giant honeybee A. dorsata F., the dwarf honeybee ceramic pans or ground up to use as a spread on A. florea F. and the stingless bee Trigona biroi Friese bread (DeFoliart, 1999; Paoletti et al., 2003). In India, (Apidae) are boiled with porridge or rice, stir-fried eggs are collected from the trees and fried with salt, or drunk together with honey. Sometimes the brood chillies, spices and mustard oil, and eaten (Sriva- together with the hive is squeezed to extract liquid satava et al., 2009). People in Mexico keep the which is then boiled (Adalla and Cervancia, 2010; immaturestagesofthetreeantLiometopum Chung, 2010). In the case of the drury bee Xylocopa apiculatum Mayr. (Formicidae) (locally known as latipes Drury (Apidae), inhabiting cavities of ‘escamoles’ ants) alive for a day before eating. These bamboo or other trees, larvae and pupae are taken insects are then fried with onions and garlic or with from nests and are fried with butter or onion and black butter and served (Ramos-Elorduy, 1997a,b). salt (Lukiwati, 2010). Broods of the wild honeybees Adults of the weaver ant Oecophylla smaragdina F. are either fried or saute´ed with vegetables (Adalla (Formicidae) are mixed with chillies and salt and and Cervancia, 2010; Nandasena et al., 2010). served as condiments while the brood is eaten raw Non-honey food uses in Thailand include or cooked with rice or porridge (Chung, 2010). capped brood mixed with pollen that is cut into pieces and macerated in alcohol to produce a liquid. Capped brood may also be roasted without pollen Isoptera and eaten directly (Boongrid, 2010). Large colonies of termites are found in arid and Worker wasps are attracted with bait containing humid areas of Central Africa and Australia. Eating a meatball, then the entrance to the nest is of the queen and the reproductive forms is common disconnected and smoke is generated to sedate the globally, whereas soldiers are preferred in Vene- wasps inside the nest. In Japan, some people tie a zuela (Paoletti et al., 2003). Roulon-Doko (1998) and tiny white ribbon around the waist of the worker van Huis (2003) reviewed various methods of wasp while it is eating the bait. Others prefer to termite collection in Africa. The most popular and collect them at night when the worker wasps are easy way used in the tropics is to collect them sleeping (Nonaka, 2010). In mountainous areas in during the evening hours by placing a basin of Japan, pupae of the common wasp Vespula flavipes water right under the light source. As light is L., the Asian giant hornet Vespa mandarinia Smith, reflected on the water, termites are attracted and Vespa spp. and Ropalidia spp. (Vespidae) are boiled trapped on the water surface (Chung, 2010). The with soybean sauce or fried with salt while larvae tribes of Africa, especially those in Zambia, the are boiled to a hard consistency with soybean sauce, Central African Republic, Angola and the DRC, sugar and sake´. The cooked larvae are then mixed collect winged sexual forms at the time of nuptial with rice (Chung, 2010; Nonaka, 2010). flights of termite species, Macrotermes falciger Generally, ants are collected by excavating holes Gerstacker and M. subhyalinus (Isoptera: Termiti- in the plants on which ant nests are found. In the dae), when adults emerge in large numbers from Central African Republic, women collect ant eggs the termitaria after the first rains (Mbata, 1995; by brushing them in a receptacle or by digging the Malaisse, 2005). In the DRC, a basket is put upside stored eggs out of the nest. Eggs are eaten raw or down over an emergence hole of the mound or a fried (Roulon-Doko, 1998). In the Kalahari region dome-shaped framework of sticks is built up or (South Africa), the San tribe collect ant species of the elephant grass is covered with banana leaves or a genus Camponotus (Formicidae) by poking a nest blanket to cover part of the emergence hole near with a digging stick and tapping the ground by which a receptacle is placed to collect flying hand around the nest. The San tribe prepare a termites. Continuous beating and drumming on powder of wild plants, mix it with ants and add a the ground around the hill triggers certain termite sweet-sour flavour to the mixture before eating species to emerge (van Huis, 2003). To extract (Nonaka, 1996). Ants fried with butter or onions soldiers from the mound, women and children and garlic are served routinely in the restaurants in push grass blades or parts of tree pods or the bark China (Luo, 1997). In Malaysia, natives use the giant into the shafts of a termite mound, or prepare forest ant Camponotus gigas Latreille (Formicidae) as smoke from charcoal from certain trees and blow it a flavouring because it contains a high concen- into the opening; soldiers stripped into a container tration of formic acid (Chung, 2010). Eggs of are then collected. Sometimes nests are dug up to Camponotus species are collected from tree trunks collect queens (van Huis, 2003). without disturbing adult ants and are cooked with In Africa, termites are eaten raw soon after spices or saute´ed in garlic and onions, and are catching or fried lightly or gently roasted to make
Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. IP address: 170.106.202.226, on 02 Oct 2021 at 18:49:33, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1742758411000257 134 R.T. Gahukar them slightly crispy, or smoked/steamed in banana Caterpillars of giant skippers, Agathymus spp. leaves, or simply sun-dried. Oil is not used as and Megathymus spp. (Megathymidae), and the termites have a high content of oil in their body. hesperid butterfly Aegiale hesperiaris Kirby (Hesper- In the DRC and Central African Republic, insects iidae) are collected from leaves of their various food are squeezed or pressed in a tube to form a plants including Agave spp. in Mexico. Caterpillars colourless oil for frying. In Botswana, winged are swallowed whole in a preserved state in a bottle reproductive forms of the harvester termite of liquor ‘tequila’ (a national drink prepared from Hodotermes mossambicus Hagen (Hodotermitidae) the blue agave plant), or cooked and eaten by are roasted in hot ash and sand before being putting one caterpillar per bottle for flavour to a consumed (Nonaka, 1996). In India (Odisha state), ‘tortilla’ (McKenzie, 2002). Eating of the bamboo termites are eaten as snacks alone or together with caterpillar O. fuscidentalis and the cassia butterfly rice (Srivasatava et al., 2009). Chinese gulp raw Catopsila pomona F. (Pieridae), both rich in proteins termites with liquor or dip them in alcohol before (25 mg/100 g dry weight), has been reported in swallowing (Chung, 2010). Eating raw termites Southeast Asia (Yhoung-aree et al., 1997). In with their wings removed is also common in Borneo Java, cocoons of the teak caterpillar Hyblaea puera (Chung, 2010). Cramer (Hyblaeidae) are fried in palm or coconut oil before being consumed (Lukiwati, 2010). Local people collect sphingid caterpillars from Lepidoptera Colocasia sp. (Araceae) leaves and consume them Caterpillars of moths and butterflies have been after some roasting in Papua (Ramandey and popular dishes in many parts of the world, whereas Mastrigt, 2010), or after boiling until dry in Borneo pupae of the eri silkworm Samia ricini Donovan, the (Chung, 2010). Chinese oak silk moth Antheraea pernyi Guerin- Meneville and the mulberry silkworm Bombyx mori Odonata L. (Saturniidae) are consumed by locals in many Asian countries (Zhou and Han, 2006; Sirimungkar- Dragonflies including the larger green emperor akat et al., 2010; Sarmah, 2011). dragonfly Anax guttatus Burm. (Aeshnidae) and the In equatorial Africa, natives collect full-grown red-veined dropwing Trithemis arteriosa Burm. caterpillars of Anaphe venata Butler and Anaphe spp. (Libellulidae) are collected in paddy fields in the (Thaumetopoeidae), and sell them with cocoons in DRC (Malaisse, 1997), the Philippines, north and the local markets (Latham, 1999). When caterpillars northeast Thailand (Pemberton, 1995), and China of the emperor moths (namely Imbrasia ertli Rebel, (Feng et al., 2001). Nymphs are often stir-fried or Gonimbrasia (Imbrasia) belina Westwood, Cirina forda boiled before eating. Westwood, Antheua insignata Gaede and mumpa caterpillar Gynanisa maja (Klug) (Saturniidae)) Orthoptera descend from the top to the base of their food plants (often for pupation in the soil), the whole Grasshoppers, crickets and locusts are eaten by colony is collected. Sometimes fire/smoke is made Africans as delicacies (Mbata, 1995). Grasshoppers so that caterpillars drop to the ground. Prior to (Acrididae) including Acanthacris ruficornis Fb., serving, spines or long hairs on the body are A. nigrovariegata Bolivar, Locusta migratoria migrator- removed or burned off. Caterpillars are then boiled iodis (L.), Nomadacris septempunctata Serville, Cyrta- in water or fried with groundnut butter and mixed canthacris tatarica Linn., Lamarckiana cucullata Stoll with cassava leaves, or cooked with pumpkin and and other jumping insects are collected in the early sesame seeds, or simply fried with salt and a few morning and evening when insects gather and are hot peppers (Mbata and Chidumayo, 1999; Latham, inactive. Villagers use brooms made from leaves or 2001). Native women in the Kalahari region of branches of local trees to chase grasshoppers from South Africa squeeze out the intestines of cater- trees and huts (Mbata, 1995; Nonaka, 1996; Roulon- pillars, and roast them in hot ash and sand. They Doko, 1998). In Borneo, grasshoppers are collected store sun-dried caterpillars in bags for consumption when cleaning the fields for paddy planting is whenever the need arises. For this purpose, dried undertaken (Chung, 2010). Small grasshoppers are caterpillars are often pounded into powder and first lightly salted, boiled in a little water and then mixed together with stewed watermelon (Nonaka, simmered until dry. Sometimes they are stir-fried, 1996). In Botswana and South Africa, fourth and while the bigger ones are deep-fried until crispy fifth instars of the mopani/mopane caterpillar G. and are served without mixing with vegetables or belina are degutted, cooked in brine and sun-dried meat (Chung, 2010). After removing the spiny legs, to make an edible product and preserved for head, internal organs and wings, insects are cooked, later consumption or canned for export (Mulhane fried or roasted in hot ash and sand (Nonaka, 1996). et al., 2001). The tettigonids are fried (after removing antennae,
Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. IP address: 170.106.202.226, on 02 Oct 2021 at 18:49:33, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1742758411000257 Insects as human food 135 legs and wings) and consumed by Mofu tribes in milk is added to create a thick sauce (Adalla and Uganda (Seignobos et al., 1996). In northeast India, Cervancia, 2010). grasshoppers are usually collected after the harvest of paddy, especially at night. Insects are roasted or fried in vegetable oil after removing wings and the Current challenges and perspectives stomach and washing them with clean water. (1) Export figures are rarely published. As such, an Ingredients such as ginger, garlic, chillies, salt, import of dried caterpillars from the DRC to the onions or fermented bamboo shoots are added for extent of 5 tonnes by France and 3 tonnes by taste (Srivastava et al., 2009). Some tribes in India eat Belgium (Johnson, 2010), and wasp foods by Japan fried grasshoppers only with salt or they put insects from Korea, China and New Zealand (Nonaka, in a bamboo pipe for smoking for 3–4 days and eat 2010) has been reported. Thus, business firms them with chillies and salt, and/or mix them with should exploit the export potential of insects as it is rice (Chakravorty, 2009). In Java, grasshoppers being practised for tortillas through the Torti found in rubber and teak plantations or near paddy Mundo Company and Atlanta Bread Company fields are roasted after removing the wings and the International, Inc. in Mexico and the USA, legs. For taste and flavour, seasoning is done with respectively (Munoz, 2008). The stir-fried coconut onion, garlic, chillies and soybean sauce (Lukiwati, rhinoceros beetle grub (known as ‘dunag’ in Thai) is 2010). Japan is one of the major consumers of a delicacy in the Krabi Province, a top tourist grasshoppers (Mitsuhashi, 1997). Whole insects are destination in Thailand (Ratcliffe, 2006). Bugs as a boiled before being cleaned and salted; legs are snack with beer is a popular dish in Laos ground and eaten with groundnut butter and salt. (Boulidam, 2010). Several recipes based on edible Roasting and saute´ing are common methods of insects are now readily available (Gordon, 1998; cooking, after removing the wings and the legs. Ramos-Elorduy, 1998). Seasoning with onions, garlic, cayenne and chillies To attract tourists by improving palatability of peppers, or soybean sauce is done for taste. edible insects, insects can be pounded into baking Candied grasshoppers are a favourite cocktail in powder, which may be appreciated by those who do Japan (Mitsuhashi, 1997). In the off-season, locusts not like to see insects (Cerda et al., 2001). Similarly, and grasshoppers are sun-dried before storage, pounded into powder and eaten with maize flour flavour is one of the essential determinants by in porridge in sub-Saharan Africa (van Huis, 2003). which insects are considered edible (MacEvilly, Mole crickets including the common species 2000). Crickets, silkworm larvae/pupae, ant pupae, Gryllotalpa longipennis (Burm.) (Gryllotalpidae) giant water bug and cicadas cooked with rice and are collected mostly during summer flights or vegetables are now served in local eateries in the from fields of paddy, maize or sugarcane while USA (Gracer, 2010). Also, commercial value ploughing before planting (Chakravorty, 2009; addition is possible by way of new preparations, Chung, 2010). In Thailand, a small hole is such as lollipops with ants, insects as a condiment made in the ground near the nest and water is in modern recipes, feed for chicken and dead poured into it. The crickets come out to the surface insects as decorative items (Fairman, 2010). To and are easily collected by hand (Hanboonsong, incorporate entomophagy in Western diets, insect 2010). Farmers stir-fry the insects without oil clubs are being established in the USA where insects (Chung, 2010). can be sold as food packets along with other food Early morning when crickets rest on grasses items. This venture may be interesting for poor or low tree branches is the ideal time for collection. countries as a new source of family income. In Africa, common species of field crickets Along with insects, eating of spiders is a (Gryllidae) include Acheta spp., Brachytrupes mem- traditional practice in several ethnic groups in branaceus (Drury) and Gryllus bimaculatus DeGeer, northeast India, Papua New Guinea, Australia, which are trapped with baits using fruits (Mbata, New Zealand (Meyer-Rochow, 2005) and central 1995; Seignobos et al., 1996). In the case of Asian African countries (van Huis, 2003). These local dune crickets, Schizodactylus monstrosus (Drury) products, by-products and recipes can be pro- and S. tuberculatus Andre (Schizodactylidae), moted, as opportunities exist for improved packa- adults are collected and put inside a bamboo pipe ging and marketing (Ramos-Elorduy, 1998). Also, and smoked-dried for a week, then crushed into the intellectual property issues are to be applied to powder and mixed with chillies, salt and bamboo insect recipes (Sirimungkarakat et al., 2010). shoots. Otherwise, this powder is taken with rice (2) Locals know which insects are edible as well as or with ‘apung’ (a local drink; Chakravorty, 2009). where and when to find them, and how to catch In the Philippines, crickets are saute´ed in garlic them. Therefore, indigenous people practising and onions and seasoned with soybean sauce, entomophagy should be involved in future projects. vinegar and hot pepper. In some areas, coconut In fact, farming communities are willing to rear
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This may result in and local people who rely on the availability of insects cheap and controlled food production and poor for food. Measures to preserve the edible insects, people can afford it at least in a period of general particularly those which are threatened, are needed. food shortage. For this purpose, research on biodiversity of insects (3) Knowledge of the potential of edible insects is to in forest ecosystems on the basis of traditional be disseminated for new consumers, especially in regulation should be intensified and promoted, urban areas. This gap in information can be filled for instance along the principles practised by the by documentation of rural livelihoods depending Bisa community in northern Zambia (Mbata et al., on entomophagy and traditional knowledge. Also, 2002). Collecting insects by people migrating from ecological knowledge can provide an opportunity neighbouring regions has been reported from Mexico for insect conservation and ultimately food security by Ramos-Elorduy (2008). This practice may no (DeFoliart, 2005). Creating awareness in the Western longer be allowed by adopting a legal code. world that insects are a traditionally and nutrition- Overexploitation has degraded the ecosystems, ally important food for many tribes may increase resulting in unstable abundance of insects (Fer- pride in ethnic roots and traditions, and raise reira, 1995). For the effective management of concern about a healthy environment and overuse insects and forests, Mbata et al. (2002) suggested a of pesticides; and may foster communication among workplan for the preservation of commercial scientists who are interested in the subject. caterpillars in Zambia, namely studying the (4) What is needed is to link forest management ecology and monitoring the population dynamics with insect conservation to facilitate sustainable of these insects on at least 20 tree species, harvesting of wild insect populations because protecting their host plants against late bush entomophagy can make a significant contribution fires, and restricting insect harvesting. Thus, the to insect conservation if insects are substantially mopane caterpillars are now studied to see harvested in conjunction with habitat management, whether more sustainable harvest will result in including biodiversity preservation, which is an enhanced economic stability and conservation important factor for maintaining insect populations becomes stable (Frears, 1995). (DeFoliart, 2005). This strategy can be implemented (5) Forests are preferred for insect harvesting by integrating traditional and ecological knowledge because there is no insecticide use. Their collection that results in economical values (Losey and in established crops or horticultural systems is also Vaughan, 2006; Charnley et al., 2007). Management practical (Banjo et al., 2006a) since insects can be practices for major host plants of edible insects mass-collected by hand and through use of light or should be developed to continuously supply food pheromone traps. By this way, insect populations to them. Wood exploitation from forest areas results are reduced in the crop, and often, curative in reduction in the forest cover (Reid et al., 2004) measures are no longer needed (Hunter, 2004; wherein most of the edible insects live and their DeFoliart, 2005). For example, the egg density of a population density is maintained. An ideal forest grasshopper Sphenarium purpurescens Charpentier management involving the adoption of rotational (Acrididae) in Mexico was lesser in fields where burning, promotion of green vegetation, controlled mechanical picking of insects was practised than in mosaic burning and reduction of insect harvestings those fields with insecticide applications, and hand can enhance insect survival and augmentation. collection of the Bombay locust Patanga succinta L. This policy needs efforts of government depart- (Acrididae) from maize fields reduced pest infesta- ments by way of subsidy or financial incentive for tion levels in Thailand (Boongrid, 2010). In such conservation of natural resources because despite cases, expenses on plant protection are reduced community efforts, there has been degradation in because less quantity of pesticides is needed, and insect resources due to reduction of areas under the risk of soil and water contamination is forests that are being used by tribal communities minimized (Cerritosa and Cano-Santana, 2008). for fuel wood. Therefore, entomophagy may be integrated effec- Insect populations are often diminished due to tively and practically in existing integrated pest commercial exploitation, bush fire, unfavourable management strategies. This possibility, however, climatic factors and attack of natural enemies (Yen, needs to be thoroughly studied before any 2009b). In Mexico, 14 insect species are considered recommendation is made to farmers because
Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. IP address: 170.106.202.226, on 02 Oct 2021 at 18:49:33, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1742758411000257 Insects as human food 137 hand-picking becomes expensive whenever labour storage places or market yards along with the is expensive or not available. harvested crop produce (food grains, vegetables (6) Silkworm pupae contain proteins, peptides and and fruits). Sometimes immature stages (live or amino acids and are generally considered safe for dead) or insect fragments are present since they human consumption (Zhou and Han, 2006). could not be killed or removed in the field or in the However, some insects may be toxic to humans. storage structures. In many instances, insects have Traditional methods are, therefore, used to remove been ground up into tiny pieces in food items. Of the poison before eating (van Huis, 2003). Allergic course, these insects may make food products reactions after consuming silkworm pupae (Liu nutritious and provide some minerals and vita- et al., 2001) or grasshoppers (Vetter, 1995; Srivastava mins, but, again, eating them may pose health et al., 2009), or cocoons of the teak caterpillar hazards. Therefore, precautions are to be followed H. puera (Lukiwati, 2010) have been reported. before eating. Eating poisonous beetles and caterpillars can result (10) The small size of insects makes the collection, in lead poisoning (Phillips and Burkholder, rearing and processing (including removal of all 1995). Similarly, undifferentiated schizophrenia organs containing waste products that may be had been observed in local populations in south poisonous) rather difficult. In the case of large India (Lingeswaran et al., 2009). Poisoning may insects, proper disposal of intestinal contents occur due to misidentification of edible species. For and maintenance of good sanitary conditions in example, eating of a blister beetle (Mylabris phalerata production should be followed (Allotey and Pallas (Coleoptera: Meloidae)), which contains the Mpuchane, 2003) because during harvesting, hand- toxin canthardin, resulted in human death in ling, processing/drying and storage, insects can Thailand (Hanboonsong, 2010). It is speculated come in contact with soil and can be contaminated that excessive consumption of insects with chitin, with pathogenic micro-organisms causing spoilage protein or fat carries a risk of urinary tract stone (Banjo et al., 2006b). Some insects serve as vectors or formation and development of chronic degenera- intermediate hosts for vertebrate pathogens such as tive disease (Yhoung-aree, 2010). As a preventive bacteria, protozoa, viruses and helminths, thereby measure, MacEvilly (2000) suggested that insects increasing the risk of disease transmission to humans. Naturalists and amateurs claim that should not be eaten with nuts or shellfish as both insects consume clean fresh green leaves and so have been shown to trigger allergic responses in contamination is prevented. In reality, edible insects hypersensitive individuals. These assumptions can be contaminated with bacteria, fungi and need further studies to verify and conclude ill pesticide residues. Therefore, food safety guidelines effects of entomophagy. should be available to assist both vendors and (7) Pesticides (insecticides, acaricides, rodenticides, consumers. The food regulatory laws against insect fungicides, herbicides and molluscicides) used in contamination in many countries are in practice, controlling various pests, weeds and plant diseases and foods derived from insects are inspected or of food crops or forest trees can make insects tested and approved as safe food (Mulhane et al., unsuitable for human consumption because their 2001; Ministry of Health, 2003; Zhou, 2004). In the residues are accumulated in the tissue (Capinera, case of defaulters, the Food and Drug Admi- 2004; Chakravorty, 2009). Yet, consumers often eat nistrations take appropriate legal action on this pesticide-contaminated insects without prior matter (Zhou, 2004; Srivastava et al., 2009). knowledge (unintentional entomophagy). In future, (11) When control measures are applied against it would be better if insects are consumed with no or insects, some populations survive. The survivors low pesticide residues, but the challenge will be increase due to adaptation to the local environment how and where to procure pesticide-free insects. and their population, though at a low level, is (8) In the USA and Europe, entomophagy is maintained in the ecosystem. The availability of uncommon and even a taboo in many cultures insects is thus assured to locals. Traditional dishes (Yen, 2009a; Meyer-Rochow, 2009). This cultural that are under threat as new generations imitate the bias against eating insects is still unclear (DeFoliart, Western taste for meat may be brought back in the 1999; Ratcliffe, 2006). On the contrary, in certain mainstream of entomophagy by way of promotion African countries such as Botswana, South Africa by organizing shows, interactive displays, street and Zimbabwe, both animal husbandry and eating plays and exhibitions (Fairman, 2010). To exploit of mopane worms and other insects have co-existed marketing, existing technologies for the processing for centuries. This perspective has to be studied for of edible insects are to be improved and dissemi- long-term economical and ecological benefits, and nated to tribal communities. Insect species with perpetuated by local traditions. high nutritional content ought to be reared with (9) It is impossible to completely eliminate insects modern techniques to increase their commercial from the human food chain, as they are carried in value and availability to consumers. Awareness
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Further, these initiatives would create successful and has become a routine commercial marketing avenues particularly in cities and towns activity. In Thailand, farmers use cement tanks or where product quality, labelling and attractive wooden containers covered with a plastic sheet for packaging are necessary for value addition. cricket farming (Hanboonsong, 2010). A layer of sandy loam soil is added and is covered with dry grasses, bamboo shoots or egg cartons to provide Conservation and collection of insects in nature shade for the crickets. Egg masses are introduced Van Huis (2003) discussed various methods of and containers are covered with nylon nets. An collection and capture of edible insects. Harvesting artificial diet, containing chickfeed along with of insects is often done by women and in some grasses or weeds, and water are provided. After regions, by children, for whom insect farming can 4–6 weeks, adult crickets are ready to be harvested be a low-input sustainable form of agriculture. The (Jamjanya et al., 2001). way of collecting depends on the insects’ behaviour. It is possible that the sale of insects yields more For example, low temperatures in the morning revenue for farmers than millet in the Sahel (van make insects comparatively inactive and catching Huis, 2003), where small-scale production units them is easy; nocturnal insects (termites and with simple techniques of mass rearing can be grasshoppers) can be caught in light traps as they started. If insects are reared or collected in surplus, are attracted to light; artificial breeding sites are preservation by drying can promote cottage useful for attracting palm weevils, whereas crickets industries through remunerative business. Thus, and cicadas can be traced by the sound they make controlled rearing should move from small units to (van Huis, 2003). an industrial phase with adoption of economical Getting a large number of insects in the wild is mass production on a large scale (Hardouin, 1995). often uncertain due to their unpredictable locations Of course, commercialization is hampered by and population density. Research on management taxonomic uncertainty and lack of information on potential of wild edible insects will enhance the biology of certain insects (Yen, 2010). New harvests, ensure sustainability in nature and create research should therefore tackle insect identifi- potential and economic feasibility of mass collection cation, ecology and nutritive value of insect species of promising species by local people who can that have short life cycles, and are thus most eventually contribute to rural food stocks and earn suitable for mass rearing. Recently, low cost their livelihood as demonstrated by Munyuli Bin techniques for mass rearing of edible insects, Mushambanyi (2000) for the brown silkworm including crickets, grasshoppers, ants and the Anaphe infracta Walsingham (Lepidoptera: Noto- giant water bug, have been successfully developed dontidae) in the DRC. Shifting crop cultivation is in China, Korea and Thailand (Kim et al., 2008; Feng another way to improve caterpillar production in et al., 2009; Boulidam, 2010). northern Zambia (Chidumayo and Mbata, 2002). Documentation on edible insects is scattered and not easily available. Compilation of recent research findings on consumption, traditional harvesting Insect mass rearing in captivity at village level and management practices is essential. Promotional Development of economically feasible ways of mass and educational aspects through extension services rearing in closed environments is crucial since most should include assurance of quality and safety of insects are only seasonally available in nature insect products. The World Conservation Monitor- (Callavo et al., 2005; Feng et al., 2009; Sileshi and ing Centre in the UK maintains conservation status Kenis, 2010). Rearing of insects in captivity (cages, of insect species under threat/extinction. Similar potted plants and rooted food plants) at village efforts are needed for edible insects. Developing level can allow a continuous supply rather than protocols for recording data on edible insects and relying on natural harvesting. For example, the establishing a centralized database or a collabora- hepialid caterpillar Wiseana copularis Meyrick tive network can facilitate sharing of information (Lepidoptera: Hepialidae) (Allan et al., 2002) and and exchange of insects and insect products. At the South American palm weevil Rhynchophorus government level, efforts are needed to include palmarum L. (Cerda et al., 2001) can be reared on edible insects in the government policies on food alternative host plants or artificial diets (semi- security, and rural development strategies should synthetic/synthetic). Indoor rearing by farmers of be based on their diversification in agriculture and
Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. IP address: 170.106.202.226, on 02 Oct 2021 at 18:49:33, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1742758411000257 Insects as human food 139 forestry. Establishment of a global bank of edible for food security. A multi-faceted and linked global insects may open new avenues in research and strategy is, therefore, needed to ensure sustainable development, ultimately proving advantageous for and equitable food security (FAO, 2010a), and food security projects. entomophagy can play an inter-disciplinary role Chitin/chitosan comprises 10% of whole dried associated with forestry, traditional medicine, insects, which can be extracted from the host cuticle agriculture and animal husbandry. in a much easier way than that of crustaceous chitin (Duan, 1998). Experiments on the silkworm pupa References have demonstrated the significant value of chitin as a source of fibre and calcium (Zhang et al., 2000; Adalla C. B. and Cervancia C. R. (2010) Philippine Paulino et al., 2006). Thus, protein concentrates from edible insects: a new opportunity to bridge the protein de-chitinized insects can be produced on a large gap of resource-poor families and to manage pests, scale and fed to animals. pp. 151–160. In Forest Insects as Food: Humans Bite Back. Insects are considered as an alternative source of Proceedings of a Workshop on Asia–Pacific Resources and diet not only for space agriculture for eventual Their Potential for Development, 19–21 February 2008, habitation on Mars (Katayama et al., 2005) but also FAO, Chiang-Mai, Thailand (edited by D. B. Durst, D. V. for any close space environment (Mitsuhashi, 2007). Johnson, R. N. Leslie and K. Shono). FAO Regional The aeronautical prospects being bright, insects Office for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok (Publication should be considered as a nutritious food for No. 2010/02). astronauts and as a key to space agriculture Aguilar-Miranda F. D., Lopez M. G., Escamilla-Santana C. (Katayama et al., 2008). For this purpose, rearing and Barba de la Rosa A. P. (2002) Characteristics of techniques for silkworms, termites and flies have maize flour tortilla supplemented with ground been developed and continuous cell-culture sys- Tenebrio molitor larvae. Journal of Agriculture and Food tems have been recently created (Mitsuhashi, 2010). Chemistry 50, 192–195. Among insects used in entomophagy, meal- Akinbode S. O., Dipeolu A. O. and Okuneye P. A. (2011) worms, the house cricket, acridids and the silk- Willingness to pay for street food safety in Ogun state, worm C. forda (Westwood) (Lepidoptera: Nigeria. Journal of Agricultural and Food Information 12, Saturniidae) can be raised as a valuable and cheap 154–166. protein feed for fish and poultry (Ramos-Elorduy Allan R. A., Wang Q., Jimenez-Perez A. and Davis L. K. et al., 2002; Oyegoke et al., 2006; Anand et al., 2008). (2002) Wiseana copularis larvae (Lepidoptera: Hepiali- Farmers also will earn extra income from this dae): laboratory rearing procedure and effect of enterprise. temperature on survival. New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research 45, 71–75. Allotey J. and Mpuchane S. (2003) Utilization of useful Conclusion insects as food source. African Journal of Food, Awareness of entomophagy among consumers and Agriculture, Nutrition and Development 3, 1–8. insect-rearing entrepreneurs is necessary (Nonaka, Anand H., Ganguly A. and Haldou P. (2008) Potential 2005). In some instances, consumers are willing to value of acridids as high protein supplement for pay a premium for the safety of street foods poultry feed. 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