United States Department of Agriculture Draft Environmental Forest Service Impact Statement Pacific Northwest Region The Biscuit Fire Recovery Project October 2003 The Rogue River and Siskiyou National Forests Josephine and Curry Counties, Oregon Volume II - Appendices The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of race, color, national origin, gender, religion, age, disability, political beliefs, sexual orientation, or marital or family status. (Not all prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities who require alternative means for communication of program information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact USDA’s TARGET Center at (202) 720-2600 (voice and TDD). To file a complaint of discrimination, write USDA, Director, Office of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call (202) 720-5964 (voice and TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity provider and employer.

Printed on recycled paper. APPENDIX A

LEARNING OPPORTUNITIES

Plan for a Landscape Management Experiment on Restoring and Protecting Late Successional Forest Habitat after the Biscuit Fire

Appendix A – Learning Opportunities

LEARNING OPPORTUNITIES A large amount of late successional habitat was lost as a result of the Biscuit Fire. There is a high degree of uncertainty about how to restore that type of habitat. Four of the seven alternatives call for setting aside a portion of the Recovery Area to compare different landscape-scale strategies for restoring late successional habitat.

Included in this appendix is the management study plan put forth from the USDA Forest Service Pacific Northwest Research Station that explains the primary method the Forest Service will use to meet the learning need identified in the Biscuit Fire Draft Environmental Impact Statement; “there is a need to learn how to recover from the Biscuit Fire by comparing different management strategies.”

This management study is a 36,000 acre replicated landscape-scale management experiment. It is an attempt to help meet both the resource and adaptive- management goals of the Northwest Forest Plan (1994), and thus it must sometimes balance conflicting resource and learning objectives. Focused on questions facing land managers, the study will be implemented as normal business for the Siskiyou National Forest, with limited support from the Corvallis Forestry Sciences Laboratory and other research organizations. The approach is based on adaptive management concepts, using a parallel-learning model (Bormann et al. 1999).

Appendix A

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE FOREST SERVICE

Pacific Northwest Research Station Plan for a Landscape Management Experiment on Restoring and Protecting Late Successional Forest Habitat After the Biscuit Fire by

B.T. Bormann, R. Darbyshire, R.C. Miller, D.E. White, D.V. Delack , T.K. Link, and R. Fairbanks

______Bernard T. Bormann Team Leader

______Approve: John Laurence Date: ______Program Manager

1 Adaptive Management Strategy In this document, we describe a management study included as part of the draft environmental impact statement (DEIS) for the Biscuit Fire Recovery Project (the DEIS is not included with this peer-review draft of the study plan because it has not been released). The study is the primary method the Forest Service will use to meet the learning need identified in the EIS: “There is a need to learn how to recover from the Biscuit Fire by comparing different management strategies” (DEIS, Chapter I.) This plan is being independently peer-reviewed during the comment period for the draft EIS; copies of the reviews and a reconciliation report will be placed on file at the Forestry Sciences Laboratory, 3200 SW Jefferson Way, Corvallis, OR. Changes responding to the peer review will be included in the final EIS. The management study—contained in three of the DEIS alternatives—is a 36,000-acre, replicated, landscape-scale management experiment. The experiment is large, covering about 7% of the area in the Biscuit Fire perimeter and 23% of the late-successional reserves (the Reserves) in the fire area. The experiment does not include any designated roadless areas. The study is an attempt to help meet both the resource and adaptive-management goals of the Northwest Forest Plan (the Plan, ROD 1994) and thus it must balance sometimes conflicting resource and learning objectives. Focused on questions facing land managers, the study will be implemented as normal business for the Siskiyou National Forest, with limited support from the Corvallis Forestry Sciences Laboratory and other research organizations. Funding for research projects that may help in interpreting the study will also be sought. This approach is based on active adaptive management concepts, using a parallel-learning model (Bormann et al. 1999). The management study differs from a traditional research study in important ways: • The questions have been officially posed by managers (with some input from others), and answers are being sought by comparing alternative pathways applied as part of management. • The study applies some techniques normally reserved for research studies, including a study plan, hypotheses, an experimental design, replication, random allocation of treatments, and peer review. • The alternative pathways are considered "treatments" in a statistical sense, and monitoring is considered as measuring response to treatments. Applied forestry research experiments often focus on constrained effects of single practices; these sets of practices, combined in time and space, are confounded in the chosen design. Confounding is removed when the pathways, rather than individual practices, are considered as the treatments. Cause and effect is difficult to establish in all field ecological research, although qualitative information on management effects is likely, if sufficient emphasis is given to study design (Shrader-Frechette and McCoy 1993). This form of adaptive management—where different approaches are tried at the scale of management—also helps to reduce the risk of large-scale failures, of putting all the eggs in one basket. This type of management diversification and associated learning is based on concepts of options forestry (Bormann and Kiester, in review). The Biscuit Fire recovery DEIS and experiment follows the approach implemented in the Five Rivers watershed (ROD 2003) on the Siuslaw National Forest (www.fsl.orst.edu/5rivers).

2 Background—knowns and unknowns The western Siskiyou Mountains of southern Oregon have fire-adapted forests with fire-return intervals estimated at 30 to 115 years (LRMP 1989; Agee 1991, 1993; LSRA 1995). Fire-exclusion policies are generally thought to have led to dense stands of trees, large fuel accumulations, and ladder fuels— increasing the potential for severe, uncontrollable, and expensive wildfires (Neuenschwander et al. 2000). Many fire cycles are thought to have been missed in forests at lower elevations and in those the eastern part of the fire area. The western third of the area is thought, however, not to have missed a fire cycle, even with fire suppression. Fire behavior is highly complex because of the many interacting factors controlling it, including, ignitions; weather; fuel moisture, types, and distribution; terrain; and access. Planning for the next fire based on what happened in the last fire, therefore, would be a mistake because each fire is unique in many ways. For example, the behavior of the Biscuit Fire was quite different from what happened in the 1987 Silver Fire. Besides the Biscuit Fire’s immense size, its rate of spread was frighteningly faster than thought possible. On July 30 and 31, it moved as fast as 1.5 miles an hour through the wilderness in 2 days, a distance that took the Silver Fire about 2 weeks. The intensity was quite low in some places but also extreme in others, with evidence of sustained superheated gases (over 660°C) affecting extensive areas—based on melting of aluminum tags across 2-ha long-term ecosystem productivity plots (www.fsl.orst.edu/ ltep/Biscuit/Biscuit_files/frame.htm; see Initial results slide). Severe fires are thought to have large environmental consequences, and they can clearly endanger communities and fire fighters. Effects include mortality of large and small trees, plants, animals, and microbes; losses of seed sources; degraded late-successional habitat; changes in water infiltration; erosion and losses of nutrients through volatilization and leaching (Raison et al. 1985, Brown and DeBoyle 1987, DeBano et al. 1998). Quantifying severe fire effects has been hampered by lack of pre-fire data. Recovery of biotic regulation after fires likely depends on the speed that surviving fungi, root sprouts, seed and spore banks, and invaders recolonize. Sprouting evergreen hardwood trees and shrubs—for example, tanoak and madrone—may play a critical role in maintaining ecto- and VA- mycorrhizal inoculum, important for re-establishing many shrubs and trees (Amaranthus and Trappe 1993, van der Heijden et al. 1998). Hardwoods may also play an important role in absorbing water and nutrients from deep soil and bedrock (Zwieniecki and Newton 1994). Ceanothus, a symbiotic nitrogen-fixing shrub, may play a key role in restoring nitrogen and carbon in the soil. These legacies, along with charred logs and snags, will likely speed long-term ecosystem development after the fire (Perry 1994). In contrast, experience with conifer regeneration in southwestern Oregon suggests that sprouting hardwoods hinder development of the large conifers needed for late-successional habitat. Although fire prepares the site for conifer regeneration, hardwoods can dominate and persist without conifer seed sources (Helms and Tappenier 1995) or reduce the growth of planted conifers (Harrington and Tappeiner 1997) by as much as 45% (Atzet et al. 1992), especially after a planting delay (Helgerson et al. 1992). Achieving a minimum number of 10 large trees per acre—needed to meet late- succession standards—will likely be initially slowed by shrub competition, but long-term reversal of effects is also possible. Further, the role of hardwoods in fire propagation is uncertain: they appear to act as fuel ladders under some conditions but are reported to reduce severity in others (Perry 1994). The shrub-dominated area resulting from the Silver Fire in the wilderness may have reburned at lower intensity in the Biscuit Fire than conifer-dominated areas (Sessions et al. unpublished, fig. 1).

3

Figure 1. Canopy mortality based on aerial-photo interpretations. Note the lower mortality inside the wilderness where the Silver Fire burned in 1987, and the scale of variation in the northeast sector.

4 Managing wildfire-affected land to recover previous objectives is also uncertain. What happens when dead trees are removed is not clear (McIvar and Starr 2000). Although large burned snags do not contribute much to the fuel load, they may hinder firefighting and might help spread burning embers in future fires (Sessions et al. unpublished). Alternatively, snags may provide some shade for regenerating plants and may benefit aquatic systems in the long term, when added to streams by landslides (Reeves et al. 1995). The effectiveness of thinning and mechanical-fuels-reduction treatments is also uncertain, largely because of a lack of rigorous evidence from experimental studies (Carey and Schumann 2003). Recovery from the Biscuit Fire must address emerging questions: for example, Is regeneration harvesting feasible here, given the apparently frequent and severe fires that destroy most of the clearcut-origin plantations before they become fire resistant? and Can an extensive late- successional forest ever be achieved here? These questions suggest the extent of uncertainties awaiting those who will decide how to move forward. Perhaps the most important emerging lesson is, that people tend to be overly optimistic in predicting when and where fires will start, what their ultimate extent will be, and how they affect the landscape. People are also likely to be overly optimistic about knowing how to manage for future fires. Such high uncertainty—where no two fires are likely to be similar—justifies trying a range of approaches because no one is likely know in advance what approach will work and what will not.

Learning Design Questions for this management study Many questions could be asked and answers sought by implementing the Biscuit recovery project. Managing matrix lands might focus on alternative silvicultural methods to redevelop timber-producing stands, as has been proposed in the Timbered Rock Fire DEIS (Anderson et al. in press). About 60% of the known spotted-owl home ranges were destroyed or degraded by the Biscuit Fire (BPFA 2003). Because the Siskiyou Reserves are an important part of the Plan’s late-successional habitat network, we chose to meet the learning need with a study focused on how to restore and protect late-successional habitat. This learning need is restated in two questions to be answered by creating and comparing a set of management pathways, all geared to achieve late-successional habitat and meet other resource needs, where possible: • Can late-successional habitat be restored and protected by managing in more than one way in the Reserves (not designated as roadless) burned in the Biscuit Fire? • How fast will various management pathways, and their interactions with natural disturbances, achieve late-succession conditions? Selecting an experimental design We sought an experimental design to best answer these questions. Comments received by the Forest, in response to public outreach (will reference the EIS section), showed that people hold widely divergent views on how to respond to the fire, and some of the same differences are found among specialists inside the Forest Service. An initial set of EIS alternatives—including no action, as required by NEPA—were developed to reflect this diversity of opinion and, at the same time, to legitimately seek to meet management objectives.

5 Some of these initial alternatives were developed into three experimental treatments or management pathways (described in more detail later and in the DEIS): o Pathway A. Manage by salvaging many of the dead trees, reducing fuels in managed areas (may include broadcast and pile burning and lop and scatter), and planting and managing conifers to grow quickly. o Pathway B. Manage by promoting natural recovery processes, planting where seed sources are more than 0.1 miles away, and adding 200-ft fuels-management zones around the unit perimeters, with limited prescribed burning near these zones. o Pathway C. Manage by re-establishing landscape-scale, low-intensity fire (mostly on south-facing slopes); salvaging dead trees only in severely burned areas; and adding 400- ft fuels-management zones around the unit perimeters. The treatments chosen by the EIS team reflect the diverse opinions of what the Forest considers legitimate approaches to achieving the goals of the Northwest Forest Plan for the Biscuit recovery area. A no-action experimental treatment was specifically excluded as a treatment because no action is unlikely to meet project needs in the roaded Reserves. Although some researchers may define no action as a needed control, we think a design that compares three pathways will yield useful and appropriate comparisons. Those interested in the effects of no action may be able to study areas in the Wilderness or other unmanaged areas. They will be able to compare these effects to that found in the managed Reserves, but these comparisons will fail to yield much convincing evidence, because experimental rigor would be lacking. The inherent variability of soils, vegetation, past management, and fire effects requires a minimum of four replications to have a reasonable chance of detecting differences between three treatments. The target design of 3 treatments and 4 replicates was set, requiring 12 experimental units. Selecting experimental units We selected experimental units from the roaded Reserves (excluding those designated as roadless) inside the Biscuit-fire perimeter to best answer the primary question. The major area of roaded Reserves is found in the northeast sector of the Forest, including some BLM land. We developed a system selecting potential experimental units in this area, and then grouping them, based on an analysis of their similarity. First, 16 potential experimental units were selected (fig. 2) based on four factors: • A size of about 3000 acres; • Inside or outside the Silver Fire boundary; • No areas with serpentine-adapted or high-elevation plant associations; and • Boundaries that followed 7th-field watershed lines, where possible. The experimental-unit size of 3000 acres was based on an analysis of the scale of the patterns in tree mortality (topkill) in the northeast sector of the Biscuit Fire (fig. 1). By superimposing section lines on the topkill map, about 4 or 5 sections (2500-3200 acres) must be combined before the average percent topkill for the group of sections reflected what generally happened in this area. Larger areas would be needed to set up units in other parts of the fire. Further analysis suggested that areas burned by the Silver and then the Biscuit Fire were likely different from

6 Figure 2. The 16 areas considered in the similarity analysis and those rejected (X). The table below has percent area with late-successional and other characteristics and the rational for blocking the units.

Roadless late- successional reserve

Biscuit Fire Silver Fire perimeter perimeter

Kalmiopsis Wilderness

7 8% 14% 78% 0% 0% 54% Fishhook A Silver Fire; low habitat potential; 11 8% 21% 71% 0% 0% 82% Fishhook few roads; non-matrix; low B elevation veg.; non-BLM. 12 2% 9% 89% 0% 1% 79% Fishhook C

1 43% 22% 34% 2% 0% 0% Sourgrass C Non-Silver; highest habitat 3 37% 21% 42% 1% 0% 7% Sourgrass potential; many roads; non-matrix; A non-serpentine; 1 BLM unit 4 20% 39% 39% 6% 0% 8% Sourgrass B

2 24% 30% 46% 4% 0% 7% Hobson Non-Silver; moderate habitat C potential; many roads; non-matrix; 9 9% 19% 71% 2% 5% 10% Hobson A minor high elev. serpentine veg.; 1 10 13% 33% 54% 1% 1% 0% Hobson BLM unit. B

14 7% 30% 63% 0% 2% 17% Briggs C Non-Silver; moderate to low 15 16% 35% 49% 0% 1% 13% Briggs habitat potential; many roads; B non-matrix; minor serpentine. 16 13% 29% 57% 3% 2% 3% Briggs A

5 14% 26% 60% 0% 12% 0% Rejected Matrix

6 17% 23% 60% 2% 2% 52% Rejected Poor fit: in Silver

8 15% 27% 57% 0% 0% 74% Rejected Poor fit: in Silver

13 4% 26% 70% 1% 22% 0% Rejected Poor fit: low live habitat, matrix

7 areas burned in the Biscuit Fire alone, so these areas were kept separate. Because serpentinite soils cannot produce desired late-successional conditions and high-elevation plant associations were considered to be substantially different, these areas were excluded from the experiment, as much as possible. Finally, experimental-unit boundaries were chosen along 7th-field watershed lines where building fuels-management zones was deemed feasible. Similarity analysis methods A similarity analysis was developed to discard the most dissimilar 4 (of 16) units, leaving 12 for the experiment; and to block remaining units into groups of 3. One purpose of blocking units into similar groups is to remove variation in initial conditions as much as possible. When results from different management pathways are compared (after some years of monitoring), we want to increase our confidence that the differences result from the treatments and not initial conditions. This confidence is further buoyed by having multiple blocks or replicates. In essence, this experimental approach gains statistical power for inference about treatment differences by limiting variation in initial conditions and effects of other factors not under control of managers. We selected a set of five variables to determine similarity, listed below in priority order along with our reasoning. Similarity analysis variables What is the potential for rapidly achieving late-successional conditions? We chose potential for speedy development of late-successional habitat as the primary variable on which similarity would be based, given the principal management objective of restoring and protecting forests in the Reserves. Three variables chosen to represent this potential were based on a vegetation- change, remote-sensing analysis (before and after satellite images representing active transpiration; will refer to EIS section) combined with pre-fire tree size and canopy closure data: • Percent area of stands with surviving large conifers, greater than 21-inch average DBH, and >40% crown cover (live habitat)—units with more live habitat were thought to have the highest late-successional-habitat potential; • Percent area of stands with at least some habitat potential such as live, medium-sized conifers or larger trees that were more open (inocula)—units with more inocula were thought to have intermediate habitat potential through faster reestablishment of known and unknown elements of late-successional forest; and • Percent area of stands with little or no surviving conifers other than trees less than 9 inches DBH (small or burnt)—units dominated by small or burnt stands were assumed to have the lowest potential. Will helicopter yarding be needed? Cable yarding of dead trees is usually possible when stands are within 2000 ft of a road; beyond this distance, harvest by helicopter is the only choice. Similarity in area of the 2000-ft road buffer in a unit was thought to be the second most important consideration because of the potential economic and ecological effects of different yarding methods. Will matrix-designated areas be included? To choose a large set of potential experimental units of around 3000 acres each, some units were selected that had substantial areas designated as matrix. Initially, the early stages of restoration and recovery were thought to be similar enough that these areas could be included as part of the experiment. Over the long term,

8 however, prescriptions would likely deviate, and excluding these areas would benefit the experiment. What proportion is in serpentine and high-elevation plant associations? Plant associations were analyzed to confirm that serpentine and high-elevation associations did not dominate selected units. Groups of plant associations were defined: serpentine-adapted, high-elevation, and all remaining associations. The variables used were percentage of area in a unit with the various association groups. Are the areas managed by the BLM or the Forest Service? A last similarity variable, management by the BLM or Forest Service, was chosen because the agencies past practices have differed somewhat; we thought mixing units with different management histories should be avoided, if possible. Grouping units based on the similarity analysis Units were blocked of into similar groups, as follows: • Units burned by the Silver Fire were examined first. The three most similar, in proportional area with live habitat, were obviously grouped (fig. 2), allowing us to discard the other two Silver Fire units. This grouping also fits well with area far from roads (needing helicopter yarding) and areas of specialized vegetation types. The name given this group is Fishhook. • Remaining units not burned in the Silver Fire were arrayed from the smallest to largest small or burnt (opposite of live habitat plus inocula), and a group of three units was obvious: those units with the highest live habitat. This group has no serpentine vegetation and few areas requiring helicopter yarding. The name given this group is Sourgrass. • In the remaining 8 units, we next sought two groups of three similar units. Many of these units appeared roughly similar, and we chose to discard the two units with substantial matrix designation. • Several ways to group the remaining six units were explored. Because none of these appeared to be better than any others, the final selection considered proximity. The names given these groups are Briggs and Hobson. Blocks were exposed to several other tests before being adopted. The feasibility of building fuels-management zones was checked in more detail, and all selected units passed. A GIS layer with projected salvageable timber was also examined to see if major differences existed within the groups. Most groups had similar proportions of areas with salvageable timber, although some moderate variation was noted in the Hobson block. Finally, a coverage was developed that showed areas where underburning was more feasible and desirable (roughly south-aspects). The proportion of units in south aspects ranged from about one third to two thirds. The variation in all of these additional variables was deemed acceptable, and the final grouping was officially adopted (table in fig. 2).

9 Assigning treatments randomly In the last step, we randomly assigned treatments to the three similar units within each block (fig. 3). Random assignment of a treatment within blocks (groups of similar experimental units) is also needed to increase confidence in how treatment responses are interpreted. This step eliminates any overt or inadvertent attempt to bias the results by placing a preferred treatment in the presumed best place (or the reverse). Alternate Pathways to Restoring and Protecting the Reserves (Experimental Treatments) The Biscuit EIS team developed three pathways to meeting resource needs identified in chapter 1 (of the DEIS), based on public comments on the assessment (BPFA 2003) and from their expertise, experience, and understanding of the applicability of available science. These pathways (treatments) are described briefly and—to help design a monitoring strategy—a discussion of their uncertainties is included for each pathway. The pathways represent legitimate strategies for meeting, or are otherwise consistent with, the 7 stated resource objectives: provide commercial wood products, protect firefighters and communities, protect late-successional habitat from high severity fire, restore and plant and animal habitat, reforest conifers stands, restore water quality and fish habitat, and learn by comparing different strategies. From the perspective of the quality of the comparison and resulting conclusions, the treatments must be different enough that their effects will become detectable fairly quickly. The pathways were developed both to explore different ways to restore and protect late-successional habitat in the Reserves, and to avoid putting “all the eggs in one basket,” given the high uncertainties in how to achieve these goals. We expect each pathway will have positive and negative effects—and also unexpected effects; that will likely change through time. Inferences from these comparisons will be far stronger than if a single pathway or no design was chosen. Pathways are described and analyzed in more detail in the DEIS. Pathway A This pathway is based on a hands-on philosophy that emphasizes salvaging dead trees, treating fuels created by management activities, replanting, and stand culturing to produce large conifers quickly. Salvage would occur where assumed to be beneficial to late-successional-habitat objectives and economically feasible (within 2 miles of a road in areas where pre-fire crown closure was greater than 40% and the post-fire crown closure was less than 40%). Standing-dead and downed trees would be left in accordance with the Siskiyou Forest Plan to accelerate developing the conditions needed for species that depend on late-successional forests (large downed wood, snags). Fuels management would focus on treating fuels created during management actions, including broadcast and pile burning and lop and scatter, as needed. Unlike the other two pathways, fuels-management zones are not included because of the widespread fuels reduction across the units. Salvaged areas would be replanted and intensively cultured (through control of competing vegetation) to produce large-diameter conifers as quickly as possible. Although the pathway is largely modeled after aspects of the Sessions et al. (unpublished) report, control of competing vegetation with herbicides, if necessary, would require writing a separate NEPA document. Burned plantations within 2 miles of a road would have site preparation, if needed, and would be followed by planting and culturing to produce large-diameter conifers as quickly as possible. Other recovery activities (riparian planting, meadow restoration, oak woodland and savannah restoration, Port-Orford-cedar planting, road

10 Figure 3. Experimental layout with 3 treatments randomly assigned within 4 initially similar blocks, with Block 2: different habitat potential and Sourgrass C2 high habitat fire history. potential Sourgrass A2

son C3 b Ho Sourgrass B2

Hobson B3 Hobson A3

1 A k o 1 ho h B s k o Block 3: Fi o h h med habitat is F potential Block 1: Biscuit Fire Silver + low perimeter habitat potential

Fishhook C1

Silver Fire perimeter Briggs C4

Briggs B3

Block 4: low habitat potential Experimental treatments

A: Salvage and replant Briggs A4 B: Natural recovery

C: Underburning focus

11 decommissioning, culvert replacement, and so on) would be handled case by case in the areas receiving this treatment. Uncertainties with pathway A include these questions: o Will removing standing dead trees influence future landscape fire behavior? o Will planted Douglas-firs grow fast enough to survive a low to medium intensity fire? o Will control of competing vegetation (primarily evergreen hardwoods) promote or hinder future fires and development of late-successional habitat? o Will planted stands take on late-successional characteristics from adjacent lightly burned forest? o Will unit-based fuels management increase the effectiveness of future fire suppression efforts? Pathway B This pathway is based on a philosophy emphasizing aided natural recovery in the Reserves, partly modeled after the Beschta et al. (unpublished) report. Replanting would be limited to areas farther than 0.1 mile from a known conifer seed source. Dead trees will not be salvaged. Fuels will not be managed except in 200-ft fuels-management zones around their perimeter to help control and fight future fires. Prescribed fire will be limited to these zones. This treatment is essential to compare more- and less-intensive management interventions, so any differences that emerge can be rigorously ascribed to the treatment and not to pre-existing conditions. Other recovery activities (riparian planting, meadow restoration, oak woodland and savannah restoration, Port-Orford-cedar planting, road decommissioning, culvert replacement, and so on) would be handled case by case within the areas receiving this treatment. Uncertainties with pathway B include these questions: o Will retained standing dead trees influence future fire behavior? o Will competing plants shade out naturally regenerating conifers or facilitate their establishment (though slowing their initial growth)? o Will competing pioneer and sprouting plants replace more lost soil organic matter and nutrients than would conifers? o Will naturally regenerating landscapes be more—or less—susceptible to future fires? Pathway C This pathway is based on a hands-on philosophy emphasizing reintroducing landscape-scale, low-intensity fire; salvaging dead trees only on severely burned sites; replanting conifers and reducing fuels to restore and protect late-successional habitat. Treatment C differs from A by using prescribed fire at a landscape scale and by limiting salvage to 1 mile from a road and stands with high mortality; leave trees and down wood would be the same as for treatment A. Fire-resistant pines (mostly ponderosa and sugar), rather than Douglas-fir will be planted on most southern exposures, and fire reintroduced only after these trees are large enough to withstand it. Low-intensity, prescribed fires would be repeated on southerly exposures about every 10 years to keep fuels low to help stop future wildfires like Biscuit. Other recovery activities (riparian planting, meadow restoration, oak woodland and savannah restoration, Port- Orford-cedar planting, road decommissioning, culvert replacement, and so on) would be handled on a case by case basis within the areas receiving this treatment. Fuels-management zones

12 (modeled after Agee et al. 2000) 400 ft. wide, will be created to contain landscape-scale underburning and facilitate fighting of future wildfires. Uncertainties with pathway C include these questions: o Will the intermediate extent of salvaging of dead trees influence future fire behavior? o Will prescribed fire behave as expected or accidentally burn adjacent unintended areas? o Will the landscape underburned (south-facing slopes) with pines stop the advance of another large fire? o Will repeated underburning further reduce soil organic matter and nutrients? An important question in any experimental design is the extent to which treatments will affect the experimental units and be different from one another. Management on burned sites in the Reserves will not cover entire units; they will be highly focused on the areas intensively affected by the fire or perceived to need management to reduce future catastrophic fire (table 1). The EIS team was able to plan activities that are fairly consistent with pathway philosophies; for example, the A treatments average 0; B, 6; and C, 25% of the area taken up by fuels- management zones. Decadal landscape burning will be applied only on treatment C, and these acres are consistently larger than the perimeter burning on treatment B. The proportion of area salvaged is higher in treatment A than C, and is consistent by block. Perimeter burning near the Biscuit Fire perimeter, is less consistent. Units B1 and B3 have small or no Biscuit perimeter. Perimeter burning is thought to be needed as protection for private lands in adjacent unburned forest. Further adjustments in proportions will be possible before the final EIS is released. Table 1. Proportion of the about 3000 acres in each unit affected by management activities; blocks of similar units are 1: Fishook (burned in the Silver Fire), 2: Sourgrass, 3: Hobson, and 4: Briggs (fig. 3)

Pathway A Pathway B Pathway C Management Hands-on salvage and Aided natural recovery Hands-on underburning, activity replant focus focus and salvage focus A1 A2 A3 A4 B1 B2 B3 B4 C1 C2 C3 C4 Fuels-manage- a 0% 0% 0% 0% 3% 9% <1% 10% 12% 22% 36% 28% ment zones Perimeter 0% 0% 0% 0% 0%b 27% 4% 20%c 0% 0% 0% 0% burning Landscape 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 15%d 72% 38% 80% burning Salvage com- 9% 11% 44% 40% 0% 0% 0% 0% <1% 4% 14% 34% bined types aMore zones are likely to be added in the final EIS to make this unit more like the others. bNo Biscuit perimeter is in this Silver Fire unit. cProportional area of perimeter fire does not match areas listed in the DEIS; changes will be made in the final EIS. dLandscape burning might be increased to up to 30% on this unit, given the terrain limitations.

13 Monitoring Deriving variables to be monitored The learning objective can be met only if monitoring of the landscape experiment can demonstrate successes or failures of these pathways. We start by focusing on the question at hand: Can late- successional habitat be restored and protected in more than one way by managing differently in burned portions of the Reserves? Variables to be monitored are specified (tables 2a and 2b). The most direct measure of success is how known late-successional-dependent species respond to different treatments. Because spotted owls have a home range of about 2000 acres, connecting their behavior to treated 3000-acre units will be limited (Pers. Comm., Eric Forsman). This experiment has sufficient scale to monitor owl prey and changes in habitat thought critical to owl survival at the landscape scale—few other studies can do this. Variables indicating these changes include trajectories in tree sizes and density, stand and landscape structural diversity, plant and animal diversity and abundance, and fundamental changes in long-term soil productivity (tables 2a and 2b). Variables to help understand how well the experimental units are being protected from fire can also be derived. Measures of changes in live and dead fuels and their distribution could be compiled into fire-risk models (for example, Finney 1988) so that hypothesized risks could be stated. Ultimately, future fire behavior in the experimental units will teach us how well the different strategies and models worked. Other effects, secondary to the study questions, need to be monitored as well. For example effects of different pathways on aquatic conservation and social and economic values are also needed to inform future decisions. Variables could include practicality and costs of various management activities, benefits to the local economy, public perceptions, and effectiveness of learning strategies. Monitoring recovery A three-pronged monitoring strategy is proposed to fully meet the learning need (tables 2a and 2b). We first identify a minimum set of variables that the Forest can currently commit to, pending selection of an alternative containing the experiment (column 1). The Forest would start by repeating the southwestern Oregon late-successional-reserve assessment (LSRA 1995). The assessment would be based on existing data on habitat quantity, quality, distribution, established needs of sensitive species and risks of disturbances. The Forest would then establish permanent—but otherwise standard—plots on treated and untreated areas in each unit to supplement existing ecology, inventory, and other plots. Permanent plots or transects will use existing stand-exam, fuel survey, ecology, plant association, insect and disease, and inventory protocols, combining them in the same location where feasible. The Forest commits to establishing a minimum (perhaps 10 plots) in each experimental unit, representing both managed and unmanaged areas (120 plots total). Initial condition of areas within units will be classified with remote sensing of aerial photos and satellite before- and after-fire images, and all classes will be monitored to some extent. Although many of the measurements will be taken on stand-scale permanent plots, plots will be drawn from a population of stands in the entire experimental unit. Relatively more plots will be assigned to treated portions of the units to concentrate on direct management effects. Given the 3000-acres in these units, a special emphasis will be placed on extending plot responses to the entire unit with remote sensing and GIS. The Forest will constantly seek to reduce monitoring costs as these technologies continue to evolve. A second set of monitoring variables is identified that goes beyond typical Forest monitoring, and would require additional support (column 2). If Forest employees directly participate in monitoring these variables—rather than contracting it to researchers or others—we expect more rapid spread of what was learned into future practices. Having researchers from various research institutions

14 Table 2a. Monitoring plan for assessing pretreatment conditions and effects of pathways on restoring late-successional habitat across the landscape-scale experimental units, with Forest commitments and potential commitments and research 1. Commitment of the 2. Potential Forest commitment, 3. Potential research commitment, Focus Siskiyou National Forest given additional funding given additional funding Increasing Make all historical and current data available Digitize all historical air photos and Coordinate ongoing research and understanding of to researchers and others. Government Land Office records and make retrospectively study the context leading to the Biscuit Fire’s into GIS layers (about $50k). observed effects of the fire—as pretreatment behavior and data for the experiment ($100 to $1000k)a. effects Restoring Monitor species, growth trajectory of Extend the sampling to years 5 and 10, and Study the relative effects of competing habitat—trees dominant trees, and stand structure with every 10 years thereafter; expand the sample understory species on growth of planted and and stand standard exams. Use permanent plotsb size of permanent plots to speed the detection residual conifers (see Tiller Fire study plan). structure monitored at years 0, 1, and 3 years after the of differences between pathways (about $100k pathways are established and remote sensing per experiment per sample period). to draw inferences on unit responses. Restoring Monitor size and numbers per acre of burned Monitor effect of shade from snags on planted Study decomposition of, and bark-beetle and habitat—snags and insect-created snags and logs with and natural tree seedlings (about $15k). cavity nesting responses to, woody debris and coarse standard exams and remote sensing (unknown including pheromone trapping; study effects of woody debris cost). logs on erosion (unknown cost). Restoring Track changes in amount and distribution of Establish unit-sized areas outside the fire Study the effects of proximity to old-growth habitat— “patches,” including seral stages, interior boundary and in unmanaged areas to track inocula (scattered “legacy” trees and landscape habitat, structure, canopy density, and layering changes in landscape patterns qualitatively structures) compared to proximity to unburned patterns from air-photo interpretations (LSRA 1995). compared to experimental units (about $100k). large-tree stands (unknown cost). Restoring Monitor plant biodiversity and exotic weeds Expand the sample size to evaluate effects on Study the ecology of pioneer, fire-adapted, habitat— on permanent plots and use sampling and rare species (about $50k). exotic, and rare and endangered plant species plants remote sensing to infer unit responses (about 50k). (unknown cost). Restoring Monitor animals directly to meet sale-layout Track changes in behavior and reproductive Study changes in neotropical bird populations; habitat— requirements. success of known spotted owl pairs, prey and early-succession-related species (elk, deer, animals bases, and owl predators after major losses of bears; unknown cost). habitat, repeat every 10 yrs (about $75k). Restoring LS Monitor soils directly only to meet sale-layout Monitor erosion and establish a soil-sampling Study nutrient and organic-matter dynamics, habitat—soil requirements, and track changes in site index grid (following long-term ecosystem especially nitrogen fixers and rock weathering productivity with a database of all previous georeferenced productivity protocols—www.fsl.orst.edu/ltep) via deep rooting, mycorrhizae of pioneer and site-index measures (unknown cost). on burned and unburned stands with and fire-adapted plants, and changes in water- without brush-control (about $75k). holding capacity (about $75k). a Includes synthesis of ongoing federally sponsored research on the Forest ecology and inventory plots and the long-term ecosystem productivity experiment, with new analyses of available data. bSee text for description of permanent plots.

15 Table 2b. Monitoring plan to assess protecting late-successional habitat and other pathway effects, with Forest commitments and potential commitments and research Commitment of the Potential Forest commitment, Potential Research commitment, Focus Siskiyou National Forest given additional funding given additional funding Protecting Monitor dead fuels on permanent Brown line Monitor dead fuels on permanent Brown line habitat through transects with traditional size-classes in treated transects with traditional size-classes in time—dead fuels areas (unknown cost). untreated areas (about $25k). Protecting Monitor vertical distribution of live fuels on Monitor vertical distribution of live fuels on habitat through permanent plots in treated areas and use permanent plots in treated areas (about $25k) time—live fuels sampling and remote sensing to infer unit responses (unknown cost). Protecting Run fire models (fuels, resistance to control, Test fire models with data existing before the habitat through and potential fire behavior) to predict fire risks Biscuit Fire (unknown cost). time—risks (unknown cost). Protecting Evaluate how future wild and prescribed fires Study intensity, duration, and containment of Examine effects of prescribed fire on the habitat through actually behave through different pathways prescribed fires in pathway C to modify trajectory for restoring and protecting habitat time—future and units (unknown cost). techniques for subsequent trials (unknown (unknown cost). fires cost). Forest Record costs and benefits associated with Analyze costs and benefits in current and management management and monitoring (unknown cost). potential future market environments using costs and monetary and nonmonetary units (unknown benefits cost). Other important Monitor riparian habitat and organisms to Monitor changes in pools, riffles, large woody effects—aquatic meet sale-layout requirements (unknown cost). debris, using the method of Hankin and conservation Reeves (1988), and monitor population size and species composition, using a level II survey by OR Department of Fish and Wildlife (unknown cost). Other important Analyze available aerial photos (every 5 years Develop an aquatic conservation element to Study and model the interactions of effects— or less) for large landslides, document them on the experiment, by applying different topography, salvage, and replanting on the landslides the ground, and compare them to predicted treatments to different pathways on upland potential for landslides thought to improve danger-class and proximity to stand and road areas that have potential to contribute wood long-term stream habitat; compare to actual management (unknown cost). and sediment to streams (could possibly add to landslides (unknown cost). final EIS; unknown cost). Other important Maintain a database with public comments Build interpretive trails into representative Conduct surveys of people, including those effects—social relating to the experiment (unknown cost). parts of each management pathway (would walking interpretive trails built into each of the perceptions require changes to the final EIS or a new three pathways (unknown cost). NEPA document; unknown cost).

16 conduct studies in the third set (column 3) will increase understanding about what can be learned with confidence from the Biscuit Fire, and improve interpretation of the experiment through studies of the ecosystem processes underlying pre- and post-fire forest development and future fire behavior. This three-pronged strategy is designed to yield mutual benefit and cohesiveness in a long-lasting management-research partnership. Interpreting results If the management experiment shows more than one pathway achieves management objectives, the experiment can be thought of as a success. It would succeed because convincing evidence of no difference between pathways would allow managers more latitude in future decisions—for example, to meet secondary goals previously thought to be incompatible with primary goals. The interpretation therefore needs to focus on whether the conclusion of no difference is supported by the data, or whether it results from chance (type II error). Even if solid conclusions are clearly supported by data, further caution will be needed. Many processes play out over time, and changes in the ordering of treatments have repeatedly been seen in long-term experiments (Silen and Olsen 1982). Interim conclusions can be helpful as long as these caveats are kept in mind. We propose to compile a database of expectations (hypotheses), with expected results from a wide diversity of viewpoints. This hypothesis database will be used as a yardstick for results as they come in. A few initial ideas reflecting the authors’ perspectives are listed as a start (table 3). Different expectations should be easy to find, given the high uncertainty—the experiment seeks to confront all of these expectations with the unfolding landscape reality. Funding monitoring The learning objective can be met only if the treatments are adequately implemented and monitored, which requires a commitment of resources and people. Most federal funding is annual and cannot easily be committed to long-term goals. The new stewardship contracting rules may be the best approach to maintaining a long-term commitment to maintaining the treatments and monitoring over time. If the study is properly implemented but no monitoring follows, it still may be valuable. In the past, abandoned studies have proved valuable as long as they can be relocated and remeasured. We view the retrospective synthesis as a critical background context for the study and to extract lessons immediately from the Biscuit Fire experience, but research funding is outside Forest control. A science-assistance team will be needed to coordinate federally sponsored research and to continue to maintain the independence and integrity of the experiment as it unfolds. Funding for an annual meeting of this team to oversee monitoring and to coordinate retrospective research on the Biscuit Fire would greatly increase how much we can learn from it. Even when learning is added as an objective of forest managers on par with other resource objectives (as identified in the DEIS), special emphasis is needed to overcome tradition. Experience with adaptive management under the Northwest Forest Plan has so far failed to live up to expectations (Stankey et al. 2003). The strategies used in the Biscuit Fire recovery project seek to change this trend.

17 Table 3. Simplified expectations of the effects of pathways A, B, and C on restoring and protecting late-successional habitat under the Northwest Forest Plan

Pathway A: hands-on Pathway B: aided natural Pathway C: hands-on Result salvage and replant focus recovery focus underburning focus Restoring late-successional habitat Attain large Faster when all fires are Slower initially but may Faster with a high intensity diameter of controlled in the next 60 catch up in the long term, if fire before 60 years, dominant years; slower otherwise high intensity fires controlled otherwise intermediate conifers Least because of faster Most because of more Maintain plant Intermediate, with or without shade-out of shrubs, if fires variety in disturbance diversity fire are controlled patterns and planted pines Faster after subsequent More likely to have single Have multiple thinning, if medium and layer where conifers shade Intermediate canopy layers intense fires are controlled out competitors Slower initially because of Attain 10 Faster, if all fires are less planting but not hugely conifers per controlled in the next 60 Intermediate different because of natural acre years; slower otherwise regeneration No difference in the Plan’s No difference in the Plan’s No difference in the Plan’s minimum number per acre, minimum number per acre , minimum number per acre , Snags less shade for emerging higher shade for emerging intermediate shade for plants plants emerging plants More in near term by felling More in the long run as Intermediate near term and Woody debris trees to meet minimum snags fall to the ground long term number per acre Soil Highest because of N fixers Lowest from nutrient losses Intermediate productivity and deeper rooting from repeated burning Landscape Best with no fires in the next Slower initially but best with Best with another intense fire habitat 60 years less intense fires in the next 60 years Protecting late-successional habitat Intermediate short term and Fewest because of salvage Highest because no salvage Dead fuels least long term with and fuel reduction or fuel reduction prescribed fire Highest resulting from High hardwood fuels, some Intermediate but more fire Live fuels branches of new conifers that hinder crown fires resistant pines are planted Fire behavior Most damaging to objectives Intermediate Least damaging to objectives High fire risk near term, Likely future Extensive crown fires more Lowest risk assuming lower later because of more fire behavior likely until age 60 underburning is successful diverse vegetation patterns

18 Literature Cited Agee, J.K. 1991. Fire history along an elevational gradient in the Siskiyou Mountains, Oregon. Northwest Science 65: 188-199. Agee, J.K. 1993. Fire ecology of the Pacific Northwest forests. Island Press, Washington, DC. 493p. Agee J.K., B. Bahro, M.A. Finney, P.N. Omi, D.B. Sapsis, C.N. Skinner, J.W. van Wagtendonk, and C.P. Weatherspoon 2000. The use of shaded fuel breaks in landscape fire management. Forest Ecology and Management 127: 55–66. Atzet, T., D. Wheeler, B. Smith, J. Franklin, and D. Thornburgh. 1992. Vegetation. Chapter 5. Pp. 92-113 in Hobbs, D., S.D. Tesch, P.W. Owston, R.E. Stewart, J.C. Tappeiner II, and G.E. Wells (eds). Reforestation practices in southwestern Oregon and northern California. Forestry Research Laboratory, Oregon State University: Corvallis, OR. Amaranthus, M.P., and J.M. Trappe. 1993. Effects of ecto- and VA-mycorrhizal inoculum potential of soil following forest fire in southwest Oregon. Plant and Soil 150: 41-49. Anderson, P., K. Puettmann, and J. Tappenier. In press. In Timbered rock fire EIS, Siskiyou- Rogue National Forest, Medford, OR. (draft not yet released). Belillas, C.M., and M.C. Feller. 1998. Relationships between fire severity and atmospheric and leaching nutrient losses in British Columbia’s coastal western hemlock zone forests. International Journal of Wildland Fire 8: 87-101 Beschta, R.L., C.A. Frissell, R. Gresswell, R. Hauer, J.R. Karr, G.W. Minshall, D.A. Perry, and J.J. Rhodes. Unpublished report (1995). Wildfire and salvage-logging recommendations for ecologically sound post-fire management and other post-fire treatments on federal lands in the west. Bormann, B.T., and A.R. Kiester. In review. Putting uncertainty to work: options forestry Submitted to Journal of Forestry Bormann, B.T., J.R. Martin, F.H. Wagner, G. Wood, J. Alegria, P.G. Cunningham, M.H. Brookes, P. Friesema, J. Berg, and J. Henshaw. 1999. Adaptive management. Pp. 505-533 in: Johnson, N.C., A.J. Malk, W. Sexton, and R. Szaro (eds.). Ecological stewardship: a common reference for ecosystem management. Volume III. Elsevier: Amsterdam. BPFA. 2003. Biscuit post-fire assessment. USDA Forest Service, Rogue and Siskiyou National Forests: Medford, OR. Brown, J.K., and N.V. DeBoyle. 1987. Fire damage, mortality, and suckering in aspen. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 17: 1100-1109. Busse, M.D., P.H. Cochran, and J.W. Barrett. 1996. Changes in ponderosa pine site productivity following removal of understory vegetation. Soil Science Society of America Journal 60: 1614-1621. Cary, H., and M. Schumann. 2003. Modifying wildfire behavior—the effectiveness of fuel treatments. Southwest Region Working paper 2. National Community Forestry Center: Santa Fe, NM.

19 DeBano, L.F., D.G. Neary, and P.F. Folliot. 1998. Fire: its effect on soil and other ecosystem resources. John Wiley and Sons, New York. 612 p. Finney, M.A. 1998. FARSITE: fire area simulator. Model development and evaluation. Research paper, RMRS-RP-4. USDA Forest Service: Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fort Collins, CO. Hankin, D.G., and G.H. Reeves. 1988. Estimating total fish abundance and total habitat area in small streams based on visual estimation methods. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 45:834–844. Harrington, T., and J. Tappeiner II. 1997. Growth responses of young Douglas-fir and tanoak 11 years after various levels of hardwood removal and understory suppression in southwestern Oregon, USA. Forest Ecology and Management 96:1-11. Helgerson, O.T., M. Newton, D. deCalestra, T. Schowalter, and E. Hansen. 1992. Protection young regeneration. pp. 384-421 in Hobbs, S.D., S.D. Tesch, P.W. Owston, R.E. Stewart, J.C. II Tappeiner, and G.E. Wells (eds). Reforestation practices in southwestern Oregon and northern California. Forest Research Laboratory, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR. 465 p. Helms, J.A. and J.C. Tappeiner. 1996. Silviculture in the Sierra. In Anonymous. Sierra Nevada ecosystem project: final report to Congress. Status of the Sierra Nevada. Volume II: Assessment and scientific basis for management options. Center for Water and Wildland Resources. University of California. Davis. Homann, P.S., B.T. Bormann, and J. Boyle. 2001. Detecting treatment differences in soil carbon and nitrogen resulting from forest manipulations. Soil Science Society of America Journal 65: 463-469. Keyes, M.R., and C.C. Grier. 1981. Above- and below-ground net production in 40-year-old Douglas-fir stands on low and high productivity sites. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 11: 599-605. LRMP. 1989. Land and resource management plan. Siskiyou National Forest. USDA Forest Service. Pacific Northwest Region: Portland, OR. LSRA. 1995. Southwest Oregon late successional reserve assessment. Medford District, Bureau of Land Management, Department of the Interior and Siskiyou National Forest, USDA. Forest Service, Medford and Grants Pass, OR McIver, J.D. and L. Starr. 2000. Environmental effects of postfire logging: literature review and annotated bibliography. USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-486. Neuenschwander, L.F., J.P. Menakis, M. Miller, R.N. Sampson, C. Hardy, R. Averill, and R. Mask. 2000. Indexing Colorado watersheds to risk of wildfire. In Sampson, R.N., R.D. Atkinson, and J.W. Lewis (eds). Mapping wildfire hazards and risks. The Haworth Press, Inc.: New York Perry, D.A. 1994. Forest ecosystems. John Hopkins University Press: Baltimore, MD.

20 Powers, R.F. 1989. Retrospective studies in perspective: strengths and weaknesses. P. 47-62 in Dyck, W.J., and C.A. Mees (eds). Research strategies for long-term site productivity. Proceedings, IEA/BA A3 Workshop, Seattle, WA. IEA/BA Report 8. Forest Research Institute: New Zealand. Raison, R.J., P.K. Khanna, and P.V. Woods. 1985. Mechanisms of element transfer to the atmosphere during vegetation fires. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 15: 132-140. Reeves, G.H., L.E. Benda, K.M. Burnett, P.A. Bisson, and J.R. Sedell. 1995. A disturbance- based ecosystem approach to maintaining and restoring freshwater habitats of evolutionarily significant units of anadromous salmonids in the Pacific Northwest. American Fisheries Society Symposium 17:334-349. ROD. 1994. Record of decision for amendments to Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management planning documents within the range of the northern spotted owl. USDA, USDI, Washington, DC. ROD 2003. Five Rivers Landscape Management Plan, Record of Decision. USDA Forest Service, Siuslaw National Forest: Corvallis, OR. Schrader-Frechette, K.S., and E.D. McCoy. 1993. Method in ecology. Cambridge University Press: New York. Sessions, J., R. Buckman, M. Newton, and J. Hamann. Unpublished. The Biscuit Fire: management options for forest regeneration, fire and insect risk reduction, and timber salvage. Unpublished report, on file, College of Forestry, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR. Silen R.R., and D.L. Olson. 1992. A pioneer exotic tree search for the Douglas-fir region. General Technical Report PNW-GTR-298. USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station: Portland, OR. Stankey, G.H., B.T. Bormann, C.M. Ryan, B. Shindler, V. Sturtevant, R.N. Clark, and C. Philpot. 2003. Adaptive management and the Northwest Forest Plan: rhetoric and reality. Journal of Forestry 101(1):40-46. Trappe, J.M., and D.L. Luoma. 1992. The ties that bind: fungi in ecosystems. Pp. 17-27 in Carroll, G.C., and D.T. Wicklow (eds.). The fungal community: its organization and role in the ecosystem. Second edition. Marcel Dekker, Inc.: New York. 976 p. van der Heijden, M.G.A., J.N. Klironomos, M. Ursic, P. Mountoglia, R. Streitwolf-Engel, T. Boller, A. Wiemken, and I.R. Sanders. 1998. Mycorrihzal fungal diversity determines plant biodiversity, ecosystem variability, and productivity. Nature 396:69-72. Zwieniecki, M.A., and M. Newton. 1994. Root distribution of 12-year-old forests at rocky sites in southwestern Oregon: effects of rock physical properties. Canadian Journal Forest Research 24 (9):1791-1796.

21 APPENDIX B

FIRE AND FUELS

Fire and Fuel Model Descriptions Fire Regimes of Oregon and Washington Fire Condition Classes Composition and Health Effects of Smoke FMZ Prescriptions Alternatives 2, 4, 5, and 7 Air Quality PM Emissions Siskiyou National Forest Standards and Guides for Maximum Acceptable Fuel Loading Testimonials

Appendix B – Fire and Fuels

Appendix B

FIRE AND FUEL MODEL DESCRIPTIONS Different vegetation types and successional stages equate to different fuel models. These fuel models are used as input to fire behavior prediction models in order to assess fire behavior and associated fire effects. The mathematical models require descriptions of fuel properties as inputs to calculations of fire danger indices or fire behavior potential. The models are organized into four categories: grass, shrub, timber, and slash. The differences in fire behavior among these groups are basically related to the fuel load and its distribution among the fuel particle size classes. (Aids to Determining Fuel Models For Estimating Fire Behavior. Hal E. Anderson,” April 1982 GTR INT-122) Models allow for accurate, consistent and repeatable predictions. This allows fire managers to predict fire behavior across a variety of locations. Each of the 13 models is listed here with a brief description, and values for estimating fire behavior.

FIRE REGIMES OF OREGON AND WASHINGTON “Fire affects different species and size classes in dissimilar ways, and plants may die as their fire tolerance is overcome. The effect of fire on the plants themselves depends on the ability of the plants to recover in the time available between burns. As the frequency of fires increases, this time interval is reduced.” (http://www.consecol.org/vol7/iss1/art9/des_fire_regime.html).

The effect of fire is a complex combination of the effect of the season in which a fire occurs, the frequency of fires and the intensity with which fires burn. Each of these factors is modified, reduced or enhanced by the others, while all three are dependent on fuel load, and all three affect the fuel load and its development Appendix B – Fire and Fuels

Five fire regime groups or classes have been identified to aid fire management analysis efforts, and are currently in use by the Federal Wildland Fire Agencies (USDA Forest Service, 2000). They reflect fire return intervals and severity. These five fire regimes developed by Hardy, et al (1999) were modified and further stratified by a group of fire managers and ecologists on October 10, 2000, to reflect the Pacific Northwest (Oregon & Washington) conditions. For southwestern Oregon, spatial data layers were developed to display these fire regimes using the Draft Plant Series data that was developed in 1995 for the Southwest Oregon LSR Assessment.

FIRE CONDITION CLASSES

Condition class is a function of the degree of departure from historical fire regimes resulting in alterations of key ecosystem components such as species composition, structural stage, stands age, and canopy closure. Condition classes range from 1 (least altered) to 3 (most altered).

Appendix B-Fire and Fuels

Appendix B. Fire and Fuel Model Descriptions (Anderson, 1982)

Fuel Model 1: Short Grass . The fine, very porous, and continuous herbaceous fuels that have cured or are nearly cured govern fire spread. Fires are surface fires that move rapidly through the cured grass and associated material. Very little shrub or timber overstory is present, generally less than 1/3 of the area. Both annual and perennial grasses are included; grasslands and savannas are represented along with grass-shrub combinations that meet the above area constraint

Fuel Model Values for estimating Fire Behavior

Total Fuel Load, < 3-inch dead & live 0.74 tons/acre Dead Fuel Load, 0 - ¼-inch 0.74 tons/acre Live fuel Load, foliage 0 tons/acre Fuel Bed Depth 1.0 feet

Fuel Model 2: Grass with Timber/Shrub Overstory

Fire spread is primarily through the fine herbaceous fuels, either curing or dead. These are surface fires where the herbaceous material, in addition to the litter and dead-down stem and branch wood from the open shrub and/or timber overstory, contribute to the fire intensity. Open shrub lands or pine/oak/dry Douglas-fir stands that cover 1/3 to 2/3 of the area may generally fit this model; such stands may include clumps of fuels that generate higher intensities and that may produce firebrands.

Fuel Model Values for estimating Fire Behavior

Total Fuel Load, < 3-inch dead & live 4.0 tons/acre Dead Fuel Load, 0 - ¼-inch 2.0 tons/acre Live fuel Load, foliage 0.5 tons/acre Fuel Bed Depth 1.0 feet

Draft Environmental Impact Statement-Biscuit Fire Recovery Project B-1

Appendix B-Fire and Fuels

The grass group of fuel models described above has a wide range of fire intensities and rates of spread. With wind speeds of 5 miles per hour, dead fuel moisture content of 8%, and live fuel moisture content of 100%, those models have the following fire behavior values:

Rate of Spread Flame Length Fuel Model Chains/hour Feet 1 78 4 2 35 6

Fuel Model 4: Mature Brush

Fire intensity and fast-spreading fires involve the foliage and live and dead fine woody material in the crowns of a nearly continuous secondary overstory. Stands of mature shrubs, 6 or more feet tall, such as California and Oregon mixed chaparral with flammable (volatile) foliage and a significant dead component fit this model. A deep litter layer may also be present. Actual height of the brush qualifying for this model depends on local conditions.

Fuel Model Values for estimating Fire Behavior Total Fuel Load, < 3-inch dead & live 13.0 tons/acre Dead Fuel Load, 0 - ¼-inch 5.0 tons/acre Live fuel Load, foliage 5.0 tons/acre Fuel Bed Depth 6.0+ feet

Fuel Model 5: Young Brush

Fire is generally carried in the surface fuels that are made up of litter cast by the shrubs and the grasses or forbs in the understory. The fires are generally not very intense because fuel loads are light, the shrubs are young with little dead material, and the foliage contains little volatile material. Usually the shrubs are short and almost totally cover the area. Young, green stands up to 6 feet high with little or no dead wood qualify for this model. The live vegetation produces poor burning properties.

Draft Environmental Impact Statement-Biscuit Fire Recovery Project B-2

Appendix B-Fire and Fuels

Fuel Model Values for estimating Fire Behavior

Total Fuel Load, < 3-inch dead & live 3.5 tons/acre Dead Fuel Load, 0 - ¼-inch 1.0 tons/acre Live fuel Load, foliage 2.0 tons/acre Fuel Bed Depth 2.0 feet

Fuel Model 6: Intermediate Brush

Fires carry through the shrub layer where the foliage is more flammable than fuel model 5, but this requires moderate winds (> 8 miles/hour at mid-flame height). Fire will drop to the ground at low wind speeds or at openings in the stand. The shrubs are older than in fuel model 5, but not as tall as shrub types of model 4, nor do they contain as much fuel as in model 4. Fuel situations include intermediate stands of chaparral, manzanita, white thorn, deer brush, etc; even hardwood slash that has cured (plantation thinning slash) can be considered.

Fuel Model Values for estimating Fire Behavior Total Fuel Load, < 3-inch dead & live 6.0 tons/acre Dead Fuel Load, 0 - ¼-inch 1.5 tons/acre Live fuel Load, foliage 0.0 tons/acre Fuel Bed Depth 2.5 feet

Draft Environmental Impact Statement-Biscuit Fire Recovery Project B-3

Appendix B-Fire and Fuels

The shrub group of fuel models described above has a wide range of fire intensities and rates of spread. With wind speeds of 5 miles per hour, dead fuel moisture content of 8%, and live fuel moisture content of 100%, those models have the following fire behavior values:

Rate of Spread Flame Length Fuel Model Chains/hour Feet 4 75 19 5 18 4 6 32 6

Fuel Model 8: Closed, Short Needle Timber Litter

Slow burning ground fires with low flame lengths are generally the case, although a fire may encounter an occasional “jackpot” or heavy fuels concentration that can flare up. Only under severe weather conditions involving high temperatures, low humidities, and high winds do the fuels pose significant fire hazards. Closed canopy stands of short-needle conifers or hardwoods that have leafed out support fire in the compact litter layer. This layer is mainly needles, leaves, and twigs because little undergrowth is present. Representative conifer types are Douglas-fir, true fir, hemlock, and spruce.

Draft Environmental Impact Statement-Biscuit Fire Recovery Project B-4

Appendix B-Fire and Fuels

Fuel Model Values for estimating Fire Behavior

Total Fuel Load, < 3-inch dead & live 5.0 tons/acre Dead Fuel Load, 0 - ¼-inch 1.5 tons/acre Live fuel Load, foliage 0.0 tons/acre Fuel Bed Depth 0.2 feet

Draft Environmental Impact Statement-Biscuit Fire Recovery Project B-5

Appendix B-Fire and Fuels

Fuel Model 9: Hardwood or Long Needle Pine Timber Litter

Fires run through the surface litter faster than in model 8 and have longer flame lengths. Both long-needle conifer and hardwood stands are typical. Closed stands of long-needled pine like ponderosa, Jeffrey, and sugar pine and hardwood stands of oak, madrone and tanoak are grouped in this model. Concentrations of dead-down woody material will contribute to possible torching of trees, spotting, and crowning.

Fuel Model Values for Estimating Fire Behavior

Total Fuel Load, < 3-inch dead & live 3.5 tons/acre

Dead Fuel Load, 0 - ¼-inch 2.9 tons/acre

Live fuel Load, foliage 0.0 tons/acre

Fuel Bed Depth 0.2 feet

Draft Environmental Impact Statement-Biscuit Fire Recovery Project B-6

Appendix B-Fire and Fuels

Fuel Model 10: Mature/Overmature Timber & Understory

Fires will burn in the surface and ground fuels with greater intensity than the other timber litter models. Dead-down fuels include greater quantities of 3-inch or larger limbwood resulting from overmaturity or natural events that create a large load of dead material on the forest floor. Crowning out, spotting, and torching of individual trees is more frequent in this fuel model. Any forest type may be considered if heavy down material is present.

Fuel Model Values for estimating Fire Behavior Total Fuel Load, < 3-inch dead & live 12.0 tons/acre Dead Fuel Load, 0 - ¼-inch 3.0 tons/acre Live fuel Load, foliage 2.0 tons/acre Fuel Bed Depth 1.0 feet

The fire intensities and spread rates of the timber litter group of fuel models described above are indicated by the following fire behavior values when the midflame wind speed is 5 miles per hour, dead fuel moisture content is 8%, and live fuel moisture content is 100:

Rate of Spread Flame Length Fuel Model Chains/hour Feet 8 1.6 1.0 9 7.5 2.6 10 7.9 4.8

Draft Environmental Impact Statement-Biscuit Fire Recovery Project B-7

Appendix B-Fire and Fuels

Fuel Model 11: Light Slash

Moderate downfall of limbs and boles in natural stands, light partial cuts or thinning operations in mixed conifer, or hardwood stands are considered for this fuel model. Fires are fairly active in the slash and intermixed herbaceous material. Fire potential can be limited by the shading from the overstory, the aging of the fine fuels, or the spacing of the rather light fuel load.

Fuel Model Values for Estimating Fire Behavior Total Fuel Load, < 3-inch dead & live 11.5 tons/acre Dead Fuel Load, 0 - ¼-inch 1.5 tons/acre Live fuel Load, foliage 0 tons/acre Fuel Bed Depth 1.0 feet

Draft Environmental Impact Statement-Biscuit Fire Recovery Project B-8

Appendix B-Fire and Fuels

Fuel Model 12: Heavy Slash

Stands of mixed conifer and mixed conifer/hardwood stands that are heavily thinned, clearcuts, and medium or heavy partial cuts are all represented by this fuel model. Rapidly spreading, high intensity fires capable of producing firebrands can occur. When fires do start, they are generally sustained until a break in the fuel continuity or some other change in the fuels is encountered.

Fuel Model Values for Estimating Fire Behavior

Total Fuel Load, < 3-inch dead & live 34.6 tons/acre Dead Fuel Load, 0 - ¼-inch 4.0 tons/acre Live fuel Load, foliage 0 tons/acre Fuel Bed Depth 2.3 feet

The fire intensities and spread rates of the slash litter group of fuel models described above are indicated by the following fire behavior values when the midflame wind speed is 5 miles per hour and dead fuel moisture content is 8%:

Rate of Spread Flame Length Fuel Model Chains/hour Feet 11 6.0 3.5 12 13.0 8.0

Draft Environmental Impact Statement-Biscuit Fire Recovery Project B-9

Appendix B – Fire and Fuels

Appendix B Fire Regimes of Oregon and Washington I. 0-35 years, Low severity. Typical climax plant communities include ponderosa pine, eastside/dry Douglas- fir, pine-oak woodlands, Jeffery pine on serpentine soils, oak woodlands, and very dry white fir. Large stand-replacing fire can occur under certain weather conditions, but are rare events (i.e. every 200+ years). II. 0-35 years, Stand-replacing, non-forest Includes true grasslands (Columbia basin, Palouse, etc.) and savannahs with typical return intervals of less than 10 years; mesic sagebrush communities with typical return intervals of 25-35 years and occasionally up to 50 years, and mountain shrub communities (bitterbrush, snowberry, ninebark, ceanothus, Oregon chaparral, etc.) with typical return intervals of 10-25 years. Fire severity is generally high to moderate. Grasslands and mountain shrub communities are not completely killed, but usually only top-killed and resprout. III. 35-100+ years, Mixed severity This regime usually results in heterogeneous landscapes. Large, stand-replacing fires may occur but are usually rare events. Such stand-replacing fires may “reset” large areas (10,000-100,000 acres) but subsequent mixed intensity fires are important for creating the landscape heterogeneity. Within these landscapes a mix of stand ages and size classes are important characteristics; generally the landscape is not dominated by one or two age classes. A. <50 years, Mixed severity Typical potential plant communities include mixed conifer, very dry westside Douglas-fir, and dry grand fir. Lower severity fire tends to predominate in many events. B. 50-100 years, Mixed severity Typical climax plant communities include well drained western hemlock; warm, mesic grand fir, particularly east of the Cascade crest; and eastside western redcedar. The relative amounts of lower and higer severity patches within a given event is intermediate between IIIa and IIIc. C. 100-200 years, Mixed severity Typical potential plant communities include western hemlock, Pacific silver fir, and whitebark pine at or below 45 degrees latitude and cool, mesic grand fir and Douglas-fir. Higher severity fire tends to dominate in many events.

Draft Environmental Impact Statement – Biscuit Fire Recovery Project B-10 Appendix B – Fire and Fuels

IV. 35-100+ years, Stand-replacing Seral communities that arise from or are maintained by stand-replacement fires, such as lodgepole pine, aspen, western larch, and western white pine, often are important components in this fire regime. Dry sagebrush communities also fall within this fire regime. Natural ignitions within this regime that result in large fires may be relatively rare, particularly in the Cascades north of 45 degrees latitude. A. 35-100+ years, Stand-replacing, Juxtaposed Typified by what would normally be considered long interval regime that lies immediately above a shorter interval or lower severity fire regime. Most often the fire originates lower on the slope and burns uphill into regime IVa. Examples include lodgepole pine immediately above ponderosa pine in the eastside Washington Cascades and aspen imbedded within dry grand fir in the Blue Mountains. This regime is often found in lower elevations or drier sites than is considered typical for regime IV. B. 100+ years, Stand-replacing, Patchy arrangement Typical potential communities include subalpine fir and mountain hemlock parkland and whitebark pine north of 45 degrees latitude. C. 100-200 years, Stand-replacing Typical plant communities include subalpine mixed conifer (spruce-fir), western larch, and western white pine. Important potential plant communities include mountain hemlock in the Cascades and Pacific silver fir north of 45 degrees latitude. V. >200 years, Stand-replacing This fire regime occurs at the environmental extremes where natural ignitions are very rare or virtually non-existent or environmental conditions rarely result in large fires. Sites tend to be very cold, very hot, very wet, very dry or some combination of these conditions. A. 200-400 years, Stand-replacing Plant communities are at least somewhat fire adapted. Typical plant communities include Douglas-fir, noble fir, and mountain hemlock on drier sites in parts of western Washington. B. 400+ years, Stand-replacing Plant communities are weakly fire adapted or not fire adapted. Typical plant communities include Douglas-fir, Pacific silver fir, western hemlock, western redcedar, and mountain hemlock on moister sites in western Washington.

Draft Environmental Impact Statement – Biscuit Fire Recovery Project B-11 Appendix B – Fire and Fuels

C. No Fire This regime includes plant communities with no evidence of fire for 500 years or more. Stands often have extremely deep duff layers on poorly developed soils. Typical plant communities include Sitka spruce and Pacific silver fir along the Oregon and Washington coast and very wet western redcedar sites. D. Non-forest Typical plant communities include black sagebrush, salt desert scrub, alpine communities, and subalpine heath. Most species tend to be small and low growing. Bare ground is common.

Draft Environmental Impact Statement – Biscuit Fire Recovery Project B-12 Appendix B – Fire and Fuels

Appendix B CONDITION CLASS Condition class descriptions: Condition classes are a function of the degree of departure from historical fire regimes resulting in alterations of key ecosystem components such as species composition, structural stage, stand age, and canopy closure. One or more of the following activities may have caused this departure: fire exclusion, timber harvesting, grazing, introduction and establishment of exotic plant species, insects or disease (introduced or native), or other past management activities.

Condition Class Attributes Example Management Options

• Fire regimes are within or near an historical range. • The risk of losing key ecosystem components is low. Where appropriate, these areas can be Condition Class 1 • Fire frequencies have departed from historical frequencies (either maintained within the historical fire increased or decreased) by no more than one return interval. regime by treatments such as fire use. • Vegetation attributes (species composition and structure) are intact and functioning within an historical range.

• Fire regimes have been moderately altered from their historical range. • The risk of losing key ecosystem components has increased to moderate. Where appropriate, these areas may • Fire frequencies have departed (either increased or decreased) from need moderate levels of restoration Condition Class 2 historical frequencies by more than one return interval. This change treatments, such as fire use and hand results in moderate changes to one or more of the following: fire size, or mechanical treatments, to be frequency, intensity, severity, or landscape patterns. restored to the historical fire regime. • Vegetation attributes have been moderately altered from their historic ranges.

• Fire regimes have been significantly altered from their historical range.

• The risk of losing key ecosystem components is high. Where appropriate, these areas need • Fire frequencies have departed (either increased or decreased) by high levels of restoration treatments, such as hand or mechanical Condition Class 3 multiple return intervals. This change results in dramatic changes to one or more of the following: fire size, frequency, intensity, severity, or treatments. These treatments may be landscape patterns. necessary before fire is used to restor the historical fire regime. • Vegetation attributes have been significantly altered from their historic ranges.

Draft Environmental Impact Statement – Biscuit Fire Recovery Project B-13 Appendix B-Fire and Fuels

Composition and Health Effects of Smoke

Composition of smoke: Smoke from wildfire and smoke from prescribed fire are similar in composition. The emissions for wildfire are roughly double that of prescribed fire (PNW-GTR-355). These differences in emissions are related to consumption. Consumption varies by fuel moistures at time of burning. Smoke is made up primarily of carbon dioxide, water vapor, carbon monoxide, particulate matter, hydrocarbons and other organics, nitrogen oxides, and trace minerals. The composition of smoke varies with fuel type: different wood and vegetation are composed of varying amounts of cellulose, lignin, tannins and other polyphenolics, oils, fats, resins, waxes, and starches which produce different compounds when burned.

In general, particulate matter is the major pollutant of health concern from wildfire smoke. Particulate is a general term for a mixture of solid particles and liquid droplets found in the air. Particulate from smoke tends to be very small (less than one micron in diameter) and, as a result, is more of a health concern than the coarser particles that typically make up road dust. Particulate matter from wood smoke has a size range near the wavelength of visible light (0.4 – 0.7 micrometers). This makes the particles excellent at scattering light and, therefore, excellent at reducing visibility.

Carbon monoxide is a colorless, odorless gas, produced as a product of incomplete combustion. It is produced in the largest amounts during the smoldering stages of the fire. Carbon Monoxide is potentially one of the most dangerous components of smoke, fortunately concentrations drop rapidly as the proximity to the fire decreases and is usually of concern only to fire fighters. Hazardous air pollutants such as acrolein, benezene and formaldehydeare present in smoke, but in far less concentrations than particulate and carbon monoxide

Health effects of smoke The effects of smoke vary from irritation of the eyes and respiratory tract to more serious disorders, including asthma, bronchitis, reduced lung function and premature death. Studies have found that fine particulate matter is linked (alone or with other pollutants) with a number of significant respiratory and cardiovascular-related effects, including increased mortality and aggravation of existing respiratory and cardiovascular disease. In addition, airborne particles are respiratory irritants, and laboratory studies (Wildfire Smoke: A Guide for Public Officials) show that high concentrations of particulate matter cause persistent cough, phlegm, wheezing, and physical discomfort in breathing. Particulate matter can also alter the body’s immune system and affect removal of foreign materials such as pollen and bacteria from the lungs. The health threat from lower levels of CO is most serious for those who suffer from cardiovascular disease. At higher levels, carbon monoxide exposure can cause headaches, dizziness, visual impairment, reduced work capacity, and reduced manual dexterity even in otherwise healthy individuals. At even higher levels (seldom associated solely with a wildfire), carbon monoxide can be deadly. People exposed to toxic air pollutants at sufficient concentrations and durations may have an increased chance of cancer or other serious health problems. However, in

B-14 Appendix B-Fire and Fuels

general, it is believed that the long term risk from toxic air pollutants from wildfire smoke is very low (Wildfire Smoke: A Guide For Public Officials). Some components of smoke, such as many polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) are carcinogenic. Probably the most carcinogenic is benzo-a-pyrene (BaP), which has been demonstrated to increase in toxicity when mixed with carbon particulate. Other components, such as the aldehydes, are acute irritants. Three air toxics are of most concern from wildfires:

1. Acrolein. An aldehyde with a piercing, choking odor. Even at low levels, acrolein can severely irritate the eyes and upper respiratory tract. Symptoms include stinging and tearing eyes, nausea and vomiting. 2. Formaldehyde. Low level exposure can cause irritation of the eyes, nose and throat. Higher levels cause irritation to spread to the lower respiratory tract. Long-term exposure is associated with nasal and nasopharyngeal cancer. 3. Benzene. Benzene causes headaches, dizziness, nausea and breathing difficulties, and is a very potent carcinogen. Benzene causes anemia, liver and kidney damage, and cancer.

Not everyone who is exposed to thick smoke will have health problems. Level, extent and duration of exposure, age, individual susceptibility, and other factors play a major role in determining whether or not someone will experience smoke-related health problems. An air quality advisory was issued for Medford for one day during the fire period from July 10 to Sept 9 2002. This was an ozone advisory. EPA plans to begin including fire emissions in future ozone strategy modeling. Although not confirmed, there appears to be an indirect link between large smoke plumes and increased ozone levels. Ozone is a highly poisonous gas. Nitrogen oxides and volatile organic gasses combine to form ozone. Klamath Falls Environmental Health issued 28 air quality advisories related to wildfire smoke from July 10th through September 9thof 2002. National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) exceedences caused by natural events (i.e. wildfire) are not counted toward a non-attainment designation if a state can document that it was a natural event. The state must prepare a Natural Events Action Plan (NEAP) to address human health concerns during future events. The Oregon Department of Environmental Quality (DEQ) has applied for an exceptional event waiver for the smoke intrusions in the Klamath Basin. If granted this waiver would void the need to prepare a Natural Events action plan for last summer.

B-15 Appendix B – Fire and Fuels

Fuel Management Zone Treatment by Vegetation Type Alternatives 2, 4, 5 and 7.

The objective of creating Fuels Management Zones is to: Create a defensible space for suppressing wildfires. Create a defensible space for igniting and holding prescribed fires. Create an opportunity to allow ‘Wildland Fire Use’ (WFU) fires to burn in wilderness and roadless, under a wider range of conditions. Maintain or create stands that are resistant to mortality from low severity fires. Increase the acreage of stands in this condition over time, burning against previously treated stands.

The method for creating FMZ’s for this project is to: Use roads as the centerline of the FMZ wherever feasible Use ridges wherever feasible Incorporate rock outcrops, meadows and other areas of low fuel loading Reduce surface fuels in the 0 to 3 inch size class Increase crown base height of live trees Minimize mortality of live over story trees Where necessary, fell snags near the centerline of the FMZ

The means for creating FMZ’s varies by stand structure, percentage of fire mortality, topography and land allocation.

Fuel Management Zones vary in width. The specifications are: Narrow FMZ= 200 feet total width Standard FMZ= 400 feet total width

In many cases it may be prudent to treat the entire stand adjacent to the FMZ, usually with prescribed fire. This is most likely to be the case where FMZ’s intersect stands of trees dominated by 1) Fire resistant species 2) Greater than 21” dbh 3) Sufficient over story survival (>40% cc) to maintain shaded surface fuels

Draft Prescription Examples:

Greater than 21 inch diameter, single layer, <50% Mortality Prescribed burn the entire stand under conditions which generate flame length less than 4 feet. Maintain fuel model 8.

Greater than 21 inch diameter, single layers, >50% Mortality Fell snags within one tree length of centerline. In stands estimated to have good potential seed trees, consider prescribed burning with pull back around surviving over story trees.

B-16 Appendix B – Fire and Fuels

Greater than 21 inch diameter, multiple layers, <50% Mortality Within the specified width of the FMZ, thin the under story, cut most small (less than 6 inch DBH) dead and most small live trees (less than 6 inch DBH), pile and burn and/or under burn. Fell snags within one tree height of FMZ centerline, vary width of felling. Leave all trees within 175 feet of class 1,2 and 3 streams. Especially important to treat surface and under-story fuels in older stands with low mortality to reduce crown fire potential, due to value for habitat. Maintain fuel model 8.

Greater than 21 inch diameter, multiple layers, >50% Mortality Fell snags within one tree length of center. Pile and burn slash. Cut, pile and burn dead understory trees (less than 9 inch DBH) in stands with high under- story mortality. Where feasible, under burn. Leave all green trees > 12” DBH. Plant the most fire resistant species that is appropriate to the site at least 20 x 20 foot spacing (110 tpa).

9 to 21 inch diameter stands, single layer, <50% Mortality Within 200-400 feet of center line, thin, pile and burn in younger stands (less than 6” diameter breast height) to reduce crown fire potential. Reduce CC to 40 to 60%. Model 8.

9 to 21 inch diameter stands, single layer, >50% Mortality Within 100 feet of center, cut, pile and burn dead trees in younger stands (less than 9” diameter breast height) to reduce 0-3 inch load. In areas with less than 50 live trees/acre, plant the most fire resistant species that is appropriate to the site at least 20 x 20 foot spacing (110 tpa). In patches with greater than 50 tpa, thin to less than 100 tpa, pile and burn slash.

0 to 9 inch diameter stands, <75% Mortality Cut pile and burn dead trees within 50 feet of centerline. Prune all leave trees to 1/3 of tree height. Consider precommercial thin to 20x20 (110 tpa) favoring the most fire resistant species, pile and burn slash. Model 5.

0 to 9 inch diameter stands, >75% Mortality Leave all green trees. Cut, pile and burn dead trees within 50 feet of the centerline. Plant fire resistant trees if needed to obtain about 100 trees per acre, initial stocking.

Hardwoods <50% Mortality Fell snags within one tree length (tree lengths are site specific) of the center of the Fuels Management Zone in stands with high overstory mortality. Pile and burn slash. Year three, thin sprouts to two or three best stems, spaced 25 x 25. Target is Fuel Model 9.

Hardwoods >50% Mortality

B-17 Appendix B – Fire and Fuels

Fell snags within one tree length (tree lengths are site specific) of the center of the Fuels Management Zone in stands with high over-story mortality. Pile and burn 0-3 inch fuels. Where appropriate to the site, plant pine on >20 x 20 spacing. Year three, thin sprouts to two or three best stems. Fuel model 4, eventually model 9.

Serpentine, <50% Mortality Fell > 21 inch snags within one tree length of centerline. If jackpots are created, burn or scatter. Model 2.

Serpentine, >50% Mortality Fell > 21 inch snags within one tree length of centerline. If jackpots are created, burn or scatter. Model 1 or 5 is the target condition within FMZ.

Serpentine, >50% Mortality, white pine type Fell all dead trees within one tree length of centerline. Pile and burn.

Brush <50% Mortality Maintain fuel model 2 (grass, scattered brush under story) or 5 (young brush) using thinning and prescribed fire, within 200 feet of centerline.

Brush >50% Mortality Cut pile and burn shrub skeletons within one hundred feet of centerline. Where appropriate to the site, plant pine on wide spacing. At year three cut donuts around planted pines.

Brush with scattered trees Leave all green, fell snags within one tree length of centerline. May use prescribed fire if trees are of a resistant size and species. Cut brush adjacent to live trees.

Meadows Burn as soon as grass/forb cover is sufficient. Allow fire to creep at edges, expand meadow. Where appropriate, remove dead firs at meadow margins. Seed areas where timber is removed. Maintain model 1 conditions.

White oak/black oak woodland and savannah Expand meadows and adjacent white oak/black oak savannah/woodland as opportunity allows. Maintain large pine and oak if present. Plant white oak and black oak on appropriate sites. Model 1 and model 9.

Other Maintain/establish safety zones, escape routes, use meadows where possible. In current safety zones, seed to native grass/ forb. Improve water sources (pump chances), and turnouts on roads Maintain and upgrade roads

B-18 Appendix B – Fire and Fuels

Prescriptions Specific to Certain Land Allocations

Inventoried Roadless Areas (Alternatives 2, 4 and 5) Where feasible, prescribed burn (under burn) a strip of variable width (400 to 1,320 feet) along ridge tops, where FMZ’s run along ridges. Where prescribed fire treatment is not feasible, cut pile and burn dead trees less than 9” dbh within 200 feet of the center of the FMZ. In multilayered stands, cut pile and burn 80% of live trees less than 6” dbh. Hand pile and burn 0 to 3 inch surface fuels within a minimum of 200 feet of the center of the Fuels Management Zones. Fell and leave large (>21”) snags within 200 feet of centerline. No cutting of live trees greater than 6 inches dbh. No commercial removal of any trees.

Matrix Leave green trees in FMZ’s; If necessary move yarding corridors and landings to accomplish this objective. Cut, yard and remove dead merchantable trees. Fell, buck and pile small material from non merchantable trees. Leave 4 snags per acre, no closer than 200 feet from centerline of FMZ. Plant pine at wide spacing.

LSR In areas of 10 acres or less, where there is >75% crown kill, do not include cut trees in a timber sale, ie no salvage in patches less than 10 acres. In stands where live canopy closure is greater than 40% do not include cut trees in salvage sales.

Other The FMZ’s will meet Standards &Guidelines for all other land allocations. Use hand pile and burn, and under burn to achieve desired fuel profile.

B-19 Appendix B-Fire and Fuels ______

Derivation of PM 10 and 2.5 Emissions

ASSUMPTIONS

All Alternatives Use the Following Emission Calculations Equations:

E = EF x L x A

Where E = Total emissions of the pollutant (mass of the pollutant, in tons) EF = Emission factor for the pollutant (mass of pollutant/mass of forest fuel consumed, in lbs/ton) L = Fuel consumed (mass of fuel consumed per unit area of land burned, in tons/acre) A = Land area burned (acres)

The following calculations and assumptions were used to determine the estimated amount of PM 10 and PM 2.5 emissions which may be produced for each activity per alternative.

Alternative 1

Takes current conditions and projects median for 5, 10 and 15 years out

Fuel Model will change over 5, 10 and 15 year period, thus the fuels emission factor will correspond

Emissions factor assumes fuel type is mixed conifer and hardwood, thus an average is used for projection. Factors derived from Table 3.1.2-1 in 3.1.1 “Wildfire and Prescribed Natural Fire”

Current Condition = Mixed Conifer based on actual current loading

5 yr = Mixed Conifer based on predicted

B-20

Appendix B-Fire and Fuels ______

10 yr = average emission between mixed conifer and Ponderosa based on predicted Fuel Type over 10 year time period

15 yr = average emission between mixed conifer and hardwoods based on

Fuel Loading is 80% of Actual Loading

Alternative 2-7

Fuel Loading Assumption Salvage fuel loadings should resemble that which is represented by 1989 Silver Photo Series post treatment. Fuel Loading was derived from averaging the 4 treatment plots

For FMZ Fuel loadings are current fuel loadings.

B-21

Appendix B-Fire and Fuels ______Alternative 1 -- No Action PM 10 PM 2.5

Current 5 years 10 years 15 years Current 5 years 10 years 15 years Acres to burn 22,750 22,750 22,750 22,750 Acres to burn 22,750 22,750 22,750 22,750

Preburn Loading (tons/acre) Preburn Loading (tons/acre) 24.05 24.05 4 4 5 5.58 45 5 5.58 45 6 6 8 6.44 20.09 44.58 8 6.44 20.09 44.58 9 39.725 9 39.725 10 8.74 21.44 4.175 73 10 8.74 21.44 4.175 73

Total Preburn Loading 24.81 41.53 88.48 118 Total Preburn Loading 24.81 41.53 88.48 118 Reduction L = Fuel Consumed 19.848 33.224 70.784 94.4 L = Fuel Consumed 19.848 33.224 70.784 94.4 Factor = 0.80

EF = Fire Avg. Emission Factor EF = Fire Avg. Emission Factor for Mixed Conifer, Pine & for Mixed Conifer, Pine & Hardwood (see assumptions) Hardwood (see assumptions) lbs/ton 20.5 20.5 22.5 25 lbs/ton 18.8 18.8 20.4 22.2 tons/ton 0.01025 0.01025 0.01125 0.0125 tons/ton 0.0094 0.0094 0.0102 0.0111

Total Emission (pounds) 9,256,611 15,494,843 36,232,560 53,690,000 Total Emission (pounds) 8,488,990 14,209,905 32,850,854 47,676,720 Total Emission (Tons) 4,628 7,747 18,116 26,845 Total Emission (Tons) 4,244 7,105 16,425 23,838

Total Emission (Tons/Acre) 0.2034 0.3405 0.7963 1.1800 Total Emission (Tons/Acre) 0.1866 0.3123 0.7220 1.0478

EF = Fire Avg. Emission Factor EF = Fire Avg. Emission Factor for Wildland Fires for Wildland Fires lbs/ton 30.00 30.00 30.00 30.00 lbs/ton 27.00 27.00 27.00 27.00 tons/ton 0.015 0.015 0.015 0.015 tons/ton 0.0135 0.0135 0.0135 0.0135

Total Emission (pounds) 13,546,260 22,675,380 48,310,080 64,428,000 Total Emission (pounds) 12,191,634 20,407,842 43,479,072 57,985,200 Total Emission (Tons) 6,773 11,338 24,155 32,214 Total Emission (Tons) 6,096 10,204 21,740 28,993

Total Emission (Tons/Acre) 0.2977 0.4984 1.0618 1.4160 Total Emission (Tons/Acre) 0.2679 0.4485 0.9556 1.2744

B-22

Appendix B-Fire and Fuels Alternative______2 PM 10 PM 2.5 ______

FMZ Salvage Landscape/Rx FMZ Salvage Landscape/Rx Acres to burn Acres to burn RX 3,168 5,169 NA RX 3,168 5,169 NA Piles 9,504 63 NA Piles 9,504 63 NA

Fuel Loading by model 24.81 85.26 NA Fuel Loading by model 24.81 85.26 NA Piles 18.68 Piles 18.68

L = Fuel Consumed RX 8.68 42.63 NA L = Fuel Consumed RX 8.68 42.63 NA Piles 16.81 76.73 NA Piles 16.81 76.73 NA Reduction Factors RX 0.35 0.5 NA Reduction Factors RX 0.35 0.5 NA Piles 0.9 0.9 NA Piles 0.9 0.9 NA

EF = Fire Avg. Emission Factor lbs/ton 25 25 25 EF = Fire Avg. Emission Factor lbs/ton 22 22 22 tons/ton 0.0125 0.0125 0.0125 tons/ton 0.011 0.011 0.011

RX Total Emission (pounds) 687,733 5,508,862 RX Total Emission (pounds) 605,205 4,847,798 RX Total Emission (Tons) 344 2,754 RX Total Emission (Tons) 303 2,424

Piling Total Emission (pounds) 3,994,531 120,856 Piling Total Emission (pounds) 3,515,187 106,353 Piling Total Emission (Tons) 1,997 60 Piling Total Emission (Tons) 1,758 53

Rx Total Emission (Tons/Acre) 0.1085 0.5329 Rx Total Emission (Tons/Acre) 0.0955 0.4689 PilesTotal Emission (Tons/Acre) 0.2102 0.9592 PilesTotal Emission (Tons/Acre) 0.1849 0.8441

Total Emissions (Tons) Rx & Piles 2,341 2,815 Total Emissions (Tons) Rx & Piles 2,060 2,477

B-23

Appendix B-Fire and Fuels ______

Alternative 3 PM 10 PM 2.5

FMZ Salvage Landscape/Rx FMZ Salvage Landscape/Rx Acres to burn Acres to burn RX NA 16,753 NA RX NA 16,753 NA Piles NA 78 NA Piles NA 78 NA

Fuel Loading by model NA 85.26 NA Fuel Loading by model NA 85.26 NA Piles NA Piles NA

L = Fuel Consumed RX NA 42.63 NA L = Fuel Consumed RX NA 42.63 NA Piles NA 76.734 NA Piles NA 76.734 NA Reduction Factors RX NA 0.5 NA Reduction Factors RX NA 0.5 NA Piles NA 0.9 NA Piles NA 0.9 NA

EF = Fire Avg. Emission Factor lbs/ton 25 25 25 EF = Fire Avg. Emission Factor lbs/ton 22 tons/ton 0.0125 0.0125 0.0125 tons/ton 0.011

RX Total Emission (pounds) 17,854,510 RX Total Emission (pounds) 15,711,969 RX Total Emission (Tons) 8,927 RX Total Emission (Tons) 7,856

Piling Total Emission (pounds) 149,631 Piling Total Emission (pounds) 131,676 Piling Total Emission (Tons) 75 Piling Total Emission (Tons) 66

Rx Total Emission (Tons/Acre) 0.5329 Rx Total Emission (Tons/Acre) 0.4689 PilesTotal Emission (Tons/Acre) 0.9592 PilesTotal Emission (Tons/Acre) 0.8441

Total Emissions (Tons) Rx & Piles 0 9,002 Total Emissions (Tons) Rx & Piles 0 7,922

B-24

Appendix B-Fire and Fuels ______Alternative 4 PM 10 PM 2.5

FMZ Salvage Landscape/Rx FMZ Salvage Landscape/Rx Acres to burn Acres to burn RX 1,206 7,290 39,000 RX 1,206 7,290 39,000 Piles 3618 75 N/A Piles 3618 75 N/A

Fuel Loading by model 24.81 85.26 15.98 Fuel Loading by model 24.81 85.26 15.98 Piles 18.68 Piles 18.68

L = Fuel Consumed RX 8.6835 42.63 5.593 L = Fuel Consumed RX 8.6835 42.63 5.593 Piles 16.812 76.734 N/A Piles 16.812 76.734 N/A Reduction Factors RX 0.35 0.5 0.35 Reduction Factors RX 0.35 0.5 0.35 Piles 0.9 0.9 N/A Piles 0.9 0.9 N/A

EF = Fire Avg. Emission Factor lbs/ton 25 25 25 EF = Fire Avg. Emission Factor lbs/ton 22 22 22 tons/ton 0.0125 0.0125 0.0125 tons/ton 0.011 0.011 0.011

RX Total Emission (pounds) 261,808 7,769,318 5,453,175 RX Total Emission (pounds) 230,391 6,836,999 4,798,794 RX Total Emission (Tons) 131 3,885 2,727 RX Total Emission (Tons) 115 3,418 2,399

Piling Total Emission (pounds) 1,520,645 143,876 0 Piling Total Emission (pounds) 1,338,168 126,611 0 Piling Total Emission (Tons) 760 72 0 Piling Total Emission (Tons) 669 63 0

Rx Total Emission (Tons/Acre) 0.1085 0.5329 0.0699 Rx Total Emission (Tons/Acre) 0.0955 0.4689 0.0615 PilesTotal Emission (Tons/Acre) 0.2102 0.9592 PilesTotal Emission (Tons/Acre) 0.1849 0.8441

Total Emissions (Tons) Rx & Piles 891 3,957 2,727 Total Emissions (Tons) Rx & Piles 784 3,482 2,399

B-25

Appendix B-Fire and Fuels ______Alternative 5 PM 10 PM 2.5

FMZ Salvage Landscape/Rx FMZ Salvage Landscape/Rx Acres to burn Acres to burn RX 3,090 8,343 91,000 RX 3,090 8,343 91,000 Piles 9,269 77 NA Piles 9,269 77 NA

Fuel Loading by model 24.81 85.26 15.98 Fuel Loading by model 24.81 85.26 15.98 Piles 18.68 Piles 18.68

L = Fuel Consumed RX 8.6835 42.63 5.593 L = Fuel Consumed RX 8.6835 42.63 5.593 Piles 16.812 76.734 NA Piles 16.812 76.734 NA Reduction Factors RX 0.35 0.5 0.35 Reduction Factors RX 0.35 0.5 0.35 Piles 0.9 0.9 NA Piles 0.9 0.9 NA

EF = Fire Avg. Emission Factor lbs/ton 25 25 25 EF = Fire Avg. Emission Factor lbs/ton 22 22 22 tons/ton 0.0125 0.0125 0.0125 tons/ton 0.011 0.011 0.011

RX Total Emission (pounds) 670,692 8,891,552 12,724,075 RX Total Emission (pounds) 590,209 7,824,566 11,197,186 RX Total Emission (Tons) 335 4,446 6,362 RX Total Emission (Tons) 295 3,912 5,599

Piling Total Emission (pounds) 3,895,551 147,713 0 Piling Total Emission (pounds) 3,428,084 129,987 0 Piling Total Emission (Tons) 1,948 74 0 Piling Total Emission (Tons) 1,714 65 0

Rx Total Emission (Tons/Acre) 0.1085 0.5329 0.0699 Rx Total Emission (Tons/Acre) 0.0955 0.4689 0.0615 PilesTotal Emission (Tons/Acre) 0.2102 0.9592 PilesTotal Emission (Tons/Acre) 0.1849 0.8441

Total Emissions (Tons) Rx & Piles 2,283 4,520 6,362 Total Emissions (Tons) Rx & Piles 2,009 3,977 5,599

B-26

Appendix B-Fire and Fuels ______

Alternative 6 PM 10 PM 2.5

FMZ Salvage Landscape/Rx FMZ Salvage Landscape/Rx Acres to burn Acres to burn RX 242 59,328 NA RX 242 59,328 NA Piles 725 77 NA Piles 725 77 NA

Fuel Loading by model 24.81 85.26 NA Fuel Loading by model 24.81 85.26 NA Piles 18.68 Piles 18.68

L = Fuel Consumed RX 8.6835 42.63 NA L = Fuel Consumed RX 8.6835 42.63 NA Piles 16.812 76.734 NA Piles 16.812 76.734 NA Reduction Factors RX 0.35 0.5 NA Reduction Factors RX 0.35 0.5 NA Piles 0.9 0.9 NA Piles 0.9 0.9 NA

EF = Fire Avg. Emission Factor lbs/ton 25 25 25 EF = Fire Avg. Emission Factor lbs/ton 22 22 NA tons/ton 0.0125 0.0125 0.0125 tons/ton 0.011 0.011 NA

RX Total Emission (pounds) 52,481 63,228,816 RX Total Emission (pounds) 46,183 55,641,358 RX Total Emission (Tons) 26 31,614 RX Total Emission (Tons) 23 27,821

Piling Total Emission (pounds) 304,823 147,713 Piling Total Emission (pounds) 268,244 129,987 Piling Total Emission (Tons) 152 74 Piling Total Emission (Tons) 134 65

Rx Total Emission (Tons/Acre) 0.1085 0.5329 Rx Total Emission (Tons/Acre) 0.0955 0.4689 PilesTotal Emission (Tons/Acre) 0.2102 0.9592 PilesTotal Emission (Tons/Acre) 0.1849 0.8441

Total Emissions (Tons) Rx & Piles 179 31,688 0 Total Emissions (Tons) Rx & Piles 157 27,886 0

B-27

Alternative 7 PM 10 PM 2.5 FMZ Salvage Landscape/Rx FMZ Appendix B-Fire Salvage and Landscape/RxFuels ______Acres to burn Acres to burn ______RX 3,090 29,086 91,000 RX 3,090 29,086 91,000 Piles 9,269 0 NA Piles 9,269 0 NA

Fuel Loading by model 24.81 85.26 15.98 Fuel Loading by model 24.81 85.26 15.98 Piles 18.68 Piles 18.68

L = Fuel Consumed RX 8.6835 42.63 5.593 L = Fuel Consumed RX 8.6835 42.63 5.593 Piles 16.812 76.734 NA Piles 16.812 76.734 NA Reduction Factors RX 0.35 0.5 0.35 Reduction Factors RX 0.35 0.5 0.35 Piles 0.9 0.9 NA Piles 0.9 0.9 NA

EF = Fire Avg. Emission Factor lbs/ton 25 25 25 EF = Fire Avg. Emission Factor lbs/ton 22 22 22 tons/ton 0.0125 0.0125 0.0125 tons/ton 0.011 0.011 0.011

RX Total Emission (pounds) 670,692 30,998,405 12,724,075 RX Total Emission (pounds) 590,209 27,278,596 11,197,186 RX Total Emission (Tons) 335 15,499 6,362 RX Total Emission (Tons) 295 13,639 5,599

Piling Total Emission (pounds) 3,895,551 0 0 Piling Total Emission (pounds) 3,428,084 0 0 Piling Total Emission (Tons) 1,948 0 0 Piling Total Emission (Tons) 1,714 0 0

Rx Total Emission (Tons/Acre) 0.1085 0.5329 0.0699 Rx Total Emission (Tons/Acre) 0.0955 0.4689 0.0615 PilesTotal Emission (Tons/Acre) 0.2102 0.9592 PilesTotal Emission (Tons/Acre) 0.1849 0.8441

Total Emissions (Tons) Rx & Piles 2,283 15,499 6,362 Total Emissions (Tons) Rx & Piles 2,009 13,639 5,599

B-28

Appendix B-Fire and Fuels

Siskiyou Forest Plan S&G 12-2 Fuel Hazard Reduction 9-23-2003

Siskiyou LRMP Maximum Acceptable Fuel Loadings Tons/Acre Type of Diameter Ranges Treatment Clearcut & TOTAL TOTAL TOTAL Hardwood .25 - 1.0” 1.1 - 3.0 3.1 - 9” 9.1–20.0” >20.0” FUEL 0 - 3” 0 - 9” Conversions LOAD 1DF4CC pg 11 2.0 1.5 3.5 3.6 7.1 0 0 7.1 2DF4CC pg 13 2.4 7.5 9.9 6.6 16.5 0.7 0 17.2 3DF4CC pg 15 .7 1.4 2.1 8.0 10.1 11.0 7.0 28.1 6DF4CC pg 21 .5 .4 .9 7.0 7.9 25.1 31.0 64.0 1DFHD4CC pg 77 1.1 3.1 4.2 3.7 7.9 2.5 0 10.4 2DFHD4CC pg 79 2.0 5.1 7.1 8.8 15.9 2.6 0 18.5 3DFHD4CC pg 81 1.3 4.0 5.3 16.6 21.9 9.6 6.8 38.3 4DFHD4CC pg 83 3.7 6.3 10.0 15.3 25.3 12.8 3.6 41.7 RANGE .5 - 3.7 .4 - 7.5 .9 - 10 3.6-16.6 7.1 - 25.3 0 – 25.1 0–31.0 7.1-64.0 AVERAGE 1.7 3.7 5.4 8.7 14.1 8.1 6.1 28.2 Partial Cuts 1DF4PC pg 33 1.1 2.3 3.4 2.3 5.7 1.0 0 6.7 3DF4PC pg 37 1.6 2.7 4.3 5.7 10.0 7.9 3.0 20.9 1DF3PC pg 53 1.3 2.8 4.1 4.8 8.9 0 0 8.9 2DF3PC pg 55 2.0 2.1 4.1 10.8 14.9 0 0 14.9 1DFHD4PC pg 93 .7 3.4 4.1 4.0 8.1 4.2 0 12.3 RANGE .7 - 2.0 2.1-3.4 3.4 - 4.3 2.3 -10.8 5.7-14.9 0-7.9 0-3.0 6.7-20.9 AVERAGE 1.3 2.7 4.0 5.5 9.5 2.6 0.6 12.7 Precommercial Thinning (roadside and fuelbreaks only) 1DF1TH pg 67 .4 .4 .8 1.4 2.2 6.0 10.8 19.0 2DF1TH pg 69 .7 .9 1.6 2.2 3.8 16.3 75.0 95.1 10.8 - RANGE .4 - .7 .4 - .9 .8 - 1.6 1.4 - 2.2 2.2 - 3.8 6.0-16.3 19.0-95.1 75.0 AVERAGE .6 .6 1.2 1.8 3.0 11.2 42.9 57.1

Reference: Maxwell, Wayne G. and F. R. Ward. Photo Series for Quantifying Forest Residues in the Coastal Douglas-fir/Hemlock Type and Coastal Douglas-fir/Hardwood Type. USDA Forest Service; Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. General Technical Report PNW-51. February 1976. 103 pgs.

B-29 Appendix B-Fire and Fuels

Siskiyou Forest Plan S&G 12-2 Fuel Hazard Reduction 6-12-2003

Siskiyou LRMP Maximum Acceptable Fuel Loadings Tons/Acre Type of Diameter Ranges Treatment Clearcut & TOTAL TOTAL Hardwood .25 - 1.0” 1.1 - 3.0 3.1 - 9” 0 - 3” 0 - 9” Conversions 1DF4CC pg 11 2.0 1.5 3.5 3.6 7.1 2DF4CC pg 13 2.4 7.5 9.9 6.6 16.5 3DF4CC pg 15 .7 1.4 2.1 8.0 10.1 6DF4CC pg 21 .5 .4 .9 7.0 7.9 1DFHD4CC pg 77 1.1 3.1 4.2 2.5 6.7 2DFHD4CC pg 79 2.0 5.1 7.1 8.8 15.9 3DFHD4CC pg 81 1.3 4.0 5.3 16.6 21.9 4DFHD4CC pg 83 3.7 6.3 10.0 15.3 25.3 RANGE .5 - 3.7 .4 - 7.5 .9 - 10 2.5 -16.6 6.7- 25.3 AVERAGE 1.7 3.7 5.4 8.6 13.9 Partial Cuts 1DF4PC pg 33 1.1 2.3 3.4 2.3 5.7 3DF4PC pg 37 1.6 2.7 4.3 5.7 10.0 1DF3PC pg 53 1.3 2.8 4.1 4.8 8.9 2DF3PC pg 55 2.0 2.1 4.1 10.8 14.9 1DFHD4PC pg 93 .7 3.4 4.1 4.0 8.1 RANGE .7 - 2.0 2.1-3.4 3.4 - 4.3 2.3 -10.8 5.7-14.9 AVERAGE 1.3 2.7 4.0 5.5 9.5 Precommercial Thinning (roadside and fuelbreaks only) 1DF1TH pg 67 .4 .4 .8 1.4 2.2 2DF1TH pg 69 .7 .9 1.6 2.2 3.8 RANGE .4 - .7 .4 - .9 .8 - 1.6 1.4 - 2.2 2.2 - 3.8 AVERAGE .6 .6 1.2 1.8 3.0

Reference: Maxwell, Wayne G. and F. R. Ward. Photo Series for Quantifying Forest Residues in the Coastal Douglas-fir/Hemlock Type and Coastal Douglas-fir/Hardwood Type. USDA Forest Service; Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. General Technical Report PNW-51. February 1976. 103 pgs.

B-30 Appendix B-Fire and Fuels

Biscuit Fire Stands <9” Diameter

Average Weights (DF) (Table 5) Note: Tree diameters based on stump diameter- not DBH < 3” (all portions < 8”) = 16#/tree 3.1- 6” (all portions < 8”) = 94#/tree 6.1- 9” (all portions < 9”) = 422#/tree. (Note: 9” diameter tree weight estimated to be 650 #/ This analysis assumes the following size class distribution within a typical <9” diameter Biscuit Fire stand: 50% (0-3”) 30% (3-6”) 20% (6-9”)

Thus the ‘typical’ tree under these assumptions would weight 121#. The Forest Plan standard I will use for this analysis will be 9.5 tons/ac (0-9” diameter)- that for Partial Cuts. This equates to approximately 157 trees/acre (16.7 foot spacing). So, felling greater than this number of trees/acre (0-9” diameter –stump height) would likely exceed Forest Plan S & G for fuel loading and, therefore, site preparation before planting would be warranted.

Don Bellville 6-12-2003

Reference: Snell, J.A. Kendall; Brown, James K. Handbook for Predicting Residue Weights of Pacific Northwest Conifers. USDA Forest Service; Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. General Technical Report PNW-103. February 1980. 44 pgs.

B-31 Appendix B-Fire and Fuels ______

Subject: Initial Attack of the China Fire in year 2000

To: Rogue/Siskiyou National Forest Fire Management

I (Robert Shoemaker) responded to the China Fire on June 12, 2000 as the rappaller in charge- initial attack incident commander of the fire, which was located in an area burned in the Silver Fire of 1987, just southwest of Chinaman Hat in the Florence Creek drainage-Township 36 South, Range 10 West, Section 28, Southeast ¼ of the Northeast ¼ Section. This fire was on a southwest aspect, mid-slope, within the Kalmiopsis Wilderness, Siskiyou National Forest. The rappel went smoothly and there were a total of four fire fighters on this fire.

I sized up the fire as little more then two acres in size and burning intensely on the north (uphill) and east (side hill) flanks. The fire was a very intense surface fire with occasional torching of mature trees (dominate and co-dominate trees). This was caused by ladder fuels made up of mostly brush and small hardwood trees (Pacific Madrone and Tan Oak). The flaming front of this fire (head of fire) had a flaming front average of 6 to 10 feet and 4 to 6 feet on the flanks of the fire. The area at the backside (downhill side) was not burned in the Silver Fire of 1987, in this area we found the tree that was hit by lightning. It appeared to have been there for several days; the ground fire pattern around the hit tree showed evidence that the fire had slowly been creeping in the duff and litter for several days before it started to grow and was detected. That would have been consistent with the last thunderstorm event, which had moved though the area about a week before. Then you could clearly see a vegetation change to brush small trees and a lot of snags standing and on the ground. This area is where the fire was burning into above the area the fire started in.

This second area was 40 + plus acres in size, and was a spot fire from the 1987 Silver Fire. The old spot fire area was full of 10 to 20 foot Tan Oak brush, and several 6” to 28”tree snags-Tan Oak/Pacific Madrone/Douglas Fir which half was standing and the other half was criss-crossed on the ground and/or near the ground, making movement through it very difficult.

Fuel Model/ Fuel Loadings - The vegetation type down at the bottom of the fire where lightning struck the tree was a fuel model 10, mixed conifer/ hardwood stand (Douglas Fire/ Tan Oak/ Pacific Madrone with the occasional Canyon Live Oak) with some dead down woody fuels. Fuel loading of around 4 to 8 tons per acre. Please refer to PNW-105 , Photo Series for Quantifying Natural Forest Residues in Common Vegetation Types of the Pacific Northwest, page 18 1- DFHD-4 (NFDRS G) this photo would best represent the fuels for this area. The area of the old Silver Fire at the upper portion of the fire would be best represented by page 26 5-DFHD-4 this photo shows a larger fuel loading of 33 tons per acre, I feel that in the actual area of the fire the loading was higher more like the 40 to 80 tons per acre range in this previously burned area. The 5-DFHD-4 photo would be the closest photo for representation of the fire area- if it had twice the amount of the large woody material.

B-32 Appendix B-Fire and Fuels ______

The large down woody material created a major fire control problem during our initial attack of the fire. We had no problem creating an anchor point down on the bottom of the fire in the area of lower fuel loading. But trying to get around the eastern flank and the head of the fire to stop the fire from moving uphill was very difficult. The problems were-knocking down the flames (too much radiant heat) so the trees could be cut and a line put in. We built direct line because we had too few resources and it would have been dangerous in these fuels to build indirect line. There was a lot of chain saw work, an extreme amount of dead trees and down material to cut, this coupled with rock-hard (no rot) dead hardwood trees made fire line production rates much slower with these conditions.

We had our usual compliment of a 044 Stihl Chainsaw with saw kit and one dolmar of fuel/oil for cutting trees and we had the clearance to use it in the wilderness. A 044 chainsaw will run approximately 45 minutes on one tank of fuel, and a dolmar holds approximately 5 ½ tanks of fuel for a 044 chainsaw. After completing the fire line around the fire, in the early am hours of the next day, we had only a ½ tank of saw fuel left in the saw. This was an usually high consumption of saw fuel for a 5 acre (size at containment) fire, this was due to all the cutting of the snags and down dried trees, as a result of the Silver Fire 1987. The actual digging of the fire line was done in a usual time frame, duff/litter amounts were typical and not a factor, the large course woody material and abundance of ground fuels and snags were the major problem in the suppression effort.

As a side note, just before night fall on the day of our I.A. of the China Fire, there was a 20- person crew up above the fire on the Bald Mountain Road, approximately 3 miles away. I had them hold up until we were able to contain the fire and stop its upward movement. After we contained the fire I radioed up to Brad Clayton (District Hand crew Supervisor) to bring his crew down to the fire. The crew had a lot of difficulty accessing the fire because of the impenetrable Tan Oak brush and walking/maneuvering across the large down woody debris (downed trees) and trying to keep a straight line towards our fire within areas burned in the Silver Fire 1987.

We were stretched to the maximum with four people to contain this fire at 5 acres, in these fuel conditions. It’s my opinion and personal accounts that we will see fire suppression costs go up, and difficulty in suppressing fires and potential for large fires in this area of the Biscuit Fire in the future.

Robert Shoemaker Initial Attack Incident Commander, China Fire – 2000 AFMO-Fuels Siskiyou Fire Zone, Rogue River & Siskiyou National Forests

B-33 Appendix B-Fire and Fuels ______

United States Forest Siskiyou Powers Ranger District Department of Service National 42861 Highway 242 Agriculture Forest Powers, OR 97466

Subject: Initial Attack of the Florence (Biscuit) Fire

To: Whom it may concern

I was called to the Florence fire on July 15th, 2002. I was the crew boss of a 20 person crew. I am crew boss, strike team leader/crew, task force leader, ICT4, and RXB2 (t) qualified. The chronology of the fire and initial attack is documented elsewhere (http://www.biscuitfire.com/chronology.htm). My assessment of the fuels and suppression efforts is as of follows: Upon arriving on the fire I realized that I could not safely anchor the fire with the resources that I had. The fuels on the ground were a problem. It was obvious that the fire was located within the perimeter of the 1987 Silver fire. On the ground were large diameter Douglas-fir up to 5 feet in diameter. There was also dead brush from the 1987 Silver fire with live brush 15-20’ in height mixed in with the dead. This created a major problem in the initial attack. I felt that my crew never had a chance because of the fuels and suppression problems on the ground. There had been no treatment to the fuels in this area after the 1987 Silver fire so the abundance of ground fuels and snags were a major problem in the suppression efforts. Snags were catching on fire ahead of the flaming front and snags were also coming down every 20-30 minutes. I do not hold a crew back if I hear trees falling but it is a major safety hazard that has to be mitigated. In my eighteen years of fighting fire there is only one fire that I recall having so many snags falling so often (Crescendo Creek in 1987 on the IPNF). The brush component was thick and not conducive to suppression efforts. My opinion was that it was a nightmare that my crew could not handle. The large diameter downed material and dead/live brush was very prohibitive to our suppression efforts. I spoke with Bob Shoemaker after the fire, he had rappelled in to this area in previous years, and he seemed to have the same assessment of the fuels and suppression efforts difficulties that I faced. This is my assessment of the initial attack of the Florence (later named Biscuit) fire.

/s/ Paul Hiebert Paul Hiebert Fire Management Officer Powers Ranger District Powers, OR 97466

Caring for the Land and Serving People Printed on Recycled Paper

B-34

APPENDIX C

SITE PRODUCTIVITY

Soil Erosion Modeling Erosion Potential Parent Material Groupings Soil Investigations for Five Areas Burned by the 2002 Biscuit Fire Key Indicators Acres Planted Dead Wood Prescriptions

Appendix C – Site Productivity

Assumptions Soil Erosion Modeling

Soil erosion models are increasingly being used to predict rates of erosion after both natural and human-caused disturbance. Most models relate to, or are based on management of agricultural soils. Applying any such model to very large landscapes, such as the Biscuit Fire area, becomes a challenge to account for differences in spatial scales. Disturbed WEPP is a computer-based model developed by the USDA Forest Service and based on the Agricultural Research Service’s Water Erosion Prediction Project (WEPP) model for predicting disturbed forest runoff, erosion and sediment delivery Disturbed WEPP (Elliott et al, 2000) was used to develop erosion estimates from areas burned by the Biscuit Wildfire. Documentation for WEPP is at http://forest.moscowfsl.wsu.edu/fswepp/docs/distweppdoc.html.

Disturbed WEPP requires user specified inputs for: • Soil texture • Climate • Slope length and gradient • Disturbance type • Surface cover (vegetation type and % cover) • Rock content

Disturbed WEPP was used for the Burned Area Emergency Restoration (BAER) effort in the Biscuit Fire area to model sediment production and delivery before the first winter storms. For the Biscuit Recovery analysis, the predicted erosion factor was multiplied by acres of fire severity based on satellite infrared-identified vegetation change rather than fire severity based on previous satellite imagery.

Soil Texture Information on soil types was collected from soil surveys for Curry and Josephine Counties, a soil survey from Six Rivers National Forest in California, and the Soil Resource Inventory, Siskiyou National Forest. Bedrock geology was collected from state and county mapping (DOGAMI, USGS), and geology contract previously mapped for the Forest. Soils were grouped by parent material, the bedrock from which soils are primarily derived. Parent materials were grouped by common soil and erosional characteristics described in the soil surveys as well as bedrock lithology. A description and map of parent material is at the end of this document.

Climate Climate data was queried from Sexton Mountain OR (east side), and Gold Beach OR (west side). After initial WEPP runs were run, erosion predictions for each soil group was applied by burn intensity to represent the entire fire area with similar conditions.

Slope Length and Gradient Slope lengths for both upper and lower slopes were held constant at 210 feet for the upper slope to simulate one acre length, and 150 feet for lower slopes to represent riparian buffer width. Ridgeline Fuel Management Zones were assigned an upper slope length of 1000 feet to better

C-1 Appendix C – Site Productivity

represent geographic position. A range of slope gradient for upper and lower slopes was estimated for a typical slope underlain by the particular parent material (rock type).

Disturbance Type and Surface Cover Disturbed WEPP allows two wildfire designations: high and low severity fire. Fire severity, which reflects the effects of fire on the ecosystem, was mapped for the Biscuit BAER effort using remote sensing (IR mapping) and assigned high, moderate, and low burn severities. Mapping of burn severity for the Biscuit Assessment was done using post-fire aerial photos, which assessed changes to tree canopy. For the Biscuit Recovery DEIS, burn severity was mapped using satellite imagery that mapped changes in vegetation. Therefore, although the erosion factors did not change though the assessments, the number of acres multiplied by the factors may differ between assessments. WEPP was run using a combination of burn severity (disturbance factor) and vegetative type and cover. Appendix X is a spreadsheet listing all vegetative assumptions used for the DEIS. For background estimates, an unburned scenario was modeled for a fully forested landscape.

Rock Content Percent of rock fragments was determined by the description of the soil from the soil surveys, refined by field observation. For example, a soil classed as a gravelly loam would contain between 15 and 35% rock fragments within the upper soil layer.

Disturbed WEPP Erosion Modeling Eight soil groups were delineated based on soil texture and parent material. The acres of each soil group by burn severity were determined using GIS and used for the Disturbed WEPP runs and sediment estimates. Each group was modeled six times; three burn severities by appropriate climatic regimes. These were averaged, then divided by total acres of the burn area to give the total tons/acre estimate. Runs for low or unburned areas were also done to predict background erosion rates.

Disturbed WEPP Post-Fire Management Erosion Modeling Sediment predictions from post-fire management were modeled with the same soil groupings used for the watershed predictions. Vegetation treatment is used as a surrogate for wildfire and management activities, and only one treatment per slope can be input into the model. Therefore, it was difficult to model physical soil disturbance from salvage logging in an area already modeled for high intensity wildfire.

Vegetation type by burn severity and percent vegetation cover was estimated using the following formula suggested by W.J. Elliot, project leader for WEPP: Vegetation type = post-fire designation + one year % Cover = (100-year one/2 + year 1)

C-2 Appendix C – Site Productivity

Acres of management were multiplied by the percent of predicted soil displacement, based on monitoring done after the Silver Fire by Forest soils scientists. Tractor logging, bare soil 36% area disturbed Cable skidding 32% Skyline logging 8 % Helicopter logging 2%

This number was then applied to total acres of management by watershed.

Accuracy of a Prediction Documentation for Disturbed WEPP emphasizes, “The accuracy of a predicted runoff or erosion rate is, at best, plus or minus 50 percent”. The model proved to be very sensitive to climate; with a 50 to 70% increase in predicted erosion rates between the east and west side of the Forest. A more accurate representation of climate for the west side would have been from a weather station in Agness OR, since the Snow Camp-Wildhorse ridge appears to moderate coastal storms. However, this custom climate is not available for WEPP use. The model did not prove particularly sensitive to slope length, including buffer (lower slope) length, and is not able to factor in variations or irregularities on forest slopes - benches or slope breaks. Disturbed WEPP is very sensitive to ground cover or vegetation treatment.

Soil Erosion Monitoring Three informal monitoring efforts were begun to measure surface erosion after the Biscuit Fire. Forty plots were installed to monitor the implementation and effectiveness of aerial mulching. Two hundred and sixty plots were installed to monitor surface erosion. Rebar plot centers previously installed as plot markers for the Long Term Ecological Productivity study (LTEP) were also used as erosion pins, but not reported in this document. Although the data collected from these plots was to be used to help calibrate Disturbed WEPP for site-specific soil types, large discrepancies between WEPP sediment delivery estimates and the amount of delivery noted in field observations and calculated by stream transport capacity modeling required immediate calibration of the WEPP estimates for the DEIS and extrapolation to all soil types. Additive measures were used to calculate an erosion adjustment factor to reflect sediment leaving the profile. Soil plot protocols, reports, and measurements are located in the DEIS analysis files. .

C-3 Appendix C – Site Productivity

Table C-1. Back-Calculation for soil erosion adjustment factor using Soil Erosion Plot datae

Acres in Measured Climatic Tons Biscuit Estimated erosion Tons Adjustment Watershed Regime estimatedc perimeter erosion cma cmb calculatedd Factor Six-Mile (6th field) East 195,857 13325 0.27 0.25 181349 0.91 N. Fork Indigo (6th field) West 1,594,176 15567 1.91 0.27 225355 0.14 Indigo Creek (5th field) West 3,772,248 49123 1.40 0.27 727505 0.19 a. Estimate of uniform soil movement (production) from surface erosion, based on soil density of 1.2 gm/cm3 b. Additive soil movement (accumulation minus erosion) measured from erosion pins (for example, adding -0.4 cm of erosion and 2.9 cm of accumulation would equal 2.5 cm.) c. Estimated sediment production first winter after wildfire (WEPP) d. Tons back-calculated using ratio of uniform soil movement/tons estimated to measured soil movement/tons calculated Adjustment factors reflect sensitivity of WEPP to climate e. Calculations of tons and acres were for ALL burn severities in the sub-watershed

Soil Grouping by Parent Material

Introduction Geology and soil types are numerous and complex in the Biscuit Fire area. Soils were grouped by similar parent material (bedrock from which the soil was derived) and erosion characteristics to help make erosion modeling less fragmented, to direct field investigations to areas with higher erosion potential, and to focus erosion treatments to those areas of highest concern.

Methodology Maps and literature used for the analysis included soil surveys from Josephine and Curry Counties, Six Rivers National Forest, and the Soil Resource Inventory, Siskiyou National Forest. Geologic maps of Curry and Josephine Counties were also used to help refine descriptions of parent material found in the soil surveys. Field verification was done during reconnaissance visits to the fire area in conjunction with BAER and suppression rehabilitation. Similar lithologies, erosion characteristics, and soil texture were used to group soil types, and shear strength, erodability factor (k), and cohesion were used to determine similar soil properties (Table C-2. Soil Groups by Parent Material and Figure C-2: Parent Material Distribution).

Parent Material Groups

Group 1. Alluvial and Colluvial Deposits: Alluvial deposits are limited in the fire area. They have low slope gradients and low to moderate erosion potential. Soil type can range from gravelly loam to extremely cobbly loam, depending on the distance of transport. Limited analysis was done and no treatment recommended in this soil group.

Group 3. Coarse-grained Igneous Bedrock: Coarsely crystalline bedrock in the fire area includes metamorphosed diorite, granodiorite, olive gabbro, gabbro, and other granitic

C-4 Appendix C – Site Productivity

lithologies. The largest body of gabbroic rocks (basic igneous) occurs in a large, north-trending band on the east side of the fire, crossing the Illinois River near Oak Flat, and extend into the Kalmiopsis Wilderness area in the upper drainage of the Chetco River. Smaller bodies of gabbro are found as dikes and smaller bodies often associated with ultramafic rocks. Other igneous intrusive rocks, ranging in composition from gabbro through quartz diorite, have been mapped throughout the fire area. Gabbro dikes are often very resistant to erosion, and can be easily traced as they crop out above weathered country rock. In general, however, this group of rocks, although often topographically high, weathers to more gently rounded hills and ridges. More felsic rocks such as granite and diorite, stand out by their light color. Deep, colluvial soils and decomposed rock (saprolite) can form in draws and swales that follow joint and fracture patterns in the rock bodies. Landslides in this rock type are predominately debris flows that occur when these swales or draws are saturated by ground water.

Soil type. Much of the granitic rock in the area is deeply weathered or decomposed into saprolite, and eventually into moderate to deep, sandy soils or with low cohesion. Soils derived from these lithologies have high infiltration rates, and fewer rock fragments in the upper soil layers. Site productivity is moderate to low (for trees but not brush), owing in part to the high infiltration rates and resultant droughty conditions. Areas underlain by these rock and soil types have the greatest risk of debris flows because of their sandy texture and poor cohesion.

Effects of Disturbance. In areas of high burn severity, soils in this parent material group had the highest incidence of water-repellent layers that persisted to the greatest depth. Water- repellent soils can develop during burning of surface litter and vegetation that may produce hydrophobic substances. Granitic soils were observed to support thick underbrush and thicker litter layers, probably due to droughty surface conditions. Under severe fire conditions, uniformly sandy soils allow greater penetration of vaporized substances, which condense to form a water-repellent layer, and may persist for up to five years.

Group 4. Metasedimentary and conglomerate bedrock: This rock type is mostly found in the northwest section of the fire area, along Bear Camp road and near the town of Agness (Cretaceous Myrtle Group), and as small outcrops of poorly lithified Quaternary deposits near Onion and Swede Creeks on the east side. Deposits on the east side have been extensively mined for gold. Areas of the Galice Formation were also assigned to this group if conglomerate was described as bedrock in the Josephine County Soil Survey. However, this assessment is focused on the younger conglomerates of the Myrtle Group. Thick conglomerate lenses can provide cap rocks for more poorly erosion resistant sedimentary rocks. Near the mouth of the Illinois River, the conglomerates have weathered to steep slopes that can be moderately to extremely ravelly as pebbles and cobbles weather from decomposing matrix. Examples of this can be seen at Pebble Hill and along the Illinois River trail near Buzzard’s Roost. This soil group was differentiated because of its tendency for ravel.

Soil type. Sedimentary rock with appreciable amounts of conglomerate weathers to a very gravelly or cobbly sandy loam. Pebble-studded boulders are common in areas of shallow soils. Soils derived from these lithologies have moderate to high infiltration rates, and

C-5 Appendix C – Site Productivity

contain 35 to 60% rock fragments in the upper soil layers. Site productivity is moderate. Slope stability concerns are primarily for rock ravel.

Effects of Disturbance. In areas of high burn severity, soils in this parent material group have lost vegetation and litter cover that provides cohesion to the round surface rock. In very steep areas, or areas that have been undercut by roads, or disturbed by fire lines, the rate of matrix decomposition on exposed surfaces is expected to increase, as well as the amount and rate of pebble and cobble ravel. One area of special concern is the Illinois River trail.

Group 5. Ultramafic Rocks: Peridotite is an igneous rock type formed in the upper mantle of the earth. It is usually coarsely crystalline and erodes to rounded ridges. Through tectonic uplift and erosion of overlying rocks, the Josephine ultramafic sheet has been exposed in a relatively continuous sheet from Eight Dollar Mountain into northern California, along with smaller, discontinuous bodies at Pearsall Peak and Chrome Ridge. Similar to other igneous rocks such as granite, it weathers into rounded ridges and relatively stable landforms. Much of the peridotite in the fire area has been altered to serpentine minerals and oxidized on the surface. Boulders and rock fragments are reddish orange, and appear rough textured from differential weathering of large mineral crystals. Other bodies of serpentinite, probably formed by differential melting of peridotite and mixing with seawater, have been intruded along faults and fractures, both in peridotite bodies and along fractures and contacts between other rock types. This rock appears as sheared and mottled shiny black to green blocks to slivers, depending on the amount of shearing and fracturing. Where ground water is high, or deeper soils become saturated, serpentinite areas can fail as deep-seated mass movement.

Soil type. Peridotite weathers to clay loam to extremely stony clay loam and can develop a sandy surface texture made up of mineral crystals that have weathered out of the rock. Peridotite soils are generally rocky with 40 to 80% surface rock fragments as cobbles or boulders. Productivity is generally low and vegetation sparse. Serpentinite has a higher clay content and less surface rock. Both form soils that oxidize to orange-brown or red. Soil depths in peridotite areas are shallow except for areas of thick, ancient lateritic deposits or near contacts zones where other rock types are mixed with the ultramafic parent material. Soil depths in serpentinized areas, such as fault or shear zone, can be very deep and may fail as earth flows. Infiltration rates are low to moderate in serpentinite and moderate to rapid in peridotite soils. Serpentinite and highly weathered peridotite have high porosity but low permeability. The soils can hold and perch water for long periods; bogs and fens are common features.

Effects of Disturbance. Because of higher clay content and lack of vegetative cover or protective duff and litter, soils are susceptible to surface and gully erosion after physical disturbance. Runoff initially shows high turbidity and suspended sediment. Surface cover, soil development and cohesion from fine roots are slow to recover. Where soils are not physically disturbed or displaced, or slopes oversteepened by road or stream undercutting, these soils appear relatively resistant to erosion following fire. Infiltration tested after wildfire was within average rates, and water repellency was rarely noted. Where water- repellency was noted, soils contained a high coarse sand fraction.

C-6 Appendix C – Site Productivity

Groups 6 and 8. Metasedimentary (sandstone and siltstone) and metavolcanic bedrock: This rock type underlies approximately 36% of the fire area and consists of rocks of the Galice and Dothan Formations. Both formations are composed of marine sandstones, siltstones, and minor amounts of conglomerate and pillow basalts. The Dothan Formation has localized bands and outcrops of chert. The canyon area of the Chetco River was cut through a resistant band of layered, marine chert. In the uplands, near Elko Spring, chert knobs are exposed within swales of less resistant sedimentary rock. Fine-grained rocks of the Galice Formation have distinct parting and resemble slate. Slopes developed on Galice rocks tend to be uniformly long. Streams are steep and often cut to bedrock. Rocks of both formations are moderately resistant to erosion and are relatively stable. On the Westside however, more rain and tectonic uplift contribute to active stream incision, undercutting slopes and causing large rotational slumps, such as in the Pistol River drainage.

Soil type. Soils developed from the Galice and Dothan Formations are moderate to deep, silt to sandy loams. Soils have moderate amounts of surface organic matter and leaf litter and can have appreciable amounts of rock fragments higher on slopes. Infiltration is moderate to rapid. Productivity is moderate to high. Surface erosion potential is generally slight to moderate, but increases to sever in proportion to slope.

Effects of Disturbance. Few areas of Galice or Dothan soils showed water-repellent tendencies. In steep areas with deeper soil development, stream bank erosion and gully incision was noted, which will increase in rate and size in areas within or below high burn severity. Because of the high site productivity of these soils, much of the area has been managed for timber production. Plantations that experienced high burn severity lost much of their vegetation, litter and duff protection for underlying soils.

Group 9. Metasedimentary and mudstone bedrock: This rock type is mostly found in the northwest section of the fire area, along Bear Camp road and near the town of Agness (Cretaceous Myrtle Group). This rock type was differentiated because of the thin, friable layers of mudstone, and their tendency to ravel and fail. Mudstone weathers to steep, uniform slopes with gently rounded ridges. Where undercut, they hold very steep slopes, but are a continuous source of mudstone chips, rock ravel and shallow debris slides. Mudstone is exposed in road cuts along roads 3300 (Agness) and Burnt Ridge (2803).

Soil type. Sedimentary rock with appreciable amounts of mudstone weathers to a clay loam. Site productivity is moderate. Soils have low to moderate infiltration rates; porosity is high but permeability moderate to low because of the increased clay content from decomposing mudstone. Surface erosion is rated as moderate.

Effects of Disturbance. In areas of high burn severity, finer fractions of the soils can be displaced by raindrop impact and fill macro-pores, slowing infiltration rates and leading to overland flow. Sheet and gully erosion is a concern on this soil type.

Group 10. Mica-graphite schist and phyllite: This rock type is mostly found in the northwest section of the fire area, along the Agness Road 3300, and Wildhorse Road 3318. It underlies much of the Lawson Creek drainage. These rocks are considered part of the Colebrooke

C-7 Appendix C – Site Productivity

Formation, and consist of light-gray, fine-grained marine sediments that have been metamorphosed to a thinly foliated phyllite with abundant quartz veins. Large outcrops of submarine basalts found as fault blocks in the formation, for example Skookemhouse Butte. Slopes underlain by Colebrooke schist is are commonly benchy or hummocky. Large, ancient rotational slump blocks define the Lawson drainage. Streams are deeply incised and stream bank instability is common. Only 2 % of the fire area is underlain by Colebrooke schist; most in the Lawson Creek and Pistol River drainages.

Soil type. Colebrooke rock weathers as a very channery (flat, rounded rock clasts) silt loam. Infiltration rates are moderate to rapid. Rock fragments can be up to 50% of the surface layers, usually flat pieces of schist or hard, angular white quartz. Site productivity is moderate to high, and slopes are very brushy. Permeability is moderate to low because of the higher fine sediment fraction in the soil. Colebrooke slopes hold water all year; seeps and bogs can be common in areas of more deeply weathered rock.

Effects of Disturbance. Colebrooke soils have thick undergrowth, which tends to keep soils cooler throughout the year. Low intensity ground fire was mapped over most of the Colebrooke area. Soils are deep and surface erosion potential is moderate to high. Managed lands in the Lawson drainage, however, were subjected to higher fire severity and have lost much of the brush and litter cover that provided shade and protection to the soil. Several large, slowly moving rotational slumps occur in the Lawson drainage. All of the jackstrawed and leaning trees on a failure below Game Lake have been burned, and much of the slope above the failure. Rate of movement is expected to increase over the next few years. The most marked erosion after the fire was noted deep colluvial soils in the LTEP units on road 3680360. Slopes averaged 30 to 40%. Experimental design of these units removed all of the tree canopy and significant amounts of downed wood and litter leaving soils unprotected from rain splash and overland flow. Evidence of rill and gully erosion was noted, and accumulations of fine sediment behind stumps and other sediment traps. Erosion potential rating for this parent material and mid-range slope was changed to high after these field observations.

Figure C-1. Surface erosion in schist, LTEP units in Pistol River drainage

C-8 Appendix C – Site Productivity

Figure C-2. Parent Material Distribution

C-9 Appendix C – Site Productivity

Table C-2. Soil Groups by Parent Material

Soil Percent Group Surface Texture Group Name Erosion Rating PM_Code Classification Rock

AL, gravelly loam sandy loam alluvial/colluvial deposits 35 low to moderate AMuM, 1 CLGL gravelly sandy coarse-grained igneous high to G, OG, sandy loam 20 3 loam bedrock moderate GG MC, very gravelly sandy loam metasedimentary/conglomerate 35 high MMC, loam 4 MVC very cobbly clay U, UMM, clay loam ultramafic bedrock 50 high 5 loam UMV moderate to SS, silt loam silt loam metasandstone/ siltstone 10 6 high SSMM very gravelly metamorphic/ volcanic moderate to M, MM, sandy loam 45 loam bedrock high MMS, MV 8 very gravelly sandy loam to MUM, metasedimentary/mudstone 35 moderate 9 loam clay loam MUMM very channery silt loam schist/phyllite bedrock 55 moderate SP 10 loam

C-10 Appendix C-Site Productivity

Sediment Prediction first winter post-fire Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Percent High Intensity, High Intensity, High Intensity, High Intensity, Intensity, Intensity, Intensity, Intensity, Low Intensity, Low Intensity, Low Intensity, Low Intensity, Soil Classification Surface Eastside Eastside Westside Westside Eastside Eastside Westside Westside Eastside Eastside Westside Westside Group (WEPP) Parent Material Rock1 Erosion Rating1 production2 delivery2 production2 delivery2 production2 delivery2 production2 delivery2 production2 delivery2 production2 delivery2 alluvial/colluvial 1 sandy loam deposits 35 low to moderate 2.8 1.74 28.8 16.54 .89 .05 7.06 0.82 0.01 0 0.33 0.13 coarsely-crystalline 3 sandy loam igneous bedrock 20 low to moderate 39.76 29.56 215.42 215.41 9.33 1.75 79.19 19.7 1.06 0.08 10.89 4.96 metasedimentary/ 4 sandy loam conglomerage 35 high 31.74 26.28 236.17 236.16 9.51 2.41 85.94 23.97 1.16 0.18 11.91 5.51 5 clay loam ultramafic bedrock 50 high 31.96 30.14 200.86 200.85 12.22 4.59 95.31 43.94 1.07 0.58 13.88 8.11 metasandstone/ 6 silt loam siltstone 10 moderate to high 52.95 40.28 274.92 274.91 17.53 3.16 140.16 49.02 1.74 0.38 25.8 14.46 metamorphic/volcanic 8 sandy loam bedrock 45 moderate to high 25.92 25.92 243.11 243.09 9.91 2.69 87.72 26.09 1.28 0.41 13.47 6.31 sandy loam to clay metasedimentary/ 9 loam mudstone 35 moderate 34.64 29.73 113 212.99 11.12 3.31 86.29 33.32 2 0.28 12.46 6.57

10 silt loam schist/phyllite bedrock 55 moderate 317.11 317.09 121.57 64.12 22.41 15.32

Sediment Prediction two years post-fire Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Percent High Intensity, High Intensity, High Intensity, High Intensity, Intensity, Intensity, Intensity, Intensity, Low Intensity, Low Intensity, Low Intensity, Low Intensity, Soil Classification Surface Eastside Eastside Westside Westside Eastside Eastside Westside Westside Eastside Eastside Westside Westside Group (WEPP) Parent Material Rock1 Erosion Rating1 production3 delivery3 production3 delivery3 production3 delivery3 production3 delivery3 production3 delivery3 production3 delivery3 alluvial/colluvial 1 sandy loam deposits 35 low to moderate 0.43 0.05 2.03 0.72 0 0 0.2 0.1 0 0 0.09 0.04 coarsely-crystalline 3 sandy loam igneous bedrock 20 low to moderate 5.11 2.07 30.89 18.29 0.28 0.03 4.97 3.04 0.2 0.02 3.73 2.47 metasedimentary/ 4 sandy loam conglomerage 35 high 5.46 2.56 33.27 21.11 0.37 0.08 5.06 3.33 0.23 0.06 3.73 2.59

5 clay loam ultramafic bedrock 50 high 6.28 3.21 63.3 41.22 0.36 0.21 5.43 4.0 0.22 0.14 3.72 2.83 metasandstone/ 6 silt loam siltstone 10 moderate to high 9.2 3.96 36.55 24.02 0.5 0.12 12.21 8.52 0.31 0.1 10.4 7.53 metamorphic/volcanic 8 sandy loam bedrock 45 moderate to high 5.58 2.71 36.55 24.02 0.46 0.21 5.49 3.66 0.3 0.14 3.98 2.86 sandy loam to clay metasedimentary/ 9 loam mudstone 35 moderate 18.93 13.12 17.78 10.82 2.62 1.67 3.04 2.11 0.18 0.07 3.96 2.93

10 silt loam schist/phyllite bedrock 55 moderate 50.12 50.12 8.41 8.41 2.4 2.4

1 Values from Curry and Josephine County Soil Survey 2 WEPP erosion factors based on first winter post-fire 3 WEPP erosion factors based on second year post-fire

C-11 Appendix C-Site Productivity

1. Disturbance assumptions: Helicopter Logging 1

Slope 2 Fire Severity Segment Vegetation Option % Cover High Upper Low Severity Fire 15 Lower3 Tall Grass 75 Moderate Upper Short Grass 50 Lower 20-year Forest 93 Low Upper Short Grass 85 Lower 20-year Forest 100

2. Disturbance assumptions: Skyline Logging 1

Slope 2 Fire Severity Segment Vegetation Option % Cover High Upper High Severity Fire 15 Lower Tall Grass 75

Moderate Upper Short Grass 50

Lower 20-year Forest 93 Low Upper 5-year Forest 85 Lower 20-year Forest 100

3. Disturbance assumptions: Tractor Logging 1

Slope 2 Fire Severity Segment Vegetation Option % Cover

High Upper Skid Trail 15 Lower Tall Grass 75 Moderate Upper Skid Trail 35

Lower 20-year Forest 93 Low Upper Short Grass 50 Lower 20-year Forest 100

C-12 4. Disturbance assumptions: Prescribed Fire 5 Appendix C-Site Productivity

Slope 2 Fire Severity Segment Vegetation Option % Cover High Upper Low Intensity Fire 50 Lower Tall Grass 75 Moderate Upper Low Intensity Fire 50 Lower 5-year Forest 85 Low Upper Low Intensity Fire 50 Lower 20-year Forest 85

5. Disturbance assumptions: Fuel Management Zones in riparian areas 4a

Slope Slope 2 4a Fire Severity Segment Vegetation Option % Cover Length High Upper Low Intensity Fire 15 210 Lower Tall Grass 75 150 Moderate Upper Low Intensity Fire 15 210 Lower Tall Grass 75 150 Low Upper Low Intensity Fire 15 210 Lower Tall Grass 75 150

5. Disturbance assumptions: Fuel Management Zones on ridge tops 4b

Slope Slope 2 4b Fire Severity Segment Vegetation Option % Cover Length High Upper Low Intensity Fire 15 210 Lower Tall Grass 75 1000 Moderate Upper Low Intensity Fire 15 210 Lower Tall Grass 75 1000 Low Upper Low Intensity Fire 15 210 Lower Tall Grass 75 1000

6. Disturbance assumptions: Dozer-constructed Fire lines 5

Slope Average 2 Fire Severity Segment Vegetation Option % Cover %Rock % Grade Upper Skid Trail 15 10-20 10-50 Lower Short Grass 58 10-20

C-13 1. Percent disturbance from post-fire logging (Klock, 1975) Appendix C-Site Productivity

Tractor Skidding Skyline Helicopter 36.0% 2.8% 0.7%

Percent disturbance from post-fire logging (Fong, 1992 from Amaranthus and Gross) was used to reflect local condition from Silver Fire salvage logging

Tractor Skidding Skyline Helicopter 36.0% 8.0% 2.0%

2. Percent cover in managed areas at levels to reflect 2-year post-fire conditions and risk of disturbance by activity to mineral soil

3. Lower slope represents unmanaged riparian buffer

4a. Fuel Management Zones in riparian areas would all reflect similar management objectives regardless of past burn severity; slope distance in lower buffer would be 150 feet from stream; calculated in GIS, riparian width is 300 feet

4b. Fuel Management Zones on ridge tops would all reflect similar management objectives regardless of past burn severity; slope distance in lower buffer would be 1000 feet

5. Prescribed fire vegetation and cover modeled to conditions of moderate burn severity immediately post-fire

6. Dozer lines assumed to have less rock armoring and have average slopes between 10 and 50%. Lower slope (buffer) similar in slope to that for unit models, but treated with Rx burn during fire.

C-14 Appendix C – Site Productivity

Erosion Potential: Assumptions and Determining Factors

Erosion potential determination for soils of the Siskiyou National Forest was done to provide continuity for analysis and planning for Roads Analysis and the BAER assessment for the Biscuit Fire. Inconsistencies between soil surveys for Curry, Coos and Josephine Counties created a need to provide a standard method to assign erosion hazard ratings. Accuracy of geologic mapping is also inconsistent across the Forest, and does not always represent the complexities of mixed rock types and soil conditions that occur on faulted contacts.

Values for erosion potential are conservative, based on worse case scenarios over large areas underlain by soil groups of average depth derived from similar rock types. In many cases, percent slope becomes the controlling factor in assigning erosion potential. Erosion potentials can and should be more site-specifically assigned based on accurate geologic mapping, slope, soil type (group or complex) and soil depth, and on field- verified correlations. A more precise mapping was done for the East Fork Illinois EIS with a good correlation found between areas of high erosion potential and the existence of previously mapped landslides. Site-specific erosion potential mapping was also done for several planning areas on the Gold Beach Ranger District.

Methodology used for erosion potential: • Soil complexes were coded and grouped by parent material, determined from geology maps (County, Quad and State) and parent material designations from the Coos, Curry, and Josephine County soil surveys. • Erosion potential was based on erosion characteristics for shallow landslides and surface erosion of the soils only. Deep-seated landslides, although important in determining overall slope stability, were not well correlated with previous erosion potential mapping. It was also assumed that surface erosion, debris slides and debris torrents are more typically correlated to roads and timber harvest activities. • Erosion potential was assigned assuming soils of moderate depth.

Factors considered in erosion potential were determined by textural classification (USC): • % Slope (breaks were made at 0-10, 11-30, 31-50, 71-90, 90+ % slope) • K factor • Density • Unit Weight • Friction Angle and angle of repose (correlated to slope) • % Clay (cohesion) • Erosion rating assigned by Soil Surveys for individual groups

C-15 Appendix C – Site Productivity

Typical Values of Friction Angles, Unit Soil Weights, and Angle of Repose (from Slope Stability in Road Construction, USDI BLM, 1976)

Friction Angle, Angle of Repose, Unit Weight, Classification Density in degrees in percent pounds/cubic ft.

Coarse Sand or Sand and Gravel Compact 45 100 140 Firm 38 78 120 Loose 32 62 90 Medium Sand Compact 40 84 130 Firm 34 67 110 Loose 30 58 90 Fine Sand Compact 34 67 130 Firm 30 57 100 Loose 28 53 85 Fine Silty Sand or Sandy Silt Compact 32 62 130 Firm 30 58 100 Loose 28 53 85

Fine Uniform Sand Compact 30 58 135 Firm 28 53 110 Loose 26 49 85 Clay-Silt Medium 120 Soft 20 36 90 Silty-Clay Medium 120 Soft 15 27 90 Clay Medium 120 Soft 10 18 90

C-16 Appendix C – Site Productivity

Parent Material Groupings

Parent Material Groupings Parent Material Group Surface Texture1 Parent Material % Rock1 Erosion Rating1 1 gravelly loam alluvial/colluvial deposits 35 low to moderate 3 gravelly sandy loam coarse-grained igneous bedrock 20 high to moderate

4 very gravelly loam metasedimentary/conglomerate 35 high

5 very cobbly clay loam ultramafic bedrock 50 high

6 silt loam metasandstone/siltstone 10 moderate to high

8 very gravelly loam metamorphic/volcanic bedrock 45 moderate to high 9 very gravelly loam metasedimentary/mudstone 35 moderate

10 very channery loam schist/phyllite bedrock 55 moderate

1. Descriptors from Josephine and Curry County Soils Surveys

Group 1. Alluvial and Colluvial Deposits. Alluvial deposits are limited in the fire area. They have low slope gradients and low to moderate erosion potential. Soil type can range from gravelly loam to extremely cobbly loam, depending on distance of transport. Soils are generally droughty, with moderate to rapid infiltration rates, and have low cohesion. Where undercut by streams, alluvial deposits fail into channels as shallow debris slides.

Group 3. Coarse-grained Igneous Bedrock. Coarsely crystalline bedrock in the fire area includes metamorphosed diorite, gabbro, and other granitic lithologies. Gabbro dikes are often very resistant to erosion, and can be easily traced as they crop out above weathered country rock. In general, however, this group of rocks, although often topographically high, weathers to more gently rounded hills and ridges. Deep, colluvial soils and decomposed rock (saprolite) can form in draws and swales that follow joint and fracture patterns in the rock bodies. Landslides in this rock type are predominately debris flows that occur when these swales or draws are saturated by ground water.

Soil type. Much of the granitic rock in the area is deeply weathered or decomposed into saprolite, and eventually forms moderate to deep, sandy soils with low cohesion. Soils derived from these lithologies have high infiltration rates, and fewer rock fragments in the upper soil layers. Site productivity is moderate to low (for trees but not brush), owing in part to the high infiltration rates and resultant droughty conditions. Areas underlain by these rock and soil types have the greatest risk of debris flows because of their sandy, erosive texture and poor cohesion.

C-17 Appendix C – Site Productivity

Effects of Disturbance. In areas of high burn severity, soils in this parent material group had the highest incidence of water-repellent layers that persisted to the greatest depth. Water-repellent soils can develop during burning of surface litter and vegetation that produce hydrophobic substances. Uniformly sandy soils allow greater penetration of these vaporized substances, which condense to form a water-repellent layer at depth, and may persist for up to five years. Granitic soils also develop accelerated surface ravel after fire, until root structure and organic compounds that provide cohesion are reestablished. Accelerated ravel was noted from road cut slopes within the fire area. Areas that had been previously tractor logged, even decades ago, retained evidence of soil compaction on cat roads and skid trails. This condition was evident by low to very low infiltration rates and poor revegetation and/or tree growth.

Group 4. Metasedimentary and conglomerate bedrock. This rock type is mostly found in the northwest section of the fire area, along Bear Camp road and near the town of Agness (Cretaceous Myrtle Group), and as small outcrops of poorly lithified Quaternary deposits near Onion and Swede Creeks on the east side. Deposits on the east side have been extensively mined for gold. Areas of the Galice Formation were also assigned to this group if conglomerate was described as bedrock in the Josephine County Soil Survey, as were similar lithologies in the Dothan Formation. However, this description is focused on the younger conglomerates of the Myrtle Group. Thick conglomerate lenses can provide cap rocks for more poorly erosion resistant sedimentary rocks. Near the mouth of the Illinois River, the conglomerates have weathered to steep slopes that can be moderate to extremely ravelly as pebbles and cobbles weather from decomposing matrix. Examples of this can be seen at Pebble Hill and along the Illinois River trail near Buzzard’s Roost. This soil group was differentiated because of its tendency for ravel.

Soil type. Sedimentary rock with appreciable amounts of conglomerate weathers to a very gravelly or cobbly sandy loam. Pebble-studded boulders are common in areas of shallow soils. Soils derived from these lithologies have moderate to high infiltration rates, and contain 35 to 60% rock fragments in the upper soil layers. Site productivity is moderate. Slope stability concerns are primarily for rock ravel.

Effects of Disturbance. In areas of high burn severity, soils in conglomerate parent material have lost vegetation and litter cover that provides cohesion to the round surface rock. In very steep areas, or areas that have been undercut by roads or disturbed by fire lines, the rate of matrix decomposition on exposed surfaces is expected to increase, as well as the amount and rate of pebble and cobble ravel. One area of special concern is the Illinois River trail near Buzzard’s Roost

Group 5. Ultramafic Rocks. Peridotite is an igneous rock type formed in the upper mantle of the earth. It is usually coarsely crystalline and erodes to a somewhat gentle topography. Through tectonic uplift and erosion of overlying rocks, the Josephine ultramafic sheet has been exposed in a relatively continuous sheet from Eight Dollar Mountain into northern California, along with smaller, discontinuous bodies at Pearsoll Peak and Chrome Ridge. Similar to other igneous rocks such as granite, it weathers into

C-18 Appendix C – Site Productivity

rounded ridges and relatively stable landforms. Much of the peridotite in the fire area has been altered to serpentine minerals and oxidized on the surface. Boulders and rock fragments are reddish orange, and appear rough textured from differential weathering of large mineral crystals. Other bodies of serpentinite, probably formed by differential melting of peridotite and mixing with seawater, have been intruded along faults and fractures, both in peridotite bodies and along fractures and contacts between other rock types. This rock appears as sheared and mottled shiny black to green blocks to slivers, depending on the amount of shearing and fracturing. Where ground water is high, or deeper soils become saturated, serpentinite areas can fail as deep-seated mass movement.

Soil type. Peridotite weathers to clay loam to extremely stony clay loam and can develop a sandy surface texture made up of mineral crystals that have weathered out of the rock. Peridotite soils are generally rocky with 40 to 80% surface rock fragments as cobbles or boulders. Productivity is generally low and vegetation sparse. Serpentinite has a higher clay content and less surface rock. Both form soils that oxidize to orange-brown or red. Soil depths in peridotite areas are shallow except for areas of thick, ancient laterites, and near contacts zones where other rock types are mixed with the ultramafic parent material. Soil depths in serpentinized areas, such as fault or shear zones, can be very deep and may fail as earth flows. Infiltration rates are low to moderate in serpentinite and moderate to rapid in peridotite soils. Serpentinite and highly weathered peridotite have high porosity but low permeability. The soils can hold and perch water for long periods; bogs and fens are common features.

Effects of Disturbance. Because of higher clay content and lack of vegetative cover or protective duff and litter, soils are susceptible to surface and gully erosion after physical disturbance. Runoff initially shows high turbidity and suspended sediment. Surface cover, soil development and cohesion from fine roots are slow to recover. Where soils are not physically disturbed or displaced, or slopes oversteepened by road or stream undercutting, these soils appear relatively resistant to erosion following fire. Fused agglomerates of soil were found in areas of high intensity fire or where fire burned for longer time periods such as under large downed wood or in tree roots. At this time, the ultramafic soil group is the only one to exhibit this phenomenon, which may be related to high clay content, soil moisture near root structures, or iron oxide response to fire. Infiltration rates tested after wildfire were within average rates, and water repellency was rarely noted. Where water-repellency was noted, soils contained a high percent of coarse sand-sized crystals.

Groups 6 and 8. Metasedimentary (sandstone and siltstone) and metavolcanic bedrock. This rock type underlies approximately 36% of the fire area and consists of rocks of the Galice and Dothan Formations. Both formations are composed of marine sandstones, siltstones, and minor amounts of conglomerate and pillow basalts. The Dothan Formation has localized bands and outcrops of chert. The canyon area of the Chetco River was cut through a resistant band of layered, marine chert. In the uplands, near Elko Spring, chert knobs are exposed within swales of less resistant sedimentary rock. Fine- grained rocks of the Galice Formation have distinct parting and resemble slate. Slope

C-19 Appendix C – Site Productivity morphology developed on Galice rocks tends to be long and uniform in grade. Streams are steep and often cut to bedrock. The dominant rock type on the west side of the Forest is the Dothan Formation; on the east side it is the Galice Formation. Rocks of both formations are moderately resistant to erosion and are relatively stable. On the Westside however, more rain and tectonic uplift contribute to active stream incision, undercutting slopes and causing large rotational slumps, such as occur in the Pistol River drainage.

Soil type. Soils developed from the Galice and Dothan Formations are moderate to deep, silt to sandy loams. Soils have moderate amounts of surface organic matter and leaf litter and can have appreciable amounts of rock fragments higher on slopes. Infiltration is moderate to rapid. Productivity is moderate to high. Surface erosion potential is generally slight to moderate, but increases to severe in proportion to percent slope.

Effects of Disturbance. Few areas of Galice or Dothan soils showed water-repellent tendencies. In steep areas with deeper soil development, stream bank erosion and gully incision were noted, which will increase in rate and size in areas within or below high burn severity. Because of higher site productivity in these soils, much of the area has been managed for timber production. Plantations that experienced high burn severity lost much of their vegetation, litter and duff that provided protection for underlying soils. However, minimal surface erosion has been noted in this soil group. Erosion plots were established to measure rates of surface erosion and help assess the effectiveness of aerial mulching. Measurements will be reported from the first year of collection.

Group 9. Metasedimentary and mudstone bedrock. This rock type is mostly found in the northwest section of the fire area, along Bear Camp road and near the town of Agness (Cretaceous Myrtle Group). This rock type was differentiated because of the thin, friable layers of mudstone, and their tendency to ravel and fail. Mudstone weathers to steep, but uniform slopes with gently rounded ridges. Where undercut, they hold very steep slopes, but are a continuous source of mudstone chips, rock ravel and shallow debris slides. Mudstone is exposed in road cuts along roads 3300 (Agness) and Burnt Ridge (2803) near Raspberry Mountain.

Soil type. Sedimentary rock with appreciable amounts of mudstone weathers to a clay loam with a high percent of very small, decomposed rock fragments. Site productivity is moderate to poor. Soils are shallow, very droughty, and have poor cohesion, even though the rock fragments are made of fine-grained silts and clay. The soils are generally dark in color; have low to moderate permeability but low porosity. Reforestation was reported as difficult for conifer species. Surface erosion is rated as moderate.

Effects of Disturbance. In areas of high burn severity, finer fractions of the soils can be displaced by raindrop impact and fill macro-pores, slowing infiltration rates and leading to overland flow. In areas of high burn severity, soils derived from fine- grained rock types showed evidence of sheet wash after during post-fire winter

C-20 Appendix C – Site Productivity

storms. When the soapy-appearing ash layer was removed, however, the soil had moderate to high infiltration rate, suggesting that any water repellency was a surface component on the ash. The more predominant surface erosion in the finer-grained soil appeared to be as very small (<6 inch) slumps rather than movement by water of individual grains, creating a surface micro-topography of scarps and benches. Gully erosion was notable in areas of water concentration, for example in drainages, swales, and below culverts. There were numerous road cut slope and fill slumps and marked surface erosion on the cut slopes, especially along the roads around Raspberry Mountain.

Group 10. Mica-graphite schist and phyllite. This rock type is mostly found in the northwest section of the fire area, along the Agness Road 3300, and Wildhorse Road 3318. It underlies much of the Lawson Creek and upper Pistol River drainages. These rocks are considered part of the Colebrooke Formation, and consist of light-gray, fine- grained marine sediments that have been metamorphosed to a thinly foliated mica- graphite phyllite with abundant quartz veins. Large outcrops of submarine basalts are found as fault blocks in the formation, for example Skookemhouse Butte. Slopes underlain by Colebrooke schist are commonly benchy or hummocky. Large, ancient rotational slump blocks define the Lawson and Pistol River drainages. Streams are deeply incised and stream bank instability is common. Colebrooke schist underlies only 2 % of the fire area, however much of that is in the Lawson Creek drainage.

Soil type. Colebrooke rock weathers as a very channery (flat, rounded rock clasts), deep silt loam. Infiltration rates are moderate to rapid. Rock fragments can be up to 50% of the surface layers, usually flat pieces of schist or hard, angular white quartz. Site productivity is moderate to high, and slopes are very brushy. Permeability is moderate to low because of the higher fine sediment fraction in the soil. Colebrooke slopes hold water all year; seeps and bogs can be common in areas of more deeply weathered rock.

Effects of Disturbance. Colebrooke soils have thick undergrowth, which tends to keep soils cooler throughout the year. Low intensity ground fire was mapped over most of the Colebrooke area. Soils are deep and surface erosion potential is moderate to low. Managed lands in the Lawson and Pistol River drainages, however, were subjected to higher fire severity and have lost much of the brush and litter cover that provided shade and protection to the soil. Several large, slowly moving rotational slumps occur in the Lawson drainage. All of the jackstrawed and leaning trees on a failure below Game Lake have been burned, and much of the slope above the failure. Rate of movement is expected to increase over the next few years, both on this slide, and on other large, natural inner gorge slides along the drainage. Recent clear-cut harvest units in the Pistol River drainage (LTEP research units) experienced high severity fire, and loss of litter, duff, and vegetation that provided soil protection from runoff and raindrop impact. Several units are located on deep, colluvial soils; the most severe surface and gully erosion yet observed as a result of the Biscuit Fire was noted in these units. Other managed areas underlain by Colebrooke soils did not exhibit erosion to the extent of the LTEP units, but underlying features of instability

C-21 Appendix C – Site Productivity

are common in this soil group. The effects of the fire may be most noted in deeper, colluvial soils.

C-22 Appendix C – Site Productivity

SOIL INVESTIGATIONS FOR FIVE AREAS BURNED BY THE 2002 BISCUIT FIRE

The purpose of this report is to evaluate the effects of the Biscuit Fire on five different soil types on differing rock types. Included are soil classifications, observations of post-fire erosion, affects of fire on productivity, and recommendations for restoration and management.

SUMMARY

The Biscuit Fire, by all observations, produced some altered soil chemical and physical conditions. Large amounts of living and dead vegetation and surface litter were consumed. A much reduced forest cover will take several years to grow back. Surface organics were consumed on most sites leaving bare mineral soils, minus a canopy cover, exposed to rain, snow, heating, and cooling. Initial observations suggest a drastically affected landscape without forest cover and bare mineral soil. However soil physical properties beneath the top inch or two of the surface are relatively unaffected. Soil aggregates (i.e. structure) remain intact and functioning. Water uptake and storage, plant available water, nutrient exchange, and the rooting zone remain intact.

FIRE EFFECTS AND CURRENT SOIL CONDITIONS

Soil organic layers, (i.e., duff and the litter), were consumed by the Biscuit Fire on most of the five areas reviewed. In forested areas bare mineral soil was exposed following the burn but was subsequently capped by an inch or two of post-fire leaf fall. This contrasts with recent clear cuts and plantations up to about 20 years of age where all leaves and ground litter were consumed, leaving an ash covered mineral soil. Such soil conditions pose many questions that have been addressed over the past the 30-35 years by fire research and continue to be studied. The following review highlights some of the recent research and evaluates soil conditions following the Biscuit Fire.

What affect does a large wildfire, such as the Biscuit Fire, have on soil nutrients? DeBano (1990), DeBano et al (1998), and Hungerford et al (1990) have shown that volatilization and ash account for losses and redistribution of nitrogen, phosphates, potassium and other nutrients from the surface organic horizons and the upper inch or two of the mineral soil. The effect of nutrient losses and redistribution on forest growth appears to be highly dependent on topography, forest cover, and slope along with fire intensity. In-progress long-term ecosystem productivity research1(LTEP) will investigate post-fire effects on physical and chemical soil properties.

Are soil structure, water infiltration and water storage affected by wildfire? Post-fire examination of subsurface soil structure at various sites within the Biscuit Fire shows no apparent dispersal effect on the soil aggregates from the pre-fire condition. Research in the northwest United States by Dyrness and Youngberg (1957) found that only high intensity burning of heavy fuels near the ground heated the soil sufficiently to degrade and disperse soil aggregates. Hungerford et al (1990) show that predicting soil heating is beset with the inability to relate pre-fire conditions and fire characteristics to the downward pulse of heat. They point to the need to know fuel load, fuel moisture, soil moisture, topography, and duration of fire to estimate soil heating. Infiltrometer tests2 following the Silver and Longwood fires of 1987 showed rates of water infiltration into the soil up to ten inches per hour. Collectively these studies and current observations suggest that soil structure, infiltration, and water storage are relatively unaffected for most soils.

1 Darbyshire R. 2003 June 17. Ecosystem effects and propagation of the Biscuit Fire across large-scale plots of the long-term ecosystem productivity experiment.

2 Smart A and Steinblums I. 1987 Nov. Unpublished infiltration test results for ten sites following the 1987 Silver and Longwood fires using the Department of Forestry, Oregon State University Rain Simulator.

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Appendix C – Site Productivity

The Biscuit Fire Burned Area Emergency Rehab team (BAER)3 described hydrophobic conditions at several sites within days of the fire. However, nine months later, field infiltration tests at rates of several inches per hour show no repellency and near 100 percent infiltration. These observations correspond with work done by Huffman and MacDonald (2001) showing rapid degradation of hydrophobicity after fire. Other research by Martin and Moody (2001) and Moody and Martin (2001) in Colorado demonstrates that infiltration and runoff are strongly correlated with rainfall rates. There, rainfall rates less that one-half inch per hour produced no runoff and 100 percent infiltration. However, rates greater than one-half inch per hour produced increasing runoff and increasing erosion. Their findings support observations of minimal erosion and increased infiltration on most soils in the Biscuit area where rains often persist for 24 to 72 hours at rates less than one-half inch per hour.

As noted above soil water uptake and availability for most soils appears to be unaffected by burning and remains in pre-fire condition. Without vegetation evapotranspiration will be low during summer months. , Soils will remain fully charged and at or near field capacity throughout the year until plants re-grow to use the water. Soils in this high moisture condition soils would be most vulnerable to compaction by heavy equipment. This poses a concern for ground based yarding, such as with tractor, where +/- 20 percent of the soil is impacted. Soils of skid road and trails at high moisture levels would be most vulnerable to compaction and loss of structure. Erosion, sub-surface hardpans, poor rooting zones, and decreased plant available water would be long-term effects of compaction and loss of soil structure.

Is soil erosion expected on these burned lands where 100-150 inches of winter precipitation falls, mostly as rain? The Biscuit area is within the Klamath Range (i.e. Oregon’s south Coast Range) that has a Mediterranean climate with an estimated precipitation of 150 to 200 inches of rain between October and March with little summer rain. Precipitation events are primarily cyclonic storms delivering 0.2 to 0.5 inches per hour and lasting one to three days. Heavier rain, at rates of two six inches per hour accompanying thunderstorms is rare in the Klamath Mountains. Monitoring and walkthrough examination have shown surface runoff in clear-cut units and young plantations on slopes greater than 30 percent where soil duff and litter cover was consumed. Runoff as shown by rills and small gullies is uncommon on most sites where there is an over-story forest, albeit dead, and a ground cover of post-fire leaf litter. However, on the slopes greater than 30 percent in clearcuts and young plantations we found that rainfall exceeds the infiltration rate producing surface runoff. Volume of erosion and soil loss by sheet and gully erosion and soil pedestal formation is difficult to quantify. We have however, observed rills to one inch and soil sediments thee to four inches thick upslope of stumps in the Panther Lake area. Erosion monitoring plots4 to measure the soil erosion loss have been established at various points on different soil types within the burned area. Additional long-term ecosystem productivity5 studies in progress will also attempt to quantify erosion following wildfire.

What affect will salvage of fire-killed trees have on the soil quality? What mitigations would enhance soil quality? Salvage logging, thus removing the canopy would, as described above, increase the potential for sheet, rill and gully erosion on slopes greater than 20-30 percent. Logging slash on the ground would, to some extent, modify the effect of canopy loss. Yarding methods that have variable effects on the ground will be critical in protecting the soil. Tractor skidding would produce soil disturbance, compaction, and erosion potential. Partial suspension cable yarding would have few affects except for corridor and landing disturbance. Full suspension helicopter yarding would have no effect on the ground but would require larger landings than other methods.

Is future forest growth be affected by The Biscuit Fire? By timber salvage? It appears that wildfire and salvage would affect or change future forest growth and productivity to some degree. How and to what

3 McHugh M. 2003 May 13. Burned Area Emergency Rehabilitation for the 2002 Biscuit Fire.

4 McHugh M. 2003 May 13. Erosion monitoring plots at selected sites in the Biscuit Fire area.

5 Darbyshire R. 2003 June 17. Ecosystem effects and propagation of the Biscuit Fire across large-scale plots of the long-term ecosystem productivity experiment.

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Appendix C – Site Productivity extent this occurs is unknown. The Biscuit Fire area has been burned over numerous times by wildfire in the past thousand years. Was the Biscuit fire just another event in a long line of site evolving processes? The long-term ecosystem productivity (LTEP) research6 promises to yield long sought information about the effects of forest management on the dynamics of numerous soil and vegetation parameters. Due to the Biscuit Fire, LTEP has added further studies to investigate soil nutrient conditions and erosion losses relative to the pre-fire nutrient capital, mycorrhizae changes, nitrogen fixation, soil structural aggregates, water-holding capacity, and soil exchange capacity. In other forests it has been shown (DeBano et al 1998) that soil nutrient gains, losses, and conversions occur with wildfire but it is unclear how these gains, losses, and conversions affect long-term forest growth and productivity. These processes, termed nutrient cycling, may be necessary effects of fire in the Biscuit Fire area where wildfire return intervals ranged from 30 to 50 years for the last few thousand years.

Will trees, shrubs and herbs reestablish and grow well on the severely burned lands? Natural regeneration of the Biscuit Fire area has taken place following wildfires for several thousand of years on these lands. Unknown is how well the post-fire plants grow in relation to the pre-fire plants. Also unknown are the changes in plant species composition following repeated wildfires. The studies cited above will investigate an array of soil chemical and physical questions that may provide information about how well successive forests respond following wildfire.

INDIVIDUAL STUDY AREAS

INDIGO AREA, MAY 6, 2003

Rock types of these areas are predominately greywacke and sandstone of the Dothan Formation (State of Oregon 1977) in the Indigo Area. These sediments weather to produce deep, fertile soils, and excellent forest growth.

Soils of the Indigo Area are dominated by Dumont, Acker, and Kanid (USDA In Press). All have developed in colluvium and residuum (Bates and Jackson 1984) of decomposing greywacke and sandstones on ridges and slopes. All are well-drained clay loams and gravelly clay loams, with high plant available water and nutrients. Dumont is a soil more than 72 inches classified as clayey, kaolinitic, mesic Typic Palexerults. Acker, also a soil to 72 inches with 20-30 percent gravel is classified as fine-loamy, mixed, mesic Typic Palexerults. Kanid, a soil to 60 inches with 10-20 gravel and cobbles is classified as loamy- skeletal, mixed, mesic Dystric Xerochrepts.

RASPBERRY AREA, MAY 6, 2003

Rock types of this area are mudstones and sandstones of the Umpqua Group (State of Oregon 1977). These rocks weather to form shallow soils with moderate to low plant available water.

Soils of the Raspberry Area are dominated by Atring and Vermissa (USDA In Press). Both have developed in residuum and colluvium of decomposing mudstones. They are well-drained loams, with moderate to low plant available water and nutrients. Atring, a soil less than 40 inches to rock is classified as loamy-skeletal, mixed, mesic Dystric Xerochrepts. Vermissa, a soil less than 20 inches to rock is classified as loamy-skeletal, mixed, mesic Lithic Xerochrepts.

QUAIL PRAIRIE AND LONG RIDGE AREA, MAY 22, 2003

The Quail Prairie, Upper Prairie Quail Creek Basin, and Long Ridge areas experienced spotty fire with perhaps 20 percent of burned at high intensity with crown fire.

6 Darbyshire R. 2003 June 17. Ecosystem effects and propagation of the Biscuit Fire across large-scale plots of the long-term ecosystem productivity experiment.

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Appendix C – Site Productivity

Rock types of this area are predominately greywacke sandstone and metavolcanics of the Dothan Formation. These rocks weather to form loam and clay loam highly productive forest soils.

Soils of these areas are primarily Skookumhouse, Hazelcamp, and Averlande with high clay content that have developed in metavolcanic residuum and colluvium. Lesser areas of Bobsgarden, Rilea, and Yorel soils with lower clay content and higher coarse fragment content have developed on greywacke and sandstone. All are well drained clay loams and gravelly loams, with high available water and nutrients. Skookumhouse, a soil to 60 inches is classified as clayey, mixed, mesic Typic Haplohumults. Hazelcamp, a soil to 40 inches over decomposing rock is classified as clayey, mixed, mesic Typic Haplohumults. Averlande, a shallow soil to 20 inches over rock is classified as loamy-skeletal, mixed, mesic Lithic Hapludults. All have developed in metavolcanic residuum. Bobsgarden, a more than 60 inches is classified as loamy-skeletal, mixed, frigid Umbric Dystrocherpts. Rilea and Yorel are soils to 40 inches with a high coarse fragment content classified as loamy-skeletal, mixed, frigid Typic Dystrochrepts and fine-loamy, mixed, frigid Typic Dystrochrepts, respectively.

SIX MILE CREEK BASIN, May 29, 2003

Six Mile Creek basin, between Squaw Mountain, Spaulding Pond, and the Illinois River , experienced a moderately high percentage of crown fire with many trees killed on one to two thousand acres.

Rock types of this basin are mostly metavolcanics, mudstones and siltstones of the Galice Formation (State of Oregon 1979). There are several smaller areas of peridotite south and east of Spaulding Pond.

Soils of the basin are primarily Speaker, Josephine, Beekman, and Colestine (USDA 1983). All are well- drained clay loams and gravelly loams, with moderate available water and nutrients. Slopes are steep and range from 30 70 percent over most of the area. All soils are less than 40 inches over rock. Beekman and Colestine, are soils to 40 inches classified as loamy-skeletal and fine-loamy, mixed, mesic Typic Xerochrepts, respectively. Speaker and Josephine are soils to 40 inches with high clay content and classified as fine-loamy, mixed, mesic Ultic Haploxeralfs and fine-loamy, mixed, mesic Typic Haploxerults respectively.

UPPER TODD CREEK BASIN, May 29, 2003

The Todd Creek basin west of Chrome Ridge, notably the upper tributaries from 3600 to 4000 feet experienced a high percentage of crown fire with most trees killed on two to three thousand acres.

Rock types of this basin are primarily the ultramafics, peridotite and serpentinite along with lesser amounts of dark, coarse-grained gabbro and metagabbro (State of Oregon 1979).

Soils of the north and east parts of the basin (west of FR 2402) are Dubakella and Pearsoll cobbly clay loams formed in colluvium of serpentinite and peridotite rocks (USDA 1983). These soils range from 20 to 60 inches over rock and have moderate to low productivity due to the nutrient “imbalance” of the parent serpentinite and peridotite. Slopes range from 10 to 40 percent in the upper reaches of the tributaries in the northeast three-fourths of the basin. Dubakella soils are classified as clayey-skeletal, serpentinitic, mesic Mollic Halpoxeralfs. Pearsoll soils are classified as clayey-skeletal, serpentinitic, mesic Lithic Xerochrepts.

Soils of the southwest part of the basin, 20 percent of the area, are Frantz and Knapke gravelly loams formed in colluvium of gabbro and metagabbro rocks (USDA 1983). These soils also range from 20 to 60 inches over rock but are more productive due to higher available water and nutrients. Slopes of these soils range from 30 to 60 percent in this southwest part of the basin. Frantz soils are classified as loamy-skeletal, mixed, mesic typic Argixerolls. Knapke soils are classified as loamy-skeletal, mixed, mesic Entic Ultic Haploxerolls.

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Appendix C – Site Productivity

PANTHER LAKE AND WILDHORSE AREAS, June 6, 2003

Rock types of these areas are predominately quartz-mica phyllites of the Colebrooke Schist Formation (State of Oregon 1979). These rocks weather to form loamy and clayey highly productive forest soils.

Soils of the Panther Lake and Wildhorse areas and the lands between are dominated by Saddlepeak, Threetrees, and Scalerock soils (USDA In Press). All have developed on ridge tops and slopes in colluvium and residuum of decomposing phyllites of the Colebrook Schist Formation. All are well drained clay loams, with high available water and nutrients. Saddlepeak is a soil over 60 inches; Threetrees is a soil 40 inches; Scalerock is a soil to 20 inches. Saddlepeak and Threetrees are classified as loamy-skeletal, mixed, frigid Typic Dystrochrepts; Scalerock as loamy-skeletal, mixed, frigid Lithic Dystrochrepts.

Soils in a clear-cut research harvest unit in the Panther Lake area (S30,31,T37S,R12W) show surface runoff, sheet erosion, and rill erosion on slopes greater than 30 percent following the 2002-2003 winter rains. This occurred without leaf litter on the ground cover and without a canopy of trees to reduce rain impact. However on slopes less than 30 percent, sheet and rill erosion was much less or absent. Soil pits throughout the unit showed no dispersal of soil structure aggregates, indicating that water infiltration is taking place. In the adjacent thinned research unit where post-fire leaf litter and a canopy are present there was little to no sheet or rill erosion. These observations suggest that leaf litter ground cover and slope along with dead canopy trees are important factors that affect erosion on these soil types.

MITIGATIONS FOR SALVAGE TIMBER HARVEST

Retention of organic matter - At most sites, permeable soil and post-fire leaf litter cover provided significant erosion protection for the winter of 2002-2003. Ensuring future soil productivity will require retention of organic materials such as standing trees and down trees. The Siskiyou National Forest’s large woody material policy and contract provision7 for forest productivity could be used to mitigate for tree and down wood loss from harvest and fire. The contract provision allows specified numbers of standing trees and/or down logs to be retained in timber harvest units for soil and wildlife mitigations.

Yarding methods - For timber salvage a number of mitigations could be used to reduce and minimize the effects of tree removal, yarding, and roads. Measures would include helicopter yarding and suspension cable yarding. Tractor yarding should be excluded (see page 2 on water relations) due to compaction and loss of soil structure and a decrease in long-term productivity.

Roads – A minimum of new roads construction and decommissioning of unneeded roads would be a big step to prevent runoff and erosion and reduce sediment entering streams. Erosion control measures such as water bars, straw mulch, restored drainages, and road de-commissions would prevent soil loss and maintain productivity.

7 The Siskiyou National Forest Policy for Large Woody Material and the related Timber Sale Contract Provision allow for retention of large woody material in timber harvest units.

C-27

Appendix C - Site Productivity

Public Lands Administered by Medford BLM Key Indicaators and Outputs for DRAFT Alternative Chart 7 dtd June 19, 2003

Alternatives 12 3 4 5 Key No Proposed Salvage Emphasis Watershed Aggressive Restoration Indicators Trtmnt** Action** Activity Fuels Mgmt** Restoration** and Fire Management** 1. Ac Site Prep A. Burned Plantations *** 1) Matrix a) Light 0 0 0 0 0 b) Mod 0 0 0 0 0 c) Heavy 0 0 0 0 0 2) LSR a) Light 0 0 0 0 0 b) Mod 0 0 0 0 0 c) Heavy 0 0 150 0 150 d) Unknown (Helicopter) 0 0 0 0 0 3) Rip. Res. a) Light 0 0 0 0 0 b) Mod 0 0 0 0 0 c) Heavy 0 0 0 0 0 Total Site Prep 0 0 150 0 150

2. Ac Planted A. Burned Plantations *** Matrix 12x12 Spacing 0 0 0 0 0 Matrix 15X15 Spacing 0 0 0 0 0 LSR 20X20 Spacing 0 0 150 0 150 Rip. Res. 20X20 Spacing 0 0 0 0 0 (Helicopter****) (0) (0) (0) (0) (0) Total 0 0 150 0 150 B. Salvage Units Matrix 0 0 0 0 0 LSR 0 0 0 0 0 Total 0 0 0 0 0 C. Fuel Mgmt Zones Matrix 20X20 Spacing 0 0 0 0 0 LSR 20X20 Spacing 0 0 0 0 0 Rip. Res. 20X20 Spacing 0 0 0 0 0 Total 0 0 0 0 0 D. Riparian Zones ***** 0 0 0 0 0 E. Oak Woodlands 0 0 0 0 0 and Savannahs F. LSR Pine Restoration 0 0 0 0 0 G. MA 4 through 14* 0 0 0 0 0

Total Planting 0 0 150 0 150

C-28 Appendix C-Soil Productivity

2-Oct-03 Siskiyou National Fores st and Meddford BLM Lands Acres Planted in Biscuit Fire Alternatives 4, 5, and 7 represents reduced acres to plant at this time due to prescribed burning

Alternatives 12 34 5 6 7 Key Indicators (1) (1) (1) (1) (1) (1) (1) 1. Ac Site Prep - USFS (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) A. Burned Plantations 1) Matrix a) Light 0 1253 1098 0 479 1253 479 b) Mod 0 288 271 0 158 288 158 c) Heavy 0 3312 3154 148 1442 3312 1442 2) LSR a) Light 0 2241 1990 228 648 2120 648 b) Mod 0 404 339 0 158 359 158 c) Heavy 0 2298 2089 0 1156 2581 1156 d) Unknown (Helicopter) 0 0 0 0 0 1156 0 3) Rip. Res. a) Light 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 b) Mod 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 c) Heavy 0 104 104 0 60 104 60 Total Site Prep 0 9900 9045 376 4101 11173 4101

2. Ac To Plant - USFS A. Burned Plantations Matrix 12x12 Spacing 0 4853 4523 0 0 4853 0 Matrix 15X15 Spacing 0 0 0 148 2079 0 2079 LSR 20X20 Spacing 0 4943 4418 228 1962 6216 1962 Rip. Res. 20X20 Spacing 0 104 104 0 60 104 60 (Walk-in (8)) (0) (523) (309) (0) (97) (2007) (97) Total Plant in Near Future 0 9900 9045 376 4101 11173 4101 Dry site Planting after Landscape Burning (9) 0 0 0 2038 4960 0 4960 B. Salvage Units Matrix 0 5169 5169 400 273 6059 682 LSR 0 0 9937 691 1258 12853 7517 Inventoried Roadless Areas 0 0 0 0 0 36918 4499 Total in Near Future 0 5169 15106 1091 1531 55830 12698 Dry site Planting after Landscape Burning (9) 0 0 0 5116 5502 0 14739 C. Fuel Mgmt Zones 111 0 55 111 0 111 D. Riparian Zones (10) 0 2346 2346 437 2346 7489 2346 E. Oak Woodlands and Pine Restoration 0 717 717 169 88 9208 98 Dry site Planting after Landscape Burning (9) 0 0 0 548 629 0 727 G. MA 4 through 14 (11) 0 2004 2004 173 99 60905 249 Dry site Planting after Landscape Burning (9) 0 0 0 1831 1905 0 3408 USFS Total in Near Future 0 20247 29218 2301 8276 144605 19603 USFS Dry site Planting after Landscape Burning (9) 0 0 0 9533 12996 0 23834 USFS Plant in 2003 2783 2783 2783 2783 2783 2783 2783 USFS Total Planting 2783 23030 32001 14617 24055 147388 46220

3. Ac To Plant - BLM A. Salvage Units Plant in Near Future 0 0 1647 317 354 3498 354 Dry site Planting after Landscape Burning (9) 0 0 0 766 956 0 1295 B. Riparian Zones (10) 0 449 449 135 449 449 449 C. Other Management Areas (11) 0 51 51 0 0 51 0 Dry site Planting after Landscape Burning (9) 0 0 0 51 51 0 51 C. Fireline landings 0 8 8 8 8 8 8 BLM Total in Near Future 0 508 2155 460 811 4006 811 BLM Dry site Planting after Landscape Burning (9) 0 0 0 817 1007 0 1346 BLM Plant in 2003 (12) 1869 1869 1869 1869 1869 1869 1869 BLM Total Planting 1869 2377 4024 3146 3687 5875 4026

Total Plant in 2003 4652 4652 4652 4652 4652 4652 4652 Total Plant in Near Future 0 20755 31373 2761 9087 148611 20414 Total Dry site Planting after Landscape Burning (9) 0 0 0 10350 14003 0 25180 Total Plant 4652 25407 36025 17763 27742 153263 50246 (1) USFS planted 2783 acres with conifers with CE signed April 10, 2003. (2) Burned Plantations have 93 Ac of Heavy site prep are 1/2 mile from road with total 523 ac of planting up to 2 miles from road (3) 116 ac of Heavy site prep, with a total of 309 ac of planting within 0.5 mile from road (4) No walk-in planting or site prep required. Only planting those areas that will not be landscape burned in future or are not on dry aspects. Planting only those plantations more than 0.1 miles from Veg-change 1 and 2 (5) Planting only those areas that will not be landscape burned or are not on dry aspects. 23 acres of Heavy site prep, with a total of 97 ac are within 1/2 mile from road. (6) 395 ac of Heavy site prep area within 2.5 miles from road with total 2007 ac of planting up to 2.5 miles from road. (7) Planting only those areas that will not be landscape burned or are not on dry aspects. 23 acres of Heavy site prep, with a total of 97 ac are within 1/2 mile from road. (8) Most Walk-in units have not been checked, do not know site prep needs for these units. All walk-in units are located in LSR and were burned to be Veg-change 2, 3 and 4. (9) Dry sites and areas planned for landscape burning: the planting prescription will include measures that favor survival with low intensity fire (species mix, 25 foot spacing, microsites). (10) Riparian Zones includes planting Riparian Reserves with Veg-change 3 and 4 or unstable gullys, less than or equal to 1/2 mile from roads, polygons larger than 3 acres, not in MA 1-3 or IRAs in Alt 2-5. In Alt 6 & 7, plant in IRAs. (11) MA 4 through 14 planting of sugar pine resistant to white pine blister rust, Port-Orford-cedar resistant to POC root disease, Brewer spruce and other species that lost many of their populations. (12) BLM planted 1869 acres in 2003

C-29 Appendix C – Site Productivity

Dead Wood Prescriptions

The purpose of leaving snags and Large Woody Material (LWM) is discussed in the Siskiyou Forest Plan as amended by the Northwest Forest Plan. Subsequent to these plans, the Siskiyou National Forest prepared a supplement for guidelines for harvest prescriptions that describes the amount and kind of LWM, green trees to retain, and snags to retain on sites following harvest. More recently, another tool for managing dead wood was developed, DecAid, the Decayed Wood Advisor for Managing Snags, Partially Dead Trees and Down Wood for Biodiversity in Forests of Washington and Oregon (http://wwwnotes.fs.fed.us:81/pnw/DecAID/DecAID.nsf). This model is based on similar concepts as the Siskiyou National Forest’s supplement: statistically derived values for the amounts of dead wood found in various environmental conditions. DecAID uses broad categories for environmental factors, dividing southwestern Oregon into a high elevation (mountain hemlock) group, a coastal group, and a large interior group. The Biscuit Fire area environments are lumped as one large group. The Siskiyou supplement uses more specific categories based on about 35 plant association groups. For this reason, snag and down wood recommendations have been developed based on site-specific data generally collected within the Biscuit fire area. DecAID also contains data describing the dead wood needs of certain animals in different geographic regions; however, for southwestern Oregon, this data is very limited.

The ecological life if a tree extends far beyond its own life in time and in space. It can take the form of standing snags, fallen logs, or broken branches or tops (Hagen and Grove 1999). Snags provide habitat for foraging, nesting, resting, or cover for many species of wildlife (Thomas et. al. 1979). Snags eventually fall, decompose, and are incorporated into forest soils. Fallen trees decrease erosion and sedimentation, store and accumulate nutrients, and provide habitat for invertebrate species, small vertebrates, and cover for larger vertebrates. (Maser1988).

The biological value of wood is not limited to terrestrial ecosystems. Studies have associated large woody material with the quality and productivity of aquatic and riparian habitat (Harmon et al. 1986; Murphy et al. 1986; Hartman et al. 1987; Maser and Sedell 1994). The primary source of woody material in streams and lakes is the adjacent riparian zone (Harmon et al. 1986; McDade et al. 1990). Large dead wood provides shade to streams. Material may also originate in upslope forests and move to streams via landslides, debris torrents, and avalanches (Harmon et al. 1986; Bisson et al. 1987). Riparian woody material is important to juvenile salmon, steelhead, trout, and other species in western North America (Bisson et al. 1987; Hartman et al. 1987; Young et al. 1994) because it creates slow velocity resting areas and important hiding cover (Angermeir and Karr 1984). Down wood serves to trap and retain pieces of small organic matter and large wood moving downstream during high flow events. Downed material serves as an important substrate for a host of riparian species including lichens, mosses, fungi, and ferns and fern allies. In the aquatic ecosystem LWM functions in channel forming processes (primarily pools), provides a substrate for aquatic insects, is part of the energy budget (as in the other ecosystems). Decomposed or fragmented debris

C-30 Appendix C – Site Productivity

contributes to aquatic large-particulate organic matter, which in turn supports bacteria, fungi, and invertebrates (and correspondingly higher trophic levels).

The volume of dead wood to be retained is derived from current Ecology plot data, and will depend on management considerations such as fire danger, rural interface, plant community, and the potential for insect outbreak, as well as ecological function. A number of activities and functions may affect the LWM component, and current conditions are not always a direct reflection of historic conditions in southwestern Oregon forest ecosystems. Table DW-1 shows the percentage of untreated areas of dead wood by alternative. A large percentage of acres with dead wood are retained in all alternatives.

Table DW-1. Potential Impacts to Dead Wood from Salvage identifies the amount of salvage proposed and therefore potential impacts to dead wood in Biscuit Recovery alternatives. All alternatives retain all of the dead wood in the vast majority of the areas with dead wood. Further, Riparian Reserves and other areas with no salvage treatments assure that high amounts of dead wood will be well distributed across the landscape from stand to watershed scales.

Potential Impacts to Dead Wood from Salvage Total acres of merchantable dead > 9” Percent of Total dead proposed for Salvage dbh trees in watersheds ALT2 ALT3L ALT4L ALT5L ALT6 ALT7 Briggs Creek 2,214 11% 22% 12% 14% 66% 22% Chetco River 51,145 1% 2% 0% 1% 4% 3% Deer Creek 1,176 16% 16% 5% 2% 49% 47% Illinois River/Josephine Creek 28,529 1% 10% 6% 8% 44% 26% Illinois River/Klondike Creek 27,192 0% 2% 0% 1% 5% 3% Illinois River/Lawson Creek 15,694 4% 7% 1% 3% 37% 21% Indigo Creek 16,753 2% 19% 6% 9% 44% 29% Lower Rogue 48 28% 28% 16% 8% 28% 28% Middle Fork Smith River 7 0% 59% 0% 37% 62% 59% North Fork Smith River 26,901 0% 2% 0% 1% 8% 2% Pistol River 2,660 0% 21% 0% 3% 41% 27% Rogue River/Illahe Creek 7 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% Silver Creek 24,798 8% 14% 7% 7% 47% 14% West Fork Illinois River 9,820 0% 0% 0% 0% 14% 0% Grand Total 206,946 2% 7% 3% 4% 23% 11% Total of Untreated Dead Wood Areas 98% 93% 97% 96% 76% 89%

* “Percent of total dead proposed for salvage” assumes 80% of each alternative’s salvage acres will be harvested, due to the assumption that unmapped Riparian Reserves cover 20% of salvage acres, and very limited impacts are expected in this land allocation from any alternative.

C-31 Appendix C – Site Productivity

A subtle change in the dead wood component has occurred. Just as fire exclusion has changed the live tree density, it has also had an effect on dead tree density and decay class distribution. The absence of fire, that would have killed live trees or caused dead trees to fall, has reduced the natural recruitment rate of snags and down logs. In addition, fire exclusion has allowed a higher volume per acre of logs already on the ground to accumulate – especially in higher decay classes - than would have occurred with a more frequent fire return interval.

Down logs previously consumed during fires now have a longer residence time on the forest floor as they decompose, rather than burn. Historically, in pre-fire suppression regimes, it appears unlikely that many pieces of large woody material survived long enough to fully decompose (Skinner 1999). In PAGs with a fire return interval of less than 35 years (Fire regime I), fire exclusion has skewed the distribution of decay classes towards higher decay classes (decay class 5, most decayed). This includes the Douglas- fir dry, Douglas-fir moist, white fir dry, and tanoak dry PAGs. In PAGs with longer fire return intervals such as the tanoak moist, white fir moist, Port-Orford cedar, Shasta red fir, and western hemlock PAGs, the change in deadwood density and decay class composition is thought to be much smaller.

In some cases fire exclusion may have increased the amounts of snags through drought- induced mortality accentuated by overly dense live trees. Non-native pathogens, such as Phytophthora lateralis, which causes Port-Orford-cedar root disease, or white pine blister rust, may have increased the amounts of snags compared with historical conditions for these species.

Historically, after stand replacement fires, all the snags and down wood remained. Ecological functions proceeded and young forests developed. Because of fire exclusion, the stands in the drier PAGs that were burned in the Biscuit Fire likely were supporting higher densities of smaller trees compared to historical conditions; hence higher densities of snags and down wood were created.

Recent data analyses in southwestern Oregon show some patterns in LWM distribution. Snags and down logs are not distributed in the same fashion across the landscape. Down wood has a highly variable, clumpy distribution, while snags have a less variable and less clumpy distribution. In the drier PAGs up to 50 percent of the acres analyzed throughout southwest Oregon show no large down logs. The following table outlines the primary processes that create dead wood in southwestern Oregon and their effects:

Disturbance Type Scale of Effect Outcome Insects Individual trees, small Snag creation groups Drought Individual trees, small Snag creation groups Fire, low intensity Individual trees Snag and down wood

C-32 Appendix C – Site Productivity

Fire, moderate intensity Small groups Snag and down wood Fire, high intensity Landscapes Snag and down wood Wind throw Individual trees to Down wood Landscapes

The disturbances that create snags operate more often on individual trees or small groups; these tend to be more evenly distributed through a watershed. Disturbances that create snags also create down wood, however additional disturbances such as wind throw also create down wood. Wind throw provides a clumpy distribution of down wood, more so than the other disturbances.

Recommendations

Data have been stratified by plant association group, vegetation change category and aspect. The plant association group represents the environment and the potential of dead wood on a site. The vegetation change category is a measure of site productivity impact from the fire, based on fire intensity; in areas of stand replacement fire, vegetation change 4, the highest amounts of dead wood should be retained. Aspect is a division of environmental influence that separates cooler and warmer areas.

Amounts and variation of dead wood larger than 20 inches in diameter found on the Ecology plots are shown below (Table DW-2). These are the amounts that should be left after salvage. In order to achieve this, these numbers must be incorporated into the marking guidelines for each unit. For more information about incorporating into marking guidelines, see Guidelines for Snag and Down Wood Prescriptions in Southwest Oregon (White 2000), and Siskiyou National Forest Guidelines for Harvest Prescription for Large Woody Material, Green Tree Retention, and Wildlife Reserve (Snag) Tree Retention (USDA1996, USDA 2001).

After the predominant PAG for each salvage unit has been determined, the amounts of snags and down woody material will be prescribed based on the data ranges shown in the tables for each PAG. The variation is accommodated within plus or minus one standard deviation from the mean thereby covering 67 percent of the data. The exact amounts to be left may be chosen from within this range based on finer assessments of the site, for example landform, riparian areas (lower slope positions), to facilitate planting or to reduce the potential for high severity fire on upper slope positions.

Table DW-2. Abundance of large (greater than or equal to 20 inches dbh) live and dead wood by PAG in the Biscuit area before fire. Means and one standard deviation (SD).

C-33 Appendix C – Site Productivity

Plant Live trees Snags per Down Down Down Linear Association per acre acre wood wood wood feet Group pieces\acre tons\acre length (mean)

Shasta Red 63.0 (11.0) 6.5 (0.5) 4 (3)1 8.8 (10.0)1 30.0 120 Fir n=3 White Fir – 49.0 (20.1) 5.1 (4.4) 16.3 (36.3) 4.6 (10.7) 31.6 515 Dry (44.9) n=19 White Fir – 43.1 (22.7) 8.1 (2.2) 11.2 (15.2) 20.2 49.2 198 Moist (23.5) (17.7) n=4 Western Data not 5.0 (2.0) 40.0 (36.9) 47.1 30.8 (42) 1232 Hemlock available (29.0) n=242 Tanoak – Dry 36.2 (13.7) 1.3 (1.7) 27.8 (73.6) 10.8 14.1 392 n=15 (27.1) (17.6) Tanoak – 30.2 (8.1) 3.3 (3.7) 4.3 (5.5) 16.8 80.3 345 Moist (30.3) (41.0) n=8 Douglas-fir – 24.5 (10.1) 1.2 (1.6) 3(3) - 35.0 105 Dry n=6 Douglas-fir – 43.6 (24.3) 5.6 (7.5) 5 (7) - 34.0 170 Moist n=11 Port-Orford- 38.4 (17.7) 9.0 (5.9) 19.9 (22.7) 62.2 65.0 1294 cedar (54.0) (49.8) n=6 Ultramafic 11.4 (11.6) 0.7 (0.7) 2 <1 19.0 38 n=13 Oregon White Oak No data No data No data No data n=1

1These data (Shasta Red fir) were taken from all the Ecology plot data for the Shasta Red fir – cold and Shasta Red fir- White fir-Sadlers oak Pags that occur on the Siskiyou. NF. 2Because there was only one plot available in the Western Hemlock PAG in the Biscuit Fire area, data from the southwestern Oregon Western Hemlock - maritime PAG (Western hemlock-Tanoak-California myrtle, Western hemlock/Evergreen huckleberry/Western swordfern, Western hemlock-Tanoak/Evergreen huckleberry- Pacific rhododendron, Western hemlock-Pacific rhododendron/Dwarf Oregongrape, and Western hemlock/Western swordfern plant associations) was used to represent dead wood values.

C-34 Appendix C – Site Productivity

Specific directions on amounts to be retained:

Fuel Management Zones:

* Fall nearly all snags within 200 feet of the FMZ center or 100 feet inside salvage unit boundaries. Retain a few short snags within FMZs from 50 to 100 feet from the FMZ center and a few taller snags from 100 to 200 feet from the FMZ center. No snags should remain within 50 feet of the FMZ center. * Fall 80 percent of small (< 9 in dbh) live trees within 100 feet of the FMZ center, and 60 percent from 100 to 200 feet of the FMZ center. *Remove concentrations of down wood from FMZs where possible.

Riparian Areas:

Riparian areas generally will retain more dead wood than upland areas. The Aquatic Section of this EIS describes the specifics in detail.

Uplands:

* Wildlife requirements for large snags (> 19.9 in dbh): leave a minimum of 2.5 snags per acre in Matrix and FMZs and 5 snags per acre in Reserves. If not enough large snags are available, use snags from the 10 – 19.9 inch class. Seventy percent of snags should be in clumps with at least one clump for each five acres and the remainder scattered. *Mean linear feet are calculated by multiplying the mean number of pieces per acre times the mean length. One standard deviation of linear feet is one standard deviation of the pieces per acre multiplied by the mean linear feet.

Vegetation Aspect Minimum Maximum change linear feet linear feet 4 N Mean + .5 SD Mean + 1 SD 4 S Mean Mean + .5 SD 3 and 2 N Mean - .5 SD Mean 3 and 2 S Mean - 1 SD Mean - .5 SD

The amounts of snags and LWM retained is only part of the equation. Distribution of this material in individual units will have an effect on how snags and LWM function as forest structure and on how the unit will burn during the next fire event. Management objectives must include direction on how deadwood will be distributed based on the specific resource objectives for each individual site.

C-35 Appendix C – Site Productivity

Amounts of Dead Wood by PAG

Down Wood Snags Linear feet/acre per acre

Shasta Red Fir Vegetation change 4 North 165 - 210 6.8 – 7.0 South 120 - 165 6.5 – 6.8 Vegetation change 3 and 2 North 75 - 120 6.3 – 6.5 South 30 - 75 6.0 – 6.3

Dry White Fir Vegetation change 4 North 1088 - 1662 7.3 – 9.5 South 515 - 1088 5.1 – 7.3 Vegetation change 3 and 2 North 0 – 515 2.9 – 5.1 South 0 0.7 – 2.9

White Fir Moist Vegetation change 4 North 572 - 946 9.2 – 10.3 South 198 – 572 8.1 – 9.2 Vegetation change 3 and 2 North 0 - 374 7.0 – 8.1 South 0 5.9 – 7.0

C-36 Appendix C – Site Productivity

Down Wood Snags Linear feet/acre per acre

Western Hemlock Vegetation change 4 North 1800 - 2369 6.0 – 7.0 South 1232 - 1800 5.0 – 6.0 Vegetation change 3 and 2 North 664 - 1232 4.0 – 5.0 South 95 - 664 3.0 – 4.0

Tanoak Dry Vegetation change 4 North 911 - 1430 2.5 – 3.0 South 392 - 911 2.5 Vegetation change 3 and 2 North 0 - 392 2.5 South 0 2.5

Tanoak Moist Vegetation change 4 North 566 - 787 5.2 – 7.0 South 345 - 566 3.3 – 5.2 Vegetation change 3 and 2 North 124 - 345 2.5 – 3.3 South 0 - 124 2.5

Douglas-fir Dry Vegetation change 4 North 158 - 210 2.5 – 2.8 South 105 - 158 2.5 Vegetation change 3 and 2 North 52 - 105 2.5 South 0 - 52 2.5

C-37 Appendix C – Site Productivity

Down Wood Snags Linear feet/acre per acre

Douglas-fir Moist Vegetation change 4 North 289 - 408 9.4 – 13.1 South 170 - 289 5.6 – 9.4 Vegetation change 3 and 2 North 51 - 170 2.5 – 5.6 South 0 - 51 2.5

Port-Orford-cedar Vegetation change 4 North 2032 - 2770 12.0 – 14.9 South 1294 - 2032 9.0 – 12.0 Vegetation change 3 and 2 North 556 - 1294 6.0 – 9.0 South 0 - 556 3.1 – 6.0

Ultramafic1 38 - 120 0.7 – 5.0

1Little data are available for this PAG, estimates were made from means, the NW Forest Plan, and the Siskiyou National Forest Large Wood Guidelines.

C-38 APPENDIX D

VEGETATION

Veg-change Data Interpretation Managed Stand Acres by Crown Mortality Plant Association Groups (PAGs) Planting Opportunities Reforestation and Revegetation

Appendix D – Vegetation

Introduction

Veg-change is data used to classify fire mortality within the Biscuit Fire.

Veg-change was created at Remote Sensing Application Center (RSAC) and mailed to Randy Miller and Peder Nelson by Andrew Orlemann from RSAC. RSAC created Veg- change by comparing color infra-red satellite images: an image taken around 2001 was compared to an image taken near the time the Biscuit Fire was contained.

The Biscuit Fire image did not cover the entire fire: portions of the west and north parts near the control-line did not have data. The largest area without data was in upper Indigo Creek. Randy Miller used post-fire aerial photos and Canopy Fire Effects polygons to complete the fire area coverage of Veg-change. These additional areas will not have the same data resolution as areas covered by the satellite image.

What the Veg-change Data means

Veg-change has four different codes: 1 = little or no change, 2 = low change, 3 = moderate change, and 4 = high change. This data portrays the amount of change in the reflected infrared light – which measures greenness. For example: if the area was rock or water, then it is still rock – with little or no change (code 1); if the area was old growth with a low intensity under burn, then it would have little or no change (code 1); and if the area was old growth with a high intensity burn, then it would have high change (code 4).

I have compared post-fire aerial photos with Veg-change, looking at over 100 photos, and found Veg-change is extremely accurate in over 90% of the areas I compared. The areas intensively reviewed were from the west side, at California border, north and around the fire perimeter to the mouth of Deer Creek at Illinois River. Other areas of intensive review were Lawson Creek, N. Fk. Indigo Creek, Sixmile Road, and Illinois River Road to upper Oak Flat. The following table describes Veg-change and my interpretation of this data.

D-1 Appendix D – Vegetation

Table 1. Veg-change Interpretation

Veg- Veg- Interpretation of Veg- Fire Concerns with change Change change from comparisons Intensity Veg-change Code Definition with post-fire aerial and Type data photos 1 Little or no Very little or no observable Primarily None: satellite change change. Ground low data is quite verification indicates intensity accurate. * nearly all were under under-burn burned. 2 Low change The majority of the Primarily Very large live vegetation is dead but moderate to trees under- some live trees remain; high represented in dead trees retain needles intensity some areas; e.g., and leaves : canopy closure under-burn near some is very low, < 20 % in most perennial cases. streams in steep canyons; e.g., N fk Indigo. * 3 Moderate All veg is dead and retains Primarily None: satellite change most of needles and leaves high data is quite in over-story. intensity accurate. * under-burn 4 High change All veg is dead and retains Primarily None: satellite essentially no needles of crown fire data is quite leaves. accurate. *

* Areas “filled in” with aerial photo interpretation could include smaller inclusions of other veg-change codes.

Veg-change Inconsistencies

The areas I found with inconsistencies are near Lawson saddle and east of July Creek where smoke or haze appears to have interfered with satellite image quality. Another general inconsistency seen is in some areas where very large trees are in the bottom of a deep and steep canyon: areas that appear to have had little or no change (Veg-change 1) are classified as low (Veg-change 2). This could be due to shadows in satellite image or aerial photos; i.e., either Veg-change is wrong or shadows on aerial photos prevent seeing second-story trees, which may be dead. If the latter is true, then Veg-change is correct. Either way, the areas to have less trust with Veg-change data are where very tall large trees are in the bottom of deep and steep canyons; e.g., North Fork Indigo Creek.

D-2 Appendix D – Vegetation

Veg-change Compared to Canopy Fire Effects (CFE)

Veg-change is used in analysis for the Biscuit Recovery project because it is more accurate, especially at the stand scale, than the Canopy Fire Effects data used in the Biscuit Post-Fire Assessment. For example, field review of spotted owl habitat identified by CFE revealed many of these areas were dead and no longer suitable habitat.

Extensive review of the aerial photos used to create the CFE layer was reviewed to understand how Veg-change data differed from CFE data. Veg-change data is identified in .222-acre polygons,and CFE data ranges from one acre managed stands to multi- thousand acre unmanaged stands.

Veg-change data represents variable fire mortality at a small enough scale to display within stand diversity of fire effects, while CFE data homogenizes this fire effect diversity into a single classification. For example, Veg-change data within a single CFE polygon could reveal four different mortality conditions, while CFE has only one classification; Veg-change could show a 2,000 acre CFE polygon contains 30% live trees, while CFE classified it as >75% mortality.

At a broad scale, Veg-change and CFE data are similar for > 25% mortality: 71 and 79 percent mortality respectively.

Percent Canopy Mortality for Complete Fire Area Data Source 0-10% 10-25% 25-50% 50-75% >75% Veg-change 139,195 ac 124,908 ac 204,647 ac 30% 27% 44% (code 1) (code 2) (codes 3 & 4) CFE 6% 17% 15% 14% 49%

However, at smaller scales, Veg-change is much more accurate and is therefore more useful for analyzing forest conditions for habitats, fuels, reforestation, potential salvage opportunities, etc. The following graphics show CFE and Veg-change data for the same area.

D-3 Appendix D – Vegetation

CFE classified this polygon (brown) by averaging the various conditions into one category for a 1600 acre area. Veg –change also averages various conditions, however its classifications are into 0.222 acre areas. CFE classified this large polygon as 25-50% mortality. Veg-change categories are: green represents < 25% mortality; tan is 25-75% mortality; orange > 75% (with dead foliage); and red > 75% (with no foliage).

D-4 3/17/2003 Managed Stand Acres by Crown Mortality TOPKILL STANDTAG CELLKEY ACT YEAR AREA 1 0 25,874 1 0 20080070 HCC 1969 1 1 0 40120052 HCC 1973 2 1 0 40130242 HOR 1973 1 1 1,001,881 30130024 HCC 1968 7 1 1,001,904 30130038 HCC 1985 1 1 1,001,918 30130051 HCC 1977 1 1 1,001,929 30130052 HCC 1977 4 1 1,001,994 30120190 HCC 1973 35 1 1,002,096 30120302 HCC 1974 26 1 1,002,990 30190241 HCC 1959 18 1 1,003,012 30190274 HCC 1956 3 1 1,003,082 30190297 HCC 1963 1 1 1,003,089 30190298 HCC 1958 2 1 1,003,117 30190295 HCC 1983 13 1 1,003,160 30190320 HFR 1964 1 1 1,003,163 30190424 HCC 1988 1 1 1,003,167 30190425 HCC 1988 14 1 1,003,362 30190427 HCC 1987 18 1 1,003,363 30190427 HCC 1972 29 1 1,003,381 30190385 NOT 2 1 1,003,397 30220004 HCC 1972 4 1 1,003,451 30220023 HCC 1983 1 1 1,003,460 30220038 HPR 1983 1 1 1,003,481 30220037 HCC 1961 2 1 1,003,559 10060053 SRL 1967 38 1 1,003,600 10060076 SDR 1980 1 1 1,003,641 10060190 HCC 1973 9 1 1,003,770 30230192 HCC 1974 6 1 1,003,835 10070274 HCC 1988 1 1 1,003,849 10070043 HCC 1974 1 1 1,003,891 10130029 HCC 1975 38 1 1,003,902 10130030 HCC 1987 1 1 1,003,911 10130038 HCC 1964 68 1 1,003,922 10130066 SRL 1965 6 1 1,003,923 10130057 HCC 1973 28 1 1,003,926 10070105 HCC 1967 17 1 1,003,927 10130060 ERV 1977 4 1 1,003,931 10130076 SRL 1964 33 1 1,003,932 10130062 SDR 1979 31 1 1,003,936 10070106 HCC 1978 23 1 1,003,937 10130058 HCC 1973 41 1 1,003,944 10070200 HCC 1967 10 1 1,003,961 10070206 HCC 1979 21 1 1,003,978 10130103 HCC 1971 10 1 1,003,994 10130178 HCC 1972 19 1 1,003,996 10130110 SDR 1977 2 1 1,004,016 10130229 HCC 1971 55 1 1,004,019 10130222 HCC 1989 1 1 1,004,029 10130221 HCC 1989 21

D-5 1 1,004,040 10140024 HCC 1963 121 1 1,004,067 10140309 MDW 1991 2 1 1,004,074 10140297 SRL 1960 6 1 1,004,090 10140276 HPR 1966 5 1 1,004,105 10140145 HPR 1966 1 1 1,004,155 10140176 SDR 1984 2 1 1,004,171 10140176 SDR 1962 78 1 1,004,180 10140178 HCC 1973 7 1 1,004,193 10140177 SDR 1977 14 1 1,004,209 10140100 UKN 282 1 1,004,211 10140186 HCC 1966 124 1 1,004,223 10140188 HCC 1972 2 1 1,004,231 10140190 SDR 1981 3 1 1,004,254 10140097 HCC 1979 10 1 1,004,256 10140194 HCC 1977 7 1 1,004,266 10140279 SRL 1961 3 1 1,004,284 10140242 HCC 1970 17 1 1,004,286 10140213 HCC 1970 5 1 1,004,291 10140294 HCC 1995 3 1 1,004,306 10140293 HCC 1995 4 1 1,004,332 10150341 HCC 1995 2 1 1,004,347 10150084 HCC 1970 1 1 1,004,386 10150107 SDR 1979 2 1 1,004,416 10150123 HCC 1977 32 1 1,004,826 10160110 HCC 1969 2 1 1,006,096 30120543 HCC 1997 18 ------1 27,300

2 0 75,669 2 0 UKN 16 2 0 20050153 HFR 1986 1 2 0 20050164 HFR 1986 2 2 0 20050171 HSV 0 9 2 0 20050200 HSH 1979 1 2 0 20050201 HSH 1979 3 2 0 20060241 HCC 1989 1 2 0 20060244 HCC 1965 49 2 0 20060266 HCC 1967 8 2 0 20060271 HCC 1982 23 2 0 20060273 HCC 1983 7 2 0 20060274 HCC 1968 61 2 0 20060392 HCC 1967 27 2 0 20060453 HPR 1978 2 2 0 20070006 HFR 1986 7 2 0 20070008 HCC 1971 5 2 0 20070009 HCC 1982 2 2 0 20080289 HCC 1990 9 2 0 20130097 HCC 1988 1 2 0 20130104 HCC 1987 1 2 0 20150110 HCC 1990 1 2 0 20160018 HCC 1985 2

D-6 2 0 20160099 HCC 1987 1 2 0 20160266 HCC 1988 1 2 0 20160267 HCC 1988 2 2 0 40250021 HOR 1977 2 2 0 40260003 HCC 1977 2 2 1,001,953 30120150 HCC 1973 1 2 1,001,993 30130062 HCC 1980 2 2 1,002,022 30130093 HCC 1978 1 2 1,002,031 30130269 HCC 1990 1 2 1,002,034 30120230 HCC 1973 4 2 1,002,036 30130097 HCC 1968 1 2 1,002,040 30130092 HCC 1974 1 2 1,002,052 30130091 HCC 1978 1 2 1,002,055 30130130 HCC 1974 2 2 1,002,056 30130096 HCC 1968 3 2 1,002,102 30130277 HSV 1989 5 2 1,002,104 30130273 HSV 1989 8 2 1,002,106 30130272 HCC 1991 3 2 1,002,113 30130279 HSV 1989 29 2 1,002,135 30130278 HSV 1989 7 2 1,002,297 30170284 HCC 1989 4 2 1,002,328 30170278 HCC 1988 3 2 1,002,379 30170281 HCC 1989 3 2 1,002,399 30170279 HCC 1989 5 2 1,002,421 30170283 HCC 1989 2 2 1,002,444 30150657 HCC 1999 1 2 1,002,458 30150291 HCC 1968 95 2 1,002,493 30150345 HCC 1966 36 2 1,002,496 30150341 HCC 1985 2 2 1,002,500 30150348 HTH 1975 21 2 1,002,531 30150329 HCC 1985 2 2 1,002,614 30150454 HPR 1982 7 2 1,002,712 30150597 HCC 1984 2 2 1,002,755 30150600 HCC 1985 2 2 1,002,792 30200042 HCC 1969 4 2 1,002,870 30190125 HTH 1988 93 2 1,002,921 30200131 HCC 1983 1 2 1,002,927 30200132 HCC 1977 1 2 1,002,934 30200125 HCC 1968 2 2 1,002,950 30190180 HCC 1959 2 2 1,002,955 30190423 HCC 1987 2 2 1,002,956 30200167 HPR 1977 10 2 1,002,970 30200155 HCC 1979 27 2 1,002,972 30200156 HCC 1979 1 2 1,002,976 30190202 HCC 1975 1 2 1,002,980 30200166 HPR 1983 2 2 1,002,982 30200165 HCC 1977 1 2 1,002,983 30200152 HCC 1969 1 2 1,002,984 30200371 HSV 1990 40 2 1,002,990 30190241 HCC 1959 1 2 1,002,992 30200371 HSV 1990 10 2 1,002,998 30200169 HCC 1977 3

D-7 2 1,003,004 3019old NOT 2 2 1,003,005 30200186 HCC 1985 3 2 1,003,007 30190268 HCC 1971 7 2 1,003,012 30190274 HCC 1956 6 2 1,003,013 30190239 HFR 1975 4 2 1,003,016 30190238 HCC 1959 4 2 1,003,019 30200182 HCC 1978 2 2 1,003,023 30200185 HCC 1979 2 2 1,003,036 30190273 HCC 1970 16 2 1,003,039 30190271 HCC 1959 39 2 1,003,044 30200188 HCC 1969 1 2 1,003,046 30200371 HSV 1990 7 2 1,003,067 30190275 HCC 1973 1 2 1,003,072 30200211 HCC 1985 1 2 1,003,073 30190296 HPR 1983 10 2 1,003,080 30190292 HCC 1978 1 2 1,003,082 30190297 HCC 1963 30 2 1,003,085 30190442 HPR 1990 2 2 1,003,089 30190298 HCC 1958 51 2 1,003,107 30190306 HCC 1971 1 2 1,003,158 30190328 HCC 1971 2 2 1,003,160 30190320 HFR 1964 18 2 1,003,163 30190424 HCC 1988 5 2 1,003,167 30190425 HCC 1988 1 2 1,003,194 30190319 HPR 1977 23 2 1,003,208 30190321 HCC 1964 7 2 1,003,216 30190351 HCC 1971 1 2 1,003,253 30190345 HCC 1972 1 2 1,003,286 30190358 HCC 1972 1 2 1,003,300 30190364 HCC 1973 2 2 1,003,327 30190375 HCC 1978 1 2 1,003,333 30190445 HPR 1991 1 2 1,003,338 30190383 HCC 1978 1 2 1,003,356 30190382 HCC 1964 20 2 1,003,362 30190427 HCC 1987 1 2 1,003,363 30190427 HCC 1972 2 2 1,003,381 30190385 NOT 1 2 1,003,422 30220020 HCC 1960 119 2 1,003,426 30220019 HPR 1983 2 2 1,003,444 30220021 HCC 1983 2 2 1,003,449 30220022 HPR 1987 2 2 1,003,454 30220082 HSV 1979 3 2 1,003,460 30220038 HPR 1983 1 2 1,003,465 30220038 HCC 1983 1 2 1,003,467 10060083 HTH 1985 1 2 1,003,468 30220036 HSV 1979 2 2 1,003,496 10060085 HCC 1967 87 2 1,003,559 10060053 SRL 1967 1 2 1,003,591 10060075 SDR 1980 23 2 1,003,607 10060092 HCC 1968 6 2 1,003,664 10060160 HTH 1984 4 2 1,003,671 10060157 HTH 1984 5

D-8 2 1,003,684 10060226 HCC 1978 1 2 1,003,702 10060167 HCC 1968 2 2 1,003,711 10060154 HCC 1978 2 2 1,003,714 10060129 SDR 1980 2 2 1,003,720 30230195 HCC 1974 4 2 1,003,724 10060130 SDR 1980 1 2 1,003,758 10060152 SDR 1980 1 2 1,003,770 30230192 HCC 1974 5 2 1,003,787 10060137 SDR 1980 1 2 1,003,790 30230182 HPR 1983 3 2 1,003,796 10060149 SDR 1980 3 2 1,003,797 10120069 HFR 1977 1 2 1,003,808 10120001 HFR 1977 28 2 1,003,822 10060173 HCC 1969 7 2 1,003,825 10070052 HCC 1973 2 2 1,003,829 10070051 HCC 1973 1 2 1,003,835 10070274 HCC 1988 16 2 1,003,848 10070045 HCC 1974 13 2 1,003,849 10070043 HCC 1974 29 2 1,003,851 10130002 HFR 1977 1 2 1,003,866 10130020 HFR 1977 1 2 1,003,874 10130019 HCC 1964 3 2 1,003,876 10130236 HFR 1977 1 2 1,003,878 10130231 DFR 1979 1 2 1,003,881 10130234 SRL 1962 84 2 1,003,888 10130022 HCC 1987 6 2 1,003,891 10130029 HCC 1975 1 2 1,003,897 10070249 HCC 1986 4 2 1,003,898 10070249 HRB 1986 5 2 1,003,900 10070250 HCC 1986 2 2 1,003,901 10070249 HCC 1986 1 2 1,003,907 10130035 HCC 1987 1 2 1,003,911 10130038 HCC 1964 4 2 1,003,912 10130050 HCC 1988 3 2 1,003,913 10130047 HCC 1975 18 2 1,003,914 10130052 HCC 1964 76 2 1,003,918 10130034 HCC 1987 3 2 1,003,921 10070251 HCC 1986 3 2 1,003,922 10130066 SRL 1965 39 2 1,003,926 10070105 HCC 1967 17 2 1,003,929 10070252 HCC 1986 1 2 1,003,936 10070106 HCC 1978 1 2 1,003,937 10130058 HCC 1973 1 2 1,003,944 10070200 HCC 1967 8 2 1,003,945 10070298 SRL 1966 4 2 1,003,949 10070197 HCC 1978 2 2 1,003,961 10070206 HCC 1979 1 2 1,003,971 10070280 HPR 1968 1 2 1,003,972 10070218 HCC 1978 1 2 1,003,974 10130157 HCC 1972 59 2 1,003,993 10130107 SDR 1980 1 2 1,003,994 10130178 HCC 1972 4

D-9 2 1,003,996 10130110 SDR 1977 1 2 1,004,016 10130229 HCC 1971 1 2 1,004,019 10130222 HCC 1989 6 2 1,004,020 10130237 SDR 1991 3 2 1,004,025 10130230 HCC 1991 1 2 1,004,030 10130116 HCC 1965 1 2 1,004,035 10130179 HCC 1971 2 2 1,004,037 10130118 SDR 1979 2 2 1,004,040 10140024 HCC 1963 1 2 1,004,041 10130223 HCC 1989 13 2 1,004,043 10130232 HCC 1969 1 2 1,004,044 10130233 SDR 1970 6 2 1,004,047 10140014 SDR 1976 35 2 1,004,062 10140255 HCC 1986 1 2 1,004,064 10140262 HCC 1989 2 2 1,004,068 10140015 SDR 1976 9 2 1,004,072 10140022 SDR 1976 3 2 1,004,081 10140148 HCC 1963 23 2 1,004,086 10140017 SDR 1981 1 2 1,004,094 10140030 SDR 1981 1 2 1,004,097 10140278 SRL 1964 54 2 1,004,099 10140298 SRL 1961 13 2 1,004,102 10140031 SDR 1981 1 2 1,004,105 10140145 HPR 1966 92 2 1,004,108 10140307 MDW 1991 1 2 1,004,119 10140305 MDW 1991 1 2 1,004,128 10140306 HCC 1991 5 2 1,004,132 10140173 UKN 20 2 1,004,136 10140171 SRL 1965 2 2 1,004,137 10140304 MDW 1991 4 2 1,004,138 10140303 MDW 1991 6 2 1,004,155 10140176 SDR 1984 2 2 1,004,159 10140308 HRB 1991 3 2 1,004,161 10140308 HCC 1991 6 2 1,004,163 10140302 MDW 1991 3 2 1,004,164 10140308 HCC 1991 4 2 1,004,166 10140308 HCC 1991 2 2 1,004,171 10140176 SDR 1962 7 2 1,004,180 10140178 HCC 1973 2 2 1,004,193 10140177 SDR 1977 63 2 1,004,209 10140100 UKN 125 2 1,004,223 10140188 HCC 1972 27 2 1,004,224 10140189 SDR 1981 1 2 1,004,250 10140096 HCC 1979 19 2 1,004,258 10140103 HCC 1966 5 2 1,004,290 10140294 HCC 1995 1 2 1,004,292 10140216 HCC 1970 1 2 1,004,294 10140295 HCC 1995 2 2 1,004,295 10140295 HCC 1995 3 2 1,004,302 10140221 SDR 1979 1 2 1,004,309 10140228 HCC 1973 3 2 1,004,311 10140296 HCC 1995 1

D-10 2 1,004,325 10150092 HCC 1972 15 2 1,004,327 10150342 HCC 1995 2 2 1,004,329 10150328 HCC 1970 2 2 1,004,346 10150343 HCC 1995 1 2 1,004,347 10150084 HCC 1970 9 2 1,004,348 10150344 HPR 1994 1 2 1,004,378 10150131 HCC 1977 1 2 1,004,385 10150132 HCC 1977 1 2 1,004,386 10150107 SDR 1979 1 2 1,004,408 10150129 HCC 1977 47 2 1,004,416 10150123 HCC 1977 1 2 1,004,605 10150350 HCC 1995 7 2 1,004,826 10160110 HCC 1969 6 2 1,005,918 30150290 HCC 1980 7 2 1,006,022 30150458 HCC 1980 1 2 1,006,088 30130282 DEL 6 2 1,006,109 30150656 HCC 1999 1 2 1,006,220 10140308 HRB 1991 1 2 1,006,221 10130227 HCC 1 2 1,006,222 10130227 HCC 1 2 1,006,224 10130227 HCC 2 2 1,006,225 10130277 HRB 1 ------2 78,096

3 0 75,588 3 0 20060110 HCC 1984 2 3 0 20060134 HCC 1978 3 3 0 20060135 HCC 1978 2 3 0 20060137 HCC 1978 2 3 0 20060138 HCC 1978 1 3 0 20060139 HCC 1978 1 3 0 20060140 HCC 1978 2 3 0 20060141 HCC 1978 2 3 0 20060244 HCC 1965 2 3 0 20060246 HCC 1989 18 3 0 20060247 HPR 1972 1 3 0 20060263 HPR 1979 2 3 0 20060266 HCC 1967 24 3 0 20060271 HCC 1982 2 3 0 20060274 HCC 1968 3 3 0 20060284 HCC 1983 1 3 0 20060287 HCC 1969 1 3 0 20060289 HCC 1975 2 3 0 20060291 HCC 1985 1 3 0 20060293 HFR 1984 3 3 0 20060303 HSV 1982 1 3 0 20060306 HCC 1984 1 3 0 20060318 UKN 0 1 3 0 20060327 HFR 1982 8 3 0 20060341 HCC 1959 12 3 0 20060345 HCC 1969 3

D-11 3 0 20060353 HSV 1982 4 3 0 20060360 HSV 1982 1 3 0 20060377 HCC 1973 1 3 0 20060380 HCC 1989 4 3 0 20060384 HCC 1990 1 3 0 20060396 HCC 1990 1 3 0 20060405 UKN 0 2 3 0 20060407 HCC 1984 1 3 0 20060409 HCC 1993 1 3 0 20060453 HPR 1978 24 3 0 20070045 HCC 1972 1 3 0 20070161 HCC 1990 15 3 0 20080043 HCC 1967 3 3 0 20080046 HCC 1969 11 3 0 20080052 HCC 1969 4 3 0 20080062 HCC 1988 1 3 0 20080092 HCC 1959 3 3 0 20080094 HCC 1959 1 3 0 20080122 HCC 1969 2 3 0 20080130 DFR 1987 2 3 0 20080284 HPR 1988 3 3 0 20080285 HPR 1988 2 3 0 20080290 HCC 1989 4 3 0 20080297 HCC 1988 4 3 0 20080298 HCC 1989 5 3 0 20080299 HCC 1989 3 3 0 20080300 HCC 1988 2 3 0 20100220 HOR 1985 86 3 0 20100222 HSA 1985 9 3 0 20100231 HSH 1977 62 3 0 20100233 HFR 1985 3 3 0 20130092 HCC 1989 8 3 0 20130093 HCC 1989 16 3 0 20130094 HCC 1989 1 3 0 20130095 HCC 1989 1 3 0 20130096 HCC 1988 3 3 0 20130101 HCC 1990 2 3 0 20140066 HCC 1988 2 3 0 20140341 HCC 1989 1 3 0 20140345 HCC 1989 17 3 0 20140346 HCC 1990 6 3 0 20140349 HCC 1990 1 3 0 20140356 DFR 1987 1 3 0 20150110 HCC 1990 1 3 0 20230176 HSV 1967 1 3 0 40120002 HPR 1973 50 3 0 40120005 HCC 1968 2 3 0 40120007 HOR 1974 19 3 0 40120009 HFR 1974 21 3 0 40120010 HPR 1992 307 3 0 40120013 HFR 1973 72 3 0 40120015 HPR 1992 559

D-12 3 0 40120018 HOR 1974 71 3 0 40120025 HCC 1967 45 3 0 40120028 HCC 1967 1 3 0 40120033 HSV 1979 2 3 0 40120035 HOR 1973 1 3 0 40120039 HSV 1978 1 3 0 40120070 HCC 1979 2 3 0 40120071 HCC 1981 1 3 0 40120075 HPR 1992 113 3 0 40120155 HCC 1987 2 3 0 40120161 HCR 1992 11 3 0 40120166 HOR 1981 115 3 0 40130052 HOR 1975 59 3 0 40130242 HOR 1973 28 3 0 40200007 HCC 1981 1 3 0 40210182 HCR 1992 5 3 0 40250021 HOR 1977 4 3 0 40260004 HCC 1977 1 3 0 40260006 HCC 1977 6 3 1,001,892 30130241 HCC 1989 2 3 1,001,911 30130043 HCC 1978 4 3 1,001,915 30130041 HCC 1977 3 3 1,001,938 30130242 HCC 1987 3 3 1,001,941 30130059 HCC 1977 6 3 1,001,943 30130060 HCC 1978 2 3 1,001,944 30130046 HCC 1980 2 3 1,001,948 30130243 HCC 1987 3 3 1,001,950 30130061 HCC 1978 1 3 1,001,970 30130070 HCC 1978 4 3 1,001,996 30130068 HCC 1978 30 3 1,001,999 30130094 HCC 1978 2 3 1,002,021 30130086 HCC 1978 30 3 1,002,034 30120230 HCC 1973 62 3 1,002,036 30130097 HCC 1968 4 3 1,002,040 30130092 HCC 1974 1 3 1,002,044 30130080 HCC 1979 3 3 1,002,064 30130110 HCC 1980 2 3 1,002,067 30130125 HCC 1987 2 3 1,002,068 30130124 HCC 1987 1 3 1,002,087 30130123 HCC 1986 1 3 1,002,100 30130122 HCC 1986 1 3 1,002,106 30130272 HCC 1991 2 3 1,002,109 30130271 HCC 1991 2 3 1,002,123 30130120 HCC 1987 4 3 1,002,127 30120350 HCC 1974 2 3 1,002,129 30130121 HCC 1986 2 3 1,002,145 30130274 HCC 1991 3 3 1,002,150 30130119 HCC 1987 3 3 1,002,160 30130118 HCC 1988 3 3 1,002,162 30130166 HCC 1989 1 3 1,002,167 30130165 HCC 1988 3 3 1,002,180 30120506 HCC 1988 1

D-13 3 1,002,191 30130164 HCC 1988 1 3 1,002,194 30130163 HCC 1988 9 3 1,002,208 30130251 HCC 1989 4 3 1,002,223 30120396 HCC 1974 7 3 1,002,227 30130248 HCC 1989 2 3 1,002,234 30120392 HCC 1974 2 3 1,002,236 30130266 HCC 1989 1 3 1,002,238 30130266 HCC 1989 5 3 1,002,239 30120379 HCC 1968 1 3 1,002,241 30130267 HSV 1989 11 3 1,002,259 30130245 HCC 1989 1 3 1,002,267 30120126 HPR 1988 1 3 1,002,273 30130265 HCC 1989 13 3 1,002,299 30160001 HCC 1973 8 3 1,002,346 30160049 HCC 1973 3 3 1,002,359 30160394 HCC 1990 1 3 1,002,375 30160051 HCC 1973 2 3 1,002,463 30150292 HCC 1966 57 3 1,002,581 30150465 HCC 1966 2 3 1,002,593 30150460 HCC 1970 9 3 1,002,625 30150494 HCC 1985 1 3 1,002,630 30150495 HPR 1987 1 3 1,002,698 30150603 HCC 1985 1 3 1,002,843 30190444 HPR 1990 1 3 1,002,862 30190088 HCC 1980 19 3 1,002,870 30190125 HTH 1988 1 3 1,002,923 30190154 HCC 1973 4 3 1,002,950 30190180 HCC 1959 25 3 1,002,955 30190423 HCC 1987 1 3 1,003,065 30200213 HCC 1986 1 3 1,003,164 30200231 HCC 1986 1 3 1,003,170 30200235 HCC 1969 2 3 1,003,171 30200371 HSV 1990 12 3 1,003,192 30200371 HSV 1990 3 3 1,003,250 30190341 HCC 1988 2 3 1,003,293 30190357 HCC 1964 19 3 1,003,299 30190374 HOR 1976 15 3 1,003,310 30190354 HPR 1976 15 3 1,003,356 30190382 HCC 1964 7 3 1,003,567 30220065 HCC 1974 2 3 1,003,585 30220066 HCC 1974 2 3 1,003,603 30220067 HCC 1974 4 3 1,003,610 30220071 HCC 1973 7 3 1,003,641 10060190 HCC 1973 4 3 1,003,772 10060171 HCC 1969 58 3 1,003,801 10060184 HCC 1973 1 3 1,003,809 10060193 HFR 1977 3 3 1,003,825 10070052 HCC 1973 3 3 1,003,838 10070061 HCC 1972 6 3 1,003,851 10130002 HFR 1977 31 3 1,003,868 10130018 HCC 1977 3 3 1,003,884 10130025 HCC 1987 2

D-14 3 1,003,885 10070248 HOR 1986 5 3 1,003,888 10130022 HCC 1987 1 3 1,003,891 10130029 HCC 1975 3 3 1,003,892 10130024 HCC 1963 4 3 1,003,907 10130035 HCC 1987 4 3 1,003,911 10130038 HCC 1964 2 3 1,003,923 10130057 HCC 1973 2 3 1,003,926 10070105 HCC 1967 14 3 1,003,929 10070252 HCC 1986 24 3 1,003,937 10130058 HCC 1973 2 3 1,003,944 10070200 HCC 1967 8 3 1,003,945 10070298 SRL 1966 165 3 1,003,978 10130103 HCC 1971 86 3 1,003,989 10130108 SDR 1977 62 3 1,003,993 10130107 SDR 1980 1 3 1,004,030 10130116 HCC 1965 16 3 1,004,034 10130228 SDR 1979 1 3 1,004,047 10140014 SDR 1976 2 3 1,004,064 10140262 HCC 1989 1 3 1,004,081 10140148 HCC 1963 87 3 1,004,090 10140276 HPR 1966 83 3 1,004,105 10140145 HPR 1966 3 3 1,004,254 10140097 HCC 1979 17 3 1,004,256 10140194 HCC 1977 27 3 1,004,286 10140213 HCC 1970 21 3 1,004,292 10140216 HCC 1970 4 3 1,004,302 10140221 SDR 1979 1 3 1,004,303 10140220 HCC 1970 2 3 1,004,322 10150089 HCC 1973 1 3 1,004,327 10150342 HCC 1995 1 3 1,004,329 10150328 HCC 1970 22 3 1,004,332 10150341 HCC 1995 3 3 1,004,347 10150084 HCC 1970 14 3 1,004,368 10150134 HCC 1975 5 3 1,006,022 30150458 HCC 1980 2 3 1,006,067 30130283 HCC 1994 21 3 1,006,071 30130251 HPR 1989 2 3 1,006,073 30150242 HCC 1968 35 3 1,006,083 30130285 HCC 1994 3 3 1,006,084 30130285 HCC 1994 1 3 1,006,085 30130285 HCC 1994 1 3 1,006,087 30130292 HCC 1997 5 3 1,006,109 30150656 HCC 1999 8 3 1,006,113 30150659 HCC 1999 11 3 1,006,114 30150659 HCC 1999 2 3 1,006,115 30150659 HCC 1999 4 ------3 78,896

4 0 56,397 4 0 20060119 HPR 1978 24 4 0 20060123 HPR 1978 14

D-15 4 0 20060124 HCC 1963 9 4 0 20060125 HCC 1962 6 4 0 20060129 HCC 1963 8 4 0 20060130 HCC 1978 2 4 0 20060141 HCC 1978 2 4 0 20060232 HCC 1989 1 4 0 20060238 HCC 1989 1 4 0 20060241 HCC 1989 1 4 0 20060266 HCC 1967 27 4 0 20060274 HCC 1968 3 4 0 20060278 HFR 1983 1 4 0 20060303 HSV 1982 69 4 0 20060319 HSV 1982 2 4 0 20060323 HSV 1982 93 4 0 20060327 HFR 1982 1 4 0 20060335 HCC 1963 4 4 0 20060337 HCC 1959 34 4 0 20060341 HCC 1959 49 4 0 20060345 HCC 1969 33 4 0 20060353 HSV 1982 35 4 0 20060355 HSV 1982 40 4 0 20060356 HSV 1982 3 4 0 20060357 HSV 1982 39 4 0 20060360 HSV 1982 108 4 0 20060392 HCC 1967 1 4 0 20060458 HCC 1989 1 4 0 20060460 HCC 1989 5 4 0 20060461 HCC 1989 1 4 0 20080092 HCC 1959 35 4 0 20080120 HSV 1974 2 4 0 20080122 HCC 1969 71 4 0 20080180 HCC 1968 59 4 0 20080265 HCC 1969 27 4 0 20080275 HCC 1965 4 4 0 20080290 HCC 1989 14 4 0 20080297 HCC 1988 11 4 0 20100220 HOR 1985 6 4 0 20100222 HSA 1985 11 4 0 20100228 HSH 1977 12 4 0 20100233 HFR 1985 27 4 0 20100260 HCC 1965 18 4 0 20130093 HCC 1989 6 4 0 20130102 HCC 1990 13 4 0 20140195 HFR 1985 2 4 0 20140196 HPR 1981 1 4 0 20140197 HFR 1981 1 4 0 20140198 HSV 1985 8 4 0 20140199 HPR 1972 17 4 0 20140216 HFR 1972 1 4 0 20140339 HCC 1990 1 4 0 20140341 HCC 1989 7 4 0 20140342 HCC 1989 15

D-16 4 0 20160018 HCC 1985 2 4 0 20160027 HCC 1972 1 4 0 20160029 HPR 1980 10 4 0 20160031 HPR 1972 3 4 0 20160082 HFR 1986 5 4 0 20160112 HPR 1970 14 4 0 20160131 HPR 1970 10 4 0 20160266 HCC 1988 1 4 0 20190012 HSV 1985 11 4 0 20190013 HSV 1985 16 4 0 20190014 HSV 1985 46 4 0 20230112 HPR 1988 23 4 0 20230176 HSV 1967 16 4 0 20230177 HSV 1967 8 4 0 20230179 HFR 1988 20 4 0 20230180 HSV 1967 12 4 0 40120009 HFR 1974 77 4 0 40120010 HPR 1992 30 4 0 40120013 HFR 1973 1 4 0 40120014 HCC 1969 37 4 0 40120015 HPR 1992 41 4 0 40120018 HOR 1974 23 4 0 40120034 HCC 1967 5 4 0 40120037 HCC 1973 9 4 0 40120038 HOR 1973 27 4 0 40120039 HSV 1978 26 4 0 40120052 HCC 1973 3 4 0 40120160 HCR 1994 1 4 0 40130052 HOR 1975 52 4 0 40130186 HFR 1987 2 4 0 40130242 HOR 1973 2 4 0 40140007 HCC 1970 1 4 0 x UKN 0 17 4 1,001,834 30090181 HCC 1967 46 4 1,001,922 30130240 HCC 1987 15 4 1,001,925 30130239 HCC 1987 1 4 1,002,002 30130101 HCC 1974 25 4 1,002,036 30130097 HCC 1968 1 4 1,002,062 30130096 HCC 1968 2 4 1,002,122 30130275 HCC 1991 1 4 1,002,145 30130274 HCC 1991 1 4 1,002,194 30130163 HCC 1988 22 4 1,002,208 30130251 HCC 1989 3 4 1,002,223 30120396 HCC 1974 1 4 1,002,320 30160407 HCC 1990 3 4 1,002,326 30160404 HCC 1988 2 4 1,002,341 30160393 HCC 1990 1 4 1,002,346 30160049 HCC 1973 19 4 1,002,348 30160329 HCC 1990 4 4 1,002,359 30160394 HCC 1990 1 4 1,002,785 30200007 HCC 1988 1 4 1,002,792 30200042 HCC 1969 1

D-17 4 1,002,802 30200037 HCC 1988 1 4 1,002,827 30200041 HCC 1988 2 4 1,002,850 30200062 HCC 1988 2 4 1,002,860 30200063 HCC 1969 1 4 1,002,885 30200093 HCC 1987 2 4 1,002,896 30200095 HCC 1969 2 4 1,002,915 30200127 HCC 1983 2 4 1,002,956 30200167 HPR 1977 49 4 1,002,972 30200156 HCC 1979 20 4 1,002,982 30200165 HCC 1977 2 4 1,002,990 30190241 HCC 1959 5 4 1,002,992 30200371 HSV 1990 1 4 1,003,004 3019old NOT 16 4 1,003,012 30190274 HCC 1956 79 4 1,003,013 30190239 HFR 1975 45 4 1,003,016 30190238 HCC 1959 60 4 1,003,020 30200187 HCC 1969 17 4 1,003,036 30190273 HCC 1970 40 4 1,003,039 30190271 HCC 1959 6 4 1,003,046 30200371 HSV 1990 1 4 1,003,067 30190275 HCC 1973 5 4 1,003,074 30200207 HCC 1977 1 4 1,003,082 30190297 HCC 1963 1 4 1,003,103 30200234 HCC 1969 1 4 1,003,216 30190351 HCC 1971 1 4 1,003,320 30190386 HCC 1972 1 4 1,003,345 30190443 HSV 1990 14 4 1,003,367 30190396 HCC 1971 1 4 1,003,419 30220025 HCC 1982 1 4 1,003,422 30220020 HCC 1960 1 4 1,003,426 30220019 HPR 1983 6 4 1,003,444 30220021 HCC 1983 9 4 1,003,449 30220022 HPR 1987 2 4 1,003,460 30220038 HPR 1983 18 4 1,003,465 30220038 HCC 1983 2 4 1,003,474 30220039 HCC 1983 14 4 1,003,559 10060053 SRL 1967 111 4 1,003,560 10060088 HCC 1968 37 4 1,003,600 10060076 SDR 1980 2 4 1,003,607 10060092 HCC 1968 7 4 1,003,702 10060167 HCC 1968 2 4 1,003,711 10060154 HCC 1978 17 4 1,003,720 30230195 HCC 1974 48 4 1,003,787 10060137 SDR 1980 43 4 1,003,808 10120001 HFR 1977 14 4 1,003,829 10070051 HCC 1973 23 4 1,003,868 10130018 HCC 1977 1 4 1,003,874 10130019 HCC 1964 24 4 1,003,878 10130231 DFR 1979 1 4 1,003,908 10130053 HCC 1987 5 4 1,003,911 10130038 HCC 1964 2 4 1,003,912 10130050 HCC 1988 11

D-18 4 1,003,913 10130047 HCC 1975 1 4 1,003,914 10130052 HCC 1964 1 4 1,003,927 10130060 ERV 1977 40 4 1,003,931 10130076 SRL 1964 3 4 1,003,932 10130062 SDR 1979 1 4 1,003,989 10130108 SDR 1977 1 4 1,003,993 10130107 SDR 1980 81 4 1,004,019 10130222 HCC 1989 4 4 1,004,034 10130228 SDR 1979 1 4 1,004,063 10140021 SDR 1975 2 4 1,004,065 10140009 HCC 1986 1 4 1,004,072 10140022 SDR 1976 3 4 1,004,094 10140030 SDR 1981 1 4 1,004,136 10140171 SRL 1965 39 4 1,004,180 10140178 HCC 1973 2 4 1,004,184 10140277 SRL 1961 74 4 1,004,224 10140189 SDR 1981 2 4 1,004,233 10140092 HCC 1979 24 4 1,004,238 10140093 HCC 1979 3 4 1,004,246 10140104 HCC 1979 17 4 1,004,368 10150134 HCC 1975 21 4 1,004,594 10150351 HCC 1995 2 4 1,004,605 10150350 HCC 1995 26 4 1,006,089 30130290 HCC 1997 8 ------4 59,222

5 0 238,178 5 0 UKN 3 5 0 20050153 HFR 1986 50 5 0 20050160 HFR 1986 29 5 0 20050161 HCC 1972 21 5 0 20050164 HFR 1986 55 5 0 20050171 HSV 0 65 5 0 20050200 HSH 1979 1 5 0 20050201 HSH 1979 3 5 0 20060110 HCC 1984 18 5 0 20060127 HCC 1975 15 5 0 20060133 HCC 1978 3 5 0 20060232 HCC 1989 15 5 0 20060238 HCC 1989 4 5 0 20060241 HCC 1989 16 5 0 20060244 HCC 1965 1 5 0 20060245 HCC 1985 16 5 0 20060246 HCC 1989 27 5 0 20060247 HPR 1972 69 5 0 20060248 HCC 1982 5 5 0 20060260 HCC 1979 2 5 0 20060263 HPR 1979 29 5 0 20060266 HCC 1967 70 5 0 20060271 HCC 1982 17 5 0 20060273 HCC 1983 14

D-19 5 0 20060274 HCC 1968 36 5 0 20060276 HCC 1987 7 5 0 20060277 HCC 1975 4 5 0 20060278 HFR 1983 25 5 0 20060279 HCC 1983 12 5 0 20060282 HCC 1983 25 5 0 20060284 HCC 1983 30 5 0 20060285 HCC 1975 25 5 0 20060286 HCC 1987 6 5 0 20060287 HCC 1969 21 5 0 20060289 HCC 1975 11 5 0 20060291 HCC 1985 28 5 0 20060293 HFR 1984 8 5 0 20060306 HCC 1984 19 5 0 20060318 UKN 0 53 5 0 20060319 HSV 1982 22 5 0 20060323 HSV 1982 1 5 0 20060335 HCC 1963 37 5 0 20060357 HSV 1982 10 5 0 20060377 HCC 1973 16 5 0 20060380 HCC 1989 37 5 0 20060384 HCC 1990 11 5 0 20060392 HCC 1967 1 5 0 20060396 HCC 1990 24 5 0 20060405 UKN 0 45 5 0 20060407 HCC 1984 18 5 0 20060408 DWT 1981 2 5 0 20060409 HCC 1993 23 5 0 20060458 HCC 1989 12 5 0 20060460 HCC 1989 10 5 0 20060461 HCC 1989 24 5 0 20060463 HCC 1989 11 5 0 20070001 HCC 1971 28 5 0 20070006 HFR 1986 11 5 0 20070008 HCC 1971 39 5 0 20070009 HCC 1982 16 5 0 20070045 HCC 1972 40 5 0 20070161 HCC 1990 2 5 0 20080043 HCC 1967 38 5 0 20080046 HCC 1969 4 5 0 20080052 HCC 1969 76 5 0 20080056 UKN 0 6 5 0 20080062 HCC 1988 31 5 0 20080070 HCC 1969 25 5 0 20080094 HCC 1959 44 5 0 20080130 DFR 1987 27 5 0 20080248 HPR 1969 171 5 0 20080250 HCC 1985 3 5 0 20080251 HCC 1985 13 5 0 20080252 HPR 1985 12 5 0 20080265 HCC 1969 2 5 0 20080275 HCC 1965 22

D-20 5 0 20080284 HPR 1988 21 5 0 20080285 HPR 1988 51 5 0 20080288 HCC 1988 36 5 0 20080289 HCC 1990 21 5 0 20080290 HCC 1989 102 5 0 20080292 HCC 1989 6 5 0 20080293 HCC 1989 3 5 0 20080294 HCC 1988 37 5 0 20080295 HCC 1988 16 5 0 20080296 HCC 1989 5 5 0 20080297 HCC 1988 19 5 0 20080298 HCC 1989 5 5 0 20080299 HCC 1989 10 5 0 20100220 HOR 1985 13 5 0 20100222 HSA 1985 76 5 0 20100223 HFR 1977 3 5 0 20100228 HSH 1977 5 5 0 20100231 HSH 1977 1 5 0 20100260 HCC 1965 24 5 0 20100279 HFR 1977 23 5 0 20100292 UKN 0 1 5 0 20130092 HCC 1989 292 5 0 20130094 HCC 1989 106 5 0 20130095 HCC 1989 76 5 0 20130096 HCC 1988 108 5 0 20130097 HCC 1988 9 5 0 20130098 HCC 1989 31 5 0 20130099 DFR 1987 3 5 0 20130100 HCC 1990 48 5 0 20130101 HCC 1990 59 5 0 20130103 HCC 1990 4 5 0 20130104 HCC 1987 17 5 0 20140066 HCC 1988 238 5 0 20140157 HCC 1986 11 5 0 20140195 HFR 1985 24 5 0 20140196 HPR 1981 30 5 0 20140197 HFR 1981 28 5 0 20140198 HSV 1985 10 5 0 20140199 HPR 1972 25 5 0 20140200 HCC 1985 16 5 0 20140202 HPR 1982 9 5 0 20140204 HCC 1985 42 5 0 20140207 HCC 1972 30 5 0 20140210 HCS 1980 3 5 0 20140211 HCC 1981 2 5 0 20140212 HCC 1981 2 5 0 20140213 HCC 1980 1 5 0 20140216 HFR 1972 46 5 0 20140338 HCC 1990 11 5 0 20140339 HCC 1990 26 5 0 20140340 HCC 1989 5 5 0 20140341 HCC 1989 36

D-21 5 0 20140343 HCC 1989 20 5 0 20140344 HCC 1990 11 5 0 20140346 HCC 1990 5 5 0 20140349 HCC 1990 2 5 0 20140350 HCC 1990 5 5 0 20140356 DFR 1987 8 5 0 20150110 HCC 1990 55 5 0 20150111 HCC 1989 22 5 0 20160005 HCC 1986 11 5 0 20160018 HCC 1985 61 5 0 20160027 HCC 1972 35 5 0 20160028 HPR 1985 31 5 0 20160029 HPR 1980 1 5 0 20160031 HPR 1972 59 5 0 20160033 HCC 1981 2 5 0 20160035 HCC 1981 2 5 0 20160040 HCS 1980 1 5 0 20160041 HCS 1980 2 5 0 20160042 HCS 1980 2 5 0 20160051 HSH 1980 24 5 0 20160052 HSV 1984 29 5 0 20160055 HCC 1980 5 5 0 20160056 HCC 1980 3 5 0 20160057 HCC 1980 2 5 0 20160068 HCC 1967 6 5 0 20160072 HSH 1980 2 5 0 20160073 HSH 1980 1 5 0 20160078 HCC 1980 4 5 0 20160082 HFR 1986 61 5 0 20160083 HFR 1986 192 5 0 20160097 HCC 1986 9 5 0 20160099 HCC 1987 78 5 0 20160111 HFR 1986 21 5 0 20160112 HPR 1970 239 5 0 20160113 HPR 1970 32 5 0 20160131 HPR 1970 30 5 0 20160210 HPR 1986 5 5 0 20160255 UKN 0 3 5 0 20160257 HCC 1970 43 5 0 20160265 HPR 1980 1 5 0 20160266 HCC 1988 38 5 0 20160267 HCC 1988 77 5 0 20190012 HSV 1985 3 5 0 20190040 HSH 1979 6 5 0 20190047 HFR 1986 64 5 0 20190084 HFR 1988 2 5 0 20230180 HSV 1967 1 5 0 20230182 HCC 1973 2 5 0 40120002 HPR 1973 49 5 0 40120005 HCC 1968 61 5 0 40120007 HOR 1974 1 5 0 40120009 HFR 1974 6

D-22 5 0 40120010 HPR 1992 308 5 0 40120015 HPR 1992 1 5 0 40120018 HOR 1974 13 5 0 40120025 HCC 1967 9 5 0 40120028 HCC 1967 51 5 0 40120032 HCC 1967 23 5 0 40120033 HSV 1979 15 5 0 40120034 HCC 1967 37 5 0 40120035 HOR 1973 3 5 0 40120039 HSV 1978 1 5 0 40120052 HCC 1973 36 5 0 40120054 HSH 1987 26 5 0 40120055 HCC 1987 6 5 0 40120070 HCC 1979 7 5 0 40120071 HCC 1981 8 5 0 40120075 HPR 1992 132 5 0 40120134 HCC 1981 10 5 0 40120135 HCC 1981 20 5 0 40120154 HCC 1987 12 5 0 40120155 HCC 1987 13 5 0 40120166 HOR 1981 6 5 0 40130052 HOR 1975 24 5 0 40130068 HCC 1969 82 5 0 40130093 HCC 1970 17 5 0 40130186 HFR 1987 59 5 0 40130242 HOR 1973 145 5 0 40140002 HCC 1970 30 5 0 40140003 HCC 1970 17 5 0 40140004 HCC 1970 12 5 0 40140007 HCC 1970 22 5 0 40200007 HCC 1981 34 5 0 40210001 HCC 1974 32 5 0 40210003 HCC 1974 26 5 0 40210063 HCC 1981 25 5 0 40210066 HCC 1981 15 5 0 40210182 HCR 1992 14 5 0 40220039 HFR 1987 19 5 0 40220040 HCC 1970 35 5 0 40230003 HCC 1985 7 5 0 40230004 HCC 1985 6 5 0 40230005 HCC 1985 7 5 0 40230006 HCC 1985 4 5 0 40230007 HCC 1985 6 5 0 40230008 HCC 1985 5 5 0 40230051 HCC 1985 13 5 0 40230052 HCC 1985 13 5 0 40230053 HCC 1985 9 5 0 40230054 HCC 1985 6 5 0 40230061 HCC 1970 59 5 0 40230062 HFR 1987 11 5 0 40230063 HCC 1970 70 5 0 40230065 HCC 1987 4

D-23 5 0 40230066 HFR 1987 11 5 0 40250021 HOR 1977 53 5 0 40260001 HCC 1977 48 5 0 40260003 HCC 1977 27 5 0 40260004 HCC 1977 22 5 0 40260006 HCC 1977 7 5 0 x UKN 0 1 5 1,001,871 30130018 HCC 1974 18 5 1,001,881 30130024 HCC 1968 18 5 1,001,886 30130007 HCC 1973 51 5 1,001,888 30130033 HCC 1978 9 5 1,001,892 30130241 HCC 1989 14 5 1,001,911 30130043 HCC 1978 29 5 1,001,915 30130041 HCC 1977 39 5 1,001,918 30130051 HCC 1977 8 5 1,001,925 30130239 HCC 1987 3 5 1,001,927 30130037 HCC 1977 26 5 1,001,934 30130050 HCC 1977 6 5 1,001,938 30130242 HCC 1987 20 5 1,001,939 30130053 HCC 1976 5 5 1,001,941 30130059 HCC 1977 46 5 1,001,943 30130060 HCC 1978 11 5 1,001,944 30130046 HCC 1980 23 5 1,001,946 30130047 HCC 1977 13 5 1,001,948 30130243 HCC 1987 14 5 1,001,950 30130061 HCC 1978 8 5 1,001,970 30130070 HCC 1978 24 5 1,001,974 30130064 HCC 1977 10 5 1,001,991 30130063 HCC 1980 21 5 1,001,993 30130062 HCC 1980 45 5 1,001,999 30130094 HCC 1978 11 5 1,002,009 30130078 HCC 1980 14 5 1,002,022 30130093 HCC 1978 9 5 1,002,026 30130077 HCC 1974 59 5 1,002,027 30120192 HCC 1974 2 5 1,002,031 30130269 HCC 1990 25 5 1,002,034 30120230 HCC 1973 2 5 1,002,036 30130097 HCC 1968 51 5 1,002,040 30130092 HCC 1974 11 5 1,002,044 30130080 HCC 1979 44 5 1,002,052 30130091 HCC 1978 14 5 1,002,055 30130130 HCC 1974 45 5 1,002,056 30130096 HCC 1968 128 5 1,002,059 30130270 HCC 1990 10 5 1,002,062 30130096 HCC 1968 12 5 1,002,067 30130125 HCC 1987 10 5 1,002,068 30130124 HCC 1987 7 5 1,002,079 30130089 HCC 1978 17 5 1,002,087 30130123 HCC 1986 8 5 1,002,090 30130148 HCC 1973 28 5 1,002,096 30120302 HCC 1974 33 5 1,002,100 30130122 HCC 1986 24

D-24 5 1,002,102 30130277 HSV 1989 1 5 1,002,104 30130273 HSV 1989 19 5 1,002,106 30130272 HCC 1991 15 5 1,002,113 30130279 HSV 1989 8 5 1,002,122 30130275 HCC 1991 17 5 1,002,123 30130120 HCC 1987 9 5 1,002,127 30120350 HCC 1974 55 5 1,002,129 30130121 HCC 1986 8 5 1,002,135 30130278 HSV 1989 1 5 1,002,145 30130274 HCC 1991 12 5 1,002,150 30130119 HCC 1987 7 5 1,002,160 30130118 HCC 1988 5 5 1,002,162 30130166 HCC 1989 15 5 1,002,167 30130165 HCC 1988 26 5 1,002,178 30130252 HCC 1989 7 5 1,002,182 30130268 HSV 1997 1 5 1,002,191 30130164 HCC 1988 9 5 1,002,194 30130163 HCC 1988 7 5 1,002,208 30130251 HCC 1989 97 5 1,002,223 30120396 HCC 1974 28 5 1,002,227 30130248 HCC 1989 145 5 1,002,234 30120392 HCC 1974 25 5 1,002,236 30130266 HCC 1989 27 5 1,002,238 30130266 HCC 1989 3 5 1,002,241 30130267 HSV 1989 4 5 1,002,273 30130265 HCC 1989 6 5 1,002,297 30170284 HCC 1989 168 5 1,002,299 30160001 HCC 1973 30 5 1,002,306 30160003 HCC 1987 1 5 1,002,320 30160407 HCC 1990 12 5 1,002,326 30160404 HCC 1988 11 5 1,002,328 30170278 HCC 1988 14 5 1,002,341 30160393 HCC 1990 13 5 1,002,348 30160329 HCC 1990 14 5 1,002,354 30170282 HCC 1989 16 5 1,002,359 30160394 HCC 1990 13 5 1,002,375 30160051 HCC 1973 33 5 1,002,385 30160395 HCC 1988 28 5 1,002,416 30160095 HCC 1983 29 5 1,002,421 30170283 HCC 1989 14 5 1,002,441 30170280 HCC 1989 6 5 1,002,454 30160132 HCC 1983 52 5 1,002,496 30150341 HCC 1985 12 5 1,002,500 30150348 HTH 1975 1 5 1,002,502 30150328 HCC 1983 23 5 1,002,512 30150326 HCC 1978 19 5 1,002,528 30150377 HPR 1977 36 5 1,002,531 30150329 HCC 1985 18 5 1,002,544 30150378 HPR 1987 15 5 1,002,558 30150410 HCC 1977 50 5 1,002,579 30150411 HCC 1987 14 5 1,002,581 30150465 HCC 1966 70

D-25 5 1,002,593 30150460 HCC 1970 21 5 1,002,598 30150457 HCC 1984 6 5 1,002,602 30150461 HCC 1985 5 5 1,002,625 30150494 HCC 1985 41 5 1,002,647 30150493 UKN 11 5 1,002,666 30150590 HCC 1977 1 5 1,002,698 30150603 HCC 1985 10 5 1,002,712 30150597 HCC 1984 28 5 1,002,738 30150597 HCC 1984 2 5 1,002,785 30200007 HCC 1988 25 5 1,002,792 30200042 HCC 1969 67 5 1,002,802 30200037 HCC 1988 25 5 1,002,827 30200041 HCC 1988 7 5 1,002,850 30200062 HCC 1988 7 5 1,002,860 30200063 HCC 1969 51 5 1,002,862 30190088 HCC 1980 22 5 1,002,873 30190089 HCC 1959 27 5 1,002,881 30200092 HCC 1987 37 5 1,002,885 30200093 HCC 1987 12 5 1,002,890 30190127 HPR 1975 13 5 1,002,896 30200095 HCC 1969 43 5 1,002,908 30190153 HCC 1975 2 5 1,002,911 30190148 HCC 1961 2 5 1,002,915 30200127 HCC 1983 1 5 1,002,923 30190154 HCC 1973 24 5 1,002,927 30200132 HCC 1977 23 5 1,002,928 30200122 HCC 1988 6 5 1,002,934 30200125 HCC 1968 51 5 1,002,950 30190180 HCC 1959 1 5 1,002,955 30190423 HCC 1987 16 5 1,002,956 30200167 HPR 1977 8 5 1,002,960 30200148 HCC 1977 14 5 1,002,963 30200154 HCC 1979 30 5 1,002,965 30200145 HCC 1988 21 5 1,002,970 30200155 HCC 1979 3 5 1,002,976 30190202 HCC 1975 16 5 1,002,980 30200166 HPR 1983 1 5 1,002,982 30200165 HCC 1977 17 5 1,002,983 30200152 HCC 1969 13 5 1,002,984 30200371 HSV 1990 18 5 1,002,989 30200164 HCC 1986 34 5 1,002,990 30190241 HCC 1959 12 5 1,002,998 30200169 HCC 1977 8 5 1,003,004 3019old NOT 1 5 1,003,005 30200186 HCC 1985 13 5 1,003,007 30190268 HCC 1971 33 5 1,003,019 30200182 HCC 1978 36 5 1,003,023 30200185 HCC 1979 14 5 1,003,029 30200171 HCC 1969 91 5 1,003,036 30190273 HCC 1970 7 5 1,003,039 30190271 HCC 1959 11 5 1,003,044 30200188 HCC 1969 78

D-26 5 1,003,050 30200174 HCC 1969 52 5 1,003,065 30200213 HCC 1986 25 5 1,003,072 30200211 HCC 1985 29 5 1,003,073 30190296 HPR 1983 1 5 1,003,074 30200207 HCC 1977 18 5 1,003,077 30190289 HCC 1983 2 5 1,003,080 30190292 HCC 1978 25 5 1,003,100 30190420 HCC 1987 2 5 1,003,103 30200234 HCC 1969 92 5 1,003,107 30190306 HCC 1971 20 5 1,003,111 30200203 HCC 1986 21 5 1,003,117 30190295 HCC 1983 6 5 1,003,122 30190294 HCC 1983 4 5 1,003,123 30190304 HCC 1979 17 5 1,003,141 30190419 HCC 1987 6 5 1,003,144 30200226 HCC 1968 26 5 1,003,158 30190328 HCC 1971 32 5 1,003,160 30190320 HFR 1964 2 5 1,003,163 30190424 HCC 1988 16 5 1,003,164 30200231 HCC 1986 12 5 1,003,167 30190425 HCC 1988 1 5 1,003,170 30200235 HCC 1969 20 5 1,003,171 30200371 HSV 1990 2 5 1,003,185 30200226 HCC 1968 4 5 1,003,194 30190319 HPR 1977 9 5 1,003,201 30190322 HCC 1976 18 5 1,003,208 30190321 HCC 1964 40 5 1,003,216 30190351 HCC 1971 60 5 1,003,226 30190446 HPR 1991 11 5 1,003,237 30190343 HCC 1964 36 5 1,003,250 30190341 HCC 1988 37 5 1,003,253 30190345 HCC 1972 29 5 1,003,285 30190355 HCC 1978 4 5 1,003,286 30190358 HCC 1972 50 5 1,003,293 30190357 HCC 1964 6 5 1,003,299 30190374 HOR 1976 40 5 1,003,300 30190364 HCC 1973 23 5 1,003,320 30190386 HCC 1972 41 5 1,003,321 30190443 HSV 1990 2 5 1,003,327 30190375 HCC 1978 2 5 1,003,338 30190383 HCC 1978 10 5 1,003,345 30190443 HSV 1990 18 5 1,003,356 30190382 HCC 1964 1 5 1,003,363 30190427 HCC 1972 6 5 1,003,367 30190396 HCC 1971 32 5 1,003,376 30190392 HCC 1973 23 5 1,003,389 30190400 HCC 1967 9 5 1,003,397 30220004 HCC 1972 3 5 1,003,402 30220010 HCC 1971 10 5 1,003,403 30220013 HCC 1968 69 5 1,003,411 30220008 HCC 1978 40 5 1,003,419 30220025 HCC 1982 9

D-27 5 1,003,438 30220027 HCC 1982 6 5 1,003,445 30220029 HCC 1983 10 5 1,003,451 30220023 HCC 1983 8 5 1,003,460 30220038 HPR 1983 1 5 1,003,465 30220038 HCC 1983 1 5 1,003,468 30220036 HSV 1979 11 5 1,003,474 30220039 HCC 1983 1 5 1,003,481 30220037 HCC 1961 71 5 1,003,486 30220057 HCC 1974 15 5 1,003,496 10060085 HCC 1967 2 5 1,003,500 10060086 HSV 1984 26 5 1,003,512 10060233 HSV 1984 2 5 1,003,559 10060053 SRL 1967 3 5 1,003,567 30220065 HCC 1974 11 5 1,003,585 30220066 HCC 1974 13 5 1,003,600 10060076 SDR 1980 52 5 1,003,603 30220067 HCC 1974 22 5 1,003,607 10060092 HCC 1968 100 5 1,003,610 30220071 HCC 1973 19 5 1,003,641 10060190 HCC 1973 27 5 1,003,653 10060162 HTH 1984 94 5 1,003,664 10060160 HTH 1984 3 5 1,003,671 10060157 HTH 1984 29 5 1,003,702 10060167 HCC 1968 54 5 1,003,714 10060129 SDR 1980 13 5 1,003,720 30230195 HCC 1974 7 5 1,003,724 10060130 SDR 1980 13 5 1,003,735 10060215 HCC 1988 7 5 1,003,746 10060214 HCC 1988 25 5 1,003,758 10060152 SDR 1980 33 5 1,003,766 10060213 HCC 1988 14 5 1,003,770 30230192 HCC 1974 25 5 1,003,772 10060171 HCC 1969 51 5 1,003,775 10120065 HCC 1973 9 5 1,003,785 10060212 HCC 1988 16 5 1,003,792 10060182 HCC 1973 29 5 1,003,794 10060211 HCC 1988 6 5 1,003,796 10060149 SDR 1980 35 5 1,003,797 10120069 HFR 1977 1 5 1,003,801 10060184 HCC 1973 23 5 1,003,806 10060195 HFR 1977 44 5 1,003,808 10120001 HFR 1977 24 5 1,003,809 10060193 HFR 1977 91 5 1,003,812 10060201 HFR 1977 2 5 1,003,814 10060210 HCC 1988 10 5 1,003,818 10060230 HFR 1977 8 5 1,003,819 10060210 HCC 1988 6 5 1,003,822 10060173 HCC 1969 37 5 1,003,825 10070052 HCC 1973 50 5 1,003,829 10070051 HCC 1973 2 5 1,003,835 10070274 HCC 1988 1 5 1,003,838 10070061 HCC 1972 38

D-28 5 1,003,841 10070046 SDR 1979 67 5 1,003,842 10130235 HFR 1977 6 5 1,003,845 10070246 HCC 1986 13 5 1,003,851 10130002 HFR 1977 17 5 1,003,856 10070247 HCC 1986 20 5 1,003,866 10130020 HFR 1977 8 5 1,003,868 10130018 HCC 1977 22 5 1,003,874 10130019 HCC 1964 13 5 1,003,876 10130236 HFR 1977 4 5 1,003,878 10130231 DFR 1979 20 5 1,003,881 10130234 SRL 1962 288 5 1,003,884 10130025 HCC 1987 6 5 1,003,885 10070248 HOR 1986 5 5 1,003,888 10130022 HCC 1987 29 5 1,003,892 10130024 HCC 1963 19 5 1,003,897 10070249 HCC 1986 4 5 1,003,898 10070249 HRB 1986 3 5 1,003,900 10070250 HCC 1986 22 5 1,003,901 10070249 HCC 1986 13 5 1,003,907 10130035 HCC 1987 28 5 1,003,908 10130053 HCC 1987 34 5 1,003,912 10130050 HCC 1988 37 5 1,003,914 10130052 HCC 1964 22 5 1,003,918 10130034 HCC 1987 42 5 1,003,921 10070251 HCC 1986 31 5 1,003,922 10130066 SRL 1965 1 5 1,003,923 10130057 HCC 1973 3 5 1,003,924 10130064 SDR 1980 28 5 1,003,926 10070105 HCC 1967 33 5 1,003,931 10130076 SRL 1964 30 5 1,003,932 10130062 SDR 1979 1 5 1,003,994 10130178 HCC 1972 17 5 1,003,996 10130110 SDR 1977 77 5 1,004,016 10130229 HCC 1971 3 5 1,004,019 10130222 HCC 1989 24 5 1,004,020 10130237 SDR 1991 8 5 1,004,025 10130230 HCC 1991 21 5 1,004,029 10130221 HCC 1989 17 5 1,004,030 10130116 HCC 1965 22 5 1,004,034 10130228 SDR 1979 45 5 1,004,035 10130179 HCC 1971 61 5 1,004,037 10130118 SDR 1979 86 5 1,004,040 10140024 HCC 1963 12 5 1,004,041 10130223 HCC 1989 20 5 1,004,047 10140014 SDR 1976 6 5 1,004,059 10130227 HCC 4 5 1,004,062 10140255 HCC 1986 8 5 1,004,063 10140021 SDR 1975 12 5 1,004,064 10140262 HCC 1989 15 5 1,004,065 10140009 HCC 1986 20 5 1,004,067 10140309 MDW 1991 1 5 1,004,072 10140022 SDR 1976 70

D-29 5 1,004,074 10140297 SRL 1960 1 5 1,004,077 10140249 SDR 1976 8 5 1,004,080 10140036 HPR 1970 2 5 1,004,081 10140148 HCC 1963 3 5 1,004,086 10140017 SDR 1981 3 5 1,004,094 10140030 SDR 1981 14 5 1,004,097 10140278 SRL 1964 34 5 1,004,102 10140031 SDR 1981 14 5 1,004,104 10140307 MDW 1991 1 5 1,004,105 10140145 HPR 1966 1 5 1,004,108 10140307 MDW 1991 6 5 1,004,112 10140307 MDW 1991 5 5 1,004,119 10140305 MDW 1991 5 5 1,004,128 10140306 HCC 1991 15 5 1,004,155 10140176 SDR 1984 88 5 1,004,159 10140308 HRB 1991 2 5 1,004,161 10140308 HCC 1991 4 5 1,004,163 10140302 MDW 1991 7 5 1,004,164 10140308 HCC 1991 5 5 1,004,166 10140308 HCC 1991 5 5 1,004,171 10140176 SDR 1962 2 5 1,004,180 10140178 HCC 1973 51 5 1,004,184 10140277 SRL 1961 25 5 1,004,193 10140177 SDR 1977 19 5 1,004,224 10140189 SDR 1981 30 5 1,004,231 10140190 SDR 1981 22 5 1,004,290 10140294 HCC 1995 9 5 1,004,292 10140216 HCC 1970 13 5 1,004,294 10140295 HCC 1995 9 5 1,004,295 10140295 HCC 1995 3 5 1,004,300 10140222 HCC 1970 13 5 1,004,302 10140221 SDR 1979 27 5 1,004,303 10140220 HCC 1970 9 5 1,004,304 10140293 HCC 1995 8 5 1,004,309 10140228 HCC 1973 19 5 1,004,311 10140296 HCC 1995 14 5 1,004,313 10140296 HCC 1995 2 5 1,004,316 10140296 HCC 1995 7 5 1,004,317 10200069 HCC 1972 13 5 1,004,322 10150089 HCC 1973 49 5 1,004,325 10150092 HCC 1972 22 5 1,004,327 10150342 HCC 1995 11 5 1,004,329 10150328 HCC 1970 7 5 1,004,331 10210002 HCC 1972 17 5 1,004,332 10150341 HCC 1995 6 5 1,004,346 10150343 HCC 1995 6 5 1,004,347 10150084 HCC 1970 79 5 1,004,348 10150344 HPR 1994 11 5 1,004,378 10150131 HCC 1977 25 5 1,004,385 10150132 HCC 1977 47 5 1,004,386 10150107 SDR 1979 75 5 1,004,397 10150355 HCC 1990 7

D-30 5 1,004,433 10150326 HCC 1990 8 5 1,004,826 10160110 HCC 1969 26 5 1,006,004 10130076 SRL 1964 3 5 1,006,022 30150458 HCC 1980 12 5 1,006,068 30130282 HCC 1994 10 5 1,006,069 30130284 HCC 1994 10 5 1,006,071 30130251 HPR 1989 24 5 1,006,081 30130288 HCC 1996 9 5 1,006,082 30130289 HCC 1996 5 5 1,006,086 30130291 HCC 1997 6 5 1,006,088 30130282 DEL 1 5 1,006,096 30120543 HCC 1997 10 5 1,006,109 30150656 HCC 1999 22 5 1,006,115 30150659 HCC 1999 5 5 1,006,129 30190039 HPR 1971 180 5 1,006,158 10020210 HRB 1988 3 5 1,006,159 10060212 HRB 1988 3 5 1,006,160 10070247 HRB 1986 1 5 1,006,161 10070247 HRB 1986 1 5 1,006,162 10070247 HRB 1986 1 5 1,006,221 10130227 HCC 2 5 1,006,222 10130227 HCC 4 5 1,006,223 10130227 HCC 5 5 1,006,224 10130227 HCC 2 5 1,006,225 10130277 HRB 1 5 1,006,226 10130227 HRB 2 5 1,006,227 10130227 HRB 2 5 1,006,228 10130227 HRB 2 ------5 253,237

9 0 3,723 9 0 20140339 HCC 1990 2 9 1,002,328 30170278 HCC 1988 12 ------9 3,737 ======500,488

D-31 Appendix D - Vegetation

Plant Association Groups (PAGs) with plant association membership occurring in the Biscuit Fire Recovery Area.

The PAG maps show a Grand Fir PAG that was not included in the analysis because it occupied so few acres. It also shows grassland-steppe, spruce, and western hemlock. Dry PAGs were not included in the analyses because they do not occur in the Recovery Area.

Oregon white oak-SW Oregon Oregon white oak/Hedgehog Dogtail Oregon white oak-Douglas-fir/Poisonoak Port-Orford-cedar Port-Orford-cedar/Pacific rhododendron-salal Port-Orford-cedar/Huckleberry oak-Common beargrass Douglas-fir - Dry Douglas-fir-Ponderosa pine/Poisonoak Douglas-fir-California black oak/Poisonoak Douglas-fir-Canyon live oak-Tanoak Douglas-fir-Canyon live oak/Poisonoak Douglas-fir - Moist Douglas-fir-Golden chinquapin/Dwarf Oregongrape Douglas-fir/Salal-Pacific rhododendron Ultramafic- SW Oregon Douglas-fir-Incense cedar-Jeffrey pine Douglas-fir/Huckleberry oak-Pinemat manzanita/Common beargrass Tanaok-Western white pine/Huckleberry oak/Common beargrass Western white pine-Tanoak/Huckleberry oak/Common beargrass Western white pine-Jeffery pine/Huckleberry oak/Common beargrass Jeffrey pine/Huckleberry oak-Pinemat manzanita-Box-leaved silk tassle Jeffrey pine-Incense cedar/Whiteleaf manzanita Jeffrey pine-Incense cedar/Huckleberry oak Tanoak- Dry Tanoak-Douglas-fir-Canyon live oak/Dwarf Oregongrape Tanoak-Douglas-fir-Canyon live oak/Poisonoak Tanoak-Moist Tanoak-Bigleaf maple-Canyon live oak/Western swordfern Tanoak-Port-Orford-cedar/salal Tanoak/Evergreen huckleberry-Pacific rhododendron-Salal Western hemlock-Coastal Western hemlock-Tanoak-California Myrtle Western hemlock/Evergreen huckleberry/Western swordfern Western hemlock-Tanoak/Evergreen huckleberry-Pacific rhododendron Western hemlock/Pacific rhododendron/Dwarf Oregon grape Western hemlock/Western swordfern

D-32 Appendix D - Vegetation

White fir- Dry White fir/Oregongrape White fir/Oregongrape/Vanillaleaf White Fir – Moist White fir-Tanoak/Common prince’s pine White fir/Pinemat manzanita White fir/Huckleberry oak White fir-Western hemlock/Oregongrape

Shasta red fir Shasta red fir-White fir/Sadler’s oak/Common prince’s pine White fir-Brewer spruce/Common prince’s pine-Whitevein pyrola

Table 2. Overstory tree species composition and percent cover by Plant Association Group. Constancy shows the percentage of plots in which the species occurred.

Plant Association Overstory Trees Constancy Cover Group

Shasta Red Fir Douglas-fir 100 57 Shasta Red Fir 100 5 Sugar pine 67 15 Brewer spruce 67 5 White Fir – Dry Douglas-fir 68 50 Sugar pine 47 10 White fir 42 17 Port-Orford-cedar 11 10 White Fir – Moist Douglas-fir 100 47 White fir 50 20 Shasta red fir 25 10 Sugar pine 25 5 Western Hemlock Douglas-fir 100 35 Western hemlock 100 3 Sugar pine 100 2 Tanoak – Dry Douglas-fir 60 54 Sugar pine 47 6 Ponderosa pine 33 7 White fir 27 10 Tanoak – Moist Douglas-fir 88 59 Port-Orford-cedar 25 6 Douglas-fir – Dry Douglas-fir 83 28 Sugar pine 67 9 Ponderosa pine 33 7 Knobcone pine 17 3

D-33 Appendix D - Vegetation

Douglas-fir – Moist Douglas-fir 91 59 Sugar pine 27 4 Port-Orford-cedar 9 20 Ponderosa pine 9 1 Port-Orford-cedar Port-Orford-cedar 83 21 Douglas-fir 67 46 Sugar pine 33 3 Western white pine 17 10 Jeffrey pine 17 5 Ultramafic Jeffrey pine 92 20 Incense cedar 69 6 Douglas-fir 69 4 Sugar pine 54 2 Oregon White Oak Oregon white oak 100 30 Pacific madrone 100 5 Ponderosa pine 100 5 Douglas-fir 100 2 California black oak 100 2

Table 3. Tree species composition of the regeneration layer and percent cover by Plant Association Group. Constancy shows the percentage of plots in which the species occurred.

Plant Association Tree regeneration Constancy Cover Group

Shasta Red Fir Shasta Red Fir 100 27 Brewer spruce 100 9 White fir 67 8 White Fir – Dry White fir 63 39 Douglas-fir 37 7 Tanoak 37 6 White Fir – Moist White fir 100 30 Douglas-fir 75 9 Shasta red fir 50 8 Incense cedar 50 2 Western Hemlock Golden chinquapin 100 30 Western hemlock 100 15 Douglas-fir 100 10 Sugar pine 100 3 Tanoak – Dry Tanoak 53 45

D-34 Appendix D - Vegetation

Canyon live oak 53 11 Golden chinquapin 53 10 Pacific madrone 47 9 Douglas-fir 47 8 Tanoak – Moist Tanoak 88 47 Douglas-fir 63 8 California myrtle 38 6 Port-Orford-cedar 25 35 Douglas-fir – Dry Tanoak 100 12 Douglas-fir 83 38 Canyon live oak 83 16 Pacific madrone 50 20 Sugar pine 50 5 Douglas-fir – Moist Douglas-fir 73 24 Tanoak 64 9 Golden chinquapin 55 7 Port-Orford-cedar Port-Orford-cedar 100 24 Tanoak 67 12 Douglas-fir 67 4 Golden chinquapin 50 2 Ultramafic Douglas-fir 85 7 Jeffrey pine 77 12 Incense cedar 69 11 California myrtle 62 7 Oregon White Oak Oregon white oak 100 10

Table 4. Shrub species composition and percent cover by Plant Association Group. Constancy shows the percentage of plots in which the species occurred.

Plant Association Shrub cover Constancy Cover Group

Shasta Red Fir Red huckleberry 100 3 n=3 Sadlers oak 67 48 Dwarf Oregongrape 67 9 White Fir – Dry Pinemat manzanita 42 13 n=19 Dwarf Oregongrape 42 7 Red huckleberry 32 7 Huckleberry oak 26 20 Sadlers oak 26 19 White Fir – Moist Dwarf Oregongrape 100 10 n=4 Sadlers oak 75 8 Baldhip rose 75 3 Western Hemlock Salal 100 65

D-35 Appendix D - Vegetation

n=1 Pacific 100 39 rhododendron Tanoak – Dry Salal 47 35 n=15 Dwarf Oregongrape 40 11 Poisonoak 27 4 Tanoak – Moist Dwarf Oregongrape 88 19 n=8 Salal 75 44 Pacific 75 39 rhododendron Evergreen 63 39 huckleberry Douglas-fir – Dry Poisonoak 33 16 n=6 Baldhip rose 33 11 Dwarf Oregongrape 33 6 Hairy honeysuckle 33 2 Pacific blackberry 33 2 Douglas-fir – Moist Pacific 82 58 n=11 rhododendron Salal 82 39 Dwarf Oregongrape 64 11 Sadlers oak 45 20 Port-Orford-cedar Pacific 67 59 n=6 rhododendron Dwarf Oregongrape 67 3 Salal 50 55 Red huckleberry 50 2 Sadlers oak 33 35 Ultramafic Huckleberry oak 92 22 n=13 Box-leaved silk tassle 78 17 Dwarf ceanothus 69 4 Whiteleaf manzanita 62 12 California 62 3 coffeeberry Pygmy Oregongrape 62 1 Oregon White Oak Poisonoak 100 5 n=1 Pipers Oregongrape 100 5

Table 5. Herb species composition and percent cover by Plant Association Group. Constancy shows the percentage of plots in which the species occurred.

Plant Association Herb cover Constancy Cover

D-36 Appendix D - Vegetation

Group

Shasta Red Fir Common prince’s 100 15 n=3 pine Common beargrass 100 3 Western starflower 67 6 White Fir – Dry Common prince’s 58 9 n=19 pine Common beargrass 37 18 Western twinflower 26 14 White Fir – Moist Common prince’s 100 9 n=4 pine Western starflower 100 7 Western Hemlock Western twinflower 100 6 n=1 Tanoak – Dry Western swordfern 27 9 n=15 Common prince’s 27 3 pine Western twinflower 20 28 Tanoak – Moist Common beargrass 50 7 n=8 Braken 50 3 Western swordfern 38 5 Douglas-fir – Dry Western swordfern 100 4 n=6 Vanillaleaf 33 5 Douglas-fir – Moist Common beargrass 45 13 n=11 Braken 27 2 Port-Orford-cedar Western swordfern 33 11 n=6 Common beargrass 33 7 Common prince’s 3 pine 33 2 Vanillaleaf 33 2 Ultramafic Common beargrass 92 4 n=13 Slender-tubed iris 69 1 Western starflower 62 1 Rock fern 62 1 Oregon White Oak Agroseris tenuis 100 50 n=1 Hedgehog dogtail 100 50

D-37 Appendix D - Vegetation

Following the aerial photo interpretation of the Fire, modified cruise plots were taken to verify the interpretation. The plots were aggregated by Plant Series and summarized below.

Table 3-B – Present Stand Structure by Plant Series, Fire Effects, and Vegetative Type BISCUIT FIRE EFFECTS BY PLANT SERIES

SERIES = ABCO Moderate-High Fire Effects Live Dead Veg Type Year Size DBH Tr/Ac Avg BA/Ac Ht Tr/Ac Avg B.A./Ac Ht Class Range Ht Range Ht. Range Poles 2002 Seedlings 0-2.9 0 167 7 2 7 2002 Saplings 3-8.9 33 24 6 24 550 23 108 23 2002 Small 9.0-20.9 63 65 56 49-80 15 45 8 42-51 2002 Mature 21.0-31.9 14 90 40 88-98 2 64 4 64 2002 Old 32.0 + 2 113 19 113 2 34 26 34 Growth 2002 Total 112 52 121 24-113 735 20 148 7-64

SERIES = ABCO High Fire Effects Live Dead Veg Type Year Size DBH Tr/Ac Avg BA/Ac Ht Tr/Ac Avg B.A./Ac Ht Class Range Ht Range Ht. Range Poles 2002 Seedlings 0-2.9 17 12 0 12 461 8 7 8 2002 Saplings 3-8.9 0 161 18 32 18 2002 Small 9.0-20.9 5 55 5 49-64 68 60 76 46-76 2002 Mature 21.0-31.9 2 100 5 79-117 18 100 59 79-120 2002 Old 32.0 + 0 8 100 46 73-128 Growth 2002 Total 24 27 10 12-117 716 18 220 8-128

SERIES = CHLA High Fire Effects Live Dead Veg Type Year Size DBH Tr/Ac Avg BA/Ac Ht Tr/Ac Avg B.A./Ac Ht Class Range Ht Range Ht. Range Conifer- 2002 Seedlings 0-2.9 0 850 8 18 8 Poles 2002 Saplings 3-8.9 0 550 23 108 23 2002 Small 9.0-20.9 15 38 10 31-46 40 40 26 38-41 2002 Mature 21.0-31.9 0 0 2002 Old 32.0 + 0 0 Growth 2002 Total 15 38 10 31-46 1440 14 152 8-41

SERIES = LIDE3 Moderate-High to High Fire Effects Live Dead Veg Type Year Size DBH Tr/Ac Avg BA/Ac Ht Tr/Ac Avg B.A./Ac Ht Class Range Ht Range Ht. Range Conifer- 2002 Seedlings 0-2.9 0 9 15 0 15 Mixed 2002 Saplings 3-8.9 0 53 34 11 34 Poles 2002 Small 9.0-20.9 20 65 19 49-80 34 70 27 50-92

D-38 Appendix D - Vegetation

2002 Mature 21.0-31.9 6 105 18 98-114 5 100 14 94-110 2002 Old 32.0 + 0 0 Growth 2002 Total 26 72 37 49-114 101 44 52 15-110

SERIES = LIDE3-PSME Low-Moderate to High Fire Effects Live Dead Veg Type Year Size DBH Tr/Ac Avg BA/Ac Ht Tr/Ac Avg B.A./Ac Ht Class Range Ht Range Ht. Range Conifer- 2002 Seedlings 0-2.9 0 353 8 6 8 Mixed 2002 Saplings 3-8.9 0 159 17 31 17 Poles 2002 Small 9.0-20.9 26 70 22 51-87 46 65 42 48-80 2002 Mature 21.0-31.9 3 110 13 93-123 5 90 14 70-110 2002 Old 32.0 + 4 125 29 106- 1 114 5 114 Growth 144 2002 Total 33 134 64 64-177 562 15 98 8-114

SERIES = LIDE3-PSME Low-Moderate to High Fire Effects Live Dead Veg Type Year Size DBH Tr/Ac Avg BA/Ac Ht Tr/Ac Avg B.A./Ac Ht Class Range Ht Range Ht. Range Large 2002 Seedlings 0-2.9 0 147 8 3 8 2002 Saplings 3-8.9 0 22 12 4 12 2002 Small 9.0-20.9 4 80 7 64-90 30 75 28 43-108 2002 Mature 21.0-31.9 0 3 85 11 81-92 2002 Old 32.0 + 12 140 104 100- 12 170 149 122- Growth 177 214 2002 Total 16 134 111 64-177 216 26 195 8-214

SERIES = LIDE3-PSME-PIJE Low-Moderate to High Fire Effects Live Dead Veg Type Year Size DBH Tr/Ac Avg BA/Ac Ht Tr/Ac Avg B.A./Ac Ht Class Range Ht Range Ht. Range Poles 2002 Seedlings 0-2.9 0 276 8 5 8 2002 Saplings 3-8.9 35 23 7 23 53 25 10 25 2002 Small 9.0-20.9 14 65 18 52-84 31 65 32 46-83 2002 Mature 21.0-31.9 9 105 30 79-134 4 80 10 66-99 2002 Old 32.0 + 1 92 7 92 1 92 24 85-99 Growth 2002 Total 60 48 63 23-134 365 15 82 8-99

SERIES = PIJE High Fire Effects Live Dead Veg Type Year Size DBH Tr/Ac Avg BA/Ac Ht Tr/Ac Avg B.A./Ac Ht Class Range Ht Range Ht. Range Poles 2002 Seedlings 0-2.9 0 700 6 8 6 2002 Saplings 3-8.9 0 178 16 35 16 2002 Small 9.0-20.9 8 55 9 36-85 26 58 24 55-78 2002 Mature 21.0-31.9 3 100 12 84-114 12 65 48 25-101 2002 Old 32.0 + 4 145 35 119- 4 90 27 86-94 Growth 174

D-39 Appendix D - Vegetation

2002 Total 17 83 56 36-174 922 11 142 6-101

SERIES = PSME-LIDE3 Low-Moderate to High Fire Effects Live Dead Veg Type Year Size DBH Tr/Ac Avg BA/Ac Ht Tr/Ac Avg B.A./Ac Ht Class Range Ht Range Ht. Range Conifer 2002 Seedlings 0-2.9 17 10 0 10 117 5 2 5 Large 2002 Saplings 3-8.9 0 50 17 10 17 2002 Small 9.0-20.9 27 79 33 54-96 20 62 20 44-82 2002 Mature 21.0-31.9 15 107 50 87-125 5 87 21 78-97 2002 Old 32.0 + 12 128 84 108- 2 85 9 85 Growth 148 2002 Total 70 72 167 10-148 193 17 61 5-97

SERIES = PSME-LIDE3 Moderate-High to High Fie Effects Live Dead Veg Type Year Size DBH Tr/Ac Avg BA/Ac Ht Tr/Ac Avg B.A./Ac Ht Class Range Ht Range Ht. Range Poles 2002 Seedlings 0-2.9 36 7 1 7 221 8 3 8 2002 Saplings 3-8.9 21 28 4 28 100 30 20 30 2002 Small 9.0-20.9 40 58 40 43-77 33 58 29 55-78 2002 Mature 21.0-31.9 6 87 19 85-94 4 79 14 77-82 2002 Old 32.0 + 5 125 35 107- 7 140 68 114- Growth 134 200 2002 Total 108 41 98 7-134 364 22 134 8-200

The present condition can be summarized by a few statements: There are many dead trees, especially in the smaller two size classes. There are very few live trees remaining (only 2 groups have more than 100 trees per acre). Of particular concern, most of the plots have very few live trees greater than 21” DBH (only one group has more than 25 trees per acre).

Trends Growth was simulated for 50 years using the FVS computer model. The Klamath Mountain Variant was used as it was developed from Current Vegetation Survey data from the Siskiyou National Forest and has the option to predict canopy cover. Below are summaries of the simulated stands 50 years from now with no disturbances.

Table 3-B – Simulated Stand Structure by Plant Series, Fire Effects, and Vegetative Type

SERIES = ABCO Conifer Poles with Moderate-High Fire Effects 2004 Assume there is natural seeding and establishment of 50 Douglas-fir trees per acre and 50 white fir trees per acre. Live Canopy Veg Type Year Size Class DBH Range Tr/Ac Avg Ht BA/Ac Ht Range Closure (%)

D-40 Appendix D - Vegetation

Poles 2052 Seedlings 0-2.9 66 4 0 4 2052 Saplings 3-8.9 6 73 2 73 2052 Small 9.0-20.9 58 80 71 47-122 2052 Mature 21.0-31.9 22 125 81 119-133 2052 Old Growth 32.0 + 14 150 123 138-175 2052 Total 166 60 277 4-175 56

SERIES = ABCO Conifer Poles with High Fire Effects 2004 Assume there is natural seeding and establishment of 50 Douglas-fir trees per acre and 10 white fire trees per acre and sprouting hardwoods that equals the number of dead trees per acre. Live Canopy Veg Type Year Size Class DBH Range Tr/Ac Avg Ht BA/Ac Ht Range Closure (%) Poles 2052 Seedlings 0-2.9 0 2052 Saplings 3-8.9 14 45 4 22-67 2052 Small 9.0-20.9 64 80 91 69-90 2052 Mature 21.0-31.9 13 125 39 102-150 2052 Old Growth 32.0 + 1 161 2 161 2052 Total 92 86 136 22-161 48

SERIES = CHLA High Fire Effects 2004 Assume there is natural seeding and establishment of 50 Douglas-fir per acre (In the plots taken, only Douglas-fir survived the fire) Live Canopy Veg Type Year Size Class DBH Range Tr/Ac Avg Ht BA/Ac Ht Range Closure (%) Conifer- 2052 Seedlings 0-2.9 0 Poles 2052 Saplings 3-8.9 0 2052 Small 9.0-20.9 47 80 82 74-88 2052 Mature 21.0-31.9 14 110 39 99-122 2052 Old Growth 32.0 + 1 122 4 122 2052 Total 62 89 125 74-122 40

SERIES = LIDE3 Moderate High to High Fire Effects 2004 Assume there is natural seeding and establishment of 50 Douglas-fir trees per acre, and sprouting of hardwoods that equals twice the number of dead trees per acre. Live Canopy Veg Type Year Size Class DBH Range Tr/Ac Avg Ht BA/Ac Ht Range Closure (%) Conifer- 2052 Seedlings 0-2.9 27 6 0 6 Mixed 2052 Saplings 3-8.9 64 20 4 20 Poles 2052 Small 9.0-20.9 42 85 65 72-105 2052 Mature 21.0-31.9 15 130 57 119-140 2052 Old Growth 32.0 + 12 145 83 141-146 2052 Total 160 60 209 6-146 63

D-41 Appendix D - Vegetation

SERIES = LIDE3-PSME Low Moderate to High Fire Effects 2004 Assume there is natural seeding and establishment of 50 Douglas-fir tres per acre, and sprouting of hardwoods that equals twice the number of dead trees per acre. Live Canopy Veg Type Year Size Class DBH Range Tr/Ac Avg Ht BA/Ac Ht Range Closure (%) Conifer- 2052 Seedlings 0-2.9 17 7 0 7 Mixed 2052 Saplings 3-8.9 580 25 62 23-32 Poles 2052 Small 9.0-20.9 40 80 54 45-120 2052 Mature 21.0-31.9 15 125 56 113-134 2052 Old Growth 32.0 + 8 145 63 133-162 2052 Total 660 32 235 7-162 94

SERIES = LIDE3-PSME Low Moderate to High Fire Effects 2004 Assume there is natural seeding and establishment of 50 Douglas-fir per trees acre, and sprouting of hardwoods that equals twice the number of dead trees per acre. Live Canopy Veg Type Year Size Class DBH Range Tr/Ac Avg Ht BA/Ac Ht Range Closure (%) Large 2052 Seedlings 0-2.9 26 6 0 6 Conifer 2052 Saplings 3-8.9 155 30 19 28-34 2052 Small 9.0-20.9 19 85 31 84-86 2052 Mature 21.0-31.9 3 115 14 97-138 2052 Old Growth 32.0 + 12 165 120 152-179 2052 Total 215 40 184 6-179 65

SERIES = LIDE3-PSME-PIJE Low Moderate to High Fire Effects 2004 Assume there is natural seeding and establishment of 25 Douglas-fir and 25 ponderosa pine trees per acre and sprouting of hardwoods that equals twice the number of dead trees per acres. Live Canopy Veg Type Year Size Class DBH Range Tr/Ac Avg Ht BA/Ac Ht Range Closure (%) Poles 2052 Seedlings 0-2.9 16 7 0 7 2052 Saplings 3-8.9 33 40 4 27-61 2052 Small 9.0-20.9 62 75 76 67-91 2052 Mature 21.0-31.9 5 130 18 128-137 2052 Old Growth 32.0 + 13 150 110 137-164 2052 Total 129 66 208 7-164 54

SERIES = PIJE High Fire Effects 2004 Assume there is natural seeding and establishment of 50 Jeffery Pine per acre, and sprouting of hardwoods that equals the number of dead trees per acre.

D-42 Appendix D - Vegetation

Live Canopy Veg Type Year Size Class DBH Range Tr/Ac Avg Ht BA/Ac Ht Range Closure (%) Poles 2052 Seedlings 0-2.9 5 10 0 10 2052 Saplings 3-8.9 81 35 12 27-42 2052 Small 9.0-20.9 37 98 64 97-100 2052 Mature 21.0-31.9 8 145 31 130-156 2052 Old Growth 32.0 + 5 165 69 144-185 2052 Total 138 63 175 10-185 52

SERIES = PSME-LIDE3 Low Moderate to High Fire Effects 2004 Assume there is natural seeding and establishment of 50 D-fir per acre Live Canopy Veg Type Year Size Class DBH Range Tr/Ac Avg Ht BA/Ac Ht Range Closure (%) Conifer 2052 Seedlings 0-2.9 50 5 0 5 Large 2052 Saplings 3-8.9 0 2052 Small 9.0-20.9 18 90 23 78-99 2052 Mature 21.0-31.9 16 120 57 116-127 2052 Old Growth 32.0 + 19 150 178 139-174 2052 Total 102 66 257 5-174 47

SERIES = PSME-LIDE3 Moderate High to High Fire Effects 2004 Assume there is natural seeding and establishment of 25 D-fir and 25 white fir trees per acre, and sprouting of hardwoods that equals twice the number of dead trees per acre. Live Canopy Veg Type Year Size Class DBH Range Tr/Ac Avg Ht BA/Ac Ht Range Closure (%) Poles 2052 Seedlings 0-2.9 142 12 4 12 2052 Saplings 3-8.9 135 50 12 21-75 2052 Small 9.0-20.9 40 74 46 64-82 2052 Mature 21.0-31.9 21 126 85 110-144 2052 Old Growth 32.0 + 16 150 118 143-165 2052 Total 354 37 265 12-165 74

D-43 Appendix D - Vegetation 3/14/2003 Planting Opportunities LUA 4-11 and Roadless GIS Cover t5_1mile TOPKILL MGMTNO R6RDLS RD1MIBUF AREA 5 0 rd buf 1 mi 8,272 5 0 NO rd buf 1 mi 2 5 0 YES rd buf 1 mi 1 ------0 8,275

5 1 NO rd buf 1 mi 9,068 5 1 YES rd buf 1 mi 1 ------1 9,069

5 2 NO rd buf 1 mi 4 5 2 YES rd buf 1 mi 632 ------2 636

5 3 YES rd buf 1 mi 103 ------3 103

5 4 NO rd buf 1 mi 2,267 5 4 YES rd buf 1 mi 1,020 ------4 3,287

5 5 NO rd buf 1 mi 12 5 5 YES rd buf 1 mi 317 ------5 329

5 6 NO rd buf 1 mi 2,991 5 6 YES rd buf 1 mi 8,760 ------6 11,751

5 7 NO rd buf 1 mi 656 5 7 YES rd buf 1 mi 619 ------7 1,275

5 8 NO rd buf 1 mi 23,221 5 8 YES rd buf 1 mi 38,244 ------8 61,465

5 9 NO rd buf 1 mi 719 5 9 YES rd buf 1 mi 946 ------9 1,665

5 10 NO rd buf 1 mi 1,140 5 10 YES rd buf 1 mi 38 ------10 1,178

5 11 NO rd buf 1 mi 1,231 5 11 YES rd buf 1 mi 2,419 ------11 3,650 D-44 Appendix D - Vegetation

5 12 NO rd buf 1 mi 649 5 12 YES rd buf 1 mi 454 ------12 1,103

5 13 NO rd buf 1 mi 1,469 5 13 YES rd buf 1 mi 1,609 ------13 3,078

5 14 NO rd buf 1 mi 5,597 5 14 YES rd buf 1 mi 4,842 ------14 10,439

5 15 NO rd buf 1 mi 173 5 15 YES rd buf 1 mi 6,063 ------15 6,236

5 99 NO rd buf 1 mi 396 5 99 YES rd buf 1 mi 2 ------99 398 ------5 123,937

D-45 Biscuit Fire Recovery: Proposed Action Reforestation and Revegetation GALICE AGNESS

OAK FLAT FISH HOOK PEAK

ONION MOUNTAIN BALD MOUNTAIN

SNOW CAMP MOUNTAIN

PEARSOLL PEAK SELMA EIGHT DOLLAR MOUNTAIN

BABYFOOT LAKE

VULCAN LAKE CAVE JUNCTION

EMILY, MOUNT

1 BROOKINGS 99 O'BRIEN BISCUIT HILL TAKILMA

1 Lege10nd ReviseEdL 3K/2 M1/O20U0N3TAIN Wilderness Riparian Planting: Stability and Shade Concerns OREGON MOUNTAIN Meadows Areas Considered For Reforestation 0 1 2 4 6 8 Biscuit Fire Miles

SMITH RIVER APPENDIX E

WILDLIFE

Wildlife of the Siskiyou National Forest by Seral Stage and Habitat Type

Appendix E - Wildlife

WL-SP-A. WILDLIFE OF THE SISKIYOU NATIONAL FOREST, BY SERAL STAGE AND HABITAT TYPE – Some species may not occur in the Biscuit Fire area

PRINCIPAL SOURCE used in compiling this Table is: Brown, E. R. (Tech. Ed.). 1985. Management of wildlife and fish habitats in forests of western Oregon and Washington (two volumes). USDA Forest Service Publication No. R6-F&WL-192-1985. Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station, Portland, Oregon. Most of the information in this table, including species codes, came from Appendix 8. For seral stages, I used a combination of three Plant communities and stand conditions: Evergreen hardwood, Conifer/hardwood, and Mixed coniferous forest (SW Oregon). For Riparian, I looked at the entire Riparian/wetland section of Plant communities and stand condition, and assigned a 1 or 2, depending on which number predominated. For the rest of the Habitat Types, I used the Habitat features block. Life Form designations are from Appendix 7 (see Volume 2, Appendices, for descriptions of Life Forms, page 28). Occurrence by Ranger District for each species, plus Status and Abundance for Birds, was developed from the sources listed below, plus on-the-ground knowledge of Forest Service Wildlife folks, as well non-Forest Service observers. The categories for Status and Abundance are adapted from “Checklist of the Birds of Oregon, Bertrand and Scott. 1973. OSU Bookstores, Inc., Corvallis, OR.”

OTHER SOURCES: Cross, Stephen P. 1977. A Survey of the Bats of Oregon Caves National Monument. National Park Service Contract CX-9000-6-0061. 40 pp. Marcot, Bruce G. (ed). 1979. California Wildlife Habitat Relationships Program, North Coast/Cascades Zone. Six Rivers National Forest, 507 F St., Eureka, California 95501. Maser, Chris, and Stephen P. Cross. 1981. Notes on the Distribution of Oregon Bats. USDA Forest Service Pacific Northwest Experiment Station Research Note PNW-379. 31 pp. Maser, Chris, Bruce R. Mate, Jerry F. Franklin, and C. T. Dryness. 1981. Natural History of Oregon Coast Mammals. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-133, 496 p. Pacific Northwest Region, Forest and Range Experiment Station, Portland, Oregon 97232. Nussbaum, Ronald A. 1974. A Report on: The Distributional Ecology and Life History of the Siskiyou Mountain Salamander (Plethodon stormi) in Relation to the Potential Impact of the Proposed Applegate Reservoir on this species. Submitted to the US Army Corps of Engineers, Portland Division, PO Box 2946, Portland, Oregon, 97208. Nussbaum, Ronald A., Edmund D. Brodie, Jr., and Robert M. Storm. 1983. Amphibians and Reptiles of the Pacific Northwest. A Northwest Naturalist Book, by The University of Idaho Press. 332 pp. Saul, S., M. Swisher, C. Oakley, E. McMahon, L. Nelson, C. Reith, G. Gunson, B. Kaiser, J. Fisher, D. Richardson, and S. Cross. 1977. A Survey of Bat Populations and Their Habitat Preferences in Southern Oregon. Southern Oregon State College. 89 pp. Schempf, Philip F., and Marshall White. 1977. Status of Six Furbearer Populations in the Mountains of Northern California. USDA Forest Service, California Region. 51 pp. C = Class of Animals: Mammals, Birds, Reptiles, Amphibians, Fish (B+ = Benefit strongly from Stand Replacement Fire in short term [1 to 2 decades]; B = Benefit; N = Neutral; Hl or Hs = Harmful affect [long or short term]) Seral Stages Habitat Type Level of habitat use Status Abundance GF = Grass/ CB=Caves and Burrows 1 = Primary use R = Resident; found all year C = Common; occurs frequently, often in substantial Forb N numbers B+ SD = Shrub CR = Cliffs and Rims 2 = Secondary use WV = Winter Visitor U = Uncommon; occurs frequently, usually not in dominated B N large numbers PS = DM = Downed Material (Large SR = Summer Resident; breeds on Siskiyou O = Occasional; occurs regularly Pole/Sapling woody material) B B YF = Young SN = Snags M = Migrant; seen only in transit or irregular visitor R= Rare; occurs infrequently Forest B+ N MF = Mature TA = Talus ? = Status Undetermined A = Accidental; unusual, not expected, probably a Forest N “wanderer” Hl OG = Old RI = Riparian Hl-s (Although RI encompasses both * = Hypothetical; has not been sighted on the Forest, and Growth water habitat and streambank/in-water vegetation, Hl-s in fact may not occur. Hl represents vegetation only – early stage vegetation recovers quickly, late stage vegetation does not) RD = Ranger Distict: CHetco, GAlice, Gold Beach, Illinois Valley, POwers LF = Life Form (refer to Brown 1985)

E-1 Appendix E - Wildlife

SCI NM GF SD PS YF MF OG CB CR DM SN TA RI C COMMON NAME LF CH GA GB IV PO STATUS ABUN-DANCE CODE B+ B B N Hl Hl N N B B+ N Hls A Northwestern salamander AMGR 2 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 1 1 X X X A Long-toed salamander AMMA 2 1 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 ? A Pacific giant salamander DEIN 2 2 2 1 1 2 1 2 2 X X X X X A Southern torrent salamander RHVA 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 X X X X X A Clouded salamander ANFE 5 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 2 2 X X X X X A California slender salamander BAAT 5 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 X X X A Ensatina ENES 5 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 X X X X X A Dunn's salamander PLDU 3 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 X X X ? X A Del Norte salamander PLEL 4 1 1 1 2 1 X X X X X A Siskiyou Mountains salamander PLEST 4 2 1 1 1 2 1 2 ? A Western red-backed salamander PLVE 5 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 ? A Rough skinned newt TAGR 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 X X X X X A Western toad BUBO 2 1 1 1 2 2 2 1 2 1 X X X X X A Pacific treefrog HYRE 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 2 1 X X X X X A Tailed frog ASTR 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 X X X X X A Red-legged frog RAAU 2 2 2 2 2 1 X X X X X A Foothill yellow-legged frog RABO 2 2 2 2 1 X X X X X A Bullfrog RACAT 1 1 X X X X X A Spotted frog RAPR 2 1 R Western pond turtle CLMA 3 1 1 1 1 X X X X X R Northern alligator lizard ELCO 5 1 1 1 2 2 2 1 2 X X X X X R Southern alligator lizard ELMU 5 2 1 1 1 2 2 1 2 X X X X X R Sagebrush lizard SCEGR 5 2 2 2 1 1 X X X X X R Western fence lizard SCOC 5 1 1 1 1 1 1 X X X X X R Western skink EUSK 3 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 X X X X X R Rubber boa CHBO 5 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 2 2 X X X X X R Racer COLCO 5 1 1 2 X X X X X R Sharptail snake CONTE 5 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 ? ? ? ? ? R Ringneck snake DIPU 5 1 1 1 2 2 2 1 2 X X X X X R Common kingsnake LAGE 5 1 1 2 2 2 2 X X ? R California mountain kingsnake LAZO 5 1 1 1 2 2 2 1 X X X X ? R Gopher snake (pine) PIME 5 1 1 2 2 2 X X X X X R Western aquatic garter snake THCO 3 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 X X X X X R Western terrestrial gartersnake THEL 5 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 X X X X X R Northwestern gartersnake THOR 5 1 1 2 X X X X X R Common gartersnake THSI 3 1 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 X X X X X R Western rattlesnake CRVI 5 1 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 1 X X X X ? B Common loon GAIM 3 2 X M A B Pied-billed grebe POPO 3 1 X X X X X M R

E-2 Appendix E - Wildlife

SCI NM GF SD PS YF MF OG CB CR DM SN TA RI C COMMON NAME LF CH GA GB IV PO STATUS ABUN-DANCE CODE B+ B B N Hl Hl N N B B+ N Hls B Horned grebe POAU 3 2 X X X X X M O B Western grebe AEOC 3 1 X M R B Double-crested cormorant PHAU 3 1 2 X X X X X R O B Great blue heron ARHE 12 1 2 X X X X X R C B Great (common) egret CASAL 7 2 1 ? ? X ? ? SR U B Green-backed heron BUST 7 1 X ? X ? ? R U B Black-crowned night heron NYNY 7 2 2 2 2 2 X ? R B Tundra swan CYCO 3 2 X X M R B Greater white-fronted goose ANAL 3 2 ? X ? ? ? M R B Canada goose BRCA 3 1 ? ? ? ? ? M R B Wood duck AISP 14 1 1 2 1 2 X X X X X R U B Green-winged teal ANCR 3 1 ? ? ? ? ? M R B Mallard ANPL 3 1 X X X X X R U B Cinnamon teal ANCY 3 1 ? SR R B Hooded merganser LOCUC 14 1 1 1 1 X X X X X M R B Common merganser MERME 14 1 1 2 1 1 X X X X X R U B Ring-necked duck AYCO 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 X X X X X R U B Bufflehead BUAL 14 1 1 1 1 X X X X X WV U B American wigeon ANAAM 3 1 2 1 X X X X X R U B Eurasion wigeon ANPE 3 1 2 X X X X X WV R B Northern pintail ANAC 3 1 X X X X X WV R B Northern shoveler ANCL 3 1 X X X X X R U B Ruddy duck OXJA 3 1 X X X X X WV R B Common goldeneye BUCL 14 2 X X X X X WV R B Turkey vulture CAAU 4 1 2 1 1 1 1 2 2 X X X X X SR U B Osprey PAHA 12 2 2 1 1 X X X X X SR U B Black-shouldered (white-tailed) Kite ELCA 11 3 2 2 2 2 2 ? ? ? ? ? ? A B Bald eagle HALE 12 1 2 2 1 1 X X X X X R U B Northern harrier (marsh hawk) CICY 5 2 ? ? ? X ? M R B Sharp-shinned hawk ACST 11 2 2 2 1 1 1 2 2 2 X X X X X R U B Cooper's hawk ACCO 11 2 2 2 1 2 1 2 2 2 X X X X X R U B Northern goshawk ACGE 11 2 2 2 2 2 2 X X X X X R O B Red-shouldered hawk BULI 12 X ? SR R B Red-tailed hawk BUJA 12 1 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 X X X X X R U B Rough-legged hawk BULA 5 2 1 ? ? ? ? ? M A B Golden eagle AQCH 4 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 X X X X X R U B American kestrel FASP 14 2 2 1 1 2 1 2 2 X X X X X R U B Merlin FACO 11 2 2 2 2 2 X X X X X R R B Peregrine falcon FAPE 4 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 1 X X X X X R R

E-3 Appendix E - Wildlife

SCI NM GF SD PS YF MF OG CB CR DM SN TA RI C COMMON NAME LF CH GA GB IV PO STATUS ABUN-DANCE CODE B+ B B N Hl Hl N N B B+ N Hls B Ring-necked pheasant PHCO 5 2 2 X R R B Blue grouse DEOB 5 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 X X X X X R U B Ruffed grouse BOUM 5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 X X X X X R O B Wild turkey MEGA 5 1 1 2 1 1 1 X X R R B California (valley) quail CACAL 5 1 1 2 X X X X X R U B Mountain quail ORPI 5 2 1 2 2 X X X X X R U B Virginia rail RALI 3 X WV U B American coot FUAM 3 1 ? R R B Killdeer CHVO 3 1 1 X X X X X R O B Greater yellowlegs TRME 3 1 X M R B Lesser yellowlegs TRFL 3 1 X M R B Spotted sandpiper ACMA 3 1 X X X X X R U B Western sandpiper CAMAU 3 X X X X X WV U B Least sandpiper CAMI 3 X X X X X WV U B Common snipe GAGA 3 1 X X X X X R O B Wilson's phalarope PHTR 3 X X X X X WV U B Red-necked phalarope PHLO 3 X X X X X WV U B Red phalarope PHALFU 3 X X X X X WV U B California gull LACAL 3 1 X X R U B Herring gull LAAR 3 2 X X WV O B Western gull LAOC 3 2 2 X X R U B Marbled murrelet BRMA 12 2 1 2 X X X R U B Rock dove COLI 4 1 ? ? ? ? ? R R B Band-tailed pigeon COFA 11 2 1 2 1 1 1 2 2 1 X X X X X R U B Mourning dove ZEMA 11 1 2 1 1 1 2 2 X X X X X R O B Common barn owl TYAL 14 1 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 ? ? ? ? ? R O B Western screech owl OTKE 14 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 X X X X X R U B Great horned owl BUVI 12 1 2 2 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 X X X X X R U B Northern pygmy owl GLGN 14 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 2 X X X X X R U B Burrowing owl ATCU 15 ? ? ? ? ? R A B Northern spotted owl STOC 14 2 1 2 X X X X X R U B Great grey owl STNE 14 X ? R B Barred owl STVA 14 2 2 1 1 2 1 1 X X X X X R R B Long-eared owl ASOT 11 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 ? ? ? X ? R R B Northern saw-whet owl AEAC 14 1 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 X X X X X R U B Snowy owl NYSC 5 1 2 2 1 2 1 1 X M A B Flammulated owl OTFL 14 1 1 2 X X R R B Common nighthawk CHMI 6 1 1 2 2 2 2 1 2 X X X X X SR O B Common poorwill PHNU 6 1 1 2 1 2 ? ? ? ? ? SR A

E-4 Appendix E - Wildlife

SCI NM GF SD PS YF MF OG CB CR DM SN TA RI C COMMON NAME LF CH GA GB IV PO STATUS ABUN-DANCE CODE B+ B B N Hl Hl N N B B+ N Hls B Vaux's swift CHVA 14 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 X X X X X SV U B Black swift CYNI 4 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 X X SR O B Anna's hummingbird CAAN 7 1 1 1 2 X X X X X WV R B Callliope hummingbird STCA 7 1 1 1 2 2 2 1 ? X ? X ? SR R B Rufous hummingbird SERUF 11 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 X X X X X SR U B Allen's hummingbird SESA 7 1 1 1 2 2 X X X X X SR R B Belted kingfisher CEAL 16 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 X X X X X R U B Lewis' woodpecker MELE 13 2 1 1 2 2 1 1 X X R R B Acorn woodpecker MEFO 13 2 2 2 2 1 ? ? X X ? R U B Red-breasted sapsucker SPRU 13 2 2 2 2 1 1 X X X X X R U B Williamson's sapsucker SPTH 13 2 2 2 2 1 X R R B Downy woodpecker PIPU 13 2 2 2 2 1 1 X X X X X R U B Hairy woodpecker PIVI 13 2 2 2 1 1 1 2 X X X X X R U B White-headed woodpecker PIAL 13 2 2 1 2 1 X X R R B Black-backed 3-toed woodpecker PIAR 13 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 ? ? ? X ? R A B Northern flicker COAU 13 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 2 X X X X X R U B Pileated woodpecker DRPI 13 2 2 1 1 1 2 X X X X X R U B Olive-sided flycatcher COBO 10 2 1 1 2 1 X X X X X SR U B Western wood-peewee COSO 11 2 1 2 1 1 2 X X X X X SR U B Willow flycatcher EMTR 7 1 X X X X X SR U B Hammond's flycatcher EMHA 11 2 2 1 2 2 X X X X X SR U B Dusky flycatcher EMOB 8 2 1 1 2 X X X X X SR U B Western flycatcher EMDI 11 2 1 2 2 X X X X X SR U B Black phoebe SANI 7 1 1 ? ? ? ? ? R R B Ash-throated flycatcher MYCI 14 1 2 ? ? ? ? ? SR R B Western kingbird TYVE 11 2 2 X X X X X SR O B Horned lark ERAL 5 ? X ? ? ? R R B Purple martin PRSU 14 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 ? SR R B Tree swallow TABI 14 1 1 2 2 2 2 1 2 X X X X X SR C B Violet-green swallow TATH 14 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 X X X X X SR U B Northern rough-winged swallow STSE 16 1 1 X X X X X SR R B Cliff swallow HIPY 4 2 1 2 X X X X X SR C B Barn swallow HIRU 4 2 2 1 X X X X X SR U B Gray jay PECA 11 2 2 2 1 1 ? ? ? X ? M R B Steller's jay CYST 11 2 2 2 1 1 2 X X X X X R C B Scrub jay APCO 7 2 2 2 2 X X X X X R U B Clark's nutcracker NUCO 10 ? ? ? X ? M O B Common crow COBR 11 2 2 2 2 2 2 X X X X X R O B Common raven CORCO 4 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 X X X X X R U

E-5 Appendix E - Wildlife

SCI NM GF SD PS YF MF OG CB CR DM SN TA RI C COMMON NAME LF CH GA GB IV PO STATUS ABUN-DANCE CODE B+ B B N Hl Hl N N B B+ N Hls B Black-capped chickadee PAAT 14 2 2 2 1 1 1 X X X X X R C B Mountain chickadee PAGA 14 1 2 2 1 1 2 1 X X X X X R U B Chestnut-backed chickadee PARU 14 2 1 2 1 1 1 2 X X X X X R U B Plain titmouse PAIN 14 2 2 2 2 2 1 ? ? ? ? ? R R B Bushtit PSMI 8 2 2 2 2 2 X X X X X R C B Red-breasted nuthatch SITCA 13 2 2 1 1 2 1 X X X X X R C B White-breasted nuthatch SICAR 13 2 2 2 1 1 2 1 X X X X X R C B Pygmy nuthatch SIPY 13 2 1 1 2 1 ? M A B Brown creeper CEAM 14 2 1 1 1 X X X X X R U B Rock wren SAOB 4 2 2 1 1 X R R B Canyon wren CATME 4 2 2 1 1 X X ? R B Bewick's wren THBE 14 2 2 1 2 2 X X X X X R C B House wren TRAE 14 2 1 2 2 1 1 X X X X X SR C B Winter wren TRTR 14 2 2 1 1 1 2 2 X X X X X R C B Dipper CIME 3 2 1 X X X X X R U B Golden-crowned kinglet RESA 10 2 2 1 1 1 X X X X X R C B Ruby-crowned kinglet RECA 10 1 2 2 2 2 X X X X X R U B Western bluebird SIME 14 1 1 2 2 2 2 1 X X X X X R U B Mountain bluebird SICU 14 1 1 1 1 ? X ? X ? R O B Townsend's solitaire MYTO 6 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 X X X X X R U B Swainson's thrush CAUS 7 2 2 2 2 2 2 X X X X X SR C B Hermit thrush CAGU 7 1 1 2 1 1 X X X X X R U B American robin TUMI 11 1 2 1 2 2 2 1 X X X X X R C B Varied thrush IXNA 11 2 2 2 1 1 2 X X X X X R,M C B Wrentit CHFA 8 X X X X X R O B Water pipit ANSP 5 1 X X X X X R O B Cedar waxwing BOCE 9 2 2 2 2 2 2 X X X X X R U B Northern shrike LAEX 11 1 1 1 X X X X X WV U B Loggerhead shrike LALU 7 2 1 X M R B European starling STVU 14 1 2 2 2 2 2 ? X X ? ? R U B Solitary vireo VISO 11 1 2 2 2 X X X X X SR U B Hutton's vireo VIMU 11 2 2 2 2 2 X X X X X R R B Warbling vireo VIGI 11 2 1 2 1 X X X X X SR O B Orange-crowned warbler VECE 6 2 1 X X X X X SR C B Nashville warbler VERU 6 1 1 2 2 X X X X X SR U B Yellow warbler DEPE 8 2 2 2 2 X X X X X SR U B Yellow-rumped warbler DENCO 10 1 1 2 1 1 2 X X X X X R C B Black-throated gray warbler DENI 10 2 1 2 1 1 X X X X X SR U B Townsend's warbler DETO 10 2 2 2 X X X X X WV U

E-6 Appendix E - Wildlife

SCI NM GF SD PS YF MF OG CB CR DM SN TA RI C COMMON NAME LF CH GA GB IV PO STATUS ABUN-DANCE CODE B+ B B N Hl Hl N N B B+ N Hls B Hermit warbler DEOC 10 2 1 1 X X X X X SR U B MacGillivray's warbler OPTO 8 2 2 2 2 X X X X X SR C B Common yellowthroat GETR 3 2 X X X X X SR O B Wilson's warbler WIPU 6 2 2 2 1 1 2 X X X X X SR C B Yellow-breasted chat ICVI 8 2 ? ? X ? ? SR U B Western tanager PILU 10 1 2 2 1 1 X X X X X SR C B Black-headed grosbeak PHME 9 1 1 2 2 2 2 X X X X X SR U B Lazuli bunting PAAMO 7 2 2 2 X X X X X SR U B Green-tailed towhee PICH 7 2 1 1 2 X X X X X SR R B Rufous-sided towhee PIER 7 2 1 1 2 2 1 2 X X X X X R C B Brown towhee PIFU 7 X X SR O B Chipping sparrow SPPA 11 1 1 1 2 2 X X X X X SR U B Savannah sparrow PASA 5 1 ? ? X ? ? R C B Fox sparrow PAIL 7 2 1 1 2 2 2 X X X X X R U B Song sparrow MELME 7 1 1 1 2 2 X X X X X R C B Lincoln's sparrow MELIS 6 2 2 1 ? X ? X ? SR R B Golden-crowned sparrow ZOAT 5 2 2 2 2 X X X X X WV C B White-crowned sparrow ZOLE 7 2 2 2 2 X X X X X R C B White-throated sparrow ZOAL 4 2 1 X X X X X WV R B Dark-eyed junco JUMY 5 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 X X X X X R C B Red-winged blackbird AGPH 7 1 X X X X X R U B Western meadowlark STUNE 5 2 2 X X X X X R U B Brewer's blackbird EUCY 7 1 2 2 1 X X X X X R U B Brown-headed cowbird MOAT 7 1 1 1 2 2 2 1 X X X X X SR U B Northern oriole ICGA 9 2 2 2 2 2 1 ? ? ? ? ? SR O B Purple finch CARPU 11 2 2 1 2 1 1 2 X X X X X R U B Cassin's finch CACAS 11 2 2 2 2 2 2 ? ? ? ? X ? ? A B House finch CARME 9 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 ? ? ? ? ? R U B English sparrow PADOM 14 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 ? ? ? ? ? R U B Red crossbill LOXCU 10 2 2 2 2 X X X X X R U B Pine siskin CAPI 11 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 X X X X X R C B Lesser goldfinch CAPS 7 2 2 2 X X X X X R U B American goldfinch CATR 8 2 2 2 2 1 ? X ? ? ? R C B Evening grosbeak COVE 11 1 1 1 1 1 X X X X X R U M Virginia opossum DIVI 5 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 X X X M Marsh shrew SOBE 16 X X X X X M Dusky shrew SOMA 15 2 2 2 1 1 X X X M Pacific shrew SOPAC 15 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 ? ? ? ? ? M Water shrew SOPAL 16 1 ?

E-7 Appendix E - Wildlife

SCI NM GF SD PS YF MF OG CB CR DM SN TA RI C COMMON NAME LF CH GA GB IV PO STATUS ABUN-DANCE CODE B+ B B N Hl Hl N N B B+ N Hls M Trowbridge's shrew SOTRO 15 2 2 2 2 1 2 X X X X X M Vagrant shrew SOVA 15 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 X X X X X M Shrew-mole NEGI 15 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 X X X X X M Coast mole SCOR 15 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 X X X X X M Townsend's mole SCTO 15 2 2 2 2 2 X X X X X M Pallid bat ANPA 4 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 2 1 X X X X X M Big brown bat EPFU 14 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 X X X X X M Silver-haired bat LANO 14 2 1 2 2 1 2 2 1 2 X X X X X M Hoary bat LACI 11 1 1 2 1 2 1 X X X X X M California myotis MYOCA 14 1 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 X X X X X M Long-eared myotis MYEV 14 2 2 1 1 2 1 1 X X X X X M Little brown myotis MYLU 14 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 X X X X X M Fringed myotis MYTH 14 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 1 X M Long-legged myotis MYVO 14 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 X X X X X M Yuma Myotis MYYU 14 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 X X X X X M Townsend's big-eared bat PLTP 4 2 1 2 1 2 X X X X X M Coyote CALAT 15 1 1 1 2 2 2 1 2 1 2 2 X X X X X M Gray fox URCI 15 2 1 1 1 2 1 2 2 2 X X X X X M Red fox VUVU 15 1 1 2 2 2 1 2 2 ? ? ? ? ? M Black bear URAM 15 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 1 X X X X X M Ringtail BAAS 4 1 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 2 1 2 X X X X X M Raccoon PRLO 14 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 X X X X X M Wolverine GUGU 5 1 1 1 1 ? X ? ? ? M River otter LUCA 16 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 X X X X X M Marten MAAM 14 2 2 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2 X X X X X M Fisher MAPE 14 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 ? ? ? ? ? M Striped skunk MEMEP 15 2 2 2 2 2 1 X X X X X M Ermine (short-tailed weasel) MUER 15 1 2 2 1 1 1 2 2 1 2 1 2 X X X X X M Long-tailed weasel MUFR 15 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 X X X X X M Mink MUVI 14 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 1 X X X X X M Western spotted skunk SPPU 15 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 X X X X X M Mountain lion (puma) FECO 4 2 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 2 1 2 X X X X X M Bobcat LYRU 4 1 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 X X X X X M Roosevelt elk CEEL 5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 X X X X X M Columbian black-tailed deer COHE 5 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 X X X X X M Mountain beaver APRU 15 2 1 1 2 2 1 2 X X X X X M Northern flying squirrel GLSA 14 1 1 1 2 1 2 X X X X X M Western gray squirrel SCIGR 10 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 X X X X X M California ground squirrel SPBEE 15 1 2 X X X X X

E-8 Appendix E - Wildlife

SCI NM GF SD PS YF MF OG CB CR DM SN TA RI C COMMON NAME LF CH GA GB IV PO STATUS ABUN-DANCE CODE B+ B B N Hl Hl N N B B+ N Hls M Golden-mantled ground squirrel SPLA 15 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 ? ? ? X ? M Yellow pine chipmunk TAAM 15 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 1 2 X X M Townsend's chipmunk TATO 15 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 X X X X X M Douglas squirrel TADO 10 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 X X X X X M Botta's pocket gopher THBO 15 1 2 X X ? X ? M Western pocket gopher THMA 15 1 2 2 X X ? X ? M Beaver CACA 16 2 2 2 2 2 1 X X X X X M Bushy-tailed woodrat NECI 5 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 2 X X X X X M Dusky-footed woodrat NEFU 5 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 X X X X X M Deer mouse PEMA 15 2 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 1 2 X X X X X M Pinon mouse PETRU 4 2 1 1 1 1 X X X X ? M Western harvest mouse REME 15 1 2 1 X X M White-footed vole ARBAL 15 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 X X X M Red tree vole ARLO 10 2 2 2 2 X X X X X M Western red-backed vole CLCA 15 1 1 1 1 2 X X X X X M California vole MICAL 15 1 2 ? X ? X ? M Long-tailed vole MILO 15 2 2 2 1 1 1 X X X X X M Creeping vole MIOR 15 1 1 1 2 2 2 1 2 X X X X X M Townsend's vole MITO 15 2 2 2 1 X X X X X M Muskrat ONZI 16 1 ? X X ? ? M Pacific jumping mouse ZATR 3 1 1 2 2 2 2 1 X X X X X M Porcupine ERDO 6 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 2 X X X X X M Snowshoe hare LEAM 5 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 ? ? ? ? ? M Black-tailed jackrabbit LECA 5 X X X M Brush rabbit SYBA 5 1 1 2 X X X X X

E-9 APPENDIX F

WATER AND FISH

Soil Erosion Model Water Quality Best Management Practices Known Fish Species Fisheries Report

Appendix F – Water and Fish

Assumptions Soil Erosion Modeling

Soil erosion models are increasingly being used to predict rates of erosion after both natural and human-caused disturbance. Most models relate to, or are based on management of agricultural soils. Applying any such model to very large landscapes, such as the Biscuit Fire area, becomes a challenge to account for differences in spatial scales. Disturbed WEPP is a computer-based model developed by the USDA Forest Service and based on the Agricultural Research Service’s Water Erosion Prediction Project (WEPP) model for predicting disturbed forest runoff, erosion and sediment delivery Disturbed WEPP (Elliott et al, 2000) was used to develop erosion estimates from areas burned by the Biscuit Wildfire. Documentation for WEPP is at http://forest.moscowfsl.wsu.edu/fswepp/docs/distweppdoc.html.

Disturbed WEPP requires user specified inputs for: • Soil texture • Climate • Slope length and gradient • Disturbance type • Surface cover (vegetation type and % cover) • Rock content

Disturbed WEPP was used for the Burned Area Emergency Restoration (BAER) effort in the Biscuit Fire area to model sediment production and delivery before the first winter storms. For the Biscuit Recovery analysis, the predicted erosion factor was multiplied by acres of fire severity based on satellite infrared-identified vegetation change rather than fire severity based on previous satellite imagery.

Soil Texture Information on soil types was collected from soil surveys for Curry and Josephine Counties, a soil survey from Six Rivers National Forest in California, and the Soil Resource Inventory, Siskiyou National Forest. Bedrock geology was collected from state and county mapping (DOGAMI, USGS), and geology contract previously mapped for the Forest. Soils were grouped by parent material, the bedrock from which soils are primarily derived. Parent materials were grouped by common soil and erosional characteristics described in the soil surveys as well as bedrock lithology. A description and map of parent material is at the end of this document.

Climate Climate data was queried from Sexton Mountain OR (east side), and Gold Beach OR (west side). After initial WEPP runs were run, erosion predictions for each soil group was applied by burn intensity to represent the entire fire area with similar conditions.

Slope Length and Gradient Slope lengths for both upper and lower slopes were held constant at 210 feet for the upper slope to simulate one acre length, and 150 feet for lower slopes to represent riparian buffer width. Ridgeline Fuel Management Zones were assigned an upper slope length of 1000 feet to better

Draft Environmental Impact Statement – Biscuit Fire Recovery Project F-1 Appendix F – Water and Fish

represent geographic position. A range of slope gradient for upper and lower slopes was estimated for a typical slope underlain by the particular parent material (rock type).

Disturbance Type and Surface Cover Disturbed WEPP allows two wildfire designations: high and low severity fire. Fire severity, which reflects the effects of fire on the ecosystem, was mapped for the Biscuit BAER effort using remote sensing (IR mapping) and assigned high, moderate, and low burn severities. Mapping of burn severity for the Biscuit Assessment was done using post-fire aerial photos, which assessed changes to tree canopy. For the Biscuit Recovery DEIS, burn severity was mapped using satellite imagery that mapped changes in vegetation. Therefore, although the erosion factors did not change though the assessments, the number of acres multiplied by the factors may differ between assessments. WEPP was run using a combination of burn severity (disturbance factor) and vegetative type and cover. Appendix X is a spreadsheet listing all vegetative assumptions used for the DEIS. For background estimates, an unburned scenario was modeled for a fully forested landscape.

Rock Content Percent of rock fragments was determined by the description of the soil from the soil surveys, refined by field observation. For example, a soil classed as a gravelly loam would contain between 15 and 35% rock fragments within the upper soil layer.

Disturbed WEPP Erosion Modeling Eight soil groups were delineated based on soil texture and parent material. The acres of each soil group by burn severity were determined using GIS and used for the Disturbed WEPP runs and sediment estimates. Each group was modeled six times; three burn severities by appropriate climatic regimes. These were averaged, then divided by total acres of the burn area to give the total tons/acre estimate. Runs for low or unburned areas were also done to predict background erosion rates.

Disturbed WEPP Post-Fire Management Erosion Modeling Sediment predictions from post-fire management were modeled with the same soil groupings used for the watershed predictions. Vegetation treatment is used as a surrogate for wildfire and management activities, and only one treatment per slope can be input into the model. Therefore, it was difficult to model physical soil disturbance from salvage logging in an area already modeled for high intensity wildfire.

Vegetation type by burn severity and percent vegetation cover was estimated using the following formula suggested by W.J. Elliot, project leader for WEPP: Vegetation type = post-fire designation + one year % Cover = (100-year one/2 + year 1)

Draft Environmental Impact Statement – Biscuit Fire Recovery Project F-2 Appendix F – Water and Fish

Acres of management were multiplied by the percent of predicted soil displacement, based on monitoring done after the Silver Fire by Forest soils scientists. Tractor logging, bare soil 36% area disturbed Cable skidding 32% Skyline logging 8 % Helicopter logging 2%

This number was then applied to total acres of management by watershed.

Accuracy of a Prediction Documentation for Disturbed WEPP emphasizes, “The accuracy of a predicted runoff or erosion rate is, at best, plus or minus 50 percent”. The model proved to be very sensitive to climate; with a 50 to 70% increase in predicted erosion rates between the east and west side of the Forest. A more accurate representation of climate for the west side would have been from a weather station in Agness OR, since the Snow Camp-Wildhorse ridge appears to moderate coastal storms. However, this custom climate is not available for WEPP use. The model did not prove particularly sensitive to slope length, including buffer (lower slope) length, and is not able to factor in variations or irregularities on forest slopes - benches or slope breaks. Disturbed WEPP is very sensitive to ground cover or vegetation treatment.

Soil Erosion Monitoring Three informal monitoring efforts were begun to measure surface erosion after the Biscuit Fire. Forty plots were installed to monitor the implementation and effectiveness of aerial mulching. Two hundred and sixty plots were installed to monitor surface erosion. Rebar plot centers previously installed as plot markers for the Long Term Ecological Productivity study (LTEP) were also used as erosion pins, but not reported in this document. Although the data collected from these plots was to be used to help calibrate Disturbed WEPP for site-specific soil types, large discrepancies between WEPP sediment delivery estimates and the amount of delivery noted in field observations and calculated by stream transport capacity modeling required immediate calibration of the WEPP estimates for the DEIS and extrapolation to all soil types. Additive measures were used to calculate an erosion adjustment factor to reflect sediment leaving the profile. Soil plot protocols, reports, and measurements are located in the DEIS analysis files. .

Table F-1. Back-Calculation for soil erosion adjustment factor using Soil Erosion Plot datae

Acres in Measured Climatic Tons Biscuit Estimated erosion Tons Adjustment Watershed Regime estimatedc perimeter erosion cma cmb calculatedd Factor Six-Mile (6th field) East 195,857 13325 0.27 0.25 181349 0.91 N. Fork Indigo (6th field) West 1,594,176 15567 1.91 0.27 225355 0.14 Indigo Creek (5th field) West 3,772,248 49123 1.40 0.27 727505 0.19 a. Estimate of uniform soil movement (production) from surface erosion, based on soil density of 1.2 gm/cm3 b. Additive soil movement (accumulation minus erosion) measured from erosion pins (for example, adding -0.4 cm of erosion and 2.9 cm of accumulation would equal 2.5 cm.)

Draft Environmental Impact Statement – Biscuit Fire Recovery Project F-3 Appendix F – Water and Fish c. Estimated sediment production first winter after wildfire (WEPP) d. Tons back-calculated using ratio of uniform soil movement/tons estimated to measured soil movement/tons calculated Adjustment factors reflect sensitivity of WEPP to climate e. Calculations of tons and acres were for ALL burn severities in the sub-watershed

Soil Grouping by Parent Material

Introduction Geology and soil types are numerous and complex in the Biscuit Fire area. Soils were grouped by similar parent material (bedrock from which the soil was derived) and erosion characteristics to help make erosion modeling less fragmented, to direct field investigations to areas with higher erosion potential, and to focus erosion treatments to those areas of highest concern.

Methodology Maps and literature used for the analysis included soil surveys from Josephine and Curry Counties, Six Rivers National Forest, and the Soil Resource Inventory, Siskiyou National Forest. Geologic maps of Curry and Josephine Counties were also used to help refine descriptions of parent material found in the soil surveys. Field verification was done during reconnaissance visits to the fire area in conjunction with BAER and suppression rehabilitation. Similar lithologies, erosion characteristics, and soil texture were used to group soil types, and shear strength, erodability factor (k), and cohesion were used to determine similar soil properties (Table F-2: Soil Groups by Parent Material, and Figure F-2: Parent Material Distribution).

Parent Material Groups

Group 1. Alluvial and Colluvial Deposits: Alluvial deposits are limited in the fire area. They have low slope gradients and low to moderate erosion potential. Soil type can range from gravelly loam to extremely cobbly loam, depending on the distance of transport. Limited analysis was done and no treatment recommended in this soil group.

Group 3. Coarse-grained Igneous Bedrock: Coarsely crystalline bedrock in the fire area includes metamorphosed diorite, granodiorite, olive gabbro, gabbro, and other granitic lithologies. The largest body of gabbroic rocks (basic igneous) occurs in a large, north-trending band on the east side of the fire, crossing the Illinois River near Oak Flat, and extend into the Kalmiopsis Wilderness area in the upper drainage of the Chetco River. Smaller bodies of gabbro are found as dikes and smaller bodies often associated with ultramafic rocks. Other igneous intrusive rocks, ranging in composition from gabbro through quartz diorite, have been mapped throughout the fire area. Gabbro dikes are often very resistant to erosion, and can be easily traced as they crop out above weathered country rock. In general, however, this group of rocks, although often topographically high, weathers to more gently rounded hills and ridges. More felsic rocks such as granite and diorite, stand out by their light color. Deep, colluvial soils and decomposed rock (saprolite) can form in draws and swales that follow joint and fracture patterns in the rock bodies. Landslides in this rock type are predominately debris flows that occur when these swales or draws are saturated by ground water.

Soil type. Much of the granitic rock in the area is deeply weathered or decomposed into saprolite, and eventually into moderate to deep, sandy soils or with low cohesion. Soils

Draft Environmental Impact Statement – Biscuit Fire Recovery Project F-4 Appendix F – Water and Fish

derived from these lithologies have high infiltration rates, and fewer rock fragments in the upper soil layers. Site productivity is moderate to low (for trees but not brush), owing in part to the high infiltration rates and resultant droughty conditions. Areas underlain by these rock and soil types have the greatest risk of debris flows because of their sandy texture and poor cohesion.

Effects of Disturbance. In areas of high burn severity, soils in this parent material group had the highest incidence of water-repellent layers that persisted to the greatest depth. Water- repellent soils can develop during burning of surface litter and vegetation that may produce hydrophobic substances. Granitic soils were observed to support thick underbrush and thicker litter layers, probably due to droughty surface conditions. Under severe fire conditions, uniformly sandy soils allow greater penetration of vaporized substances, which condense to form a water-repellent layer, and may persist for up to five years.

Group 4. Metasedimentary and conglomerate bedrock: This rock type is mostly found in the northwest section of the fire area, along Bear Camp road and near the town of Agness (Cretaceous Myrtle Group), and as small outcrops of poorly lithified Quaternary deposits near Onion and Swede Creeks on the east side. Deposits on the east side have been extensively mined for gold. Areas of the Galice Formation were also assigned to this group if conglomerate was described as bedrock in the Josephine County Soil Survey. However, this assessment is focused on the younger conglomerates of the Myrtle Group. Thick conglomerate lenses can provide cap rocks for more poorly erosion resistant sedimentary rocks. Near the mouth of the Illinois River, the conglomerates have weathered to steep slopes that can be moderately to extremely ravelly as pebbles and cobbles weather from decomposing matrix. Examples of this can be seen at Pebble Hill and along the Illinois River trail near Buzzard’s Roost. This soil group was differentiated because of its tendency for ravel.

Soil type. Sedimentary rock with appreciable amounts of conglomerate weathers to a very gravelly or cobbly sandy loam. Pebble-studded boulders are common in areas of shallow soils. Soils derived from these lithologies have moderate to high infiltration rates, and contain 35 to 60% rock fragments in the upper soil layers. Site productivity is moderate. Slope stability concerns are primarily for rock ravel.

Effects of Disturbance. In areas of high burn severity, soils in this parent material group have lost vegetation and litter cover that provides cohesion to the round surface rock. In very steep areas, or areas that have been undercut by roads, or disturbed by fire lines, the rate of matrix decomposition on exposed surfaces is expected to increase, as well as the amount and rate of pebble and cobble ravel. One area of special concern is the Illinois River trail.

Group 5. Ultramafic Rocks: Peridotite is an igneous rock type formed in the upper mantle of the earth. It is usually coarsely crystalline and erodes to rounded ridges. Through tectonic uplift and erosion of overlying rocks, the Josephine ultramafic sheet has been exposed in a relatively continuous sheet from Eight Dollar Mountain into northern California, along with smaller, discontinuous bodies at Pearsall Peak and Chrome Ridge. Similar to other igneous rocks such as granite, it weathers into rounded ridges and relatively stable landforms. Much of the peridotite in the fire area has been altered to serpentine minerals and oxidized on the surface. Boulders and

Draft Environmental Impact Statement – Biscuit Fire Recovery Project F-5 Appendix F – Water and Fish

rock fragments are reddish orange, and appear rough textured from differential weathering of large mineral crystals. Other bodies of serpentinite, probably formed by differential melting of peridotite and mixing with seawater, have been intruded along faults and fractures, both in peridotite bodies and along fractures and contacts between other rock types. This rock appears as sheared and mottled shiny black to green blocks to slivers, depending on the amount of shearing and fracturing. Where ground water is high, or deeper soils become saturated, serpentinite areas can fail as deep-seated mass movement.

Soil type. Peridotite weathers to clay loam to extremely stony clay loam and can develop a sandy surface texture made up of mineral crystals that have weathered out of the rock. Peridotite soils are generally rocky with 40 to 80% surface rock fragments as cobbles or boulders. Productivity is generally low and vegetation sparse. Serpentinite has a higher clay content and less surface rock. Both form soils that oxidize to orange-brown or red. Soil depths in peridotite areas are shallow except for areas of thick, ancient lateritic deposits or near contacts zones where other rock types are mixed with the ultramafic parent material. Soil depths in serpentinized areas, such as fault or shear zone, can be very deep and may fail as earth flows. Infiltration rates are low to moderate in serpentinite and moderate to rapid in peridotite soils. Serpentinite and highly weathered peridotite have high porosity but low permeability. The soils can hold and perch water for long periods; bogs and fens are common features.

Effects of Disturbance. Because of higher clay content and lack of vegetative cover or protective duff and litter, soils are susceptible to surface and gully erosion after physical disturbance. Runoff initially shows high turbidity and suspended sediment. Surface cover, soil development and cohesion from fine roots are slow to recover. Where soils are not physically disturbed or displaced, or slopes oversteepened by road or stream undercutting, these soils appear relatively resistant to erosion following fire. Infiltration tested after wildfire was within average rates, and water repellency was rarely noted. Where water- repellency was noted, soils contained a high coarse sand fraction.

Groups 6 and 8. Metasedimentary (sandstone and siltstone) and metavolcanic bedrock: This rock type underlies approximately 36% of the fire area and consists of rocks of the Galice and Dothan Formations. Both formations are composed of marine sandstones, siltstones, and minor amounts of conglomerate and pillow basalts. The Dothan Formation has localized bands and outcrops of chert. The canyon area of the Chetco River was cut through a resistant band of layered, marine chert. In the uplands, near Elko Spring, chert knobs are exposed within swales of less resistant sedimentary rock. Fine-grained rocks of the Galice Formation have distinct parting and resemble slate. Slopes developed on Galice rocks tend to be uniformly long. Streams are steep and often cut to bedrock. Rocks of both formations are moderately resistant to erosion and are relatively stable. On the Westside however, more rain and tectonic uplift contribute to active stream incision, undercutting slopes and causing large rotational slumps, such as in the Pistol River drainage.

Soil type. Soils developed from the Galice and Dothan Formations are moderate to deep, silt to sandy loams. Soils have moderate amounts of surface organic matter and leaf litter and can have appreciable amounts of rock fragments higher on slopes. Infiltration is moderate to

Draft Environmental Impact Statement – Biscuit Fire Recovery Project F-6 Appendix F – Water and Fish

rapid. Productivity is moderate to high. Surface erosion potential is generally slight to moderate, but increases to sever in proportion to slope.

Effects of Disturbance. Few areas of Galice or Dothan soils showed water-repellent tendencies. In steep areas with deeper soil development, stream bank erosion and gully incision was noted, which will increase in rate and size in areas within or below high burn severity. Because of the high site productivity of these soils, much of the area has been managed for timber production. Plantations that experienced high burn severity lost much of their vegetation, litter and duff protection for underlying soils.

Group 9. Metasedimentary and mudstone bedrock: This rock type is mostly found in the northwest section of the fire area, along Bear Camp road and near the town of Agness (Cretaceous Myrtle Group). This rock type was differentiated because of the thin, friable layers of mudstone, and their tendency to ravel and fail. Mudstone weathers to steep, uniform slopes with gently rounded ridges. Where undercut, they hold very steep slopes, but are a continuous source of mudstone chips, rock ravel and shallow debris slides. Mudstone is exposed in road cuts along roads 3300 (Agness) and Burnt Ridge (2803).

Soil type. Sedimentary rock with appreciable amounts of mudstone weathers to a clay loam. Site productivity is moderate. Soils have low to moderate infiltration rates; porosity is high but permeability moderate to low because of the increased clay content from decomposing mudstone. Surface erosion is rated as moderate.

Effects of Disturbance. In areas of high burn severity, finer fractions of the soils can be displaced by raindrop impact and fill macro-pores, slowing infiltration rates and leading to overland flow. Sheet and gully erosion is a concern on this soil type.

Group 10. Mica-graphite schist and phyllite: This rock type is mostly found in the northwest section of the fire area, along the Agness Road 3300, and Wildhorse Road 3318. It underlies much of the Lawson Creek drainage. These rocks are considered part of the Colebrooke Formation, and consist of light-gray, fine-grained marine sediments that have been metamorphosed to a thinly foliated phyllite with abundant quartz veins. Large outcrops of submarine basalts found as fault blocks in the formation, for example Skookemhouse Butte. Slopes underlain by Colebrooke schist is are commonly benchy or hummocky. Large, ancient rotational slump blocks define the Lawson drainage. Streams are deeply incised and stream bank instability is common. Only 2 % of the fire area is underlain by Colebrooke schist; most in the Lawson Creek and Pistol River drainages.

Soil type. Colebrooke rock weathers as a very channery (flat, rounded rock clasts) silt loam. Infiltration rates are moderate to rapid. Rock fragments can be up to 50% of the surface layers, usually flat pieces of schist or hard, angular white quartz. Site productivity is moderate to high, and slopes are very brushy. Permeability is moderate to low because of the higher fine sediment fraction in the soil. Colebrooke slopes hold water all year; seeps and bogs can be common in areas of more deeply weathered rock.

Draft Environmental Impact Statement – Biscuit Fire Recovery Project F-7 Appendix F – Water and Fish

Effects of Disturbance. Colebrooke soils have thick undergrowth, which tends to keep soils cooler throughout the year. Low intensity ground fire was mapped over most of the Colebrooke area. Soils are deep and surface erosion potential is moderate to high. Managed lands in the Lawson drainage, however, were subjected to higher fire severity and have lost much of the brush and litter cover that provided shade and protection to the soil. Several large, slowly moving rotational slumps occur in the Lawson drainage. All of the jackstrawed and leaning trees on a failure below Game Lake have been burned, and much of the slope above the failure. Rate of movement is expected to increase over the next few years. The most marked erosion after the fire was noted deep colluvial soils in the LTEP units on road 3680360. Slopes averaged 30 to 40%. Experimental design of these units removed all of the tree canopy and significant amounts of downed wood and litter leaving soils unprotected from rain splash and overland flow. Evidence of rill and gully erosion was noted, and accumulations of fine sediment behind stumps and other sediment traps. Erosion potential rating for this parent material and mid-range slope was changed to high after these field observations.

Figure F-1. Surface erosion in schist, LTEP units in Pistol River drainage

Draft Environmental Impact Statement – Biscuit Fire Recovery Project F-8 Appendix F – Water and Fish

Figure F-2. Parent Material Distribution

Draft Environmental Impact Statement – Biscuit Fire Recovery Project F-9 Appendix F – Water and Fish

Table F-2. Soil Groups by Parent Material

Soil Percent Group Surface Texture Group Name Erosion Rating PM_Code Classification Rock

AL, gravelly loam sandy loam alluvial/colluvial deposits 35 low to moderate AMuM, 1 CLGL gravelly sandy coarse-grained igneous high to G, OG, sandy loam 20 3 loam bedrock moderate GG MC, very gravelly sandy loam metasedimentary/conglomerate 35 high MMC, loam 4 MVC very cobbly clay U, UMM, clay loam ultramafic bedrock 50 high 5 loam UMV moderate to SS, silt loam silt loam metasandstone/ siltstone 10 6 high SSMM very gravelly metamorphic/ volcanic moderate to M, MM, sandy loam 45 loam bedrock high MMS, MV 8 very gravelly sandy loam to MUM, metasedimentary/mudstone 35 moderate 9 loam clay loam MUMM very channery silt loam schist/phyllite bedrock 55 moderate SP 10 loam

Draft Environmental Impact Statement – Biscuit Fire Recovery Project F-10 Appendix F – Water and Fish

KEY WATER QUALITY BMPS FOR THE SISKIYOU NATIONAL FOREST PLAN

1. TIMBER MANAGEMENT (T)

T-1-Timber Sale Planning Process T-2-Timber Harvest Unit Design T-3-Use of Erosion Potential Assessment for Timber Harvest Unit Design T-4-Use of Sale Area Maps for Designating Water Quality Protection Needs T-5-Limiting the Operating Period of Timber Sale Activities T-6-Protection of Unstable Lands T-7-Streamside Management Unit Designation T-8-Streamcourse Protection T-9-Determining Tractor Loggable Ground T-10-Log Landing Location T-11-Tractor Skid Trail Location and Design T-12-Suspended Log Yarding in Timber Harvesting T-13-Erosion Prevention and Control Measures During Timber Sale Operations T-14 -Revegetation of Areas Disturbed by Harvest Activities T-15-Log Landing Erosion Prevention and Control T-16-Erosion Control on Skid Trails T-17-Meadow Protection During Timber Harvesting T-18-Erosion Control Structure Maintenance T-19-Acceptance of Timber Sale Erosion Control Measures Before Sale Closure T-20-Reforestation T-21-Servicing and Refueling Equipment T-22-Modification of the Timber Sale Contract

2. ROAD SYSTEMS (R)

R-1-General Guidelines for the Location and Design of Roads R-2 -Erosion Control Plan R-3 -Timing of Construction Activities R-4-Road Slope Stabilization (Planning) R-5 -Road Slope and Waste Area Stabilization (Preventive) R-6-Dispersion of Subsurface Drainage Associated with Roads R-7 -Control of Surface Road Drainage Associated with Roads R-8 -Constraints Related to Pioneer Road Construction R-9 -Timely Erosion Control Measures on Incomplete Roads and Streamcrossing Projects R-10-Construction of Stable Embankments (Fills) R-11-Control of Sidecast Material R-13-Diversion of Flows Around Construction Sites R-14-Bridge and Culvert Installation R-15-Disposal of Right-of-Way and Roadside Debris R-16-Specifying Riprap Composition R-17-Water Source Development Consistent with Water Quality Protection R-18-Maintenance of Roads

F-11 Appendix F – Water and Fish R-19-Road Surface Treatment to Prevent Loss of Materials R-20 -Traffic Control During Wet Periods R-21-Snow Removal Controls to Avoid Resource Damage R-22-Restoration of Borrow Pits and Quarries R-23-Obliteration of Temporary Roads and Landings

3. FIRE SUPPRESSION AND FUELS MANAGEMENT (F)

F-1-Fire and Fuel Management Activities F-2-Consideration of Water Quality in Formulating Prescribed Fire Prescriptions F-3 -Protection of Water Quality During Prescribed Fire Operations F-4-Minimizing Watershed Damage From Fire Suppression Efforts. F-5-Repair or Stabilization of Fire Suppression Related Watershed Damage F-6-Emergency Rehabilitation of Watersheds Following Wildfires

4. WATERSHED MANAGEMENT (W)

W-1-Watershed Restoration W-2-Conduct Floodplain Hazard Analysis and Evaluation W-3 -Protection of Wetlands W-4 -Oil and Hazardous Substance Spill Contingency Plan and Spill Prevention Control and Countermeasures (SPCC) Plan W-5 -Cumulative Watershed Effects W-6-Control of Activities Under Special Use Permit W-7-Water Quality Monitoring W-8-Management by Closure to Use W-9-Surface Erosion Control at Facility Sites

7. Vegetative Manipulation (VM)

VM-1-Slope Limitations for Tractor Operation VM-2-Tractor Operation Excluded from Wetlands and Meadows VM-3-Revegetation of Surface Disturbed Areas VM-4-Soil Moisture Limitations for Tractor Operation

F-12 Appendix F –Water and Fish

Known Fish Species Present • Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawystcha) 1] • coho salmon (O. kisutch) 2] • steelhead trout (O. mykiss) 3] • cutthroat trout (resident and anadromous forms) (O. clarki clarki) 4] • rainbow trout (resident form) (O. mykiss) • brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) 5] • reticulate sculpin (Cottus perplexus) • riffle sculpin (C. gulosus) • Coastrange sculpin (C. aleuticus) • speckled dace (Rhinichthys osculus) • Klamath smallscale sucker (Catostomus rimiculus) • redside shiner (Richardsonius balteatus) 5] • Umpqua pikeminnow (Ptychocheilus umpquae) 5] • threespine stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus) • Pacific lamprey (Lampetra tridentata) • Western brook lamprey (Lampetra richardsoni)

1] Includes individuals from the Southern Oregon/Northern California (SO/NC) Evolutionary Significant Unit (ESU). 2] Includes individuals from the SONC ESU. 3] Includes individuals from the Klamath Mountains Province ESU. 4] Includes individuals from the Southern Oregon/California Coasts (SO/CC) ESU. 5] Introduced specie.

General Fish Life History of Anadromous Salmonids- Oregon Coastal Streams

This is a general discussion of the life history and freshwater/ocean habitat preference of coho salmon, chinook salmon, steelhead trout and cutthroat trout found in southern Oregon coastal streams. It is important to note that the freshwater habitats within which these fish evolved in the past several thousand years have recently been simplified by land use and water use on the Oregon coast. Life history strategies have also been simplified, as evidenced by anecdotal and documented reports of several different runs of salmon, steelhead and cutthroat in years past that are not present in Oregon coastal streams today. The life history and migration patterns discussed here should be viewed as generalized and do not completely illustrate the manifold migration timings, rearing strategies and subsequent races of anadromous fish lost in the past two centuries on the southern Oregon coast.

F- 13 Appendix F –Water and Fish

Coho Salmon

Adults return to rivers in the fall and spawn from October to January. Coho salmon are semelparous and die after spawning. Fry emerge from redds during late winter/early spring and rear in slow water habitats. Typically coho fry emerge from redds after chinook fry and ahead of steelhead fry with local differences among different stocks. Juvenile coho salmon have an affinity for smaller tributaries that are usually less than three percent gradient. Adult coho salmon will migrate above stream segments with cascades or rapids if an unconstrained or low gradient stream segment is present upstream.

The typical life cycle is to spend one year in freshwater and eighteen months in saltwater and thus is classified as river-rearing. Variation from this does occur with some juveniles spending a second summer and precocious males returning to spawn a year early as jacks. Ocean migration routes depend on the river from where coho salmon are emigrating. Southwest Oregon coho salmon tend to migrate south along the Oregon and Northern California coast. A unique freshwater habitat requirement of coho salmon juveniles is their reliance on off channel, alcove, slough, beaver pond or similar slow water habitats during the winter. They exhibit less torpor than other salmonids during cold water periods. Coho salmon are closely tied to interior and coastal unconfined valley stream habitat. Historic coho salmon freshwater habitat, summer and winter, was in alluviated canyons with low terraces and alluvial valleys with wide meander belts.

Coho salmon freshwater habitat has been greatly altered by agriculture, forestry and urbanization disturbance. Low gradient stream flats were usually the first riparian and stream areas to be developed by early settlers for roads, logging, and agriculture. Riparian areas in these unconstrained stream segments were cleared of large trees early in the century. Subsequently, these streams often downcut and abandoned much of their historic floodplain. This greatly reduced off channel, alcove, slough and beaver- influenced habitats in rivers and streams. These habitat changes affected all salmonid species in coastal Oregon, and coho salmon may have been affected most because of their close rel3nce on valley habitats for rearing. Coho and chinook salmon are fall spawners and their eggs are more vulnerable to bedload shifts and sedimentation of gravel beds than spring spawning steelhead and trout.

F- 14 Appendix F –Water and Fish

Chinook Salmon

Chinook salmon are generally divided into two races: spring and fall run chinook salmon. Fall chinook are in many of the medium-sized and larger streams with low gradient stream habitat. They tend to not migrate as far upstream as coho salmon. Their annual spawning distribution in smaller streams is dependent on the amount of fall rains and resultant streamflow.

Very low numbers of spring-run chinook occur in the Chetco River where adults summer in deep pools within the upper reaches near Taggarts Bar. They spawn in the early fall, earlier than fall chinook. Fall chinook spawn from early fall to mid-winter. Chinook salmon are semelparous and die after spawning. Fry emerge in late winter to early spring and typically begin a downstream migration to the river estuary or the ocean. Variations from this occur in all populations with some fry remaining in freshwater for a year. Ocean migration is similar to coho salmon, south coast chinook salmon tend to migrate south. Fry and parr generally rear in larger streams and rivers. The typical life cycle is to spend a few months in freshwater and two to five-years in saltwater and thus they are ocean-rearing. Many variations occur in the freshwater rearing timing and precocious males return from the ocean a year or two early as jacks.

Steelhead Trout

Steelhead trout are rainbow trout that migrate to the ocean. Two races of steelhead are found: summer and winter-run. In addition, both races found in the Rogue River exibit the “half-pounder” life stage. Half-pounders migrate from salt water to freshwater as subadults to feed in freshwater and return the following year to spawn. The Rogue River supports healthy summer and winter-runs. Because of the relatively warm water in the lower Rogue River, upstream migrating summer steelhead trout occasionally migrate up the Illinois River to seek thermal refuge at the mouths of tributaries, particularly Silver and Lawson Creeks. Summer steelhead are generally found in rivers with spring chinook populations. Summer steelhead tend to spawn in very small and often intermittent tributaries and winter steelhead tend to spawn in medium to large streams. Steelhead trout exhibit a wide variety of migration and freshwater rearing timings. Steelhead spawn from mid-winter to late spring. Summer steelhead fry tend to emerge earlier in the late winter/early spring than winter steelhead fry. Historic steelhead habitat is extremely variable as these fish are adept at migrating through steep gradient stream segments and over waterfalls of moderate height. Steelhead trout fry and parr can be found in very steep mountain stream habitat and in interior and coastal unconstrained valley streams.

The life history of summer and winter steelhead is variable between rivers and streams on the Oregon coast. Generally, steelhead remain in freshwater for one to three years and the ocean phase varies from one to three years.

Steelhead trout are iteroparous and can return to spawn more than once. Ocean migration is highly variable for steelhead trout, generally following the north and south migration

F- 15 Appendix F –Water and Fish

strategies of coho salmon and chinook salmon previously discussed. Steelhead are less gregarious than salmon in their ocean phase and individuals can range as far as offshore of the Aleutian Island area.

In the Klamath geology of SW Oregon, particularly the Rogue River, the half-pounder life history is prevalent. Many sexually immature steelhead trout migrate from ocean and estuary habitats into the river to over-winter and then return to the ocean for several months before making a spawning migration. Presumably, this early migration is an adaptation used by a portion of the juvenile population to utilize a protein source derived from eggs and carcasses of the spawning chinook and coho salmon runs and a successful over-wintering strategy. Most half-pounders are summer run fish but about half of winter steelhead use this strategy. Steelhead fry and parr appear to be less affected by degradations to fresh water habitats than coho salmon, probably because of their highly variable life history and lower reliance on off-channel, beaver pond, alcove, and slough habitats.

Cutthroat Trout

Cutthroat trout are present throughout Oregon Coast streams, both in resident and anadromous forms. The distinction between the purely resident form and the purely searun form is nebulous because of the many variations the cutthroat trout exhibit in rivers and streams. These different life histories include fluvial, adfluvial, resident and ocean-migrating behaviors. Generally, cutthroat trout have an affinity for smaller tributary streams for spawning and appear to be adept at migrating upstream in steep gradient tributaries to spawning areas. Cutthroat populations can be closely tied to salmon runs in many streams and gain added nutrients from salmon eggs foraged during salmon spawning. Spawning can take place from fall to late spring and fry emerge in winter/early spring and rear for two to four years in freshwater. Cutthroat trout prefer small headwater streams for the first summer and then migration to and from natal habitats is highly variable. Searun cutthroat trout use near shore and estuarine habitats for generally two to five months and repeat migrations to and from large rivers and/or the ocean are possible. Ocean migration routes generally are relegated to the river estuary and near coast habitats and can be highly variable and include migrations out to sea off the Oregon coast. Cutthroat trout are iteroparous and can repeat spawning several times.

Cutthroat trout are present throughout most coastal streams and rivers in SW Oregon. Large adult cutthroat prefer rivers and streams with complex habitat and deep pools. Cutthroat tend to be sensitive to habitat alteration locally in small streams; often they are out-competed by coho salmon juveniles and/or steelhead juveniles in simplified habitats with less large wood and fewer deep pools.

F- 16 Appendix F –Water and Fish

Table 1. General Life History Characteristics of Coho Salmon, Chinook Salmon and Steelhead Trout within the Analysis Area.

Species Ocean Adult Adult holding Spawning Emergence 0+ Rearing 1] 1+ Rearing 1] migration Coho salmon Mature for 2-years Oct-Dec. <30-days Nov-Jan March-April For 3 to 4-weeks following emergence, they remain They seek out desirable habitats throughout near the Oregon during Nov- Die soon after close to their natal area, relying on slack water areas their natal stream system, sometimes moving coastline. Dec. spawning such as pool tailouts until strong enough to venture upstream or downstream in search of food, into other areas. With the increased streamflows of cool summer temperatures, pools and habitats fall and winter, they move downstream but remain associated with instream wood. Most migrate within their natal stream. They use pools and to the ocean during spring while others habitats associated with instream wood. migrate the following spring. Chinook salmon Mature for 2 to 4- March-June. Up to 6-months Oct-Nov Jan-March For 3 to 4-weeks following emergence, they remain They seek out desirable habitats throughout (spring-run) 2] years across a during April- Die soon after close to their natal area relying on slack water areas their natal stream system, sometimes moving broad area. Oct; near spawning such as pool tailouts until strong enough to venture upstream or downstream in search of food, spawning site. into other areas. With the increased streamflows of cool summer temperatures, and deep pools. fall and winter, they move downstream but remain Most migrate to the ocean from spring to fall within their natal stream. They use deep pools. while others migrate to the ocean the following spring to fall. Chinook salmon Same as above Sept-Nov. < 30 days Nov-Jan Feb-May For 3 to 4-weeks following emergence, they remain They feed in the ocean. (fall-run) 2] during Nov. close to their natal area relying on slack water areas such as pool tailouts until strong enough to venture into other areas, preferring deep pools. They migrate to the Illinois River or Rogue River in late summer and continue downstream until entering the ocean in the fall. Steelhead trout Mature for 2-years Nov-April. < 30 days Jan-May. April-July For 3 to 4-weeks following emergence, they remain They seek out desirable habitats throughout (winter-run) 3] far offshore. Most during Dec- Do not die after close to their natal area, relying on slack water areas their natal stream system, sometimes moving Rogue River fish April. spawning and such as pool tailouts until strong enough to venture upstream or downstream in search of food, intermittently feed may spawn in into other areas. With the increased streamflows of cool summer temperatures, large rock, and in the mainstem subsequent fall and winter, they move downstream but remain riffles. Some migrate to the ocean during Rogue River. years. within their natal stream. They use stream margins, spring and others migrate to the ocean the large rock, and riffles. following spring. Steelhead trout Same as above. May-Oct. Up to 6-months Jan-March. Do March-May Within weeks of emergence, they migrate to the Most return to the Rogue River during winter (summer-run) 3] during Aug- Jan not die after Rogue River, with the majority rearing within a mile and rear there until spring when they migrate in the mainstem spawning and of the mouth of their natal stream until fall. On the to the ocean. Some spend another year in Rogue River. may spawn in first fall freshets, most migrate back to their natal freshwater and migrate to the ocean the subsequent stream but some remain in the Rogue River or following spring. years. migrate to other tributary streams.

1] In this case, 0+ is the age category of fish during their first year of life (beginning at emergence). 1+ age category fish are in their second year of life. 2] The spring- and fall-runs are general classifications within the population. They represent the two major population influxes of fish entering freshwater. The only spring-run Chinook salmon occur in the Chetco and middle SF Coquille River waterway. 3] Highly variable life history. The summer- and winter-runs are general classifications within the population. The only summer-run steelhead trout occur in Taylor and Galice Creeks.

F- 17 Appendix F – Water and Fish

FISHERIES REPORT for the Biscuit Timber Salvage and Restoration Project

Prepared by Dan Delany and Nikki Moore 10/14/03

Fish species of concern

Seventeen fish species are known to occur within the analysis area. For a complete list, see Appendix- Part 1. Of particular concern are those classified as Threatened, Sensitive, Management Indicator, or Special Status Species. Their status is described in the table below.

Table 1 Status of fish species of concern.

Evolutionary Significant Species Unit Species Status Regulatory Authority Southern Oregon/Northern Endangered Species Act, Coho salmon California Threatened Magnuson-Stevens Act Magnuson-Stevens Act, Chinook salmon Southern Oregon/Northern Management Indicator; R6 Forest Service, California Coastal Sensitive, Special Status Bureau of Land Management Management Indicator; R6 Forest Service, Steelhead trout Klamath Mountains Province Sensitive; Special Status Bureau of Land Management Management Indicator Coastal cutthroat trout Southern Oregon/California (resident life form only), R6 Forest Service, (all life forms) Coasts Sensitive, Special Status Bureau of Land Management Special Status, Endangered Species Act, Pacific lamprey Unknown/unidentified Petitioned for listing Jan/03 Bureau of Land Management

Coho salmon - NOAA Fisheries listed Southern Oregon/Northern California (SONC) coho salmon as threatened under the Endangered Species Act (ESA) on May 6, 1997, with critical habitat designated on May 5, 1999. The critical habitat designation included all stream reaches accessible to coho salmon except areas above specified dams or longstanding, naturally impassible barriers. Because coho salmon numbers are too low to accurately determine their distribution within all stream drainages, it is assumed their distribution is similar to that of steelhead trout, for which adequate records exist. Therefore, for this analysis, critical habitat for coho salmon is considered to roughly coincide with the distribution of steelhead trout. Approximately 255 miles of critical habitat occurs within the analysis area. Their population size is much reduced over pre-settlement levels but recently the trend is upward due primarily to a reduction in ocean harvest and improved ocean productivity.

Chinook salmon – Chinook salmon are a Management Indicator and Sensitive species. Essential elements of its habitat (Essential Fish Habitat) are protected under the Magnuson- Stevens Act. Both spring and fall-run fish occur within the analysis area. They occupy approximately 122 miles of stream. Their population size is somewhat reduced from pre- settlement levels. The trend is upward due primarily to a reduction in ocean harvest and improved ocean productivity during the last four years.

F-18 Appendix F – Water and Fish

Steelhead trout – Steelhead trout are both a Management Indicator and Sensitive species. Both summer and winter-run fish occur within the analysis area. They occupy approximately 255 miles of stream. Their population size is down somewhat from pre-settlement levels. The trend is slightly upward due to an increase in ocean productivity during the last four years.

Cutthroat trout – Coastal cutthroat trout are anadromous and are considered a Sensitive species. Non-anadromous, resident cutthroat trout are considered a Management Indicator Species. Cutthroat trout occur within approximately 456 miles of streams. Their population size is slightly down from pre-settlement levels, and their trends appear to be static.

Pacific lamprey – Pacific lamprey are a Special Status Species. In January 2003, nine groups petitioned the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service to list pacific lamprey (and three other west coast lampreys) as threatened or endangered under the ESA. Similar to Pacific salmon, adult lampreys dig depressions in gravel-bedded streams, spawn, and die. Eggs hatch into larval lamprey called ammocoetes that filter-feed on organic material (mostly algae) for 4-6 years before metamorphosing into young adults with teeth. Pacific lampreys are anadromous and migrate to the ocean to parasitize other fish, including salmon. Although specific historic and current population sizes of lamprey are unknown, they have shown a severe decline. Because the juveniles of this species spend several years in muddy bottoms, backwater areas, and low gradient areas, they are most susceptible to loss of wetlands, side channels and water pollutants. Pacific lampreys generally occur in low gradient, larger streams and rivers, though their distribution has not been well documented. Within the analysis area, Lamprey distribution is considered to be that of steelhead trout.

For a more thorough description of the life history of steelhead trout, coho salmon, and Chinook salmon inhabiting the analysis area, refer to the Appendix- Part 2.

Scope of analysis This analysis focuses on the anticipated effects of proposed activities to lamprey and salmonid fish species (trout and salmon). These species were selected because of their management status and sensitivity to surface-disturbing activities. The salmon and trout inhabiting the analysis have similar freshwater requirements relative to streamflow, water quality, substrate (sediment) and cover. These habitat elements are the result of the chemical, physical, and biological processes operating within watersheds (Spence et al. 1996). Natural disturbances such as wildfire and floods maintain and restore the processes needed for healthy levels of these habitat elements (Rieman et al. 2003). Many of the proposed activities cause disturbances that also have the potential to affect natural watershed processes and, consequently, fish habitat. This analysis focuses on water temperature, sediment and large woody debris (LWD) because these elements were identified as issues during the scoping process and changes to them can be compared between Alternatives. Effects to streamflow, channel morphology, water quality, soil erosion and soil productivity are discussed in the Soils Report and Hydrology Report but were considered in the assessment of effects to lamprey and salmonids.

The Fire burned across 13 watersheds. Various levels of timber salvage and restoration activities are proposed in 12 of the affected watersheds. Proposed activities were assessed for all

F-19 Appendix F – Water and Fish

watersheds affected. Impacts of proposed activities located within the Fire perimeter were assessed by the watershed, subwatershed or stream reach scale. Impacts associated with timber haul and road maintenance involved lands both inside and outside of the Fire perimeter and were assessed at the watershed scale.

Key Watersheds affected Seven watersheds are classified as Tier 1 Key Watersheds under the Northwest Forest Plan. They are Lawson Creek, Indigo Creek, Silver Creek, Upper Chetco River, and North Fork Smith River. Tier 1 Key Watersheds are managed for recovery of at-risk anadromous salmonids and resident fish. They are to receive the highest priority for restoration. Restoration work should emphasize decommissioning system and non-system roads.

Issues and Indicators

Below are the issues and analysis indictors selected to assess the potential effects of implementing Alternatives.

1. Issue: How much activity-caused sediment would reach streams and what would the effects be to water quality and fish habitat? Indicators: 1) miles of at-risk road stabilized (decommissioned, obliterated, storm-proofed, improved, or maintained) inside and outside of Riparian Reserves; 2) number of at-risk culverts replaced; 3) miles of native-surface haul road and number of fish-bearing and perennial stream crossings on native surface haul roads; and 4) percent change (from no action) in sediment delivery from proposed activities.

2. Issue: How should sustainable levels of LWD in stream channels best be maintained and restored? Indicators: 1) Acres planted within Riparian Reserves; and 2) Number of acres within 175-feet of perennial stream channels where snags and green trees would be felled, removed or damaged.

3. Issue: What is being done to maintain and restore water temperature? Indicator: Acres planted within Riparian Reserves

The effects to fish and aquatic habitat are described below for each indicator under the issue categories of sediment, LWD and stream temperature.

Sediment

Description Sediment consists of a variety of particles including clay, silt, sand, gravel, cobble, rock, boulders, and small organic matter. It contains nutrients and minerals as well. Sediment makes up both the stream bedload and particles suspended in the water column. Bedload is described by the particle size distribution of the streambed, also referred to as substrate composition. Suspended sediment is measured as turbidity.

F-20 Appendix F – Water and Fish

On unmanaged watersheds, sediment delivery to streams is a natural process that occurs in response to precipitation runoff, landslides, or mass wasting and is typically accompanied by LWD. Sediment delivery, debris flows, and streamflows increase following large fires (Gresswell 1999, Everett et al. 2002, Wondzell and King 2003, and Dunham et al. 2003). Sediment and LWD delivery is essential to the channel forming processes of streams. Stream sediments interact with LWD to form a variety of stream habitats including pools, riffles, and undercut banks that are used by fish for feeding, spawning, resting, and rearing. Thus, sediment and LWD provide the physical and chemical building blocks necessary for fish and their food supply. (See section on LWD).

The native fish species inhabiting the analysis area have evolved specific adaptations to the natural disturbances of fire and floods and the resulting sediment and LWD delivery regimes (timing, type and amount) of the streams they inhabit (Beschta et al. 1995 and Dunham et al. 2003). For the most part, sediment and LWD are delivered during winter run-off conditions, causing streams to be turbid during this period but clear the remainder of the year. Native salmonids generally require stream substrates with low amounts of fine sediment for spawning, egg incubation, and emergence.

Methods and Assumptions 1. The vast majority of native surface road crossings are ditched rather than out-sloped or crowned.

2. The amount of sediment delivered to streams from various proposed activities was calculated using the WEPP model. The model relationships were calibrated using site specific information gathered on the Siskiyou National Forest. See the Soils report and Hydrology Report for assumptions used.

Results Table 2 Miles of at-risk road stabilized in and outside of Riparian Reserves; miles of native- surface haul roads; number of native surface haul roads crossing fish-bearing or perennial streams; and percent change in sediment delivery by watershed and Alternative.

Watershed Indicator Alternative 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Briggs Creek Miles of at-risk road stabilized in RR’s 0 0 0 0 0.1 0 0.1 Miles of at-risk road stabilized outside RR’s 0 0 0 0 6.3 0 6.3 Number of at-risk culverts replaced 0 0 0 0 2 0 17 Miles of native-surface haul road 0 12 18 14 15 15 15 Native-surf haul rd crossings on fish-bearing streams 0 4 9 4 0 4 0 Percent increase in sediment delivery 0 0 0 0 0 4 0

Deer Creek Miles of at-risk road stabilized in RR’s 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Miles of at-risk road stabilized outside RR’s 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Number of at-risk culverts replaced 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 Miles of native-surface haul road 0 3 2 2 1 1 1 Native-surf haul rd crossings on fish-bearing streams 0 2 3 3 0 3 0 Percent increase in sediment delivery 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

Illinois River Miles of at-risk road stabilized in RR’s 0 0.6 0 0 10.9 0 10.9 Klondike Creek Miles of at-risk road stabilized outside RR’s 0 7.2 0 0 0.8 0 0.8 Number of at-risk culverts replaced 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

F-21 Appendix F – Water and Fish

Miles of native-surface haul road 0 1 2 1 2 2 2 Native-surf haul rd crossings on fish-bearing streams 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 Percent increase in sediment delivery 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Illinois River Miles of at-risk road stabilized in RR’s 0 1.6 0 0 1.8 0 1.8 Josephine Creek Miles of at-risk road stabilized outside RR’s 0 3.2 0 0 10.5 0 10.5 Number of at-risk culverts replaced 0 0 0 30 64 0 65 Miles of native-surface haul road 0 28 31 27 29 30 30 Native-surf haul rd crossings on fish-bearing streams 0 20 20 20 0 16 0 Percent increase in sediment delivery 0 1 2 2 1 15 1

Illinois River Miles of at-risk road stabilized in RR’s 0 0.6 0 0 1.5 0 1.5 Lawson Creek* Miles of at-risk road stabilized outside RR’s 0 4.3 0 0 7.9 0 7.9 Miles of native-surface haul road 0 2 2 1 1 2 2 Number of at-risk culverts replaced 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Native-surf haul rd crossings on fish-bearing streams 0 1 2 1 0 2 0 Percent increase in sediment delivery 0 2 2 1 1 6 3

Indigo Creek* Miles of at-risk road stabilized in RR’s 0 0.3 0 0 0.7 0 0.7 Miles of at-risk road stabilized outside RR’s 0 0.3 0 11.8 0 11.8 Number of at-risk culverts replaced 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Miles of native-surface haul road 0 2 14 16 16 17 17 Native-surf haul rd crossings on fish-bearing streams 0 0 7 7 0 7 0 Percent increase in sediment delivery 0 2 7 3 1 10 8

Lower Chetco Miles of at-risk road stabilized in RR’s 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 River Miles of at-risk road stabilized outside RR’s 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Number of at-risk culverts replaced 0 0 0 0 11 0 13 Miles of native-surface haul road 0 2 2 0 2 0 0 Native-surf haul rd crossings on fish-bearing streams 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 Percent increase in sediment delivery 0 12 12 12 12 14 13

Pistol River Miles of at-risk road stabilized in RR’s 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Miles of at-risk road stabilized outside RR’s 0 0 0 0 1.8 0 1.8 Number of at-risk culverts replaced 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Miles of native-surface haul road 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Native-surf haul rd crossings on fish-bearing streams 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Percent increase in sediment delivery 0 0 2 0 0 3 2

Silver Creek* Miles of at-risk road stabilized in RR’s 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Miles of at-risk road stabilized outside RR’s 0 0.9 0 0.8 3.1 0 3.1 Number of at-risk culverts replaced 0 0 0 4 4 0 6 Miles of native-surface haul road 0 16 29 23 29 31 31 Native-surf haul rd crossings on fish-bearing streams 0 9 19 14 0 31 0 Percent increase in sediment delivery 0 10 15 8 4 28 14

Upper Chetco Miles of at-risk road stabilized in RR’s 0 0 0 0 0.9 0 0.9 River* Miles of at-risk road stabilized outside RR’s 0 0 0 0 7.7 0 7.7 Number of at-risk culverts replaced 0 0 0 0 0 0 14 Miles of native-surface haul road 0 6 7 6 7 8 8 Native-surf haul rd crossings on fish-bearing streams 0 6 6 4 0 3 0 Percent increase in sediment delivery 0 0 1 0 0 2 2

North Fork Smith Miles of at-risk road stabilized in RR’s 0 0 0 0 0.3 0 0.3 River* Miles of at-risk road stabilized outside RR’s 0 0 0 2.9 0 2.9 Number of at-risk culverts replaced 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Miles of native-surface haul road 0 0 7 0 7 14 14 Native-surf haul rd crossings on fish-bearing streams 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 Percent increase in sediment delivery 0 0 0 0 0 4 0

West Fork Illinois Miles of at-risk road stabilized in RR’s 0 0 0 0 0.2 0 0.2 River Miles of at-risk road stabilized outside RR’s 0 0 0 0 6.4 0 6.4 Number of at-risk culverts replaced 0 0 0 0 9 0 9 Miles of native-surface haul road 0 0 0 0 0 21 21 Native-surf haul rd crossings on fish-bearing streams 0 0 0 0 0 14 0 Percent increase in sediment delivery 0 0 0 0 0 2 0

ANALYSIS Miles of at-risk road stabilized in RR’s 0 3.0 0 0 6.3 0 6.3 AREA TOTAL Miles of at-risk road stabilized outside RR’s 0 16.0 0 0.8 69.3 0 69.3

F-22 Appendix F – Water and Fish

Number of at-risk culverts replaced 0 0 0 34 102** 0 142*** Miles of native-surface haul road 0 72 114 90 109 141 141 Native-surf haul rd crossings on fish-bearing streams 0 42 68 53 0 79 0 Percent increase in sediment delivery from activities 0 14 28 14 7 78 31

* denotes Tier 1 Key Watershed ** includes 11 at-risk culverts in Diamond Creek watershed *** includes 11 at-risk culverts in Diamond Creek watershed and 4 in Taylor Creek watershed

Discussion Soil in a post-fire environment has increased rates of surface erosion and delivery potential (Gresswell 1999, Bisson et al. 2003, Dunham et al. 2003, Wondzell and King 2003, and Miller et al. 2003). Although sedimentation temporarily increases after fire, the amount and duration of sediment delivery to streams from fire is subordinate to that produced by roads and timber harvest. Surface disturbing activities can cause soil to be transported to streams through the processes of surface erosion or mass wasting. The distance soil particles move is dependant upon the amount of soil disturbed; amount and intensity of precipitation; slope; distance; and infiltration capacity of the soil. Sediment delivered to streams is transported downstream either in suspension or as bedload. The rate at which sediment is transported in stream channels depends on its particle size, channel morphology, and the frequency, duration, and magnitude of peak flows (McIntire 1991). A stream channel is in balance with its sediment regime when it transports roughly the equivalent amount and type of sediment delivered to it. If the amount of sediment delivered exceeds the transport capacity of the channel, the excess sediment is deposited in the channel. This typically causes channel erosion that increases the width-to-depth ratio, reduces pool size and frequency, and, in severe cases, increases in stream temperature. In severe cases, these changes would reduce fish population productivity and survival. The response time for ensuing bank erosion would likely be one or two years and the recovery time would be decades (Reid and Furniss, in revision).

Excess sediment delivery causes physical alterations in the stream channel that are harmful to fish. Much research has documented the effects of sedimentation to fish habitat and fish. McIntyre (1991) conducted a review of the scientific literature and concluded: “sedimentation in streams reduces pool depth, alters substrate composition, reduces interstitial space, and causes braiding of channels”. He found that “Chapman and McLeod (1987) concluded:

1. Survival to emergence [of salmonid embryos] tends to decrease as the proportion of fine sediment increases in the incubation environment. 2. Loss of pool volume due to sediment deposition reduces suitability of a stream for adult salmonids. 3. Macroinvertebrate biomass and diversity decrease where fines predominate. Also aquatic insect density declines at embeddedness levels above about 2/3 or ¾. 4. From the available data we infer that as embeddedness increases, winter carrying capacity declines. 5. Real and detectable relationships exist between land-disturbing activities and increased fines in the aquatic environment.”

The WEPP model was used to predict changes in sediment delivery caused by both the Fire and the proposed surface-disturbing activities. See the estimated amount of sediment production by Alternatives displayed in the Appendix-Part 4. The model has utility in predicting relative

F-23 Appendix F – Water and Fish

differences in sediment production and stream channel transport capacity between Alternatives. The model lacks sensitivity to riparian buffer width, so it is not useful in predicting differences in sediment delivery to streams between the different proposed stream buffer widths. In general terms, the model predicted increases in sediment delivery to streams that were proportional to both increases in burn severity and increases in proposed surface disturbing activities (i.e. roads, timber yarding, prescribed burning, etc.). For a display of the predicted amounts of sediment delivered to streams from natural and surface disturbing activities by Alternative, see Table _ Effects of Natural and Activities Sediment on Transport Capacity of Streams in the Hydrology Report. Small to moderate increases from natural causes are predicted for the Briggs Creek, Deer Creek, Illinois River/Klondyke Creek, Lower Chetco River, and Pistol River watersheds. These watersheds show predicted increases of only 0 to 2 percent from activity-caused sediment. Values of over 40 percent were predicted for the Illinois River/Josephine Creek, Indigo Creek, Upper Chetco River, Silver Creek, North Fork Smith River, and West Fork Illinois River watersheds. For these, predicted activity-caused increases range from 0 to 11 percent. Of special concern is Silver Creek because it is predicted to be at 92 percent of its channel capacity as a result of the Fire alone. Under Alternatives 2, 3, 4, 5 and 7, relatively small amounts of sediment are predicted to be delivered to streams; all within the transport capacity of the streams. Only Alternative 6 is predicted to deliver more sediment that what streams could transport.

The environmental consequences of implementing individual activities for each the Alternatives are described below under each selected indicator.

Stabilization of at-risk roads within Riparian Reserves would involve pulling back road fill from stream crossings to prevent high flows from washing it into streams during storm events.

Under Alternatives 1, 3, and 6, at-risk roads within Riparian Reserves would not be stabilized. These roads would continue to alter the natural drainage network and accelerate erosion processes. Sediment would continue to enter streams from mass wasting surface erosion. Furnis, et al. (1991) noted that researchers studying the Clearwater River in Washington determined “the percent of fine sediment in spawning gravels increased above natural levels when more than 2.5 % of basin areas was covered by roads”. The risk of road fill failures is currently high due to insufficient drainage capacity and deferred maintenance and is expected to increase following the Fire. Soil cohesion declines as root strength is lost on trees growing on road fills and is expected to peak in 5 to 10 years following the fire (Rieman and Clayton 1997). Fish productivity would decrease under these Alternative due to the effects of sedimentation.

Road stabilization within Riparian Reserves would occur under Alternatives 2, 4, 5 and 7, with Alternatives 5 and 7 receiving the most. Overall, road stabilization would increase fish production by reducing the long-term adverse effects of sedimentation. This activity produces some short-term adverse effects and long-term beneficial effects to fish and aquatic habitats. Numerous studies show that accelerated sediment production from roads is much larger and more chronic than sediment produced from fire or timber harvest (Rieman and Clayton 1997). When roads are located in Riparian Reserves, the potential for large and chronic sediment delivery to streams is more pronounced. Stabilizing at-risk roads within Riparian Reserves produces both small, short-term adverse effects and large, long-term benefits to fish habitat. Removing road fills at stream crossings exposes the road fill to erosion from surface run-off and

F-24 Appendix F – Water and Fish

streamflow. This would cause some fine sediment to be delivered to the stream at the time of stabilization (summer) and again during the first, and sometimes second, year winter run-off period following stabilization. These short term effects would be localized, but may increase fine sediment in gravels or along channel margins for several months or years after project completion within fish-bearing stream reaches. These short term effects (turbidity/deposition) could cause fish to avoid the area (avoidance) or may disrupt feeding at the site. If sediment deposition occurred within marginal areas where Pacific lamprey occurred, spawning habitat in these areas may be reduced. However, Pacific lamprey abundance within the analysis area is not likely at or near the carrying capacity of available spawning habitat. In other words, their population levels within these streams are not likely at a level that they would be utilizing all available habitat for spawning. Therefore, a small scale increase in deposition at these sites, if occurred, would not likely impact the amount of spawning area needed for existing spawners. Additionally, sediment reaching the stream from these activities would not likely be in large quantities. Therefore, these effects should not reach a level that would result in substantial changes in substrate composition.

As vegetation grows on the affected sites, erosion would be reduced. Because much of the road prism would remain in place, there would not be full hydrologic recovery of the road bed. However, stabilizing at-risk roads would reduce the risk of road fill failure into streams in the long-term. Road fill failures into streams are harmful to fish because they contain large quantities of sediment that could inundate the channel and fill in pools needed for cover and rearing. This condition could persist for several years following the event.

In addition, many at-risk roads within Riparian Reserves are chronic sources of fine sediment delivery to streams. After these roads are stabilized (4 to 10 years depending upon conditions), the fine sediment source would be alleviated. This would restore the sediment regime of the stream. Because native fish evolved adaptations for spawning, egg incubation, aquatic food production, and cover based on site specific sediment regimes of their habitats, fish productivity in affected streams would likely improve (Everest et al. 1987).

Stabilization of at-risk roads outside of Riparian Reserves would involve improving drainage by shaping of the road surface and fill. Because of the large distance to streams, this activity would not likely cause large amounts of fine sediment to be delivered to streams.

Under Alternatives 1, 3, and 6, at-risk roads outside of Riparian Reserves would not be stabilized. There is a chance that some of these road fills could fail. However, because these road segments are not within Riparian Reserves, there is only a small chance that a road fill failure would deliver sediment to streams.

Under Alternatives 2, 4, 5, and 7, at-risk roads would be stabilized. Stabilizing at-risk roads would reduce the risk of large amounts sediment being delivered to streams in the long-term. After these roads are stabilized (4 to 10 years depending upon site specific conditions), the drainage network and sediment regime would be improved but not fully restored.

The miles of native-surface haul roads increases with the number of acres harvested. The amount of soil displacement from roads increases with the miles of road used and the amount of

F-25 Appendix F – Water and Fish

use (number of trips). Most of the effects of sedimentation to fish habitat occur when native- surface haul roads are within 100 feet of streams (see following indicator below).

Under Alternative 1, no timber would be hauled on native-surface roads.

Under the action Alternatives, the miles and level of use would increase proportionately to the amount of acres harvested.

Timber hauled across fish-bearing streams on native surface roads creates fine sediment on the road surface and has the potential for delivery to fish habitat. If large amounts of the fine sediment settle on the stream bottom it can reduce the aquatic food supply of fish (Spence et al. 1996). Fine sediment from roads can be delivered in three ways. First, fine sediment can be delivered directly to the stream in the form of dust particles falling on the water surface. This usually occurs in summer when stream flows are low. Secondly, dust particles can be deposited near the stream and washed into the stream during rainfall events. This may occur at times when the stream flows are inadequate to transport the fine sediment and the effects would be similar as those described for direct fall. Thirdly, dust particles may be deposited in the ditch by direct fall or washed there by rainfall. It is then delivered to the stream along the road ditch at times when the ditch flows water. Moinau et al. (1997) found that the mean travel distance of sediment below a cross drain culvert was 5.09 meters on an older, native surface road. The maximum distance measured was 20.5 meters. These distances were significantly reduced depending on the amount of vegetation below the culvert. The amount of sediment delivered to streams can be effectively reduced through mitigations.

Under Alternative 1, no timber would be hauled and no stream crossings would be rocked. Un- rocked stream crossings would continue to be chronic sources of fine sediment.

Under Alternatives 5 and 7, all stream crossings on native-surface haul roads would be surfaced with an 8 inch lift of crushed rock a distance of 100 feet either side of the crossing. Bilby et al. (1989) found that the type of surfacing material greatly influences the amount of sediment produced for a given rate of road use. Erosion reduction by gravel surfacing is maximized by the use of hard crushed rock over highly erodible subgrade material. Burroughs et al. (1989) found that surface erosion reduction from surfacing roads ranged from 70% with a six inch lift of crushed rock to 97% from an eight inch lift. Therefore, applying an eight inch lift at stream crossings would minimize fine sediment delivery to fish habitat.

Under Alternatives 2, 3, 4, and 6, sediment delivery to fish-bearing streams is expected to be much higher because the gravel lift would not be applied. Bilby (1985), found that road surface sediments deposited on the streambed (Johnson Creek, Western Washington) during periods of low flow were flushed from the system by high flows. No increase in fine sediment in streambed gravels were detected below the road sediment entry point. The lack of deposition can be attributed to the small particle size of the road sediment due to road characteristics: gentle slope, low gradient, vegetation-lined ditches, and an absence of cut slopes. Under different road conditions, larger particles, more apt to deposit into streambed gravels, might enter streams from roadside ditches. Roads that would be used for haul range from well vegetated, low gradient roads to steep cut slope roads. Therefore, under these Alternatives, sediment delivery would

F-26 Appendix F – Water and Fish

likely increase turbidity where fish are present and increase deposition in fish habitat below road sediment entry points. High turbidity can impair the ability of fish to locate food (Gregory and Northcote 1993). However, suspended sediment is not always detrimental to fish (Gregory and others 1993). Turbidity can, for example, provide cover from predators. If deposition occurred within marginal areas where Pacific lamprey occurred, spawning habitat in these areas would likely be reduced. However, Pacific lamprey abundance within the analysis area is not likely at or near the carrying capacity of available spawning habitat (see above). Therefore, a small scale increase in deposition at these sites, if occurred, would not likely impact the amount of spawning area needed for existing spawners. However, because hauling would be restricted to dry periods, the effects from dust within ditchlines are not likely to increase sediment to stream channels by large quantities. Overall, sedimentation at stream crossings would likely cause a low level, short-term (five months annually), wide spread (42 to 79 sites), adverse impact to fish that would recur for three to four years. This would likely cause a small reduction in survival to emergence, food availability and winter carrying capacity of salmonids in some, but not all, affected streams.

The percent change in sediment delivery by watershed by Alternative is displayed in the table entitled Effects of Natural and Activities Sediment on Transport capacity of Streams (Hydrology Report).

Under Alternative 1, there would not be an increase in sediment delivery from proposed activities. However, the Fire is predicted to increase sediment delivery significantly in some watersheds.

All action Alternatives is predicted to increase sediment delivery in the following watersheds: Illinois River/Josephine Creek, Illinois River/Lawson Creek, Indigo Creek, Upper Chetco River, Pistol River, and Silver Creek. Of particular concern is Silver Creek where proposed activities are expected to push the sediment delivery close to or over that of channel capacity.

In addition to the effects associated with the indicators described above, the following proposed activities have the potential to affect sediment delivery to streams:

Maintaining roads – Road maintenance would entail using heavy equipment to grade and level the road surface; maintain, install, replace, or repair drainage structures; repair and stabilize road cut and fill; repair and replace the road surface; remove small slides; snow-plow; maintain and repair guard rails and other structures; and to crush and haul rock. When these activities occur near streams, they have the potential to increase and re-direct surface and subsurface flows to streams. This can transport sediment to streams through surface erosion or mass wasting resulting from streambank failures due to increased stream flows. On the other hand, if roads are not properly maintained, they typically deliver even greater amounts of sediment to streams. Large amounts of sediment can be delivered to streams through road fill failures.

The table below describes the proposed level of road maintenance under each Alternative.

F-27 Appendix F – Water and Fish

Table 3 Level of proposed road maintenance by Alternative.

Alternative Instream culverts replaced Percent of culverts replaced Miles of road maintenance 1, 2, 3, 6 0 0 0 4 34 24 17 5 102 72 61 7 142 100 154

Alternatives 1, 2, 3 and 6 would not emphasize scheduled road maintenance, although an undetermined low level would occur. As a result, many road fills would likely fail due to the effects of the Fire and deferred maintenance. This would deliver sediment to streams through surface erosion and mass wasting. This increased sedimentation would continue to reduce fish population size and productivity. Over the next decade, the adverse effects to fish and aquatic habitat would likely be similar to those described for the action Alternatives. However, in the long-term, the adverse effects would be of higher intensity, duration, and scale than those resulting from the action Alternatives.

Various levels of scheduled road maintenance would occur under Alternatives 4, 5, and 7. These Alternatives would replace instream culverts that are undersized or have suffered structural damage. All new culverts would provide for passage of all life stages of salmonids. This would cause both a small, short-term adverse effect but would provide a beneficial long- term effect. Instream culvert replacement would deliver sediment into the stream at the work site. Because the work would occur only during low flow conditions, very little sediment would be delivered at the time of replacement. An additional small amount of sediment would be delivered to the stream during the first high precipitation event, usually occurring in winter. Once the culverts are replaced, the risk of road fill failure would be significantly reduced. Road fill failures have the potential to deliver orders of magnitude more sediment to streams than culvert replacments. In addition, fish passage would be restored at six locations- two in Silver Creek, three in small tributaries of the Illinois River, and one in a tributary to Briggs Creek. Providing fish passage at road crossings would restore fish distribution and productivity by allowing access to cold water refugia and other habitats crucial to their survival in the post-fire environment (Rieman and Clayton 1997, Bisson et al. 2003, and Dunham et al. 2003).

Constructing temporary spur roads – Construction of temporary spur roads would create large areas of bare soil and would therefore have the potential to deliver sediment to stream channels through the process of surface erosion.

Under Alternative 1, no temporary roads would be constructed and no additional sources of sediment would be created. Therefore, fish and aquatic habitat would not be affected.

Under all of the action Alternatives, temporary spur roads would be constructed only on or near ridge tops. Because temporary road spurs would not be constructed in Riparian Reserves, an adequate buffer distance would exist to greatly limit sediment delivery to streams. In addition, Alternatives 5 and 7 would prohibit construction of temporary roads on slopes steeper than 30 percent to minimize the likelihood of road fill failure. Therefore, Alternatives 2, 3, 4, and 6 pose a higher risk of road fill failure and sediment delivery to stream channels (Soils Report).

F-28 Appendix F – Water and Fish

Constructing landings – Construction of landings near streams has the potential to deliver sediment to the streams by increased surface erosion from the newly exposed soil, by increasing overland flow from compacted soil areas, and from fill failure.

Under Alternative 1, no new landings would be constructed. Because no new sources of sediment would be created, fish and aquatic habitat would not be affected.

Under all action Aternatives, landings would be constructed using the following mitigations:

1. All landing locations will be reviewed by a soil scientist, geologist, or other qualified person to ensure stability. 2. No landings will be constructed within Riparian Reserves or other areas where soil movement could reach streams though ditch lines. 3. Landing fills will not include stumps or woody debris. 4. Landing surfaces will be sloped to provide adequate drainage.

Under all action Alternatives, soil eroding from landings would not likely reach streams because of BMP’s and the above mitigations (Soils Report).

Falling timber – Falling timber causes very little soil disturbance. However, in many stream channels, streambank stability is afforded by root strength of woody vegetation within approximately 20 feet of the stream. When trees are felled within this 20 foot zone, root strength can be reduced. If enough trees are killed, bank failure can result in four to six years when roots no longer function to hold soil in place.

Falling of trees within 20 feet of stream channels is not proposed under any of the Alternatives. Therefore, sediment delivery resulting from timber falling would not likely occur.

Yarding timber – Cable yarding that involves dragging logs across the ground (e.g. one end suspension) has the potential to cause soil displacement. Based on studies conducted on the Silver Fire, yarding logs with tractors produced 36 percent ground disturbance; skyline, eight percent; and helicopter (full suspension) systems, two percent (Soils Report). When bare soil is exposed on slopes adjacent to stream channels, sediment can be delivered to stream channels through surface erosion.

Under Alternative 1, timber yarding would not occur. No sediment would be produced. Therefore, there would be no effects to fish or aquatic habitat.

The amount of sediment delivered to streams increases with the proportion of a watershed that is affected. Alternatives 3, 6 and 7 harvest the most acres and are predicted to deliver the most sediment. The increased acreage in these Alternatives comes from proposed harvest within stands that were only partially killed by fire (Veg Change 2). In addition, green trees incidentially felled during logging operations would be harvested under Alternatives 3 and 6. This would likely increase sediment production slightly over Alternative 7 where incidental felled green trees would remain on site under.

F-29 Appendix F – Water and Fish

Riparian buffer width and condition can also affect sediment delivery. Two buffer width strategies were assessed. Under Alternatives 2 through 5, no timber would be yarded within 350 feet of fish-bearing streams or 175 feet of ephemeral and intermittent streams. Under Alternatives 6 and 7, no timber would be yarded within 175 feet of fish-bearing streams or 50 feet of ephemeral and intermittent streams. Timber less than 24 inches in diameter would be yarded with 176 to 350 feet of fish-bearing streams and within 51 to 175 feet of intermittent and ephemeral streams providing logs are fully suspended and no damage is exerted on riparian vegetation within 175 feet of fish-bearing streams. Alternative 6 would have the potential to deliver slightly more sediment than 7 because it allows harvest of incidental green trees. Much research has been conducted to determine the buffer width necessary to prevent or reduce sediment delivery. However, this research has been conducted on unburned riparian buffers. Waters (1995) found buffer widths of 50 to 300 feet to be a general guideline. On unburned riparian areas within the analysis area, buffer widths of 100 to 150 feet would likely prevent sediment delivery (McHugh, 2003). But, on burned riparian areas, buffer widths of 175 feet or 350 feet would serve to greatly reduce, but not prevent, sediment delivery to streams.

Burning to reduce fuels – Prescribed burning has the potential to expose areas of bare soil near streams where affected soil could be delivered through surface erosion, especially during spring run-off, for one to five years. Because soil delivered to streams following fire is typically high in nutrients, it has the potential to affect water chemistry and alter the aquatic food web (Spencer et al. 2003).

Under Alternative 1, no prescribed burning would occur. No soil would be exposed, no trees would be killed, and no LWD would be consumed. High levels of fuels would remain on site. The increased level and continuity of fuel would render many stands susceptible to severe fire behavior. If fire burns these stands in the future under conditions of severe fire behavior, higher than normal damage could occur to stream shade, LWD, and streambank stability. These effects could occur across large landscapes and be long lasting.

Under all action Alternatives, fuels created by fire suppression and timber harvest would be treated using a variety of methods including prescribed fire. Under Alternatives 2, 3, 4, and 5, no activity fuels would be created or burned within Riparian Reserves. Under these Alternatives, Riparian Reserve buffers would greatly reduce sediment delivery to streams. In Alternatives 6 and 7, activity fuels would be created and burned outside of the 175 foot buffer of fish-bearing streams and the 50 foot buffer of intermittent and ephemeral streams. These buffer widths would greatly reduce soil movement to the stream.

In addition to activity fuels burning, Alternatives 2, 4, 5 and 7 would use prescribed fire on a landscape scale to reduce fuels associated with FMZ’s. This would occur over a six year period beginning in four years. In four years, all treatment sites would be more vegetated. Under Alternatives 2, 5 and 7, some treatment sites would be in various states of hydrologic recovery due to completed restoration activities. Prescribed landscape burning would occur primarily on the south-facing slopes and would include Riparian Reserves associated with intermittent, ephemeral, and fish-bearing streams. Where the Fire burned, much of the excess fuel load was consumed. Therefore, these areas would not be selected for prescribed landscape burning. Drainages most affected by this activity are Snail Creek, Fish Hook Creek, North Fork Indigo

F-30 Appendix F – Water and Fish

Creek, West Fork Indigo Creek, East Fork Indigo Creek, Sixmile Creek, North Fork Silver Creek, South Fork Silver Creek, Todd Creek, Fiddler Gulch, Rough and Ready Creek, Baldface Creek and Lawson Creek. Mitigations would be used to minimize sediment delivery to streams. See Appendix, Part 3- Project Design Criteria for Fuels Management in Riparian Reserves for a complete list of mitigations involved with this activity. The WEPP model predicted relatively small increases in sediment delivery resulting from prescribed burning. The effects to fish and aquatic habitats would be insignificant in all watersheds except under Alternative 6 where sediment delivery to the Silver Creek watershed was predicted to exceed that of channel capacity.

Cutting small trees (thinning) and jackpot burning to reduce fuels within Riparian Reserves – Cutting small (typically less than 12 inches DBH) trees and burning small patches of fuel would occur as a pre-treatment to landscape burning to help control burn intensity and rate of spread. Thinned green trees could be harvested under Alternatives 3 and 6 using full suspension yarding systems. Thinning green trees has the potential to deliver sediment to streams if woody vegetation within the root strength zone (20 feet) is killed and bank failure results from loss of root strength. Jackpot burning has the potential to deliver sediment to streams when it creates bare soil that can be eroded into the stream.

Under Aternatives 1, 3, and 6, patches of high fuel loading would not be thinned or jackpot burned. No soil would be exposed, no trees would be killed, and no LWD would be consumed. High levels of fuels would remain on site. The increased level and continuity of fuel would render many stands susceptible to severe fire behavior. In the future, if fire burns these stands under conditions of severe fire, higher than normal damage would likely occur to stream shade, LWD, and streambank stability. These effects could be small in scale or occur across large landscapes and be long-lasting.

Under Alternatives 2, 4, 5, and 7, these activities would occur over a six year period beginning in four years. Thinning of small green trees within 25 feet of fish-bearing streams would be prohibited. Therefore, thinning would not cause streambank failure resulting from loss of root strength. Jackpot burning would be prohibited within 50 feet of streams. This buffer would greatly reduce soil movement to streams. Overall, the effects to fish and aquatic habitats would be insignificant in all watersheds except under Alternative 6 where sediment delivery to the Silver Creek watershed was predicted to exceed that of channel capacity.

LWD

Description Large wood pieces in the stream channel add to bank stability, form complex pool habitats, stabilize sediment wedges, store organic matter, and form velocity breaks that slow water and maintain water tables during periods of drought. Large woody debris is important to the biological assemblages of streams and rivers. Wood provides overhead and undercut fish cover, energy breaks from high flows, organic debris supply for the benthic community, and the nutrient cycling process. It governs the storage and release of sediments and detritus that facilitates the biological processing of organic inputs from the surrounding forest (Bisson et al.

F-31 Appendix F – Water and Fish

1987). For the purposes of this analysis, large wood is defined as any piece of wood greater than 24 inches in diameter and at least 50 feet in length (NMFS 1997).

Large wood is delivered to stream channels through both episodic and chronic events (Naiman et al. 2000). Chronic events include natural tree mortality and undercutting of stream banks. When a tree falls in a forest, the probability of it reaching the stream channel is a function of tree height and slope distance from the stream channel. The effectiveness of streamside forests to deliver large wood to the channel is low at a distance greater than approximately one tree height away from the channel (FEMAT 1993). The Siskiyou National Forest (1996), found that on slopes greater than 20% in the Oregon Cascades, the probability of a tree falling downslope is greater than 75%. Trees located at the edge of a stream channel have the highest probability of falling into the stream. As the distance from the stream increases, the probability of the tree falling into the stream decreases. The majority of trees recruited in to the stream channel were located within 60 feet of the channel (Siskyou National Forest, 1996). McDade et al. (1990) found more than 70% of wood in streams originated within 66 feet, and found 11% of debris pieces in the channel came from within one meter of the stream.

Episodic events that deliver large wood to stream channels include fire, floods, windthrow landslides, and debris torrents. Although these events occur infrequently, they can be the source of large quantities of wood (Bilby and Bisson 1998; Benda et al. 1998; and Naiman et al. 2000). Effects of the Fire on Riparian Reserves and large wood are directly proportional to the burn intensity in these areas. In some riparian areas adjacent to fish-bearing streams, extreme fire behavior created severely burned conditions (12 percent of perennial stream miles) (Rogue River and Siskyou National Forests, 2003). Of the total 11,270 acres of riparian vegetation adjacent to perennial stream channels within the watershed, approximately 3,380 acres, or 30 percent, were consumed by the fire. The Fire also consumed large wood adjacent to the stream channels. Riparian vegetation adjacent to many perennial headwater streams burned with similar intensity as the surrounding uplands due to reduced surface water and fuel moisture. In these areas, the Fire reduced the supply of large trees, downed wood, and fine organic matter in stream channels.

Riparian tree canopy on the Upper Chetco, Silver Creek, and Illinois River (below Cave Junction) watersheds were significantly affected. Within these watersheds, at least 45% of the riparian vegetation greater than nine inches in diameter and within 174 feet of perennial streams sustained mortality of 60% or more (Rogue River and Siskyou National Forests, 2003).

In the short term, streams affected by the Fire will receive relatively high inputs of large wood as dead and dying trees are recruited to stream channels through natural processes including slump failures and landslides. The rate of large wood recruitment is expected to be high initially and to gradually increase over the first ten years. It is at this point that tree root failure is highest. Consequently, it coincides with the highest rate of slump failures and landslides. After this period, the rate of large wood recruitment is expected to slowly decrease over the next ten years to approximately pre-fire levels; followed by several decades, depending upon the disturbance interval, of lower than pre-fire levels, until riparian trees become mature.

F-32 Appendix F – Water and Fish

The National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS), ODFW, and others have developed guidelines for the numbers of pieces of naturally occurring large woody material in streams based on values from surveys of reference conditions. The NMFS considers more than 50 pieces of large wood per mile within the stream channel as “properly functioning” (NMFS, 1997).

Assumptions used in calculating/modeling Results 1. Typical sky road corridor spacing is 200 feet. 2. Typical sky road corridor width is 15 feet. 3. Large wood recruitment zone is 175 feet on either side of a stream channel.

Table 4 Number of acres within 175-feet of perennial stream channels where snags and green trees would be felled, removed or damaged; number of acres planted within Riparian Reserves.

Alternative Indicator Watershed Sub-Watershed 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Briggs Creek Lower Briggs Creek # Acres w/in 175’ of Perennial Stream w/in 0 0 0 0 0 1.32 0 Corridor

# Acres planted within Riparian Reserve 0 77 77 <1 <1 77 <1 Deer Creek Lower Deer Creek # Acres w/in 175’ of Perennial Stream w/in 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Corridor

# Acres planted within Riparian Reserve 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Illinois River Upper SF Collier Creek # Acres w/in 175’ of Perennial Stream w/in 0 0 0 0 0 0.12 0 Klondike Creek Corridor

# Acres planted within Riparian Reserve 0 45 45 11 44 45 44 Illinois River Baker Creek # Acres w/in 175’ of Perennial Stream w/in 0 0 0.12 0 0.12 0.78 0 Josephine Creek Corridor

# Acres planted within Riparian Reserve 0 146 146 81 134 146 134

Josephine Creek # Acres w/in 175’ of Perennial Stream w/in 0 0 0.12 0.66 0.66 0.54 0 Corridor

# Acres planted within Riparian Reserve 0 85 85 39 85 85 85 Sixmile Creek # Acres w/in 175’ of Perennial Stream w/in 0 0.54 0 0 0 0 0 Corridor

# Acres planted within Riparian Reserve 0 267 267 20 54 267 54

Illinois River Lawson Creek # Acres w/in 175’ of Perennial Stream w/in 0 0 0.66 0 0 0.79 0 Lawson Creek* Corridor

# Acres planted within Riparian Reserve 0 451 451 71 316 451 316 Indigo Creek* East Fork Indigo Creek # Acres w/in 175’ of Perennial Stream w/in 0 0 0.24 0.3 0.78 1.20 0 Corridor 0 # Acres planted within Riparian Reserve 296 296 23 225 296 225 North Fork Indigo # Acres w/in 175’ of Perennial Stream w/in 0 0.12 0.18 0 0.54 0.90 0 Creek Corridor

# Acres planted within Riparian Reserve 0 449 449 122 65 449 65 West Fork Indigo Creek # Acres w/in 175’ of Perennial Stream w/in 0 0 0 0 0 0.36 0 Corridor

# Acres planted within Riparian Reserve 0 78 78 0 66 78 66 Upper Chetco Boulder Creek # Acres w/in 175’ of Perennial Stream w/in 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 River* Corridor

# Acres planted within Riparian Reserve 0 24 24 0 24 24 24

F-33 Appendix F – Water and Fish

Chetco River/Granite # Acres w/in 175’ of Perennial Stream w/in 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Creek Corridor

# Acres planted within Riparian Reserve 0 49 49 18 49 49 49 Lower Chetco Chetco River/Eagle # Acres w/in 175’ of Perennial Stream w/in 0 0 0.12 0 0.12 0.24 0 River Creek Corridor

# Acres planted within Riparian Reserve 0 79 79 0 49 0 0 South Fork Chetco # Acres w/in 175’ of Perennial Stream w/in 0 0 0 0 0 0.24 0 River Corridor

# Acres planted within Riparian Reserve 0 62 62 0 62 79 49 North Fork Smith Upper NF Smith River # Acres w/in 175’ of Perennial Stream w/in 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 River* Corridor

# Acres planted within Riparian Reserve 0 <1 <1 2 <1 62 62 Diamond Creek # Acres w/in 175’ of Perennial Stream w/in 0 0 0.12 0 0 0 0 Corridor

# Acres planted within Riparian Reserve 0 0 0 0 0 <1 <1 Pistol River East Fork Pistol River # Acres w/in 175’ of Perennial Stream w/in 0 0 0.06 0 0 0 0 Corridor

# Acres planted within Riparian Reserve 0 77 77 2 57 0 0 Silver Creek* North Fork Silver # Acres w/in 175’ of Perennial Stream 0 0 1.44 0.54 0.90 0.78 0 Creek w/in Corridor

# Acres planted within Riparian 0 471 471 136 435 77 57 Reserve Upper Silver Creek # Acres w/in 175’ of Perennial Stream 0 0.54 0.60 0 0.54 3.24 0 w/in Corridor

# Acres planted within Riparian 0 186 186 51 116 471 35 Reserve * denotes Tier 1 Key Watershed

Discussion

Felling Timber Under Alternative 1, no timber falling would occur; therefore there would not be any effects to LWD.

Under Alternatives 2 through 5, no timber would be felled within 350 feet of fish-bearing streams or 175 feet of ephemeral and intermittent streams.

Under Alternatives 6 and 7, no timber would be felled within 175 feet of fish-bearing streams. However, timber 24 inches and smaller in diameter would be felled within 176 to 350 feet of fish-bearing streams and from within 50 feet of intermittent and ephemeral streams providing logs are fully suspended (sky line or helicopter) and no damage is exerted on riparian vegetation within 175 feet of fish-bearing streams. These trees are too small to function as LWD, and would be felled outside of the stream recruitment zone, so their falling would likely have a minimal affect on large wood recruitment in the long-term. This may cause a slight short-term reduction in the amount of small woody material available to enter intermittent and ephemeral stream channels. This short-term reduction is likely to have a negligible effect on aquatic habitat, since the 50 foot buffer would continue to provide smaller woody material in the short term. Additionally, while small woody debris contributes organic matter important in food webs,

F-34 Appendix F – Water and Fish

such wood provides little in terms of in-stream structure and channel stability, due to its small diameter and high decay rate.

LWD would not be removed under from the large wood recruitment zone (one site potential tree height or 175 feet) under any Alternative. Therefore, the amounts of large wood or future large wood would not be reduced.

Yarding Timber Yarding logs can affect the large wood supply to streams by removing dead trees from potential stream recruitment zones; by breaking wood into pieces too small to function as large wood; and by killing or damaging green trees that are sources of future large wood.

Following large fires, large amounts of large woody debris can be added to fish-bearing streams by landslides and debris torrents that originate in the headwalls of small streams (Bilby and Bisson 1998; Benda et al. 1998, and Naiman et al. 2000). If landslides occur in the uplands where salvage harvest occurs and these slides move down to stream channels, there would be a reduction in large woody recruitment to stream channels. However, this would be unlikely since all landslide prone areas have been identified and excluded from activities that could reduce stability (road construction, yarding, etc).

Under Alternative 1, no timber yarding would occur, therefore any affects to LWD associated with timber yarding would not occur.

For intermittent and ephemeral streams, construction of skyline corridors (sky roads) would be permitted through the LWD recruitment zone under all action Alternatives and full-suspension yarding would be permitted within a portion of the LWD recruitment zone under Alternatives 6 and 7. For perennial streams, construction of skyline corridors would be permitted through the LWD recruitment zone under Alternatives 2, 3, 4 and 6 and full-suspension yarding would be permitted within a portion of the LWD recruitment zone under Alternatives 6 and 7. This is summarized, more specifically, in the table below.

Table 5 Yarding system permitted by channel type for each action Alternative.

Alternative Channel type and cable yarding system permitted 2 3 4 5 6 7 Perennial streams Sky roads permitted within 175’ of channel? Y Y Y N Y N Full-suspension yarding permitted within 175’ of channel? N N N N N N Full-suspension yarding permitted 176’-350’ of channel? N N N N Y Y Intermittent and ephemeral streams Sky roads permitted within 175 feet of stream? Y Y Y Y Y Y Full-suspension yarding permitted within 50’ of channel? N N N N N N Full-suspension yarding permitted 51’-175 of channel? N N N N Y Y

Where corridors would cross perennial streams, trees and snags felled within the corridors would be removed under Alternatives 2, 3 and 6 but would remain on site under Alternatives 4, 5 and 7.

F-35 Appendix F – Water and Fish

Yarding corridors would result in felling or damage to some green trees and snags. Although trees and snags felled within the corridor would be left in place under Alternatives 5 and 7, the majority would be too small to function as LWD. In the long-term, this could slightly reduce the amount of future LWD delivered to the stream particularly along Silver Creek. The majority of the sixth fields where this would occur (see Table 5 above) would have less than one acre of trees felled within the LWD within 175 feet of streams. Under all action Alternatives, the greatest amount of acres within riparian corridors would occur in the Silver Creek watershed. Under Alternative 2, 0.54 acres within the Silver Creek watershed would be within yarding corridors. Under Alternative 3, 2.04 acres would be within corridors. Alternative 4 would have 0.54 acres, and Alternative 5 would have 1.44 acres within corridors. Alternative 6 would have 10.99 acres within corridors. In areas that were burned the Fire, long-term recruitment would likely be reduced until seedlings re-grow to a size adequate for LWD (typically 60 to 100 years). Therefore, in the long-term, this reduction at the stream reach scale would further exacerbate inadequate LWD recruitment within areas where the Fire or past timber harvest removed present or future LWD. Removal of trees within yarding corridors would slightly reduce the amount of allocthonous material entering the stream channel. However, this small reduction would not be detectable at the sixth field scale. Overall, the effects to the fisheries and aquatic resources would likely be localized and only detected at the stream reach scale, due to the relatively small percentage of trees removed by yarding in context of the entire Riparian Reserve network, and because, outside the corridors, remaining snags and trees would contribute LWD to the stream.

Burning to reduce fuels Prescribed burning would occur to reduce activity fuels as well as natural fuels across landscapes associated with established FMZ’s. Activity fuels would be lopped and scattered, piled and burned, or broadcast burned. These activities would occur during spring, fall, and summer months.

Under Alternative 1, no prescribed burning would occur. In Riparian Reserves that were not severely burned, stands would remain untreated. Many of these stands consist of dense, small conifers. If left untreated, these stands have the potential to burn extremely hot in the future. Foregoing treatment within these areas may reduce the time it would take for existing trees to reach an age they would contribute to large wood within the stream channel.

Under Alternatives 2, 3, 4, and 5, no activity fuels would be created or burned within Riparian Reserves. In Alternatives 6 and 7, activity fuels would be created and burned outside of the 175 foot buffer of fish-bearing streams and outside a 50 foot buffer on intermittent and ephemeral streams. In Alternatives 6 and 7, activity fuels burning may decrease existing LWD outside the 50 foot buffer on intermittent and ephemeral streams. However, if this occurred it would be expected to be a very small amount since pile burning completed during cooler months is generally an easily controlled, cool burn. Since burning of activity fuels would not occur on perennial streams within the LWD recruitment zone under any Alternative, existing and future LWD would not likely be reduced in these areas.

Prescribed burning would be utilized under Alternatives 2, 4, 5 and 7 on a landscape scale to reduce fuels. This would occur primarily on upper elevations of south-facing slopes including Riparian Reserves associated with intermittent, ephemeral, and, on occasion, fish-bearing

F-36 Appendix F – Water and Fish

streams. The majority of burning would occur in the fall, with some spring burning. Burning within Riparian Reserves would only be necessary in Vegetation Class One and Two.

Prescribed burning within the large wood recruitment zone would thin dense stands of small green trees, killing some trees while promoting faster growth of surviving trees. The prescribed burning objectives in these areas are to reduce hazardous fuel levels so treated sites would be less likely to burn extremely hot in the future; to retain stream shade and LWD; and to minimize sediment delivery to streams. For example, project design criteria would include protection of green woody vegetation, green conifer tree canopy cover, and LWD (>24” in diameter and >50’ long) for the stream reach scale. Additionally, at least 80 pieces of LWD per mile would be retained. Along stream reaches with less than 80 pieces per mile, special precautions would be taken to retain all existing LWD and snags within 175 feet of stream channels (see Part 3 of the Appendix for a complete list of Project Design Criteria for Fuels Treatments within Riparian Reserves). A small amount of existing LWD, snags, and green trees large enough to function as LWD, may be consumed during prescribed fire treatment. Overall, however, this activity would likely produce LWD faster than non-treated sites

Mechanical thinning and jack-pot burning to reduce fuels Under Alternative 1, no burning would occur. Aquatic and riparian habit would not be affected.

Under Alternatives 2, 4, 5, and 7, mechanical thinning and jack pot burning (pre-treatment pile and burning for future landscape burns) would occur in Riparian Reserves to reduce fuel loading to a level where prescribed landscape burning could be successfully accomplished. Thinning of green trees within 25 feet of fish-bearing streams would be prohibited. Jackpot burning would be prohibited within 50 feet of streams. Jackpot burning may decrease existing LWD if the LWD is located at or near the piles. However, this type of burning is localized and generally easy to control, so would not be expected to consume large amounts of existing downed wood or larger green trees. Additionally, project design criteria would include protection of green woody vegetation, green conifer tree canopy cover, and LWD (>24” in diameter and >50’ long) for the stream reach scale. Green tree thinning of dense stands of small trees would reduce the amount of small trees within the LWD recruitment zone, but would increase the growth rate of surviving trees. Because only small trees would be removed, thinning would not reduce the number of pieces of LWD within the stream channel or future LWD recruitment.

Planting No planting would occur under Alternative 1. Over time, riparian stands would re-generate from residual conifers. However, within areas that were severely burned, these areas would take much longer to recover, establish overstory, and in the long-term, reach sizes adequate for LWD, than those areas that would be planted.

Planting is proposed within Riparian Reserves in Alternatives 2-7. Only those Riparian Reserves that were moderately to severely burned (Veg Change 3 and 4), have unstable gullies, are less than or equal to ½ mile from the road, are larger than three acres, or are not located in MA 1-3 would be planted.

F-37 Appendix F – Water and Fish

Planting conifer seedlings within severely burned Riparian Reserves would likely speed the re- establishment of overstory trees and in the long-term, speed the return of pre-fire large wood levels. Planting spacing in Alternative 5 and 7 would be wider than Alternatives 2, 3, 4, and 6. A wider spacing would more closely mimic old growth conditions, would cost less per acre, and would produce similar levels of future large wood. Replanting these areas would have beneficial effects for the fisheries resource. Many of the riparian areas burned by the Fire are adjacent to streams that have inadequate LWD within the channel and inadequate riparian trees for future LWD recruitment. Planting conifer within these areas would re-establish the growth trajectory of trees in these areas. Over time, this would provide an increase of LWD available at the stream reach scale.

Water temperature

Description

Water temperature is expected to increase following the Fire due to the reduction in riparian vegetation. Gresswell (1999) conducted a review of the scientific literature and found documented water temperature increases from 3.3 to 10 degrees C in forested sites in the West. The amount of water temperature increase is determined by the proportion of riparian vegetation killed by the Fire, stream size, stream network, and topography.

Suitable water temperature is critical to salmonid productivity and survival. Oregon Department of Environmental Quality (ODEQ) has established water temperature standards for all life stages of salmonids. According to their recent assessment, (ODEQ 2004, pp. 34-35) the standards are as follows:

No measurable increase from anthropogenic activities may occur when water temperatures (7 day moving average of the daily instantaneous maximum temperature) exceed: 64 F (17.8 C) in rearing habitats 55 F (12.8 C) in spawning, incubation, fry emergence habitats

Within the analysis area, all streams supporting salmonid are listed as water quality limited under section 303(d) of the Clean Water Act because of high water temperature. Juvenile and adult salmonids are at risk when water temperature exceeds 73-77 degrees Fahrenheit (F) (Spence et al. 1996). Literature regarding temperature requirements for Pacific lamprey varies, but in general it has been documented that lamprey prefer stream temperatures less than 68 degrees F (BioAnalysts 2000), but do not show signs of mortality until temperatures reach 82 degrees F (van de Wetering and Ewing 1999). Temperatures on the middle Illinois River, Josephine Creek, and Rough and Ready Creek exceed 77 degrees F (ODEQ. 2000). In these systems, cold water habitats are likely critical to salmonid survival. Typical cold water habitats are deep pools and areas of ground water inflow. Any action that reduces pool frequency or size or inhibits its recovery (i.e. excess sediment delivery, and reduction in LWD) has the potential to reduce these cold water habitats.

Non-native fish species, including the highly piscivorous Umpqua pike minnow and smallmouth bass, would benefit from an increase in water temperature. The Umpqua pike minnow has been

F-38 Appendix F – Water and Fish

observed in the mainstem Illinois River, Rough and Ready Creek, Josephine Creek, and the mouth of many other tributary streams. Smallmouth bass have been observed in the mainstem Illinois River near McCaleb Ranch. They would likely increase their distribution and population size in response to the increase in water temperature. This would likely result in increased depredation on juvenile lamprey and salmonids and would last until water temperature return to pre-fire levels. It is unlikely this increased mortality could be detected at the watershed scale nor would it threaten any populations. See the Hydrology Report for a discussion on stream temperature data collected after the Fire.

Live vegetation, standing dead trees, and terrain features provide shade to streams (Bjornn and Reiser. 1991). The Fire killed, and in some cases, consumed streamside vegetation along portions of many streams. This decreased stream shade appreciably in some areas. The table below displays the estimated loss of stream shade, by watershed, due to the Fire.

Table 6 Total acres, Riparian Reserve acres, total canopy kill acres and percent canopy kill within 174 feet acres by watershed.

Watershed Acres Riparian Acres of Total Kill Percent Canopy Kill Reserve within 174 feet within 174 feet Acres Briggs 43,727 10,450 168 1 Deer 72,525 9,800 139 1 Illinois - Klondyke 67,065 13,370 4,130 29 Illinois - Josephine 81,654 6,100 3,976 28 Lawson 25,241 7,960 2,180 26 Indigo 49,062 11,927 2,013 20 Chetco River 124,895 46,900 7,403 21 Upper NF Smith 51,695 10,500 3,437 33 Pistol River 67,174 18,050 173 2 Silver 51,594 11,274 4,491 40 WF Illinois 76,870 8,044 2,096 18

Methods and Assumptions See Aquatics Report

1. Sky roads are created when skyline logging systems span Riparian Reserves. 2. Sky roads across perennial streams reduce stream shade when snags and green trees are felled or broken. 3. Within Riparian Reserves, sky roads, on average, are 15 feet wide, 200 feet apart, and 350 feet long. Each sky road affects 0.14 acres. 4. Planting Riparian Reserves would increase the rate of recovery of stream shade that would result in a faster rate of recovery of lower summer stream temperatures.

Results The table below depicts, by watershed, the results on each indicator of implementing each of the Alternatives

F-39 Appendix F – Water and Fish

Table 7 Acres planted in Riparian Reserves by watershed and Alternative.

Watershed Alternative 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Briggs Creek 0 77 77 0 77 77 77

Deer Creek 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Diamond Creek 0 0 0 0 0 90 0

Illinois River Josephine Creek 0 498 498 141 498 1590 498

Illinois River Klondike Creek 0 45 45 11 45 45 45

Illinois River Lawson Creek* 0 450 450 71 450 1425 450

Indigo Creek* 0 826 826 145 826 1752 826

Lower Chetco River 0 141 141 0 141 141 141

North Fork Smith River* 0 0 0 0 0 100 0

Pistol River 0 77 77 2 77 77 77

Silver Creek* 0 656 656 185 656 1412 656

Upper Chetco River* 0 73 73 18 73 1173 73

West Fork Illinois River 0 0 0 0 0 60 0

TOTAL 0 2899 2899 573 2899 8042 2899

* denotes Tier 1 Key Watershed

Discussion Changes in water temperature can trigger changes in the timing of fish spawning, maturation and migration; affect the quality and quantity of their food supply; and alter their resistance to disease (Bjornn and Reiser 1991 and Peterson et al. 1992).

Based on the Hydrology Report, none of the Alternatives would cause an increase in water temperature. Below is an assessment of the analysis indicator and the proposed activities that have the potential to cause an increase in water temperature.

Acres planted in Riparian Reserves – Conifers would be planted where the Fire killed the entire tree canopy of a 10 acre or larger area. In these areas, it is expected the Fire reduced the seed

F-40 Appendix F – Water and Fish

source and natural recovery would be very slow. To ensure cost effectiveness, only areas with good site potential and within one mile of a road would be planted.

Under the Alternative 1, Riparian Reserves would not be planted. Conifers would return to the burned riparian areas slowly. However, many hardwood species re-sprout following fire and would provide some shade within 4 to 5 years. In small streams, hardwoods would provide adequate shade. On wider streams, hardwoods are not tall enough to provide shade. Therefore, on wider streams, water temperatures would remain elevated longer than if conifers were planted. Based on the SHADOW model, water temperature would increase in some areas due to a reduction of stream shade resulting from increased solar heating after the Fire. This would result in predicted stream temperature increases of 0.9 degrees F per mile of affected stream. This would be felt most in Silver, Fall and Lawson Creeks and many tributaries of the Upper Checto River.

Alternatives 2, 3, 5, 6 and 7 would plant the most acres. Not all scientists agree as to the benefits and drawbacks of planting conifers following fire. Some researchers suggest some planting may be appropriate in severely burned watersheds (Bisson et al. 2003). Stream shade and water temperature would recover on wide streams sooner than if not planted. Overall, riparian planting would have a relatively small effect that would not be felt for 10 to 20 years but would persist for several decades.

In addition, the following proposed activities have the potential to reduce stream shade:

Timber falling – Timber falling within 175 feet of perennial streams has the potential to reduce stream shade by removing or damaging snags and green trees that shade the stream. Trees and snags farther than 175 feet of the stream contribute very little, if any, to stream shade (FEMAT 1993). Beschta et al. (1987) found that in Western Oregon, buffer strips of 30 meters (98 feet) or more in width along streams provide approximately the same level of shading as an old growth forest. Brazier and Brown (1973) found that for streams within the study, the maximum angular canopy density is reached within a width of 80 feet from the stream channel, and 90% of that maximum is reached within 55 feet of the stream channel.

Under Alternatives 2, 3, 4, and 6, some snags and trees would be felled within skyline corridors or “sky roads” that cross fish-bearing streams. This would have the potential to remove trees and snags that shade the stream. Alternative 3 would produce the most corridors; 3.7 acres. Because the skyline corridors would be widely distributed among many subwatersheds and would affect a very small proportion of any subwatershed, they would not produce a detectable increase in stream temperature at the subwatershed scale (Hydrology Report).

Alternatives 1 and 5 would not create skyline corridors across perennial streams. No shade would be lost due to skyline corridors. Therefore, these Alternatives would not cause an increase in water temperature.

Prescribed burning, thinning trees and pruning to reduce fuels – When these activities occur within 175 feet of streams, they have the potential to reduce stream shade by destroying shrubs, trees, snags and LWD that provide stream shade.

F-41 Appendix F – Water and Fish

These activities would not occur in Alternative 1. Therefore, stream shade would not be affected in the short-term. Because high levels of fuel would not be treated, many riparian stands would be more susceptible to fire damage in the event of a fire in the future. Fire damage would likely be more intense and occur over a larger area severe than if the stands were treated. A future wildfire within untreated stands would likely cause a significant reduction in stream shade that could persist for several years.

Determination of Effects to Fish Species of Concern

For all action Alternatives, the riparian no-cut buffers maintain existing levels of stream shade and LWD and provide for their recovery. Therefore, the primary impacts used in this determination are the adverse and beneficial effects associated with sediment delivery to streams. The effects are displayed in the table below.

Table 8 Summary of effects determination for fish species of concern.

Alternatives Species 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Endangered/ Threatened Coho salmon NE LAA NLAA LAA LAA LAA LAA

Sensitive / Special Status Chinook salmon NI BI MIIH BI BI MIIH BI EFH NE LAA NLAA LAA LAA LAA LAA Steelhead trout NI BI MIIH BI BI MIIH BI Cutthroat trout NI BI MIIH BI BI MIIH BI Pacific lamprey NI BI MIIH BI BI MIIH BI

Endangered and Threatened Species- No Effect (NE), May Affect, Likely to Adversely Affect (LAA), May Affect, Not Likely to Adversely Affect (NLAA.), CHU = Critical Habitat Unit.

Sensitive Species / Special Status- No Impact (NI), May Impact Individuals or Habitat, but Will Not Likely Contribute to a Trend Towards Federal Listing or, Cause a Loss of Viability to the Population or Species (MIIH), Will Impact Individuals or Habitat With a Consequence that the Action May Contribute to a Trend Towards Federal Listing or Cause a Loss of Viability to the Population or Species (WIFV), Beneficial Impact (BI).

Coho salmon Alternative 1 would have no effect (NE) because it proposes no activities.

Alternative 3 may affect, but is not likely to adversely affect (NLAA) coho salmon. Only a small increase in sediment delivery would result. Because this would occur mostly during high stream flows, a period when coho salmon are adapted to higher levels of sediment, and would not increase embeddedness, it is not likely to cause take.

F-42 Appendix F – Water and Fish

Alternatives 2, 4 and 5 may affect, and would likely adversely affect (LAA) coho salmon. Take is expected to occur as a result of significant increases in sediment delivery associated with road stabilization and improved maintenance. These activities produce both short-term adverse effects and long-term beneficial effects.

Alternative 6 is LAA coho salmon. Take is expected to occur as a result of significant increases sediment delivery associated with timber harvest.

Alternative 7 is LAA coho salmon. Take is expected to occur as a result of significant increases sediment delivery associated with both timber harvest and restorative actions such as road stabilization and improved maintenance.

Chinook salmon Alternative 1 would have NE on essential fish habitat and no impact (NI) on individuals because it proposes no activities.

Alternative 3 is NLAA essential fish habitat and may impact individuals or habitat, but will not likely contribute to a trend towards Federal listing or cause as loss of viability to the population or species (MIIH). Only a small increase in sediment delivery would result. Because this would occur mostly during high stream flows, a period when chinook salmon are adapted to higher levels of sediment, and would not increase embeddedness, it is not likely to adversely affect essential fish habitat.

Alternatives 2, 4 and 5 are LAA essential fish habitat but would produce an overall beneficial impact (BI). Significant increases in sediment delivery associated with road stabilization and improved maintenance is expected to adversely affect stream substrate in the short-term. However, these activities produce long-term beneficial effects.

Alternative 6 is LAA essential fish habitat but MIIH. Significant increases sediment delivery associated with timber harvest is expected to adversely affect stream substrate in the short-term.

Alternative 7 is LAA essential fish habitat but would produce an overall BI. Significant increases in sediment delivery associated with timber harvest, road stabilization and improved maintenance is expected to adversely affect stream substrate.

Steelhead trout Alternative 1 would have NI because it proposes no activities.

Alternatives 3 and 6 are MIIH. Only a small increase in sediment delivery would result from implementing Alternative 3. This would occur mostly during high stream flows, a period when steelhead trout are adapted to higher levels of sediment. Under Alternative 6, the projected increase in sediment delivery to Silver Creek watershed would exceed channel capacity. Neither Alternative includes restorative actions.

Alternatives 2, 4, 5 and 7 would produce an overall BI providing all of the proposed road restoration and improved maintenance are implemented. Although these Alternatives would

F-43 Appendix F – Water and Fish increase sediment delivery to streams in the short-term, they would decrease sediment delivery in the long-term through improved roads management. Alternative 5 provides the greatest benefit, followed by 7, 4 and 2.

Cutthroat trout Alternative 1 would have NI because it would propose no activities.

Alternatives 3 and 6 are MIIH. Only a small increase in sediment delivery would result from implementing Alternative 3. This would occur mostly during high stream flows, a period when steelhead trout are adapted to higher levels of sediment. Under Alternative 6, the projected increase in sediment delivery to Silver Creek watershed would exceed channel capacity. Neither Alternative includes restorative actions.

Alternatives 2, 4, 5 and 7 would produce an overall BI providing all of the proposed road restoration and improved maintenance are implemented. Although these Alternatives would increase sediment delivery to streams in the short-term, they would decrease sediment delivery in the long-term through improved roads management. Alternative 5 provides the greatest benefit, followed by 7, 4 and 2.

Pacific lamprey Alternative 1 would have NI because it would propose no activities.

Alternatives 3 and 6 are MIIH. Only a small increase in sediment delivery would result from implementing Alternative 3. This would occur mostly during high stream flows, a period when steelhead trout are adapted to higher levels of sediment. Under Alternative 6, the projected increase in sediment delivery to Silver Creek watershed would exceed channel capacity. Neither Alternative offers restorative actions that address the potential for increased sediment delivery from at-risk roads.

Alternatives 2, 4, 5 and 7 would produce an overall BI providing all of the proposed road restoration and improved maintenance are implemented. Although these Alternatives would increase sediment delivery to streams in the short-term, they would decrease sediment delivery in the long-term through improved roads management. Alternative 5 provides the greatest benefit, followed by 7, 4 and 2.

F-44 Appendix F – Water and Fish

Part 1 - Fish Species Present

• Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawystcha) 1] • coho salmon (O. kisutch) 2] • steelhead trout (O. mykiss) 3] • cutthroat trout (resident and anadromous forms) (O. clarki clarki) 4] • rainbow trout (resident form) (O. mykiss) • largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) 5] • smallmouth bass (Micropterus dolomieu) 5] • reticulate sculpin (Cottus perplexus) • riffle sculpin (C. gulosus) • Coastrange sculpin (C. aleuticus) • speckled dace (Rhinichthys osculus) • Klamath smallscale sucker (Catostomus rimiculus) • redside shiner (Richardsonius balteatus) 5] • Umpqua pikeminnow (Ptychocheilus umpquae) 5] • threespine stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus) • Pacific lamprey (Lampetra tridentata) • Western brook lamprey (Lampetra richardsoni)

1] Includes individuals from the Oregon Coast (OC) and Southern Oregon/Northern California (SONC) Ecologically Significant Units (ESU’s). 2] Includes individuals from the OC and SONC ESU’s. The SONC ESU is listed as Threatened under the Endangered Species Act. OC coho inhabit the South Umpqua, Coquille and Sixes sub-basins and SONC coho inhabit the remaining sub-basins. 3] Includes individuals from the Klamath Mountains Province (KMP) and the OC ESU’s. The OC ESU has Candidate status. 4] Includes individuals from the OC and Southern Oregon/California Coasts (SOCC) ESU’s. The OC ESU has Candidate status. 5] introduced specie.

Part 2- General Fish Life History of Anadromous Salmonids Oregon Coastal Streams

This is a general discussion of the life history and freshwater/ocean habitat preference of coho salmon, chinook salmon, steelhead trout and cutthroat trout found in Oregon coast streams today. It is important to note that the freshwater habitats within which these fish evolved in the past several thousand years have recently been simplified by land use and water use on the Oregon coast. Life history strategies have also been simplified, as evidenced by anecdotal and documented reports of several different runs of salmon, steelhead and cutthroat in years past that are not present in Oregon coastal streams today. The life history and migration patterns discussed here should be viewed as generalized and do not completely illustrate the manifold migration timings, rearing strategies and subsequent races of anadromous fish lost in the past two centuries on the Oregon coast.

F-45 Appendix F – Water and Fish

Coho Salmon Coho salmon in the Oregon coastal streams, including the Rogue River and Umpqua River basins, generally follow a similar life history pattern. Two ESU’s occur in coastal Oregon: the Southern Oregon/Northern California ESU and the Oregon Coast ESU. Adults return to rivers in the fall and spawn from October to January. Coho salmon are semelparous and die after spawning. Fry emerge from redds during late winter/early spring and rear in slow water habitats. Typically coho fry emerge from redds after chinook fry and ahead of steelhead fry with local differences among different stocks. Juvenile coho salmon have an affinity for smaller tributaries that are usually less than three percent gradient. Adult coho salmon will migrate above stream segments with cascades or rapids if an unconstrained or low gradient stream segment is present upstream.

The typical life cycle for Oregon coho salmon is to spend one year in freshwater and eighteen months in saltwater and thus are classified as river-rearing. Variation from this does occur with some juvenile coho spending a second summer and precocious males returning to spawn a year early as jacks. Ocean migration routes depend on the river from where coho salmon are emigrating. Southwest Oregon (Rogue River and south coast) river coho salmon tend to migrate south along the Oregon and Northern California coast; Umpqua River coho migrate south and north and coho salmon from coastal rivers north of the Umpqua tend to migrate northward along the Oregon coast. A unique freshwater habitat requirement of coho salmon juveniles is their reliance on off channel, alcove, slough, beaver pond or similar slow water habitats during the winter. They exhibit less torpor than other salmonids during cold water periods. Coho salmon are closely tied to interior and coastal unconfined valley stream habitat. Historic coho salmon freshwater habitat, summer and winter, was located in alluviated canyons with low terraces and alluvial valleys with wide meander belts.

Coho salmon freshwater habitat has been greatly altered by agriculture, forestry and urbanization disturbance. Low gradient stream flats were usually the first riparian and stream areas to be developed by early settlers for roads, logging and agriculture. Riparian areas in these unconstrained stream segments were cleared of large trees early in the century. Subsequently, these streams often downcut and abandoned much of their historic floodplain. This greatly reduced off channel, alcove, slough and beaver-influenced habitats in rivers and streams. These habitat changes affected all salmonid species in coastal Oregon, and coho salmon may have been affected most because of these actions in valleys. Coho salmon and chinook salmon are fall spawners and their eggs are more vulnerable to bedload shifts and sedimentation of gravel beds than spring spawning steelhead and trout.

Chinook Salmon Chinook salmon in streams and rivers of the Oregon coast are generally divided into two races: spring and fall run chinook salmon. Two ESU’s for chinook salmon occur on the Oregon Coast: Southern Oregon/Northern California Coastal ESU and Oregon Coast ESU. Spring chinook are usually associated with larger rivers and streams that have adequate summer flows to provide deep resting pools for adults during the summer. The Umpqua and Rogue River basins have larger spring chinook runs than most coastal streams; smaller populations of spring chinook are present in the Coquille River and other coastal streams. Fall chinook are in many of the medium-sized and larger streams with access from the ocean through low gradient stream

F-46 Appendix F – Water and Fish habitat. They tend to not migrate as far upstream as coho salmon. Their annual spawning distribution in smaller streams is dependent on the amount of fall rains and resultant streamflow.

Spring Chinook spawn in the early fall, earlier than fall chinook in most rivers. Fall chinook can spawn from early fall to mid-winter. Chinook salmon are semelparous and die after spawning. Chinook fry emerge in late winter to early spring and typically begin a downstream migration to the river estuary or the ocean. Variations from this occur in all populations with some fry remaining in freshwater for a year. Ocean migration is similar to coho salmon, south coast chinook salmon tend to migrate south, Umpqua River chinook salmon migrate north and south and chinook salmon from central and northern coastal rivers tend to migrate north as far as the Alaska coast. Chinook salmon fry and parr generally rear in larger streams and rivers. The typical life cycle for Oregon coastal chinook salmon is to spend a few months in freshwater and two to five years in saltwater and thus they are ocean-rearing. Many variations occur in the freshwater rearing timing and precocious males return from the ocean a year or two early as jacks.

Steelhead Trout Steelhead trout are rainbow trout that migrate to the ocean. Two ESU’s occur on the Oregon coast: Klamath Mountains Province ESU and Oregon Coast ESU. In Oregon coastal streams two races of steelhead are found: summer and winter steelhead. Summer steelhead trout are usually associated with larger rivers that have adequate summer flows to accommodate summer upstream migration and resting pools with cooler water. Summer steelhead trout are generally found in rivers with spring chinook populations. Summer steelhead trout in the Rogue River tend to spawn in very small and often intermittent tributaries and winter steelhead tend to spawn in medium to large streams. Steelhead trout exhibit a wide variety of migration and freshwater rearing timings. Steelhead trout spawn from mid-winter to late spring. Summer steelhead fry tend to emerge earlier in the late winter/early spring than winter steelhead fry. Historic steelhead habitat is extremely variable as these fish are adept at migrating through steep gradient stream segments and over waterfalls of moderate height. Steelhead trout fry and parr can be found in very steep mountain stream habitat and in interior and coastal unconstrained valley streams.

The life history of summer and winter steelhead is variable between rivers and streams on the Oregon coast. Generally, steelhead trout remain in freshwater for one to three years and the ocean phase varies from one to three years. Steelhead trout are iteroparous and can return to spawn more than once. Ocean migration is highly variable for steelhead trout, generally following the north and south migration strategies of coho salmon and chinook salmon previously discussed. Steelhead trout are less gregarious than salmon in their ocean phase and individuals can range as far as offshore of the Aleutian Island area.

In the Klamath geology of SW Oregon, particularly the Rogue River, the half-pounder life history is prevalent. Many sexually immature steelhead trout migrate from ocean and estuary habitats into the river to over-winter and then return to the ocean for several months before making a spawning migration. Presumably, this early migration is an adaptation used by a portion of the juvenile population to utilize a protein source derived from eggs and carcasses of the spawning chinook and coho salmon runs and a successful over-wintering strategy. Most half-pounders are summer run fish but about half of winter steelhead use this strategy. Steelhead

F-47 Appendix F – Water and Fish

fry and parr appear to be less affected by degradations to fresh water habitats than coho salmon, probably because of their highly variable life history and lower reliance on off-channel, beaver pond, alcove, and slough habitats.

Cutthroat Trout Cutthroat trout are present throughout Oregon Coast streams, both in resident and sea-run forms. The distinction between the purely resident form and the purely sea-run form is nebulous because of the many variations the cutthroat trout exhibit in rivers and streams. Two ESU’s for sea-run cutthroat occur on the Oregon coast: Southern OR/CA Coasts ESU and Oregon Coast ESU. These different life histories include fluvial, adfluvial, resident and ocean-migrating behaviors. Generally, cutthroat trout have an affinity for smaller tributary streams for spawning and appear to be adept at migrating upstream in steep gradient tributaries to spawning areas. Cutthroat populations can be closely tied to salmon runs in many streams and gain added nutrients from salmon eggs foraged during salmon spawning. Spawning can take place from fall to late spring and fry emerge in winter/early spring and rear for two to four years in freshwater. Cutthroat trout prefer small headwater streams for the first summer and then migration to and from natal habitats is highly variable. Sea-run cutthroat trout use near shore and estuarine habitats for generally two to five months and repeat migrations to and from large rivers and/or the ocean are possible. Ocean migration routes generally are relegated to the river estuary and near coast habitats and can be highly variable and include migrations out to sea off the Oregon coast. Cutthroat are iteroparous and can repeat spawn several times.

Cutthroat are present throughout most coastal streams and rivers in SW Oregon. Large adult cutthroat prefer rivers and streams with complex habitat and deep pools. Cutthroat tend to be sensitive to habitat alteration locally in small streams; often they are out-competed by coho salmon juveniles and/or steelhead juveniles in simplified habitats with less large wood and fewer deep pools.

Table A-1 Summary of general life history characteristics of coho salmon, Chinook salmon and steelhead trout within the analysis area.

Species Ocean Adult migration Adult holding Spawning Emergence 0+ Rearing 1] Coho Mature for 2- Oct-Dec. <30-days Nov-Jan March-April For 3 to 4-weeks following emergence, they salmon years near during Nov- Die soon after remain close to their natal area, relying on the Oregon Dec. spawning slack water areas such as pool tailouts until coastline. strong enough to venture into other areas. With the increased streamflows of fall and winter, they move downstream but remain within their natal stream. They use pools and habitats associated with instream wood. Chinook Mature for 2 March-June. Up to 6-months Oct-Nov Jan-March For 3 to 4-weeks following emergence, salmon to 4-years during April- Die soon after they remain close to their natal area (spring- across a Oct; near spawning relying on slack water areas such as run) 2] broad area. spawning site. pool tailouts until strong enough to venture into other areas. With the increased streamflows of fall and winter, they move downstream but remain within their natal stream. They use deep pools. Chinook Same as Sept-Nov. < 30 days Nov-Jan Feb-May For 3 to 4-weeks following emergence, salmon above during Nov. they remain close to their natal area (fall-run) 2] relying on slack water areas such as pool tailouts until strong enough to venture into other areas, preferring

F-48 Appendix F – Water and Fish

deep pools. They migrate to the Illinois River or Rogue River in late summer and continue downstream until entering the ocean in the fall. Steelhead Mature for 2- Nov-April. < 30 days Jan-May. April-July For 3 to 4-weeks following emergence, trout years far during Dec- Do not die after they remain close to their natal area, (winter- offshore. April. spawning and relying on slack water areas such as run) 3] Most Rogue may spawn in pool tailouts until strong enough to River fish subsequent venture into other areas. With the intermittently years. increased streamflows of fall and feed in the winter, they move downstream but mainstem remain within their natal stream. Rogue River. They use stream margins, large rock, and riffles. Steelhead Same as May-Oct. Up to 6-months Jan-March. Do March-May Within weeks of emergence, they trout above. during Aug- Jan not die after migrate to the Rogue River, with (summer- in the mainstem spawning and the majority rearing within a mile run) 3] Rogue River. may spawn in of the mouth of their natal stream subsequent until fall. On the first fall freshets, years. most migrate back to their natal stream but some remain in the Rogue River or migrate to other tributary streams.

1] In this case, 0+ is the age category of fish during their first year of life (beginning at emergence). 1+ age category fish are in their second year of life. 2] The spring- and fall-runs are general classifications within the population. They represent the two major population influxes of fish entering freshwater. The only spring-run Chinook salmon occur in the Chetco and middle SF Coquille River waterway. 3] Highly variable life history. The summer- and winter-runs are general classifications within the population. The only summer-run steelhead trout occur in Taylor and Galice Creeks.

Part 3- Project Design Criteria for Fuels Management in Riparian Reserves

Following are Project Design Criteria (PDC) for fuels treatments, including prescribed fire, within Riparian Reserves (RR’s) that would not cause ‘take’ of coho salmon, adversely modify critical habitat, or adversely affect Essential Fish Habitat (EFH). The PDC apply to fuels treatments within specified portions of Riparian Reserves. Criteria for protection of green woody vegetation, green conifer tree canopy cover, and LWD (>24” in diameter and >50’ long) must be met at the stream reach scale. Below are general PDC for fuel treatments within RR’s as well as specific PDC for perennial and fish-bearing stream channels and for intermittent, non- fish-bearing stream channels.

General PDC for fuels treatments within RR’s:

1. Include all relevant PDC in silvicultural prescriptions and burn plan objectives for all fuel treatment activities within RR’s.

2. Use all available fuel treatments and preparation activities as necessary (e.g. multiple entries, slash pull-back; modified ignition methods, locations, timing, and sequence; thinning of small green trees; pruning of green trees and snags, prescribed fire, fire suppression, jack pot burning, etc.) to achieve the specific PDC. Suppression should be used only as a last resort to achieve other PDC.

PDC for perennial and fish-bearing stream channels

1. Within 25’ of the stream channel, do not thin green conifer trees or prescribe burn.

F-49 Appendix F – Water and Fish

2. Within 50’ of the stream channel, do not burn slash piles.

3. Within 100’ of the stream channel, do not ignite broadcast burns; however, fire may be allowed to “back down” toward the channel if all other PDC can be achieved. Ignite farther from the channel if necessary to achieve all other PDC.

4. Within 60’ of the stream channel, retain 100% of the overstory canopy closure.

5. Between 60’ and 1 SPT of the stream channel, where the green conifer tree canopy cover is <50%, retain the existing green conifer tree canopy coverage (e.g. no significant change from existing).

6. Within 1 SPT of stream reaches with less than 80 pieces per mile of down wood >24” in diameter and >50’ in length, take necessary precautions to retain all snags and down wood pieces that are >24” in diameter and 50’ in length.

7. Within 100 feet of the stream channel, do not cause any mechanical ground disturbance (e.g. mineral soil exposure).

8. Within 2 SPT of the stream channel, do not store, mix or use fire retardant and wetting agents unless there is a terrain break that would prevent transport to the channel.

PDC for intermittent, non-fish-bearing stream channels:

1. Within 50’ of the stream channel, do not ignite broadcast burns; however, allow fire to “back down” toward the channel if all of other PDC can be achieved. Ignite farther from the channel if necessary to achieve all other PDC.

2. Within 50’ of the stream channel, do not burn slash piles.

1. Within 60’ of the stream channel, where the green conifer tree canopy cover is >50%, retain a minimum of 45% green conifer tree canopy cover that consists of the larger diameter classes following treatment.

2. Within 60’ of the stream channel, where the green conifer tree canopy cover is <45%, retain all of the existing green conifer overstory.

3. Within 1 SPT of stream reaches with less than 80 pieces per mile of down wood >24” in diameter and >50’ in length, take necessary precautions to retain all snags and down wood pieces that are >24” in diameter and 50’ in length.

4. No mechanical, ground disturbance (e.g. mineral soil exposure) should occur across the stream channel.

F-50 Appendix F – Water and Fish

5. Within 2 SPT of the stream channel, do not store, mix or use fire retardant and wetting agents unless there is a terrain break that would prevent transport to the stream channel.

Part 4- Modeled outputs of sediment production and delivery

Table A-2 Estimated amount and origin of sediment delivered by Alternative

Watershed Indicator Alternative 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Briggs Creek Sediment delivered from Salvage (tons/year) * 122 175 80 84 4173 167 Sediment from Fuel Management Zones (tons/year)** 30 4 17 17

Deer Creek Sediment delivered from Salvage (tons/year) * 14 14 4 826 57 Sediment from Fuel Management Zones (tons/year)** 26 45 26 0 26

Illinois River Sediment delivered from Salvage (tons/year) * 100 225 18 90 2714 251 Klondike Creek Sediment from Fuel Management Zones (tons/year)** 0 0 1 2 0 2

Illinois River Sediment delivered from Salvage (tons/year) * 86 895 557 76 27253 1339 Josephine Creek Sediment from Fuel Management Zones (tons/year)** 3 0 3,383 1042 0 1042

Illinois River Sediment delivered from Salvage (tons/year) * 4,282 6,554 1,423 3,402 16872 9267 Lawson Creek Sediment from Fuel Management Zones (tons/year)** 1,863 0 490 395 0 395

Indigo Creek Sediment delivered from Salvage (tons/year) * 1,060 10,129 4,327 633 15074 11332 Sediment from Fuel Management Zones (tons/year)** 1,318 0 872 1,582 0 1582

Lower Chetco Sediment delivered from Salvage (tons/year) * 0 0 0 0 0 0 River Sediment from Fuel Management Zones (tons/year)** 0 0 0 0 0 0

Pistol River Sediment delivered from Salvage (tons/year) * 0 4,301 0 0 9613 4561 Sediment from Fuel Management Zones (tons/year)** 0 0 0 0 0 0

Silver Creek Sediment delivered from Salvage (tons/year) * 1,493 2,983 1,460 2,088 10,904 2985 Sediment from Fuel Management Zones (tons/year)** 4006 0 751 510 0 510

Upper Chetco Sediment delivered from Salvage (tons/year) * 604 3,416 324 321 5963 4256 River Sediment from Fuel Management Zones (tons/year)** 0 0 0 0 0 0

North Fork Smith Sediment delivered from Salvage (tons/year) * 0 163 0 0 4841 167 River Sediment from Fuel Management Zones (tons/year)** 3 0 0 0 0 0

West Fork Illinois Sediment delivered from Salvage (tons/year) * 0 9 0 0 2330 8 River Sediment from Fuel Management Zones (tons/year)** 65 0 40 54

*Assumes all salvage activity occurs in one year ** Assumes FMZs are constructed over a five year period

F-51 Appendix F – Water and Fish

Part 5 - Conclusions of Effects for Use in Biological Evaluations and Assessments

Listed Species:

No Effect - Occurs when a project or activity will not have any “effect” on a listed species, or critical habitat.

May Effect - Likely to Adversely Affect (LAA) - If the determination in the biological assessment is that the project May Effect - Likely To Adversely Affect a listed species or critical habitat, formal consultation must be initiated (50 CFR 402.12). Formal consultation must be requested in writing through the Forest Supervisor (FSM 2670.44) to the appropriate FWS Field Supervisor, or NMFS office.

May Effect - Not Likely to Adversely Affect (NLAA) - If it is determined in the biological assessment that there are “effects” to a listed species or critical habitat, but that those effects are not likely to adversely affect listed species or critical habitat, then written concurrence by the FWS or NMFS is required to conclude informal consultation (50 OFR 402.13).

Beneficial Effect - Written concurrence is also required from the FWS or NMFS if a beneficial effect determination is made.

Requests for written concurrence must be initiated in writing from the Forest Supervisor to the State Field Supervisor (FWS or NMFS).

Sensitive Species / Special Status

No Impact (NI) - A determination of “No Impact” for sensitive species occurs when a project or activity will have no environmental effects on habitat, individuals, a population or a species.

May Impact Individuals or Habitat, but Will Not Likely Contribute to a Trend Towards Federal Listing or, Cause a Loss of Viability to the Population or Species (MIIH) - Activities or actions that have effects that are immeasurable minor or are consistent with Conservation Strategies would receive this conclusion. For populations that are small - or vulnerable - each individual may be important for short and long-term viability.

Will Impact Individuals or Habitat With a Consequence that the Action May Contribute to a Trend Towards Federal Listing or Cause a Loss of Viability to the Population or Species (WIFV) - Loss of individuals or habitat can be considered significant when the potential effect may be: 1. Contributing to a trend toward Federal listing (C-1 or C-2 species); 2. Results in a

F-52 Appendix F – Water and Fish significantly increased risk of loss of viability to a species; or, 3. Results in a significantly increased risk of loss of viability to a significant population (stock).

Beneficial Impact (BI) - Projects or activities that are designed to benefit, or that measurably benefit a sensitive species should receive this conclusion.

F-53 Appendix F – Water and Fish

Table A-3 Estimated amount of percent sediment transport used by Alternative.

Watershed Indicator Alternative 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Briggs Creek 1. 2 year Post Fire % Transport used (sediment/capacity)* 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 2. Additional % Transport used by alternative** 0 0 0 0 4 0 3. Total % Transport capacity used (background + activity) 9 9 9 9 13 9 Deer Creek 1. 2 year Post Fire % Transport used (sediment/capacity)* 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 2. Additional % Transport used by alternative** 0 0 0 0 1 0 3. Total % Transport capacity used (background + activity) 11 11 11 11 12 11 Illinois River 1. 2 year Post Fire % Transport used (sediment/capacity)* 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 Klondike Creek 2. Additional % Transport used by alternative** 0 0 0 0 1 0 3. Total % Transport capacity used (background + activity) 36 36 36 36 37 36 Illinois River 1. 2 year Post Fire % Transport used (sediment/capacity)* 41 41 41 41 41 41 41 Josephine Creek 2. Additional % Transport used by alternative** 0 1 2 1 15 1 3. Total % Transport capacity used (background + activity) 41 43 43 42 56 42 Illinois River 1. 2 year Post Fire % Transport used (sediment/capacity)* 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 Lawson Creek 2. Additional % Transport used by alternative** 2 2 1 1 6 3 3. Total % Transport capacity used (background + activity) 27 27 26 26 31 28 Indigo Creek 1. 2 year Post Fire % Transport used (sediment/capacity)* 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 2. Additional % Transport used by alternative** 2 7 3 1 10 8 3. Total % Transport capacity used (background + activity) 42 47 43 41 50 48 Lower Chetco 1. 2 year Post Fire % Transport used (sediment/capacity)* 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 River 2. Additional % Transport used by alternative** 0 0 0 0 2 1 3. Total % Transport capacity used (background + activity) 12 12 12 12 14 13 Upper Chetco 1. 2 year Post Fire % Transport used (sediment/capacity)* 73 73 73 73 73 73 73 River 2. Additional % Transport used by alternative** 0 1 0 0 2 2 3. Total % Transport capacity used (background + activity) 73 74 73 73 74 75 Pistol River 1. 2 year Post Fire % Transport used (sediment/capacity)* 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 2. Additional % Transport used by alternative** 0 2 0 0 3 2 3. Total % Transport capacity used (background + activity) 20 22 20 20 23 22 Silver Creek 1. 2 year Post Fire % Transport used (sediment/capacity)* 92 92 92 92 92 92 92 2. Additional % Transport used by alternative** 5 3 2 3 11 3 3. Total % Transport capacity used (background + activity) 97 95 94 95 103 95 North Fork Smith 1. 2 year Post Fire % Transport used (sediment/capacity)* 91 91 91 91 91 91 91 River 2. Additional % Transport used by alternative** 0 0 0 0 4 0 3. Total % Transport capacity used (background + activity) 91 91 91 91 95 91 West Fork Illinois 1. 2 year Post Fire % Transport used (sediment/capacity)* 41 41 41 41 41 41 41 River 2. Additional % Transport used by alternative** 0 0 0 0 2 0 3. Total % Transport capacity used (background + activity) 41 41 41 41 43 41 * 2 year post fire sediment + sediment delivered by roads + Suppression Activities ** sediment delivered by salvage + FMZs

F-54 APPENDIX G

ROADS

Sites Requiring Alignment

Appendix G- Roads

Embankment failure/realignment sites.

Embankment Failure

Road management decisions for roads are based on an economic, safe, and durable transportation system for land management activities. This requires treating roadway embankments at sites where material has been lost and consequently roadbed structural support diminished or road travel width reduced.

With the result of the fire and the vegetative undercover missing, the rains are accelerating the deterioration of unstable embankment slopes. The action proposed is to fully restore or structurally modify deteriorated embankment slopes, or to realign short (less than 500’) segments of roadway away from these unstable embankment slopes. This will maintain public safety, result in a long term cost effective transportation system requiring less recurrent maintenance and creates less resource impacts on the landscape by controlling the fill slope erosion.

Roads Requiring Realignment:

2300 4 sites 2300440 3 sites 2402 3-sites 3318310 2 sites 3680360 2 sites 4103 3-sites 4201 3 sites

Draft Environmental Impact Statement – Biscuit Fire Recovery Project G-1 APPENDIX H

RECREATION

Applicable Wild and Scenic River Management Plan Standards and Guidelines Recreation Opportunity Spectrum Information

Appendix H - Recreation

Applicable Wild and Scenic River Management Plan Standards and Guidelines

These are the applicable Standards and Guidelines for the Biscuit Fire Recovery Proposed Action and Its Alternatives. They are listed under each River Management Plan. There are no Standards and Guidelines listed for the North Fork Smith Wild and Scenic River because no activities are proposed within the Wild and Scenic River corridor. All of the Standards and Guidelines are described in the River Management Plan for each River that are available at the Rogue River/Siskiyou National Forests Supervisors Office in Medford, Oregon.

Illinois Wild and Scenic River Management Plan

“Scenic Area”

Vegetation and Timber: Timber may be cut within the “Scenic River Area” boundary, providing the visual quality standard of “Retention” is met. Timber on National Forest lands outside the Wild and Scenic River boundary but visible from the river could be harvested, providing the visual quality standard allocated for the area through the Forest Planning process is met. Harvesting activity which would reduce water quality will not be permitted. Threatened or endangered plant species will be protected in implementing this plan which includes activities listed under this heading and those described under the heading Recreational Development Plan. No timber harvesting within 300 yards of the river.

Water: If conflict between water quality and resource uses and activities occur, water quality would take precedence. Modification of the streambed would not be allowed except for resource protection or fishery enhancement projects which do not substantially affect the natural river qualities.

Fish and Wildlife: Under the Forest Snag P0licy the presence or snags will be assured. The visual constraint of “Retention” will insure a continuing percentage of old-growth. Priority will be given to management which protects existing fish and wildlife values. Habitat management measures which meet the visual objective of ‘Retention” would be encouraged. Hunting will be permitted under appropriate State regulations.

“Wild River Area”

Vegetation and Timber: Timber harvest would not be allowed within the “Wild River Area” boundary. Timber outside the boundary but within view of the river could be managed and harvested when visual quality standards allocated for the area through a Forest Planning process are met. A natural botanical progression would be favored within the boundary. Threatened and endangered plant species will be surveyed and

H-1 Appendix H - Recreation

protected in implementing this plan, which includes activities listed under this heading and those described under the heading Recreational Development Plan. Harvesting activity which would reduce water quality will not be permitted.

Water: Modification of the streambed or bank would be prohibited.

Fish and Wildlife: Priority would be given to management which protects the anadromous fish values. Old-growth timber and snags would not be cut; thereby benefiting cavity nesters. Hunting will be permitted under appropriate State regulations.

Chetco Wild and Scenic River Management Plan

Standards and Guidelines for Scenic/Recreational River (MA-10):

Timber MA10-1C: In addition to exisiting MA10-1 S&G’s, the following standards and guidelines apply:

Timber may be cut within the Scenic/Recreation river corridor. All timber harvest shall be designed to meet Retention visual quality objectives (VQO). Timber on National Forest lands outside the Scenic/Recreation boundary may be harvested subject to existing land allocation restrictions and VQO’s. All timber harvest proposals will be designed to protect the Outstandingly Remarkable Values (ORV) and other river resource values.

Harvest units shall be designed to minimize blowdown. Unit design shall consider: direction of prevailing storm winds, windfirm boundaries, cutting into the wind, leaving feathered edges, etc. Unit size and intensity of harvest removal should be reduc ed when windthrow is a concern.

All methods of slash disposal should be considered, including chip/disperse, hand- pile/burn, spot burning or light broadcast burning.

Silvicutural activities, hazard tree removal, timber salvage and firewood cutting may be allowed if analyysis shows these projects will protect the ORV’s and other significant river values. Salvage of dead trees should be limited to those trees which are considered to be in excess of wildlife habitat needs or in excess of large woody material needs. Trees in established recreation sites which pose a threat to human safety may be removed.

Visual Resource MA10-6C: All management activities within the Scenic/Recreation river corridor shall meet Retention VQO’s (AG. Handbook#462), except in developed and dispersed recreation sites where management objectives and facilities focus on management of people.

*Scenic Segment: Management activities occurring in land areas directly adjacent to the river corridor shall follow visual quality objectives for those areas.

H-2 Appendix H - Recreation

*Recreational segment: Measures to prevent severe mo vement of the Chetco Slump, located on Forest Road #1376 at milepoint 7.6 in the Recreational segment , may be exempted from meeting full Retention guidelines. Any proposals for work on the slump shall be analyzed for the effects on the view from the river and shall be implemented with sensitivity to visual quality objectives (see also MA10-3c).

Wildlife and Sensitive Plants MA10-8C: Management direction is to protect wildlife and sensitive plant habitats. Wildlife and sensitive plant habitat improvement work may be done, provided that activities and structures are analyzed as to their effects on the free- flowing character of the river and on other river values.

Designated Wildlife Habitat Areas (MA-8) within the corridor shall be managed under MA-8 standards and guidelines.

Meadows within the Scenic/Recreational corridor shall be considered as MA-9 Special Wildlife Sites and shall be managed under MA(-7 guidelines.

Future proposed projects within the river corridor will require Biological Evaluations of the site specific project area to assess potential impacts to Threatened, Endangered, or Sensitive plant and animal species by the project action. Management activities will be designed to protect these resource values.

Fish MA10-C: Management direction is to protect and enhance fish habitat. All management activities within the Wild and Scenic River corridor shall be analyzed for effects to fish and fish habitat. Final alternatives shall not violate Forest-wide S&G 4-12, for fish habitat protection (p. IV-32 & 33).

Riparian management area (MA-11) and Supplemental Resource management area (MA- 7) S&G’s give special consideration to the protection and enhancement of salmonid fish spawning, rearing, and migration habitat. This applies to all Class I, II, and III tributaries as well as the mainstem of the Chetco Wild and Scenic River. All proposed projects will be designed to meet these S&G’s for fish and fish habitat protection. Specific projects for fish habitat enhancement may be added to the Management Actions and Schedule of Planned Activities in this plan at any time.

Fish habitat improvement work may be done, provided that activities and srtructures are analyzed as to the effects on the free-flowing character of the river and on other river values, and that these values will be protected.

*Recreational segment: Most rees that fall in the river will be left. Consideration for removal will be based on a balance between fish habitat needs and public safety needs.

*Scenic segment: All trees that fall in the river will be left as large woody material for fish habitat.

H-3 Appendix H - Recreation

Soil and Water MA10-11C: Management direction is to protect and enhance water quality. Water quality enhancement projects may be done, provided activities and structures do not affect the free-flowing character of the river, and that river resource values are protected.

All management activities within the Scenic and Recreational river corridors must be analyzed for effects to soil and water. Final alternatives shall not violate Forest-wide S&G’s (p. IV-44) for soil and water protection. Forest-wide S7G 7-14 (p. IV-47) describes the process for complying with State requirements in accordance with the Clean Water Act for protection of the waters of the State of Oregon.

Water removal for incidental engineering, permanent fire management access sites, recreational, administrative, or other uses may be allowed after environmental analysis determines there will be no significant environmental impacts to any river-related value.

Port Orford-cedar and Pacific Yew MA10-15C: All proposed projects will be analyzed as to their potential effects on Port Orford-cedar (POC) and Pacific yew, and potential effects will be mitigated to protect these species. All projects will follow the latest management direction as outlined in the Inter-regional POC Management Plan and Draft Pacific Yew Management Strategy.

H-4 Appendix H - Recreation

RECREATION OPPORTUNITY SPECTRUM (ROS)

The following reflects information contained in FSM 2330.3; the Recreation Opportunity Spectrum Color Poster (R6-REC-118-94); and ROS Primer and Field Guide (R6-REC-021-90).

Note: * Native refers to materials found naturally in nature. It needn’t come from or near the project site. ** Synthetic materials should not be used in primitive settings. Where possible, they should be avoided in semi-primitive settings, but if used, they should not be evident to the user. In roaded natural settings, native materials are usually used, and synthetics, if used, should not be evident to the user.

Legend • “Normal” describes “normal” conditions found in the ROS Setting • “Fully compatible” describes conditions that meet or exceed the norm for the ROS setting • “Inconsistent” describes conditions not generally compatible with the normal setting conditions, but which may be necessary under some circumstances to meet management objectives. The more removed from the “norm” shown in the above matrix, the more questionable the condition would be. For example, a pit toilet acceptable in a Semi-primitive Non Motorized setting would be very questionable in a rural or urban setting. Use of metal or plastic siding or roofing that appears obviously synthetic to a visitor would be inconsistent in a roaded natural setting. • “Unacceptable” describes conditions that, under any circumstance, do not permit the creation or maintenance of an ROS Setting, and which will cause a change in that setting towards one that is more developed. For example, moderate or heavy site modification and development of facilities for user comfort would change a primitive ROS setting into one that is more developed.

H-5 Appendix H - Recreation

Figure of a matrix of the relationship of ROS Settings to On-Site Development.

In the Primitive ROS the following is “Normal”, and is “Fully Compatible” with Semi- primitive Non Motorized and Semi-primitive Motorized ROS: No facilities for user comfort; rustic and rudimentary ones site protection only. Synthetic materials excluded. Use undimensioned native materials only. No site modifications for facilities. A higher degree of development is either “Inconsistent” or “Unacceptable” in the Primitive ROS.

In the Semi-primitive Non Motorized and Semi-primitive Motorized ROS the following is “normal” and is “Fully Compatible” with Roaded Natural ROS: Rustic and rudimentary facilities primarily for site protection. Use undimensioned native materials. Avoid use of synthetic materials. Little or no site modifications for facilities. Limited and subtle site modification. A higher degree of development is either “Inconsistent” or “Unacceptable” in the Semi-primitive Non Motorized and Semi-primitive Motorized ROS. A lower degree of development is “Inconsistent” with Roaded Natural ROS.

In the Roaded Natural ROS the following is “Normal” and is “Fully Compatible” with Rural ROS: Rustic facilities providing some comfort for the user as well as site protection. Contemporary/rustic design usually based on use of native materials. Synthetic materials should not be evident. Moderate site modifications. A higher degree of development is either “Inconsistent” or “Unacceptable” for Roaded Natural ROS. A lower degree of development is “Inconsistent” with Rural ROS.

In the Rural ROS the following is “Normal” and is “Fully Compatible” with Urban ROS: Some facilities designed primarily user comfort and convenience. Some synthetic but harmonious materials may be incorporated. Design may be more complex and refined. Moderate to heavy site modifications for facilities. A higher degree of development is “Inconsistent” for Rural ROS. A lower degree of development is “Inconsistent” with Urban ROS.

For Urban ROS the following is “Normal”: Facilities mostly designed for user comfort and convenience. Synthetic materials are commonly used. Facility design may be highly complex and refined but in harmony or complementary to site. Heavy site modifications for facilities.

H-6 Appendix H - Recreation

The following example describes typical ROS settings as described in the “1986 ROS Book.” Acreages and distances described may vary somewhat between regions.

PRIMITIVE Generally, it is on a setting of at least 5,000 acres and 3 miles away from all roads and trails with motorized use (or has sufficient spatial or topographic characteristics to allow a sense of solitude). Access is via non-motorized trails or cross country. Very low interactions with other visitors. Very high chance of solitude; unmodified natural or natural-appearing environment.

SEMIPRIMITIVE NONMOTORIZED A setting that has an area of primitive roads* or trails that are not open to motorized use; is generally at least 2,500 acres in size; and is between 1/2 and 3 miles from all roads, railroads, or trails with motorized use. Access is via nonmotorized trails or nonmotorized primitive roads or cross-country. Low contact frequency with other visitors. High probability of solitude; natural-appearing environment. Note:* “Primitive roads” are not constructed or maintained and are not generally suitable for highway type vehicles.

SEMIPRIMITIVE MOTORIZED A setting that has an area that allows motorized use, is generally at least 2,500 acres in size, and is at least 1/2 mile from a better than primitive road.** It is within 1/2 mile of primitive roads or trails used by motor vehicles. Access is via motorized trails or primitive roads or crosscountry, where terrain and regulations permit. Low to moderate contact frequency with other visitors. Environment may have moderately dominant alterations, but these do not dominate views from trails or primitive roads in the area. Note: ** “Better than primitive roads” are constructed or maintained for the use of highway type vehicles.

ROADED NATURAL A setting in an area that is within 1/2 mile of a better than primitive road. Access is primarily via conventional motorized use on roads.

H-7 Appendix H - Recreation

Contact frequency with other users may be low to moderate on trails and moderate to high on roads. Environment is natural appearing as viewed from visually sensitive roads and trails.

RURAL Predominantly a culturally modified setting where the natural environment has been substantially modified, i.e., structures are readily apparent, pastoral or agricultural or intensively managed wildland landscapes predominate as viewed from visually sensitive roads and trails. Access is primarily via conventional motorized use on roads. Contact frequency with other users may be moderate to high in developed sites and moderate away from developed sites.

URBAN Urbanized environment with dominant structures, traffic lights, and paved streets. Access is highly intense, motorized, and often with mass transit supplements. Contact frequency and interaction with large numbers of people is high. Recreation places may be city parks and large resorts.

Buildings No materials are specified for Primitive, Semi-primitive Non-motorized, and Semi-primitive Motorized ROS.

For the Exterior, native materials are consistent with the Roaded Natural ROS and a mix of native and synthetic materials is consistent with the Rural and Urban ROS:

For Exterior Colors, earth tones are consistent with both Roaded Natural and Rural ROS and colors that compliment the built environment are consistent with the Rural and Urban ROS.

For Exterior Coatings, stains and some paints are consistent with the Roaded Natural and Rural ROS and stains or paints are consistent with the Rural and Urban ROS.

For Exterior Finishing, Roughsawn/ rustic/ nonglare finishes are consistent with the Roaded Natural ROS, and smoothly finished exteriors are consistent with the Roaded Natural, Rural, and Urban ROS.

For the Site Setting, natural surroundings dominate in the Roaded Natural ROS, the natural/ built environment co-dominate in the Rural ROS, and the built environment dominates in both the Rural and Urban ROS.

H-8 Appendix H - Recreation

Roads (See FSM 7709.58 for Maintenance Level Definitions) No road maintenance levels are defined for Primitive and Semi-primitive Non motorized ROS.

Primitive (User defined)* roads are consistent with Semi-primitive Motorized and Roaded Natural ROS.

Note: * Private roads are not necessarily closed to vehicles, so not Level 1. The above does not preclude use of designed drainage and other features to minimize road-caused resource impacts.

Level 2 (High clearance) roads are consistent with the Roaded Natural ROS.

Level 3 roads (Passenger car, single lane with turnouts) are consistent with the Roaded Natural and Rural ROS.

Level 4 roads (Passenger car mostly double lane with aggregate surfacing) are consistent with the Roaded Natural, Rural, and Urban ROS.

Level 5 roads (Passenger car mostly double lane with paved surface) are consistent with the Rural, and Urban ROS and less with Roaded Natural ROS.

Site Circulation and Traffic Control For Trails, use of native material trails is consistent with the Primitive, Semi-primitive Non motorized, Semi-primitive Motorized, and Roaded Natural ROS, use of Gravel materials is consistent with the Roaded Natural and Rural ROS and use of Asphalt/concrete materials is consistent with Rural and Urban ROS.

For Primary Access Routes to Recreation Facilities, no materials are specified for Primitive ROS. Use of 3’ wide and native material is consistent with the Semi-primitive Non motorized, Semi-primitive Motorized, and Roaded Natural ROS.

Use of 3’-wide aggregate is consistent with the Roaded Natural ROS.

Use of 4’- to 6’-wide aggregate is consistent with the Roaded Natural, Rural, and Urban ROS.

Use of 4’- to 6’-wide asphalt and wood boardwalk is consistent with the Rural, and Urban and less with the Roaded Natural ROS.

Use of 4’- to 6’-wide concrete/ pavers and synthetic boardwalk is consistent with the Rural and Urban ROS.

H-9 Appendix H - Recreation

Use of 6’- to 8’-wide surfaced trail or any type boardwalk is consistent with the Rural and Urban ROS.

Fencing: Use of barbed wire with wood posts and woodfence (jackleg, worm, pole)is consistent with all classes of ROS except Urban.

Use of barbed wire fence with steel posts is consistent with the all ROS classes except Primitive and Urban.

Use of electric (portable) fence is consistent with the all ROS classes except Rural and Urban.

Use of wood (dimensional lumber)fence or metal, chainlink, plastic fence is consistent with the Rural and Urban ROS.

Note: Although steel fencing materials are synthetic, they may offer less visually impacting solutions that better maintain an ROS setting, especially when not in the immediate foreground.

Barriers/Walls: Use of downed logs, plants, or rocks in combinations is consistent with all ROS classes except Urban.

Use of dry rock walls or earth berms is consistent with all classes of ROS except Primitive.

Use of constructed log cribbing or walls is consistent with the following ROS classes all classes of ROS except Primitive and Urban.

Use of mortared rock walls is consistent with the Roaded Natural, Rural, and Urban ROS.

Use of timber or concrete walls is consistent with the Rural, and Urban ROS and less with Roaded Natural ROS.

Use of all-log or dimensional wood wheelstops/barriers or combination concrete/wood wheelstops is consistent with the Roaded Natural and Rural ROS.

Use of concrete wheelstops and recycled plastic wheelstops is consistent with the Rural and Urban ROS.

H-10 Appendix H - Recreation

Water, Sanitation, and Electrical Facilities. No drinking water or showers, laundry and facilities are specified for Primitive, Semi-primitive Non motorized, Semi- primitive Motorized ROS.

Drinking Water in the form of: A handpump is consistent with the Roaded Natural ROS, and a wood-covered hydrant is consistent with the Roaded Natural, Rural, and Urban ROS. A wood drinking fountain is consistent with the Rural and Urban ROS and is less consistent with the Roaded Natural ROS. A Prefab. concrete/metal fountain is consistent with the Rural and Urban ROS.

For Showers, Laundry, and Utilities Showers/laundry, Electrical/sewer hookups, RV Dumps and Telephones are consistent with the Rural and Urban ROS.

RV Dumps and Telephones are less consistent with the Roaded Natural ROS.

For Garbage Collection: Pack it in, pack it out is consistent with Primitive, Semi-primitive Non motorized, Semi-primitive Motorized, and is less consistent with Roaded Natural ROS.

Garbage cans are consistent with the Roaded Natural, Rural, and Urban ROS.

Dumpsters are consistent with Rural, and Urban ROS and are less consistent with Roaded Natural.

For Toilets: Pit toilets are consistent with the Primitive, Semi-primitive Non motorized, and Semi-primitive Motorized ROS.

A Wood-frame SST without a screen is consistent with the Semi-primitive Motorized and Roaded Natural ROS.

A Wood-frame SST with a screen is consistent with the Roaded Natural and Rural ROS.

A Precast concrete SST is consistent with the Rural ROS and is less consistent with the Roaded Natural ROS.

Flush toilets of all kinds are consistent with the Rural and Urban ROS.

Signs at Recreation Sites and Trails (Adapted from EM-7100-15 Sign and Poster Guidelines for the Forest Service)

H-11 Appendix H - Recreation

For Sign Panel Materials: Solid wood or the appearance of solid wood is consistent with all settings in the ROS.

Plywood is consistent with the Semi-primitive Motorized, Roaded Natural, Rural, and Urban ROS.

Metal, fiberglass, and synthetics are consistent with the Semi-primitive Motorized, Rural, and Urban ROS and are less consistent with the Roaded Natural ROS.

Note: Limited use of synthetics in SPM/RN.

In Sign Panel Colors and Finishes: Natural is consistent with the Primitive, Semi-primitive Non motorized, and Semi- primitive Motorized ROS.

Preservative if used is not evident with the Primitive and Semi-primitive Non motorized ROS.

A stained sign is consistent with all with all settings in the ROS.

Painted and reflectorized signs are consistent with the Semi-primitive Motorized, Roaded Natural, Rural, and Urban ROS.

Etched or decals are consistent with the Rural and Urban ROS.

Sign Support Material A tree is consistent with the Primitive, Semiprimitive Non motorized, and Semiprimitive Motorized ROS.

A rustic wood post with no evidence of preservative is consistent with the Primitive and Semi-primitive Non motorized ROS.

A wood post is consistent with the Semi-primitive Motorized, Roaded Natural, Rural, and Urban ROS.

Metal or synthetic post is consistent with Rural, and Urban ROS and is less consistent with the Roaded Natural ROS.

Sign Support Color/Finish- A natural or naturally appearing support is consistent with the Primitive, Semi- primitive Non motorized, and Semi-primitive Motorized ROS.

No evidence of preservative is consistent with the Primitive and Semi-primitive Non motorized ROS.

H-12 Appendix H - Recreation

A stained support is consistent with all of the ROS settings.

A painted support is consistent with the Semi-primitive Motorized, Roaded Natural, Rural, and Urban ROS.

An anodized support is consistent with the Rural and Urban ROS.

Interpretive Facilities Having no interpretive facilities is consistent with the Primitive and Semi-primitive Non motorized ROS.

Simple signs of native material is consistent with the Semi-primitive Motorized ROS.

Simple signs or wayside exhibits of native or natural appearing material with some refinement of design is consistent with the Roaded Natural and Rural ROS.

More complex wayside exhibits is consistent with the Rural, and Urban ROS and is less consistent with the Roaded Natural ROS.

Major interpretive sites that is typically staffed is consistent with the Rural and Urban ROS.

Nonvehicular Bridges Logs are consistent with the Primitive, Semiprimitive Nonmotorized, and Semiprimitive Motorized ROS.

Logs with dimensional wood is consistent with the all of the ROS classes except Urban ROS.

Dimensional wood is consistent with the Roaded Natural, Rural, and Urban ROS.

Concrete, Steel, and Synthetic is consistent with the Rural and Urban ROS.

Wood preservative, that is not evident when used, is consistent with Primitive and Semiprimitive Nonmotorized ROS.

* Use of dimensional lumber for decking of bridges in Primitive and Semi Primitive settings is often necessary, although such materials in those ROS settings should not otherwise be used.

H-13 APPENDIX I

Socio/Economics

ECONOMIC ANALYSIS

Appendix I – Socio/Economics

Biscuit Fire Salvage Impacts Analysis

Prepared by

Jeffrey P. Prestemon, David N. Wear, Thomas P. Holmes, and Richard Phillips

September 29, 2003

Executive Summary

The Biscuit Fire of 2002 in southern Oregon burned mainly on National Forest land. Some of 400,000 acre burn area was in official Wilderness. Part of the remaining National Forest and Bureau of Land Management land is available for timber salvage. We evaluated salvage amounts up to 1,500 MMBF and calculated effects of that salvage on timber prices, salvage revenues, and the welfare of timber producers and consumers in the surrounding thirteen counties. We developed a two-subregion spatial equilibrium model of the timber market close to the burn area (the Fire Zone subregion, consisting of five Oregon counties) and six counties in northern California and Oregon outside of those. The model showed that the fire itself resulted in timber market welfare (economic surplus) losses of $52.1 million (2002 constant dollars), including $51.5 million of timber lost. Consumer losses are approximately equaled by undamaged timber producer gains created by net higher prices in the region due to the lost inventory. Salvaging 300 MMBF of timber would change the loss to a net gain for the region by approximately $18.4 million and would result in negative impacts on owners of undamaged producers in the region. Salvage of 1,500 MMBF of timber would create new timber market net benefits of $301 million for the thirteen-county region, an amount six times the net timber market losses created by the fire itself and also would more than compensate for the government suppression expenditures for the Biscuit Fire, which totaled about $150 million. Salvaging would reduce regional stumpage prices relative to a no-salvage base, however. Close to the burn area, in five nearby Oregon counties, timber (stumpage) prices in 2004 would fall by 8.5 percent for a 300 MMBF program of salvage, 21.5 percent for a 900 MMBF program, and 28.7 percent for a 1,500 MMBF program. Percentage price reductions for timber would be about one-fourth lower in the second year of a two-year salvage program. Price reductions would be smaller in other Oregon and California counties.

I-1 Appendix I – Socio/Economics

Biscuit Fire Salvage Impacts Analysis

Prepared by

Jeffrey P. Prestemon, David N. Wear, Thomas P. Holmes, and Richard Phillips

September 29, 2003

Context

Between July 13 and November 9, 2002, the Siskiyou National Forest, some Bureau of Land Management land in southwestern Oregon, the Six Rivers National Forest in northern California, and some private land experienced the largest wildfire in recent memory, the Biscuit Fire. The fire perimeter of the Biscuit spanned 499,965 acres, mainly on the National Forests. In all, 471,130 acres of the perimeter lay in Oregon and 28,835 acres lay in California (Figure 1). Burn intensities varied greatly across the fire, with generally low intensity within the Kalmiopsis Wilderness Area and higher intensities in other zones. Suppression expenditures for the fire exceeded $150 million (USDA Forest Service 2003).

Four main categories of National Forest lands were burned. These were: Congressionally Reserved (CR, 152,900 acres burned), Administratively Withdrawn (AW, 64,100 acres), Late Successional Reserves (LSR, 133,700 acres), and Matrix (33,000 acres). The CR land includes the entire Kalmiopsis Wilderness Area, which was completely burned over (Figure 1). By virtue of legislation and administrative rule, the CR and AW lands are off limits for salvage harvesting and do not contain inventory available to the timber market.

Jeff Prestemon was contacted on August 14, 2003, by Rich Fairbanks of the Forest Service’s interdisciplinary team evaluating alternatives for, among other things, timber salvage rates for the Biscuit Fire. Mr. Fairbanks was asked to address two new alternatives based in part on a report by Sessions et al. (2003). This report recommended consideration of larger salvage efforts than evaluated with the initial set of alternatives developed by the team. Mr. Fairbanks asked, “What would be the price impacts of these large rates of salvage?” Prestemon offered to conduct an abbreviated analysis of the salvage, including quantifying the price effects of alternative rates of salvage. The market analysis reported here also includes input from Richard Phillips, received on September 9, 2003.

Below, we report some preliminary estimates of these impacts, along with estimates of the timber market effects of the fires themselves. The report contains figures and tables that show projections of what the impacts of the fires would be without any salvage, varying some critical assumptions regarding market response sensitivities and the discount rate. It also presents the net impacts by affected group (owners of damaged timber, owners of undamaged timber, and consumers), under a no-salvage alternative and then under alternative rates of salvage, up to 1,500 MMBF, carried out over two years

I-2 Appendix I – Socio/Economics

(2004, 2005). Modeling techniques and some underlying assumptions are based on research conducted by the authors, including Holmes (1991), Prestemon and Holmes (2000), Butry et al. (2001), and Prestemon et al. (2003).

Assumptions

Critical inputs to the analysis include: the pre-fire regional inventory volume and the amount of timber inventory volume killed by the fires (mentioned above), the current price of softwood (green) stumpage, the rate of degrade for fire-killed timber over time, the size of market within which salvage volumes would flow, discount rates, market price sensitivities (measured as the price elasticities of supply and demand), and the starting date of the salvage.

Timber Volumes. We take as given by Sessions et al. (2003) that 40 percent of timber in the burned area was killed. Within the LSR and Matrix lands, this amounted to 1,951 MMBF killed (Sessions et al. 2003, p. 22), 83 percent of which was softwood. Therefore, the total volume of softwood killed is assumed to be 0.83 x 1,951 = 1,619 MMBF.

Market Structure. We have identified two markets. One is termed the “fire zone,” a small area within which much of the salvage volume would be consumed. This zone consists of five southwest Oregon counties (Coos, Curry, Douglas, Jackson, and Josephine). In 2003, the timber harvest level in these counties was estimated by the Forest Service to be about 1,441 MMBF in the sawtimber-consuming sector of the fire zone counties. In a larger region in a ring around the fire zone, we have considered six additional counties to be available to absorb additional volume. These counties include, in California, Del Norte, Humboldt, Lassen, Modoc, Shasta, Siskiyou, and Trinity. Only one additional Oregon county was included, Lane. Outside the fire zone, these 6 counties were found through mill studies to have produced approximately 1,825 MMBF of timber in 2003, the base level used in our analysis.

Salvage is assumed to be consumed within the fire zone, up until the price of the salvage is low enough that material can be utilized outside the zone. Inside the zone, maximum capacity of sawmills is assumed to be 50 percent above current production. In other words, mills are assumed to be able to increase from a current average rate of 1.33 shifts per day to 2.0 shifts per day. Hence, based on projections of mill capacity, these are set at 2,958 MMBF in 2003 and 3,122 in 2004 in the fire zone counties. (Outside the fire zone, capacity constraints are never reached, since so little salvage exits the fire zone and since timber price reductions are modest, in aggregate, so they are ignored in this analysis.) It is possible for some capacity to go unused even while some material exits the fire zone, due to the spatial arbitrage occurring through transport. The two sets of counties therefore have separate and differential impacts from the salvage activity. When timber is moved outside of the five fire zone counties, an additional $60/MBF is deducted from the defect- adjusted salvage stumpage value, to cover an average of 60 miles additional transport distance to a non-fire zone mill (i.e., per unit transport costs were set at $1/MBF/mile).

I-3 Appendix I – Socio/Economics

Standing Inventory. In the non-reserved timberland portion of the 13 counties included in our southern Oregon-northern California timber market, current softwood inventory amounts to about 347 BBF (FIA 2003b); within the five-county fire zone, the non- reserved inventory is about 147 BBF. Hence, the fire killed an amount of timber outside of CR and AW lands equal to approximately 0.5% of the 13-county region’s non- reserved inventory. We do not include in our analysis inventory that was damaged and may eventually die, although that could be evaluated in further analyses. Further, we exclude from consideration the effects of salvage on eventual regrowth of the burned area.1 We also exclude salvage harvesting on private lands from this study; our analysis focuses on the timber contained in federal land burned (both Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management-managed, although by convenience we refer to this in the text as national forest). Finally, hardwoods are not addressed by this analysis.

Inventory re-growth rates were obtained from Tables 30 and 34 in the Draft 2002 Forest Statistics of the United States, available on the internet (FIA 2003a), dividing the Pacific Northwest softwood inventory net growth volume by the same region’s softwood inventory volume, or 2.1 percent.

Prices. Timber prices for softwood stumpage were taken as the approximate average sale price for stumpage in majority Douglas-fir sales made on National Forests in southwest Oregon in 2002, or about $333/MBF (USDA Forest Service 2003b).

Supply and Demand Elasticities and Discount Rate. Data on the timber market supply elasticity with respect to price (the supply elasticity is the percentage change in the quantity supplied to the market, given a one percent increase in price) were obtained from Adams and Haynes (1996, p. 23), the average of industry- and private nonindustrially- owned softwood timber, a value of 0.43. The elasticity of supply with respect to inventory volume (the percentage change in quantity supplied, given a one percent increase in standing timber inventory volume) was set at 1.0, consistent with Adams and Haynes (1996) and with theory. The elasticity of demand with respect to price (the percentage change in the quantity of timber demanded by mills, given a one percent increase in price) was held at -0.5 (Abt and Ahn 2003). Along with a discount rate of 4 percent, these values comprised our base case. A sensitivity analysis on these elasticities and the discount rate lowered the supply elasticity with respect to price by half (to 0.215) and also doubled it (to 0.86); the same was done for the demand elasticity with respect to price (-0.25, -1). The effect of the discount rate on all economic measures and prices was also varied in a sensitivity analysis, using 2 percent and 7 percent. The 7 percent figure is consistent with policy analysis procedures of the Office of Management and Budget, and 2 percent was used to further evaluate the effect of the discount rate on discounted values.

Degrade Factors. Salvage volume deterioration rates were weighted averages of rates experienced each year by species. The rates of deterioration for one year after the fire (2003), two (2004), and three (2005) were obtained from Lowell and Cahill (1996). The

1 Sessions et al. (2003, p.25-34) describe how salvage permits easier entry for regeneration, competition control, and hence inventory recovery.

I-4 Appendix I – Socio/Economics

rates of deterioration for years 4 (2006) and 5 (2007) were based on analyses conducted for fire salvage following the Bitterroot fires of 2000, which show that the available volume from fire-killed timber of similar species will be about zero by year 5 (Figure 2). The weighted average deterioration rates were calculated from the tables and equations of Lowell and Cahill (1996) and from the volume proportions of fire-killed species reported in Sessions et al. (2003, p. 18): 61% Douglas-fir, 15% Ponderosa and Sugar Pine, 7% true fir (mainly, Abies grandis and Abies concolor), and 17% hardwood. The weighted average net volume discount factors were therefore 0.99 after 1 year, 0.89 after two years, 0.58 after three years, 0.22 after four years, and zero after five years (and later).

Salvage logs are assumed to be consumed entirely by sawmills. Some residues from production of dimension products from these mills naturally can be diverted to other processors. The additional defect associated with salvage implies that each cubic foot of salvage sawlog produces both less lumber and less marketable residue than the typical green log of the same dimensions, however. In this analysis, we ignore the impacts of salvage logging on the residue-using sector. However, as proven by Thurman and Easley (1992), the economic effects on the residue-using sector should be fully accounted for by examining the primary using sector of sawlogs.

Harvest Timing. The start year for salvage is assumed to be 2004. Salvage is assumed to occur in equal amounts in 2004 and 2005. For example, if a salvage volume were 400 MMBF, then 200 MMBF are assumed to happen in 2004 and 200 MMBF in 2005.

Methods

Our analysis evaluates the timber market effects—including price changes—attributable to various levels of timber salvage harvesting. We report only on the overall timber market economic impacts of the fire. The value of the salvage removed is strictly in terms of the net volume of the salvage removed times the market-clearing price of the timber, appropriately adjusted for the fire-related defect shown in Figure 2. The value of the timber lost from the fire and the effects of the fire on consumers and owners of undamaged timber are reported in economic surplus: consumer surplus and producer surplus. Consumer surplus is defined as the quantity times what consumers would be willing to pay for the timber, minus what they actually paid for the quantity. This can be visualized graphically in a supply-demand graph as the area above the market-clearing price (where supply intersects demand) and below the demand curve. The producer surplus is defined as the net revenues generated from timber production—in effect, the price received minus the cost of producing it. This is visualized graphically as the area above the supply curve and below the market-clearing price line. This way of describing the market reflects long-standing approaches in economics. Methods applied are described in Just et al. (1982) and validated by, for example, Thurman and Easley (1992) for one resource-based market.

I-5 Appendix I – Socio/Economics

Timber-related economic impacts are calculated only for those lands where timber harvests are a viable management option according to current policy. Timber in wilderness and other withdrawn lands is by definition permanently unavailable for harvesting, so loss of this inventory can have no market impacts.

For non-salvage years (i.e., 2003, 2006, and later), market equilibrium prices and quantities in the Fire Zone and Outside the Fire Zone subregions are determined separately. For 2004 and 2005, salvage volumes, prices, and green volumes in each subregion are determined jointly, according to methods outlined by Takayama and Judge (1964). The joint determination is by maximization of the two-subregion total of net quasi-welfare. That is, the combination of salvage volume in each market, green production in each subregion, and market-clearing prices in each market are determined by maximizing the two regions’ sum of producer and consumer surplus minus the additional transport cost associated with moving some of salvage from the subregion in the fire zone to the subregion outside the fire zone. Hence, the price differential between the two subregions never differs by more than the cost of transport between the two regions. Net welfare impacts from salvage reported in the tables of this paper account for the transport costs and are reported as sums across the two subregions.

Results

Timber Market Costs of the Fire Itself

Our analysis showed that the value of the timber lost for damaged producers (the National Forests and Bureau of Land Management lands) on LSR and Matrix lands was $51.5 million, in terms of producer surplus, at base case demand and supply sensitivities to price and the base case 4 percent discount rate (Table 1). The effect of the fire on consumers (mills) is to reduce long-run consumer surplus by $79.7 million, due to the lower production deriving from the burned area over the ensuing decades. For owners of undamaged timber, however, slightly higher market prices due to the inventory reduction in the 13-county market area lead to a net benefit from the fire, amounting to about $79.2 million, as well. When these three values are added together, the total market impact of the fires is to create losses totaling $52.1 million, at base case elasticities and the 4 percent discount rate. This total ranged from a $32.6 million loss under a high supply elasticity, to a $66.1 million loss when a low discount rate (2 percent) was assumed, at base case values for other parameters.

Prices

Introducing salvage into the market reduces market prices for the salvage and for green timber sales in surrounding areas. Our analysis shows that the price effects of timber salvage increase regularly with the amount of salvage from a small price increase when no timber is salvaged (about 1 percent in both 2004 and 2005 only in the fire zone), to decreases of 28.7 percent in 2004 and 22.3 percent in 2005 in the fire zone for a salvage

I-6 Appendix I – Socio/Economics volume of 1,500 MMBF (Figure 3). Outside the fire zone, the stumpage price reductions are 10.7 and 4.3 percent for 2004 and 2005, respectively for a salvage volume of 1,500 MMBF. Outside the fire zone, detectable price effects are not felt until salvage volumes reach or exceed 700 MMBF. The effect in 2004 would be larger than the effect in 2005, other variables held constant, due to the decay and greater quality discount applied to salvage timber as time goes on (Figure 2).

Our analysis defines a set of average price effects for these markets. Observed price effects are likely to vary within the year and across space within the two zones considered. For example, nearer the actual burn area in the fire zone counties, more salvage volume will arrive at mill gates, depressing local prices there by more than the rate shown in Figure 3 for that zone. Likewise, far from the salvage zone, in the counties in the outer reaches of the additional non-fire zone counties identified in this analysis, the price effects of salvage would be smaller than shown in Figure 3.

Salvage Revenues, and Consumers and Undamaged Producer Effects

Salvage revenues range from about $24 million for 100 MMBF of salvage up to $265 million for 1,500 MMBF of salvage (Figure 4). Consumers are generally positively affected by the salvage because they buy more timber (salvage as well as non-salvage) at lower prices during the two years of salvage activity. At a salvage volume of just over 300 MMBF, consumer benefits from salvaging approximately equal the consumer losses created by the loss of timber in the burn area (Figure 5). At greater salvage amounts, consumers would be better off in the long run than they would have been had no fire and salvage occurred.

Owners (producers) of undamaged timber are negatively affected by salvage, as shown in Figure 6, but this is net of the windfall benefits they enjoy as a result of the elimination of inventory from the regional market (the $79.2 million benefit, mentioned above). At low salvage levels, these producers still benefit in net from the fire; when salvage exceeds about 330 MMBF, however, the windfall benefits are matched and then exceeded by new losses. These owners would be worse off with salvage because they would harvest less timber during the period of salvage and because they would receive a lower price for what they would harvest. Compared to no salvage, producers would lose $24.4 million for 100 MMBF of salvage, and $308.4 million if 1,500 MMBF were salvaged over the two years from the Biscuit Fire burn area. National Forest managers considering salvaging a large quantity of burned timber should be cognizant of this negative impact on persons not directly affected by the Biscuit fire. The larger the salvage program, the larger the negative impact on these producers.

These ideas are further illustrated in Figure 7, which shows the production volume the year of the fire and in subsequent years, including salvage years, in the five counties of the fire zone. The figure shows the production volume of owners of undamaged timber as well as the volume of salvage removed, under a 400 MMBF salvage program. Owners of undamaged timber would produce about 6 percent less in 2004 and 4 percent less in 2005, due to the lower prices. The entire five county fire zone market, however, would

I-7 Appendix I – Socio/Economics produce about 7 percent more timber than usual in 2004 and 4 percent more than usual in 2005, adding together the volumes of green and defect-adjusted salvage.

This figure also illustrates why, in terms of total market effect, the greater the salvage entering the market, the larger the total value produced in the market. For example, at 1,500 MMBF of timber salvage, the entire market would be better off by about $300 million, compared to not salvaging at all. Salvage manages to yield so many benefits in the timber market that the combination of the fire and the salvage would have positive net benefits on the market, overall. In fact, salvaging only 300 MMBF would yield timber market benefits that exceed the value of the timber lost to the wildfire by over $18 million. Likewise, salvage of 1,000 MMBF would approximately compensate for the combined timber market surplus losses and the fire suppression expenditures on the Biscuit.

Summary and Implications

This analysis is a first attempt at understanding the economic impacts of the Biscuit Fire on producers and consumers in the region of damage. We have also quantified the effects of alternative amounts of fire salvage coming from the federal lands (Siskiyou National Forest, and perhaps also the Six Rivers National Forest and on Bureau of Land Management Lands) on timber prices and on area mills and owners of undamaged timber. Fire salvage, like other kinds of salvage, has benefits that can mitigate the overall economic impacts arising from a catastrophic event. However, salvaging timber, like the fire itself, induces a rearrangement of economic wealth within the region, as we have shown.

Finally, we caution that our analysis lacked essential elements of a broader tradeoff analysis and understanding of the economic impacts of the Biscuit Fire. These include the values obtained from non-market amenities produced by an undamaged forest, recreation, water quality and quantity, forage for grazing animals, and both game and non-game wildlife. The tradeoffs between salvage returns and these other benefits are the responsibility of the interdisciplinary team examining the overall fire recovery plan.

Literature Cited

Abt, R.C., and S. Ahn. 2003. Timber demand. P. 133-152 in E.O. Sills and K.L. Abt (eds.), Forests in a Market Economy, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordecht, The Netherlands..

Adams, D.M., and R.W. Haynes. 1996. The 1993 Timber Assessment Market Model: structure, projections and policy simulations. USDA Forest Service Pacific Northwest Research Station General Technical Report 368. 191 p.

I-8 Appendix I – Socio/Economics

Butry, D.T., D.E. Mercer, J.P. Prestemon, J.M. Pye, and T.P. Holmes. 2001. What is the price of catastrophic wildfire? Journal of Forestry 99(11):9-17.

FIA. 2003a. Draft_RPA_2002_Forest_Resource_Tables.pdf Created May 3, 2002. Updated Aug.12,2002 to fix typos in tables 19 and 25. Updated May 1, 2003 to fix tables 37 and 38 that were underreporting Tops biomass. Available on the Internet, at (accessed by the authors on August 15, 2003).

FIA. 2003b. RPA Tablemaker/Mapmaker Version 1.0. Available on the Internet, at (accessed by the authors on August 15, 2003).

Holmes, T.P. 1991. Price and welfare effects of catastrophic forest damage from southern pine beetle epidemics. Forest Science 37(2):500-516.

Just, R.E., D.L. Hueth, and A.S. Schmitz. 1982. Applied welfare economics and public policy. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ. 491 p.

Lowell, Eini C., and James M. Cahill. 1996. Deterioration of fire-killed timber in southern Oregon and northern California. Western Journal of Applied Forestry 11(4):125-131.

Oregon Department of Forestry. 2003. Current timber sale results , accessed by the authors on August 15, 2003.

Prestemon, J.P., and T.P. Holmes. 2000. Timber price dynamics following a natural catastrophe. American Journal of Agricultural Economics 82(1):145-160.

Prestemon, J.P, D.N. Wear, F. Stewart, and T.P. Holmes. 2003 (in preparation). Wildfire, timber salvage, and the economics of expediency.

Sessions, J., R. Buckman, M. Newton, and J. Hamann. 2003. The Biscuit fire: management options for forest regeneration, fire and insect risk reduction and timber salvage. Report from the Oregon State University, College of Forestry, Corvallis, Oregon. 63 pages.

Takayama, T., and G.G. Judge. 1964. Equilibrium among spatially separated markets: a reformulation. Econometrica 32(4):510-523.

Thurman, W.N., and J.E. Easley, Jr. 1992. Valuing changes in commercial fishery harvests: a general equilibrium derived demand analysis. Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 22(3):226-240.

I-9 Appendix I – Socio/Economics

USDA Forest Service. 2003a. Biscuit Fire recovery 2003. Available on the internet, at http://www.biscuitfire.com/facts.htm. Accessed by authors August 20, 2003.

USDA Forest Service 2003b. Cut and sold reports, Fiscal year 2003, third quarter. http://www.fs.fed.us/r6/nr/fp/FPWebPage/ForestProducts/ForestProducts.htm. Accessed by authors September 9, 2003.

I-10 Appendix I – Socio/Economics

Table 1. No Salvage Scenario, $ million changes in market welfare by group, alternative discount rates and market elasticities, for Late Successional Reserve and Matrix lands, Biscuit Fire burned area, 2002 dollars. Discounted Consumer Discounted Effects on Total Surplus Change Value of Undamaged Discounted Timber Lost Producers Surplus Base Case Values -79.7 -51.5 79.2 -52.1 Low Discount Rate -101.2 -65.4 100.5 -66.1 High Discount Rate -59.5 -38.5 59.1 -38.8 Low Supply Elasticity -84.8 -49.5 84.2 -50.1 High Supply Elasticity -44.5 -32.3 44.2 -32.6 Low Demand Elasticity -89.3 -42.1 88.7 -42.7 High Demand Elasticity -42.3 -42.1 42.0 -42.3

Note: the Total Discounted Surplus column does always equal the sum across the other three columns, due to rounding error.

I-11 Appendix I – Socio/Economics

Table 2. Changes in welfare effects ($ million) resulting from alternative salvage plans, by producer and consumer group. The no salvage scenario is the point of comparison. Volume Discounted Effects on Value of Total Percent Percent Percent Percent Salvaged, Consumer Undamaged Salvage Discounted Price Price Price Price MMBF, Total Surplus Producers Removed Surplus Change in Change in Change in Change in over 2004 & Change 2004, Fire 2005, Fire 2004, 2005, 2005 Zone Zone Outside Fire Outside Fire Zone Zone 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.2 1.1 0.0 0.0 100 24.7 -24.4 24.0 24.2 -2.2 -1.0 0.0 0.0 200 49.1 -47.8 46.6 47.7 -5.4 -3.1 0.0 0.0 300 73.0 -70.1 67.9 70.5 -8.5 -5.2 0.0 0.0 400 96.5 -91.5 88.0 92.6 -11.4 -7.2 0.0 0.0 500 119.6 -112.0 107.0 114.1 -14.3 -9.2 0.0 0.0 700 165.2 -151.8 142.4 155.1 -18.9 -13.0 -0.9 0.0 900 210.9 -192.0 176.2 194.2 -21.5 -16.6 -3.4 0.0 1100 256.2 -231.6 207.7 231.2 -24.0 -19.0 -5.9 -1.0 1300 301.3 -270.8 237.4 266.6 -26.4 -20.7 -8.4 -2.7 1500 345.6 -308.4 265.2 300.9 -28.7 -22.3 -10.7 -4.3

Note: the Total Discounted Surplus column does always equal the sum across the other three columns, due to rounding error.

I-12 Appendix I – Socio/Economics

Figure 1. Burn area map for the Biscuit Fire, Oregon, July 13-November 9, 2002 (Source: USDA Forest Service [2003a], downloaded from http://www.biscuitfire.com/map_index.htm (accessed by authors August 20, 2003).

I-13 Appendix I – Socio/Economics

1.00

0.80

0.60

0.40 Recoverable

0.20

Proportion of Original Volume of Original Proportion 0.00 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 Year

Figure 2. Proportion of volume recoverable from fire-killed timber, weighted by species groups (Douglas-fir, Ponderosa Pine, Sugar Pine, true firs), 2002-2008.

I-14 Appendix I – Socio/Economics

Salvage Volumes (MMBF) 0 100 200 300 400 500 700 900 1100 1300 1500 5.0 0.0 -5.0

t -10.0 -15.0

Percen -20.0 -25.0 -30.0 -35.0

Percent Price Change in 2004, Fire Zone Percent Price Change in 2005, Fire Zone Percent Price Change in 2004, Outside Fire Zone Percent Price Change in 2005, Outside Fire Zone

Figure 3. Price impacts (percent price changes) in the five-county region of southwest Oregon (Fire Zone) and a six-county region outside of that, from alternative salvage volumes removed from some parts of Late Successional Reserve and Matrix lands in the Biscuit Fire burn area, under base case assumptions of the discount rate and market sensitivities to prices and inventory.

I-15 Appendix I – Socio/Economics

350

300

250

200

150

100 Salvage Revenues (2002 $ million) 50

0 100 200 300 400 500 700 900 1100 1300 1500 Salvage Volume (MMBF)

Figure 4. Salvage revenues generated from the Biscuit Fire, Fire Zone and Outside of Fire Zone 13 counties, under alternative salvage volumes removed.

I-16 Appendix I – Socio/Economics

300

250

200

150

100

50

0 Consumer Surplus (2002 $ million)

-50

-100 0 100 200 300 400 500 700 900 1100 1300 1500 Salvage Volume (MMBF)

Figure 5. Effects of the fire and alternative salvage volumes on the welfare of consumers in the Fire Zone and Outside of Fire Zone 13 counties, in dollars of consumer surplus.

I-17 Appendix I – Socio/Economics

100

50

0

-50

-100

-150

-200 Undamaged Producer Surplus (2002 $ million)

-250 0 100 200 300 400 500 700 900 1100 1300 1500 Salvage Volume (MMBF)

Figure 6. Effects of fire and alternative salvage volumes on the welfare of owners of undamaged timber in the Fire Zone and Outside of Fire Zone 13 counties of inference, in dollars of producer surplus.

I-18 Appendix I – Socio/Economics

2,000 Adjusted Salvage Volume

1,750 Undamaged Timber Supplied

1,500

1,250

er Equivalent (MMBF) 1,000

750

500

250 Production, Green Timb

- 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 Year

Figure 7. Market volume of timber produced, 2002-2008, including 200 MMBF of salvage (adjusted for degrade) occurring in each of 2004 and 2005, in the Fire Zone five counties.

I-19 Biscuit Fire Recovery/Salvage Economic Analysis (See "Treatment List" and "Toolbox Example" worksheets for examples of how to construct alternatives.)

Type of Cost - Year(s) one time, activity Value per Activity annual, periodic occurs Quantity Units Unit Base Year $$ Comments Alternative

Alt 1

Alt 2 FMZ Constuction mile 338 miles total, some already exists. FMZ Maintenance

Fuel treatment (suppression fuels) Fuel treatment (harvest activity fuels)

Seeding forbs&grasses 5,000 acre Planting 25,147 acre

Timber Harvest - Benefits (Salvage Sales) annual 0-1 103,376 mbf ??? 2003 This is a stumpage value. Brian Logging cost annual 0-1 103,376 mbf 146.90 2003 Note - stumpage includes logging cost Sale preparation annual Sale Administration annual Project planning Road construction (Temp) Includes layout, contract, administer, seedlings, Nick Basic planting - $350/ac ( Acres 350 low site prep) Nick Plant - Walk in < 1/2 mile Acres 475 2003 125/ac extra (2003 planting contract bid) Nick Plant - Walk in 1/2 - 1 mile Acres 550 - 200/ac extra Nick Plant - Walk in 1 to 2 miles Acres 750 - 400/ac extra Nick Moderate site prep Acres 125

I-20 Brian Alt 5 Brian Alt 4 Brian Alt 3 Heavysite prep Nick

Alternative Sale Administration Sale preparation Logging cost (Salvage Sales) Timber Harvest-Benefits Sale Administration Sale preparation Logging cost (Salvage Sales) Timber Harvest-Benefits Sale Administration Sale preparation Logging cost Road maintenance Road stabilization Road decommissioning Small ScaleStudies (Salvage Sales) Timber Harvest-Benefits Activity annual annual nul011175mf229 2003 202.97 mbf 131,725 0-1 annual nul011175mf??2003 ??? mbf 131,725 0-1 annual annual annual nul011175mf149 2003 174.94 mbf 131,725 0-1 annual nul011175mf??2003 ??? mbf 131,725 0-1 annual annual annual nul013392mf160 2003 146.05 mbf 313,992 0-1 annual nul013392mf??2003 ??? mbf 313,992 0-1 annual annual, periodic Type ofCost- one time, activity Year(s) cusQatt Units Quantity occurs ce 800 Acres Value per ntBs er$ Comments BaseYear$$ Unit Note -stumpageincludeslogging cost This isastumpagevalue. Note -stumpageincludeslogging cost This isastumpagevalue. Note -stumpageincludesloggingcost This isastumpagevalue. I-21 Brian Alt 7 Brian Alt 6

Alternative Sale Administration Sale preparation Logging cost (Salvage Sales) Timber Harvest-Benefits Sale Administration Sale preparation Logging cost (Salvage Sales) Timber Harvest-Benefits Activity annual annual nul01mf2003 mbf 0-1 annual nul01mf2003 mbf 0-1 annual annual annual nul01mf2003 mbf 0-1 annual nul01mf2003 mbf 0-1 annual annual, periodic Type ofCost- one time, activity Year(s) cusQatt Units Quantity occurs Value per ntBs er$ Comments BaseYear$$ Unit Note -stumpageincludesloggingcost This isastumpagevalue. Note -stumpageincludesloggingcost This isastumpagevalue. I-22 APPENDIX J

NORTHWEST FOREST PLAN

Description of the Northwest Forest Plan Description of Management Areas

Appendix J – Northwest Forest Plan

Northwest Forest Plan In June 1990, the northern spotted owl, (Strix occidentalis caurina), which lives primarily in late successional forest in the Pacific Northwest and northern California, was listed as a threatened species under the Endangered Species Act (ESA). Reasons for listing included past and projected losses of suitable habitat caused primarily by timber harvest. On April 2, 1993, President Clinton held a Forest Conference in Portland, Oregon, to deal with controversies over forest management and protection of species associated with old- growth forest in the Pacific Northwest and northern California. Scientists, economists, and representatives from the forest products industry, environmental groups, Indian tribes, and others presented concerns, opinions, and proposals to the President about the various issues involved in managing the region’s forestlands. Following the conference, President Clinton established a Forest Ecosystem Management Assessment Team (FEMAT) to develop options for the management of Federal forest ecosystems to provide habitat that would support stable populations of species associated with late-successional forests. A Final Supplemental Impact Statement assessing the potential impacts of the options developed by FEMAT was completed in February 1994. A ROD adopted Alternative 9, which is based on a system of Late Successional Reserves (LSRs), Riparian Reserves, Adaptive Management Areas, and a Matrix of Federal lands interspersed with non-Federal lands. These designations complement existing Forest Plan allocations, which were allocated to Administratively Withdrawn and Congressionally Reserved lands. The Record of Decision for Amendments to Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management Planning Documents within the Range of the Northern Spotted Owl is now commonly known as the Northwest Forest Plan (NWFP). This ROD, jointly signed by the secretaries of Agriculture and Interior, amended the Siskiyou National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan (LRMP or Forest Plan) and other existing plans within the range of the northern spotted owl. This amendment, which became effective on May 20, 1994, provided new goals, objectives, standards, and guidelines for resource management. It added several new land allocations, each with its own set of Standard and Guidelines. These land allocations overlay and merge with the allocations from the 1989 SNF LRMP. There are 14 Management Areas in the Biscuit Recovery Proposed Action. The direction in the Northwest Forest Plan supersedes the SNF LRMP direction for land allocations where it is more restrictive or provides greater benefits to late successional ecosystems. Direction from the SNF Forest Plan is retained where it is more restrictive, or is unaffected by the Northwest Forest Plan.

J-1 Appendix J – Northwest Forest Plan Management Area Descriptions

Siskiyou National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan (SLRMP) land allocations as amended by Northwest Forest Plan (NWFP) land allocations within the Biscuit Fire Recovery Area include: 1. Wilderness: Pristine, scenic landscapes that are preserved as “vestiges” of wild America, and provide an opportunity for solitude. The goals for this management area are to preserve the wilderness character and maintain the natural conditions, and assure that changes that do occur are natural rather than human processes. Wilderness will appear to be affected primarily by the forces of nature, with the imprint of human activities substantially unnoticeable. Natural processes, including fire, will continue to be the primary forces that are affecting the condition of this area. Foot trails and camping spots will be the only permanent modifications in these areas; developed commensurate with the desired high level of primitiveness. Most of the area will be essentially unmodified. 2. Wild River: The Wild designation was reserved for those rivers that are free flowing, free of impoundments and generally inaccessible except by trail. These rivers are incised into deep, often shear-faced rock canyons. The goal for this management area is to maintain the river environment in a natural state while providing for recreation opportunities. The character of wild sections of river will be maintained. 3. Research Natural Areas: A national network of field ecological areas designated for research and/or to maintain biological diversity on National Forest System lands. These areas are for non-manipulative research, observation, and study. Management goals require preservation of naturally occurring physical and biological units where natural conditions are maintained insofar as possible for the purposes of comparing with those lands influenced by man, providing areas for ecological and environmental studies, and preserving gene pools for plants and animals. 4. Botanical Areas: The best representations found on the Forest of unusual plants indigenous to southwestern Oregon, both sensitive plant and old-growth conifer sites. Botanical areas are managed to protect, preserve, and enhance areas of the forest with important and exceptional botanical resources. 5. Unique Interest: Cultural sites that include prehistoric or historic sites, buildings, or objects of historical significance. Geologic sites consist of prominent or unusual rock buttes or waterfalls. These sites will be preserved and managed for education, research, and to protect their unique character. 6. Backcountry Recreation: Areas on the Forest that are unroaded or have little road development. These areas are in a natural or near-natural state, with little or no evidence of human development. Non-motorized Backcountry recreation offers isolation from the sight and sounds of human facilities and activities. Recreation use is relatively light. The only facilities are trails, primitive camps, and inconspicuous facilities needed for wildlife or fish habitat improvement. Motorized Backcountry areas will have primitive roads used as Off Highway Vehicle and jeep trails, or to cross to management areas for timber harvest.

J-2 Appendix J – Northwest Forest Plan Human activities do not interfere with natural processes involving the development of vegetation communities, and the interactions of wildlife and habitat. In some instances, natural processes may be enhanced by management activity. 7. Supplemental Resource: Areas on the Forest which are considered highly productive or critical habitats for wildlife and fish; are critical for the maintenance of watershed condition; or have special recreation values. The goals are to protect or enhance key fish and wildlife habitats; protect sensitive watershed areas; and protect recreation values. These areas will remain in a near natural condition. Timber harvest will not be programmed; however, some trees may be removed after a catastrophic event. 8. Late Successional Reserves: Late-successional and old growth forest ecosystems, which serve as habitat for late successional and old growth related species including the northern spotted owl. 9. Special Wildlife Site: Special wildlife habitat sites and botanical sites which are important components of overall wildlife habitat diversity and botanical values. The goal is to protect or enhance these sites so as to continue to provide the unique characteristics that resulted in their identification as special sites. 10. Scenic Recreation River: Segments of the Rogue, Illinois, Chetco, North Fork Smith, and Elk Wild and Scenic Rivers, and adjacent corridors of land classified as “Scenic” and “Recreational” by the National Wild and Scenic Rivers Act. The goal is to maintain or enhance the high quality scenery and the largely undeveloped character of the shorelines. In Recreation river segments provide a wide range of recreation activities that are river oriented. 11. Riparian Reserves: The Aquatic Conservation Strategy specifies Riparian Reserves for five categories of streams or waterbodies. 12. Retention Visual: Land that is immediately adjacent and visible from major travel routes, rivers, and other high use recreation areas. The primary goal is to provide a level of attractive scenery by maintaining the area in a natural or near natural condition. This area also has multiple use goals that include: production of wood products, maintenance of mature conifer, deciduous mix, mature riparian, and grass-forbs wildlife habitats, and protection of watershed resources. 13. Partial Retention Visual: Land that is visible from major and secondary travel routes, rivers and other high use recreation areas (often in the middle to background). The primary goal is to provide a level of attractive scenery by maintaining the area in a near natural condition. This area also has multiple use goals that include: production of wood products, maintenance of mature conifer, deciduous mix, mature riparian, and grass-forbs wildlife habitats, and protection of watershed resources. 14. Matrix: lands allocated under the Northwest Forest Plan that include all areas not otherwise designated to a more protective status. Administrative Study lands also fall within this MA.

J-3 APPENDIX K

GLOSSARY

Appendix K - Glossary

GLOSSARY

Age Class- A distinct group of trees recognized on the basis of age.

Active crown fire - A crown fire in which the entire fuel complex becomes involved, but the crowning phase remains dependent on heat released from the surface fuels for continued spread, also called running and continuous crown fire.

Anadromous Fish – Those species of fish that mature in the sea, and migrate in to streams to spawn.

Anchor Point – An advantageous location from which to start fireline construction to minimize the chance of being out flanked by the fire while the line is being built. Generally, an anchor point should be, or have immediate access to, a safety zone.

Bark Beetle – An insect that bores through the bark of forest trees to eat the inner bark and lay its eggs.

Berm - A barrier, such as an earthen mound or concrete structure, placed across a road to permanently restrict the road from use by wheeled motorized vehicles.

Best Management Practices (BMPs) – “methods, measures or practices selected by an agency to meet its nonpoint source control needs. BMPs include, but are not limited to, structural and nonstructural controls, operations, and maintenance procedures. BMPs can be applied before, during, and after pollution-producing activities to reduce or eliminate the introduction of pollutants into receiving waters” (EPA Water Quality Standards Regulation, 40 CFR 130.2)

Big Game – Large mammal species (deer, elk, bear) normally managed for sport hunting.

Biological Assessment – A document prepared by a federal agency for the purpose of identifying any endangered or threatened species that is likely to be affected by and agency action. This document facilitates compliance with the Endangered Species Act.

Bridge – A road or trail structure, including supports, erected over a depression or an obstruction, such as water, a road, a trail, or railway, and having a deck for carrying traffic or other loads.

Broadcast Burn - Allowing a prescribed fire to burn over a designated area within well- defined boundaries, for reduction of fuel hazard, as a silvicultural treatment, or both.

Canopy closure: The degree to which the canopy (forest layers above one's head) blocks the sunlight or obscures the sky. It can only be determined from measurements taken under the canopy as openings in the branches and trees must be accounted for

Canopy/Crown - The more or less continuous cover of branches and foliage formed collectively by the crowns of adjacent trees.

K-1 Appendix K - Glossary

Canopy fuels: The live and dead foliage, live and dead branches, and lichen of trees and tall shrubs that lie above the surface fuels

Capability – The potential of an area of land/or water to produce resources, supply goods and services, and allow resource uses under a specified set of management practicews and at a given level of management intensity.

Catastrophic: A violent or sudden change in a feature of the earth.

Classified Road – See Road Defininitions.

CFR - Code of Federal Regulations.

Condition Class - Condition classes are a function of the degree of departure from historical fire regimes resulting in alterations of key ecosystem components such as species composition, structural stage, stand age, and canopy closure. Current Condition Classes are defined in terms of the relative risk of losing one or more key components that define an ecological system based on five ecosystem attributes: disturbance regimes (patterns and frequency of insect, disease, fire, etc), disturbance agents, smoke production, hydrologic function (sedimentation, stream flow, etc), and vegetative attributes (composition, structure, and resilience to disturbance agents). Condition Classes are categorized as:

Class- 1 Maintenance- Historical ecosystem attributes are largely intact and functioning as defined by the Historical Natural Fire Regime. Forested areas with an historically short fire return interval usually have frequent fires of low intensity. Areas with an historically long fire return interval have few Class- 2 Restoration- Historical ecosystem attributes have been moderately altered as defined by the Historical Natural Fire Regime. One or more fire return intervals have been missed, possibly resulting in increased fire sizes and intensities and decreased landscape mosaics and diversity. Class- 3 Conversion- Ecosystem attributes have been significantly altered as defined by the Historical Natural Fire Regime. Multiple fire return intervals have been missed resulting in dramatic departure from historical conditions. (Hardy, et al.)

Conifer – A tree that produces cones, such as a pine, spruce or fir tree

Consultation – A process required by Section 7 of the Endangered Species Act whereby federal agencies proposing activities in a listed species habitat confer with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service about the impacts of the activity on the species. Consultation may be informal, and thus advisory, or formal, and thus binding.

Crown – The part of a tree, or other woody plant, bearing live branches and foliage.

Crown Fire - A fire that advances through the crown fuel layer normally in direct conjunction with a surface fire. Three categories of crowning are recognized (passive,

K-2 Appendix K - Glossary active, and independent); they are determined by three crown fuel properties (live crown base height, foliar moisture content and bulk density) and two characteristics of of fire behavior (spread rate and surface intensity). Alexander, Martin E. "Help With Making Crown Fire Hazard Assessments", 1987.

Cultural Resource – The physical remains (artifacts, objects, structures, etc.) of past human activities.

Cumulative Effects – The impact on the environment, which results from the incremental impact of the action when added to other actions. Cumulative impacts can result from individually minor but collectively significant actions taking place over a period of time or space.

DBH (dbh)– See Diameter Breast Height

Decommission – In terms of this document, this term means to change a road so that it no longer functions as a road or trail.

Defensible Space: 1) Defensible space is the area within the perimeter of a parcel, development, neighborhood or community where basic wildland fire protection practices and measures are implemented, providing the key point of defense from an approaching wildfire or defense against encroaching wildfires or escaping structure fires. The perimeter is defined as the area encompassing the parcel or parcels proposed for construction and/or development, excluding the physical structure itself. The term “defensible space” was first used in the foreword of the 1980 Fire Safe Guide for Residential Development in California. 2) Defensible space is an area around a structure where fuels and vegetation are treated, cleared or reduced to slow the spread of wildland fire towards the structure. It also reduces the chance of a structure fire moving from the building to the surrounding forest.

Density (Stand) – The number of trees growing in a given area usually expressed in terms of trees per acre.

Deciduous Oak and Pine Savanna/Woodlands – Areas that are dominated by a pine overstory, deciduous oaks middle story, and a grass/forbs understory (savanna), or scattered tree, shrub, grass/forbs understory (woodland). The overstory can sometimes contain a few large Douglas-fir or incense cedar. Black oak savannas and woodlands develop on relatively good soils. These habitats were historically created and maintained by frequent low intensity fires (Johnson and O’Neil, 2001, p. 26-28), and are more frequently found on south to west aspects at low elevations. Oak savannas or woodlands once occupied well over a million acres in Oregon, but they have decreased by approximately 80 percent (Ryan and Carey, 1995).

Developed Recreation – Recreation that requires facilities, resulting in a concentrated use of an area. An example of a developed recreation site is a campground. Facilities might include roads, parking lots, picnic tables, toilets, drinking water, and buildings.

Diameter Breast Height (DBH) – Tree diameter, measured 4.5 feet above ground.

K-3 Appendix K - Glossary

Direct Attack - Line is constructed adjacent to the fire perimeter: usually the preferred method, because of immediate access to escape routes and safety zones. Used when fire behavior, weather and fuel permit. Directly related to individual experience, escape routes and safety zones. Usually involves burnout of interior fuels as the line construction progresses or the fire is allowed to burn into the fire line.

Direct Effect – Effects on the environment that occur at the same time and place as the initial cause or action.

Dispersed Recreation – Recreation use outside developed recreation sites. Scattered, individual outdoor recreation activities. This includes activities such as scenic driving, hiking, bicycling, backpacking, hunting, fishing, snow mobiling, horseback riding, cross- country skiing, and recreation in primitive environments.

Disturbance (Ecosystem) – Refers to events (either natural or human caused) that alter the structure, composition, or function of terrestrial or aquatic habitats.

Disturbance Regime – Natural patterns of periodic disturbances, such as fire or flooding.

Diversity – The distribution and abundance of different plant and animal communities and species.

Duff – Partially decomposed organic matter lying beneath the litter layer and above the mineral soil. It includes the fermentation and humus layers of the forest floor

Early Seral – A stage of development of an ecosystem from a disturbed, relatively unvegetated state, to a plant community that is up to about 30 years old. Stand structure is seedling and sapling sized

Ecological Integrity – The quality of a natural unmanaged or managed ecosystem in which the natural ecological processes are sustained, with genetic species and ecosystem diversity assured for the future.

Ecosystem – A functional unit consisting of all the living organisms in a given area, and all of the non-living physical and chemical factors of their environment, linked together through nutrient cycling and energy flow. An ecosystem can be of any size, but it always functions as a whole unit

Ecosystem Management - The careful and skillful use of ecological, economic, social, and managerial principles in managing ecosystem integrity and desired conditions, uses, products, and services over the long term.

Edge Effects – Changes in ecological communities due to the rapid creation of abrupt edges in large patches of previously undisturbed habitat.

K-4 Appendix K - Glossary

Effects – impacts resulting from actions that may have beneficial or detrimental consequences. Effects are ecological (such as the effects on natural resources and on the components, structures, and functioning of affected ecosystems), aesthetic, historical, cultural, economic, social, or health, whether direct, indirect, or cumulative.

Endangered species - A plant or animal that is in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of its range. Endangered species are identified by the Secretary of the Interior in accordance with the Endangered Species Act of 1973.

Endemic – A species whose natural occurrence is confined to a certain region and whose distribution is relatively limited.

Environmental Assessment (EA) - EAs were authorized by the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) of 1969. They are concise, analytical documents prepared with public participation that determine if an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) is needed for a particular project or action. If an EA determines an EIS is not needed, the EA becomes the document allowing agency compliance with NEPA requirements

Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) – A document prepared by a Federal agency in which anticipated environmental effects of a planned course of action or development are evaluated. A Federal statute (section 102 of the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969) requires that such statements be prepared. It is prepared first in draft or review form, and then in a final form. An impact statement includes the following points: (1) the environmental impact of the proposed action, (2) any adverse impacts which cannot be avoided by the action, (3) the alternative courses of action, (4) the relationships between local short-term uses of man’s environment and the maintenance and enhancement of long-term productivity, (5) a description of the irreversible and irretrievable commitment of resources which would occur if the action were accomplished.

Escape Route - A means to access a safety zone.

Extreme Fire Behavior - "Extreme" implies a level of fire behavior characteristics that ordinarily precludes methods of direct control action. One or more of the following is usually involved: high rate of spread, prolific crowning and/or spotting, presence of fire whirls, strong convection column. Predictability is difficult because such fires often exercise some degree of influence on their environment and behave erratically, sometimes dangerously.

Fine Fuels - Fast-drying fuels, generally with a comparatively high surface area-to-volume ratio, which are less than 1/4-inch in diameter and have a time lag of one hour or less. These fuels readily ignite and are rapidly consumed by fire when dry.

Fire-Adapted Ecosystem: An ecosystem with the ability to survive and regenerate in a fire-prone environment

Fire Behavior – How fire reacts to the influences of fuel, weather and topography.

K-5 Appendix K - Glossary

Fire Event: See Wildland Fire. For the purposes of fuels analysis it is a wildfire, with a probability of occurrence that is modeled using representative weather inputs (usually the 90th percentile) for the purpose of effects analysis to compare alternatives.

Fire Exclusion: The policy of suppressing all wildland fires in an area.

Fire Frequency (Fire Return Interval): A general term referring to the recurrence of fire in a given area over time. Sometimes stated as number of fires per unit time in designated area. Also used to refer to the probability of an element burning per unit time. How often fire burns a given area; often expressed in terms of fire return intervals (e.g., fire returns to a site every 5-15 years).

Fire Hazard: A fuel complex, defined by volume, type, condition, arrangement and location, that determines the ease of ignition and the resistance to control. A physical situation (fuels, weather, and topography) with potential for causing harm or damage as a result of wildland fire.

Fire Intensity - A general term relating to the heat energy released by a fire.

Fire Line - A linear fire barrier that is scraped or dug to mineral soil.

Fire Management Plan - A strategic plan that defines a program to manage wildland and prescribed fires and documents implementation strategies for the fire management program in the approved Forest Land and Resource Management plan alternative. The Fire Management Plan is supplemented by operational plans, such as preparedness, dispatch, prescribed fire and prevention plans.

Fire Regimes - The ecological effects of frequency, intensity, extent, season, and synergistic interactions with other disturbances, such as insects and disease, classified into generalized levels of fire severity.

Fire Return Interval: Number of years between fires at a given location.

Fire Risk – The probability or chance of fire starting determined by the presence and activities of causative agents.

Fire Severity – A relative measure of the post-fire appearance of vegetation as it relates to the intensity of the fire and the consumptive effects on vegetation.

Fire Suppression (Fire Control) - All of the work and activities connected with fire extinguishing operations, beginning with discovery and continuing until the fire is completely extinguished.

Firefighter Safety - A work environment where foreseeable risks have been minimized through the mitigation of known hazards associated with wildfire suppression.

Fish Habitat – The place where a population of fish species lives and the surroundings; includes the provision of life requirements such as food and cover.

K-6 Appendix K - Glossary

Fishery – The total population of fish in a stream or body of water, and the physical, chemical and biological factors affecting that population.

Forbs - A plant with a soft, rather than permanent woody stem, that is not a grass or grass-like plant.

Forest Health – The condition in which forest ecosystems sustain their complexity, diversity, resiliency, and productivity while providing for human needs and values.

Forest Land and Resource Management Plan (FLRMP) – The Siskiyou National Forest’s Land and Resource Management Plan, which gathers and coordinates the direction to be followed in the overall management of the forest. Included in the plan are applicable national and regional management directions.

Forest Supervisor – The official who is responsible for administering the National Forest System lands in a Forest Service Administrative unit, which may consist of one or more National Forests.

FSH – Forest Service Handbook

FSM – Forest Service Manual

Fuel - Combustible material that includes vegetation such as grass, leaves, ground litter, plants, shrubs and trees. (See Surface Fuels.) Includes both living plants; dead, woody vegetative materials; and other vegetative materials which are capable of burning.

Fuel Break - A zone in which fuel quantity has been reduced or altered to provide a position for suppression forces to make a stand against wildfire. Fuel breaks are designated or constructed before the outbreak of a fire. Fuel breaks may consist of one or a combination of the following: Natural barriers, constructed fuel breaks, man-made barriers. Refer to FRZ- Fuels Reduction Zone.

Fuel Loadings - The oven dry weight of fuels in a given area, usually expressed in tons per acre. Fuel loadings may be referenced to fuel size or time lag categories; and may include surface fuels or total fuels. The amount of fuel present expressed quantitatively in terms of weight of fuel per unit area.

Fuel Management – Manipulation or reduction of flammable matter for the purpose of reducing the intensity or rate of spread of a fire, while preserving and enhancing environmental quality.

Fuel model: A set of surface fuel bed characteristics (load and surface-area-to-volume- ratio by size class, heat content, and depth) organized for input to a fire model. Standard fuel models (Anderson 1982) have been stylized to represent specific fuel conditions.

K-7 Appendix K - Glossary

Fuel Reduction - Manipulation, including combustion or removal of fuels, to reduce the likelihood of ignition and/or to lessen potential damage and resistance to control.

Geographic Information System (GIS) – Computer software that provides database and spatial analytic capabilities.

Ground Fuels - All combustible materials below the surface litter layer. These fuels may be partially decomposed, such as forest soil organic layers (duff), dead mosss and lichen layers, punky wood, and deep organic layers (peat), or may be living plant material, such as tree and shrub roots (Miller 1994).

Hazard - Any real or potential condition that can cause injury, illness, or death of personnel, or damage to or loss of equipment or property.

Hazard Reduction - Any treatment of a hazard that reduces the threat of ignition and fire intensity or rate of spread.

Heavy Fuels - Fuels of large diameter such as snags, logs, large limb wood, that ignite and are consumed more slowly than light fuels.

Herbivore – An animal that feeds on plants.

Heritage Resource – Any definite location of past human activity identifiable through field survey, historical documentation or oral evidence. This includes archeological and architectural sites or structures, and place4s of traditional cultural or religious importance to specified groups whether or not represented by physical remains.

Hydrologic – Pertaining to the quantity, quality, and timing of water yield.

Indirect Effect – Secondary effects which occur in locations other than the initial action or significantly later in time.

Initial Attack – An aggressive suppression action consistent with firefighter and public safety and values to be protected.

Interdisciplinary Team (IDT) – A group of individuals with varying areas of specialty assembled to solve a problem or perform a task. The team is assembled out of recognition that no one discipline is sufficiently broad enough to adequately analyze the problem and propose action.

Interior Mature and Old Growth Forest Habitat – Mature habitat where the overstory is dominated by trees 21-32 inches dbh. For the sake of this analysis, interior mature and old growth forest habitat is in patches large enough to contain at least twenty acres that are a minimum of 400 feet from other habitat types.

Ladder Fuels - Fuels which provide vertical continuity between strata. Fire is able to carry from the surface fuels by convection into the crowns with relative ease.

K-8 Appendix K - Glossary

Landscape: An area composed of interacting and inter-connected patterns of habitats (ecosystems) that are repeated because of the geology, landform, soils, climate, biota, and human influences throughout the area. Landscape structure is formed by patches (tree stands or sites), connections (corridors and linkages), and the matrix. Landscape function is based on disturbance events, successional development of landscape structure, and flows of energy and nutrients through the structure of the landscape. A landscape is composed of watersheds and smaller ecosystems. It is the building block of biotic provinces and regions.

Late Seral Stage – A later stage of development of an ecosystem. Forested stands are generally 12 to 20+ inches average DBH.

Light Fuels - Fast-drying fuels, generally with a comparatively high surface area-to- volume ratio, which are less than 1/4-inch in diameter and have a timelag of one hour or less. These fuels readily ignite and are rapidly consumed by fire when dry.

Litter: The top layer of the forest floor; includes freshly fallen leaves, needles, fine twigs, bark flakes, fruits, matted dead grass, and a variety of miscellaneous vegetative parts that are little altered by decomposition. Litter also accumulates beneath rangeland shrubs. Some surface feather moss and lichens are considered to be litter because their moisture response is similar to that of dead fine fuel.

Live Fuels - Living plants, such as trees, grasses, and shrubs, in which the seasonal moisture content cycle is controlled largely by internal physiological mechanisms, rather than by external weather influences.

Maintenance Levels (operational and objective) as defined in Forest Service Handbook 7709.58- Transportation System Maintenance:

Level 1 - Assigned to roads of intermittent service during the period that they are closed to vehicular traffic. The closure period must exceed one year. Basic custodial maintenance is performed to keep damage to adjacent resources to an acceptable level and to perpetuate the road to facilitate future management activities. Emphasis is normally given to maintaining drainage facilities and runoff patterns. Planned road deterioration may occur at this level. Appropriate traffic management strategies are “prohibit” and “eliminate”.

Roads receiving level 1 maintenance may be of any type, class, or construction standard, and may be managed at any other maintenance level during the time they are open for traffic. However, while being maintained at level 1, they are closed to vehicular traffic, but may be open and suitable for nonmotorized uses.

Level 2 - Assigned to roads open for use by high-clearance vehicles. Passenger car traffic is not considered. Traffic is normally minor, consisting of one or a combination of the following: administrative, permitted, dispersed recreation, or other specialized uses. Log

K-9 Appendix K - Glossary

haul may occur at this level. Appropriate traffic management strategies are either to (1) discourage or prohibit passenger cars or (2) accept or discourage high-clearance vehicles.

Level 3 - Assigned to roads open and maintained for travel by a prudent driver in a standard passenger car. User comfort and convenience are not considered priorities.

Roads at this maintenance level are typically low-speed, single-lane with turnouts and spot surfacing. Some roads may be fully surfaced with either native or processed material. Appropriate traffic management strategies are either “encourage” or “accept”. “Discourage” or “prohibit” strategies may be employed for certain classes of vehicles or users.

Level 4 - Assigned to roads that provide a moderate degree of user comfort and convenience at moderate travel speeds. Most roads are double lane and aggregate surfaced. However, some roads may be single lane. Some roads may be paved and/or dust abated. The most appropriate traffic management strategy is “encourage”; however, the “prohibit” strategy may apply to specific classes of vehicles or users at certain times.

Level 5 - Assigned to roads that provide a high degree of user comfort and convenience. These roads are normally double lane, paved facilities. Some may be aggregate surfaced and dust abated. The appropriate traffic management strategy is “encourage.”

There are no level 5 roads attached to the Cascade Area Analysis.

The distinction between maintenance levels is not always sharply defined. Some parameters overlap two or more different maintenance levels.

Management Action - Any activity undertaken as part of National Forest administration.

Management Area (MA) – An aggregation of capability areas that have common management direction, and may be dispersed over the Forest. Consists of a grouping of capability areas selected through evaluation procedures and used to locate decisions and resolve issues and concerns.

Management Strategy (MS) – Management practices and intensities selected and scheduled for application on a management area to attain multiple use and other goals and objectives. Mean Fire Return Interval: The arithmetic average of all fire intervals in given area over a given time period.

Monitoring – The process of collecting information to evaluate if objectives and anticipated or assumed results of a management plan are being realized or if implementation is proceeding as planned.

Mosaic – A mix of stand structure and composition caused by disturbance. In the case of wildland fire the word depicts widely varying fire effects.

K-10 Appendix K - Glossary

Municipal Supply Watershed – A watershed that provides water for human consumption where Forest Service management could have a significant effect upon the quality of water at the intake point and that provides water used by a community, or any other public water system that regularly serves at least 25 individuals at least 60 days out of the year or that provides at least 15 service connections.

National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) of 1969 – An Act to declare a National policy which will encourage productive and enjoyable harmony between humans and the environment, to promote efforts which will prevent or eliminate damage to the environment and biosphere and stimulate the health and welfare of humanity, to enrich the understanding of the ecological systems and natural resources important to the nation, and to establish a Council on Environmental Quality. (The Principal Laws Relating to Forest Service Activities, Agriculture Handbook NO. 453, USD, Forest Service, 359 pp.)

National Forest Management Act (NFMA) - A law passed in 1976 requiring the preparation of Regional Guides and Forest Plans and regulations to guide that development.

National Forest System – All national forest lands reserved or withdrawn from the public domain of the United States.

Native Species – Species that are indigenous to a region: not introduced or exotic.

Natural Regeneration – Renewal of a tree crop by natural seeding, sprouting, suckering, or layering.

Need: circumstances in which a thing or course of action is required (Reason for action)

Neotropical Migratory Birds – Migratory bird species that nest in North America and winter in Central or South America or in the Caribbean.

Noxious Weed – A legal term, these are exotic plants regulated by law that are aggressive, difficult to manage, and invasive. These species may displace or significantly alter native plant communities.

Old Growth Forest – The Northwest Forest Plan (USDA, USDI, 1994) defines old growth forest habitat as stands with trees greater than 32-inch dbh, and significant amounts of dead wood and trees with large limbs, cavities and mistletoe brooms.

Off Road/Highway Vehicle (ORV, OHV) – Any vehicle capable of being operated off an established road or trail.

Outsloping – pulling road fill material back onto the roadbed to create an out-slope.

Overstory - The portion of the trees that form the uppermost canopy layer in a forest of more than one story.

K-11 Appendix K - Glossary

Partnership - In the context of these guidelines, partnerships are those alliances between individuals, groups and/or the Forest that enable road and trail maintenance or monitoring activities beyond those required for resource management access. Partnerships: 1. Fosters good stewardship within the land management plan; 2. Are not exclusive but serve publics at large; 3. Benefit all parties involved.

Passive crown fire: A crown fire in which individual or small groups of trees torch out, but solid flaming in the canopy cannot be maintained except for short periods. Passive crown fire encompasses a wide range of crown fire behavior from the occasional torching of an isolated tree to a nearly active crown fire. Also called torching and candling. See also intermittent crown fire.

Prescribed Fire - The intentional application of fire to wildland fuels in either their natural or modified state under such conditions as allow the fire to be confined to a predetermined area and at the same time to produce the intensity of heat and rate of spread required to further certain planned objectives (i.e., silviculture, wildlife management, etc.). Any fire ignited by management actions under certain, predetermined conditions to meet specific objectives related to hazardous fuels or habitat improvement. A written, approved prescribed fire plan must exist, and NEPA requirements must be met, prior to ignition.

Prescription - Measurable criteria that define conditions under which a prescribed fire may be ignited, guide selection of appropriate management responses, and indicate other required actions. Prescription criteria may include safety, economic, public health, and environmental, geographic, administrative, social, or legal considerations.

Presettlement Fire Regime: The time from about 1500 to the mid-to late-1800s,period when Native American populations had already been heavily impacted by European presence but before extensive settlement by European Americans in most parts of North America, before extensive conversion of wildlands for agricultural and other purposes, and before fires were effectively suppressed in many areas.

Project – An organized effort to achieve an objective, identified by location, activities, outputs, effects, and time-period and responsibilities for execution.

Public Involvement – A Forest Service process designed to broaden the information base upon which agency decisions are made by 1. Informing the public about Forest Service activities, plans and decisions, and 2. Encouraging public understanding about and participation in the planning processes leading to final decision-making.

Purpose: an intended result, something for which an effort is being made (Objective)

Recontouring – pulling the excavated road back as near as possible to its original condition.

Reforestation – The renewal of forest cover by seeding, planting, and natural means.

K-12 Appendix K - Glossary

Refugia – An area that has escaped ecological changes occurring elsewhere and so provides a suitable habitat for relict species

Regeneration - The process of establishing a new tree crop on previously harvested land. The term also refers to the young crop itself.

Rehabilitation - The activities necessary to repair damage or disturbance caused by wildland fires or the fire suppression activity.

Restoration: In the context of the cohesive strategy, restoration means the return of an ecosystem or habitat toward: its original structure, natural complement of species, and natural functions or ecological processes.

Riparian – A geographic area containing an aquatic ecosystem and adjacent upland areas that directly affect it. This includes floodplains, woodlands, and all areas within a specified distance from the normal line of high water of a stream channel, or from the shoreline of a standing body of water

Risk: The possibility of meeting danger or suffering harm. When used relative to wildland fires it refers to the probability of escape resulting in financial and ecological loss. Alternative management scenarios generate different degrees of risk and ultimately a different set of economic outcomes (Hesslin and Rideout, 1999)

Road – A motor vehicle travelway over 50 inches wide, unless designated and managed as a trail. A road may be:

Road Construction, New – Activity that results in the addition of forest classified or temporary road miles. (36 CFR 212.1)

Road Decommissioning – To remove those elements of a road that reroute hill slope drainage, and present slope stability hazards. The road is stabilized to reduce potential for storm damage, and the need for maintenance. The road is no longer suitable for travel. Decommissioning includes putting a road in storage (storm proofing with dips, berms, waterbars, etc.) for later use. In some cases the road is obliterated, restoring the hydrologic function of the ground by decompacting the road surface, removing fills and culverts, revegetating etc. to never be used again.

Road Maintenance – The ongoing upkeep of a road necessary to retain or restore the road to the approved road management objectives. (FSM 7712.3)

Road Maintenance Levels – Defines the level of service provided by, and maintenance required for, a specific road, consistent with road management objectives and maintenance criteria.

Road Management Objective (RMO) – Defines purpose, use, operational and maintenance level of road based on resource management and access and travel management objectives.

K-13 Appendix K - Glossary

Road Obliteration – Restoring the hydrologic function of the ground by decompacting the road surface, removing fills and culverts, re-vegetating, or other actions with the intent that the road will not be used again.

Road Reconstruction – Activity that results in improvement or realignment of an existing classified road.

Road Stabilization – A process to slope, dip and water bar roads thereby reducing run- off concentrations and alleviating the risk of erosion and landslides if designed drainage structures fail to carry storm runoff. This also includes grass-seeding slopes.

Road Upgrading – Includes erosion controls, road surface treatment to prevent dust and erosion, installing larger culverts and stabilizing fill slopes.

Roadless Area – A National Forest area which (1) is larger than 5000 acres, or if smaller than 5000 acres, contiguous to a designated wilderness or primitive areas; (2) contains no roads; and (3) has been inventoried by the Forest System for possible inclusion in the wilderness preservation system.

Running crown fire: See active crown fire.

Safety Zone (SZ) - SZ are areas that are fuel free zones that are incapable of burning. They afford a very high degree of firefighter safety from advancing wildfire. They can be natural or person made fire resistant areas such as lakes, dirt, gravel or asphalt parking lots, roads and areas burned to secure line.

Salvage – Harvest of trees that are dead, dying, or deteriorating due to fire, wind, insect or other damage or disease.

Scoping Process- Activities in the early stages of preparation of an environmental analysis to determine public opinion, receive comments and suggestions, and determine issues during the environmental analysis process.

Sediment – Solid material, both mineral and organic, that is in suspension, being transported, or has been moved from the site of origin by air, water, gravity, or ice.

Sensitive Species – Species that have appeared in the Federal Register as proposed for classification and are under consideration for official listing as endangered or threatened species, that are on an official State list, or that are recognized by the Regional Forester as needing special management to prevent their being placed on Federal or State lists.

Seral – A transitory stage in an ecological succession.

Severity: See fire severity.

Silviculture – Generally, the science and art of cultivating (i.e. growing and tending) forest crops based on knowledge of silvics.

K-14 Appendix K - Glossary

SNF – Siskiyou National Forest

Site Preparation – A general term for a variety of activities that removes competing vegetation, slash, and other debris that may inhibit the reforestation effort.

Size Class – Intervals of tree diameters used to classify timber. Size class includes: seedling/sapling, pole timber, and saw timber.

Sixth Field Subwatershed – The purpose of Sixth field subwatersheds is to create a standard set of watershed boundaries that subdivide the existing fifth field watersheds based on a common set of criteria. These watersheds are used to define unique hydrologically based land units, and generally range between 10,000 and 40,000 acres. The sixth field lines are defined at 1:24,000 scale. Boundaries are delineated on drainage divides (ridges). Boundaries must be hydrologically based; therefore there is no isolated territory, and all areas are included.

Soil Resource Inventory (SRI) – An inventory of the soil resource based on landform, vegetative characteristics, soil characteristics, and management potentials.

Soil Productivity – The capability of a soil to produce a specific crop such as fiber and forage, under defined levels of management.

Special Use Permit – An arrangement whereby the Forest Service grants an individual, organization or agency the use of a specified area of Forest land for a water development, utility corridor, power transmission site, developed recreation site, etc.

Speciation – The evolutionary formation of new biological species, usually by the division of a single species into two or more genetically distinct ones.

Spotted Owl Habitat Area – An area containing the home range of one or more owl pairs established for the propagation and protection of the species in accordance with the Oregon Spotted Owl Management Plan.

Stand – A community of trees or other vegetative growth occupying a specific area, and sufficiently uniform in composition (species), age, spatial arrangement, and conditions as to be distinguishable from the other growth on adjoined lands, so forming a silvicultural or management entity.

Stand Replacement Fire Regime: Regime in which fires kill or top-kill aboveground parts of the dominant vegetation, changing the aboveground structure substantially. Approximately 80 percent or more of the aboveground dominant vegetation is either consumed or dies as a results of fires. Applies to forests, shrublands, and grasslands.

Standards and Guidelines - Requirements found in a Forest Plan which impose limits on natural resource management activities, generally for environmental protection.

Sub-watershed – A drainage area of approximately 20,000 acres.

K-15 Appendix K - Glossary

Suppression – The act of extinguishing or confining a fire.

Threatened Species – A plant or animal identified and defined in accordance with the 1973 Endangered Species Act, and published in the Federal Register.

Trail – For purposes of travel by foot, stock, mechanized or motorized trail vehicle (less than 50” in width).

Trailhead – The parking, signing, and other facilities available at the start of a trail.

Underburn - A fire that consumes surface fuels but not trees or shrubs. (See Surface Fuels.

Understory - The portion of vegetation that is underneath the dominate tree canopy

Understory Fire Regime: Regime in which fires are generally not lethal to the dominant vegetation and do not substantially change the structure of the dominant vegetation. Approximately 80 percent or more of the aboveground dominant vegetation survives fires; applies to forest and woodland vegetation types.

Watershed – The drainage basin contributing water, organic matter, dissolved nutrients and sediments to a stream, lake or river.

Watershed Analysis (WA) – Identifies key processes, functions and conditions within a watershed and describes past and current conditions and trends. This is an analytical process, which creates a tool to help identify and prioritize actions that implement Forest plans. Watershed analysis is ecosystem analysis at the watershed scale.

Water Barring – Berm or ditch-and-berm combinations cutting across roads (and trails) at an angle such that all surface water running on the road and in the road ditch is intercepted and deposited over the outside edge of the road. These normally allow high clearance vehicles to pass.

Watershed Restoration – Improving current conditions of watersheds to restore degraded fish habitat and provide long-term protection for aquatic and riparian resources.

Wilderness – Federal land retaining its primeval character and influence without permanent improvements or human habitation as defined under the 1964 Wilderness Act. It is protected and managed so as to preserve the natural conditions, which (1) generally appear to have been affected primarily by forces of nature with the imprint of man’s activity substantially absent; (2) has outstanding opportunities for solitude or a primitive and confined type of recreation; (3) has at least 5000 acres, or is of sufficient size to make practical its preservation, enjoyment, and use in an unimpaired condition, and (4) may contain features of scientific, educational, scenic, or historical value as well as ecologic and geologic interest.

K-16 Appendix K - Glossary

Wildland Fire - A non-structure fire, other than prescribed fire, that occurs in the wildland. Any fire originating from an unplanned ignition. This term encompasses fires previously called both wildfires and prescribed natural fires.

Wildland Urban Interface (WUI) - Includes those areas of resident human population at imminent risk from wildfire, and human developments having special significance. These areas may include critical communications sites, municipal watershed, high voltage transmission lines, observatories, church camps, scout camps, research facilities, and other structures that if destroyed by fire, would result in hardships to communities. These areas encompass not only the sites themselves, but also the continuous slopes and fuels that lead directly to the sites, regardless of the distance involved.

K-17 APPENDIX L

REFERENCES

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