CARIBBEAN STUDIES / VOL. 3 NO. 3 CARIBBEAN STUDIES / VOL. 3 NO. 3 ~717 URBAN LABORLABOR ANDAND COMMUNISM:COMMUNISM: CUBACUBA Ralph Lee Woodward jr.'· Ralph Lee Woodward Jr.*

The twentieth century has seen a substantial growth in the importance and The twentieth century has seen a substantial growth in the importance and power of urban labor movements in Latin America. Urban workers, effectively power of urban labor movements in Latin America. Urban workers, effectively organized, are readily available as a political force, thus, political groups organized, are readily available as a political force, thus, political groups interested in changhtg the old order have promoted labor organization and interested in changing the old order have promoted labor organization and action in recent years. The Communists, for whom the "proletariat" has special action in recent years. The Communists, for whom the "proletariat" has special ideological significance, have been especially active in promoting organized ideological significance, have been especially active in promoting organized urban labor for political purposes in Latin America. urban labor for political purposes in Latin America. Urban labor constitutes a minority of the working population in most of Urban labor constitutes a minority of the working population in most of Latin America, but its concentration in the capitals (and occasionally in other Latin America, but its concentration in the capitals (and occasionally in other major cities) give it a potential. out of proportion to the actual number of major cities) give it a potential, out of proportion to the actual number of warkers. In Cuba, however, the majority of the population is urban, and, thus, workers. In Cuba, however, the majority of the population is urban, and, thus, the urban labor force in that island republic has been even more important the urban labor force in that island republic has been even more important than in the rest of Latin America. The I953 census classified 57 Ofo of the than in the rest of Latin America. The 1953 census classified 57% of the population as urban.1 In I961 the Cuban government estimated that of a total population as urban.1 In 1961 the Cuban government estimated that of a total population of 6,933,253, nearly 60 Ofo were urban.! Although the Cuban export population of 6,933,253, nearly 60 % were urban.2 Although the Cuban export economy has been dominated by sugar production, more persons have been economy has been dominated by sugar production, more persons have been employed in the urban processing, packing, and shipping of the crop, than in employed in the urban processing, packing, and shipping of the crop, than in the agricultural raising of the cane.3 Traditionally, since independence, the the agricultural raising of the cane.3 Traditionally, since independence, the Cuban labor unions have occupied a place of more importance than elsewhere Cuban labor unions have occupied a place of more importance than elsewhere in most of Latin America. Likewise, the Communist Party has had a longer and in most of Latin America. Likewise, the Communist Party has had a longer and more successful history in Cuba than eleswhere, the bulk of its strength resting more successful history in Cuba than eleswhere, the bulk of its strength resting in the urban labor organization. The present Communist regime in Cuba, in the urban labor organization. The present Communist regime in Cuba, although outwardly emphasizing agrarian reform and the "peasant" revolt, has, although outwardly emphasizing agrarian reform and the "peasant" revolt, has, in fact, once more become highly dependent on urban labor for its success and. in fact, once more become highly dependent on urban labor for its success and maintenance.maintenance. ItIt isis significant,significant, also, also, that that the the two two successful successful establishments establishments of of Communist-influencedCommunist-influenced governments governments in Latin in LatinAmerica America - Guatemala - Guatemala in the in the early I950's and the present Cuban regime - both depended heavily for their early 1950'$ and the present Cuban regime - both depended heavily for their maintenancemaintenance on on urban urban labor. labor.

* The author is assistant professor of history at the University of North Carolina in Chapel Hill, N.C.N.C. * The author is assistant professor of history at the University of North Carolina in Chapel Hill, I. More specifically, 34.9 % of the Cuban population lived in cities of over 100,000; 43.4 % 1. More specifically, 34.9 % of the Cuban population lived in cities of over 100,000; 43.4 % lived in towns of from 5,000 to 100,000; and "21.7 % lived in places of less than 5,000. United lived in towns of from 5,000 to 100,000; and 21.7 % lived in places of less than 5,000. United States, Department of Commerce, Investment in Cuba (Washington: Government Printing Office, States, Department of Commerce, Investment in Cuba (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1956),1956), pp.pp. 182-184.182-184. 2. Cuba, Ministerio de Trabajo, Cuba en cifras (Havana: Imprenta Nacional, 1962), p. x. 3·2. InlleslmenlCuba, Ministerio in Cuba, dep. Trabajo,178, states Cuba that enin cifras1952 only (Havana: 41.5 % Imprenta of the Cuban Nacional, labor force1962), was p. 1. employed 3. Investment in agriculture. in Cuba, p. 178, states. that in 1952 only 41.5 % of the Cuban labor force was employed in agriculture.

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I I Urban labor organization in Havana began during the colonial regime, in­ Urban labor organization in Havana began during the colonial regime, in fluenced and organized by Spanish anarcho-syndicalists. Also influential was fluenced and organized by Spanish anarcho-syndicalists. Also influential was the Cuban socialist, Enrique Roig y San Mardn, who died in a Havana prison the Cuban socialist, Enrique Roig y San Martin, who died in a Havana prison in 1889. During the 1890'S port and tobacco workers in Havana organized, and in 1889. During the 1890^ port and tobacco workers in Havana organized, and the first Cuban labor congress was held there in 1892.4 After independence, the the first Cuban labor congress was held there in 1892.4 After independence, the labor movement continued to grow, generally behind the leadership of the labor movement continued to grow, generally behind the leadership of the tobacco and dock workers' unions. As North American capital poured into the tobacco and dock workers' unions. As North American capital poured into the island, the number of urban industries increased rapidly, but was accompanied island, the number of urban industries increased rapidly, but was accompanied by a rise in labor disorder. This early period was highlighted by a bloody strike by a rise in labor disorder. This early period was highlighted by a bloody strike in 1902 and an unsuccessful attempt to form a Cuban Labor Party under the in 1902 and an unsuccessful attempt to form a Cuban Labor Party under the leadership of Diego Vicente Tejera in 1905.5 Strikes, riots, and demonstrations leadership of Diego Vicente Tejera in 1905.5 Strikes, riots, and demonstrations contributed significantly to the sending of U.S. Marines in 1917, as North contributed significantly to the sending of U.S. Marines in 1917, as North American business interests were unsympathetic to labor demands. World War I American business interests were unsympathetic to labor demands. World War I brought economic gains to the laboring class, however, and resulted in a tem~ brought economic gains to the laboring class, however, and resulted in a tem porary relaxation of labor agitation. But the sugar collapse following the war porary relaxation of labor agitation. But the sugar collapse following the war led to widespread unemployment and labor discontent. Before the end of 1919, led to widespread unemployment and labor discontent. Before the end of 1919, there were once again serious strikes. Under pressure from the United States, there were once again serious strikes. Under pressure from the United States, President Mario Garda Menocal and the Cuban Congress suspended constitu­ President Mario Garcia Menocal and the Cuban Congress suspended constitu tional guarantees, permitting the government, as the U.S. Minister put it, to tional guarantees, permitting the government, as the U.S. Minister put it, to "legally proceed" against strikers and labor agitators. Violent suppression of "legally proceed" against strikers and labor agitators. Violent suppression of organized labor activity on behalf of both Cuban and foreign business interests organized labor activity on behalf of both Cuban and foreign business interests continued under presidents Alfredo Zayas and Gerardo Machado.6 continued under presidents Alfredo Zayas and Gerardo Machado.6 Although various groups calling themselves communists and expressing Although various groups calling themselves communists and expressing sympathy with the proletariat and the Russian Revolution had appeared earlier, sympathy with the proletariat and the Russian Revolution had appeared earlier, the Cuban Communist Party was not formed until Julio Antonio Mella founded the Cuban Communist Party was not formed until Julio Antonio Mella founded the Partido Comunista de Cuba in 1925. The Machado government arrested and the Partido Comunista de Cuba in 1925. The Machado government arrested and deported Mella and other Party leaders a few weeks later, forcing the Commu­ deported Mella and other Party leaders a few weeks later, forcing the Commu nists underground.7 In spite of government suppression, the Communists sur­ nists underground.7 In spite of government suppression, the Communists sur vived and made considerable headway among labor unions, playing an active vived and made considerable headway among labor unions, playing an active part in the strikes and labor disorders of the mid- and late-1920'S. Serious part in the strikes and labor disorders of the mid- and late-i920,s. Serious 4· Ernst Schwarz, "Some Observations on Labor Organization in the Caribbean," The Carib­ bean: 4? It! Ernst Economy, Schwarz, ed. A. "SomeCurtis WilgusObservations (Gainesville: on Labor School Organizationof Inter-American in Studies,the Caribbean," University The Carib ofbean: Flor,da, Its Economy, '954), pp. ed. ,65-,66. A. Curtis See Wilgus also Ruben (Gainesville: Perez Chavez, School "Enriqueof Inter-American Roig y San Studies,Martin, University I843-I889(of Florida, primer 1954), rnarxista pp. 165-166. cubano)," SeeTraba;o also (Havana), Ruben PerezII (2a Chavez,quincena de"Enrique diciernbre Roig de 19 y6, San), Martin, ppai843-i889( 92-94; andprimer Javier marxista de Varona's cubano)," review ofTrabajo Joaquin (Havana), Ordoqui's IIElementos (2a quincena para lade historia diciembre del de 1961), .movimientoppa 92-94; obrero,and Javier in Casa de de Varona's las Americas review (Havana), of Joaquin II (Nov.-Die., Ordoqui's '961), Elementos p. '72. para la historia del movimiento obrero, in Casa de las Americas (Havana), II (Nov.-Dic, 1961), p. 172. 5. Schwarz,Schwarz, p. p.166; 166; Varona, Varona, p. I73. p. 173. 6. Robert F. Smith, The United Slates and Cuba; Business and Diplomacy, I9I7-I960 (New York: 6. RobertBookman F. Associates, Smith, The'960), United pp. 83, States ,or-I05. and Cuba; Business and Diplomacy, 1917-15(60 (New York: Bookman Associates, i960), pp. 83, 101-105. 7· Mella later played a significant role in the Communist iParty development in Mexico until his 7.death Mella at laterthe hands played of unknowna significant assassins role in in January, the Communist I929. Robert sParty J. Alexander development Communism in Mexico until hisjn Latin death America at the (Newhands Brunswick: of unknown Rutgers assassins University in January, Press, I957), 1929. pp. Robert 270-27 IJ.. '.Alexander, Communism in Latin America (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1957), pp. 270-271.

This content downloaded from 129.252.86.83 on Tue, 26 Sep 2017 22:56:31 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms CARIBBEAN STUDIES / VOL. 3 NO. 3 CARIBBEAN STUDIES / VOL. 3 NO. 3 19 strikes took place especially among the sugar mill and railway workers. Neither strikes took place especially among the sugar mill and railway workers. Neither the government nor private enterprise did much to alleviate the grievances of the government nor private enterprise did much to alleviate the grievances of the working class, and labor disorder threatened the economy and stability of the working class, and labor disorder threatened the economy and stability of the government. Charles E. Chapman reported in 1927 that "one of the most the government. Charles E. Chapman reported in 1927 that "one of the most annoying conditions... is the prevalence of strikes. Labor is not in the least annoying conditions ... is the prevalence of strikes. Labor is not in the least degree conservative, but is ignorant and opportunist, at the beck and call of degree conservative, but is ignorant and opportunist, at the beck and call of leaders, frequently Spanish radicals."s The laborers in the cities, Chapman leaders, frequently Spanish radicals."8 The laborers in the cities, Chapman believed, did not differ greatly from laborers in the United States, "although believed, did not differ greatly from laborers in the United States, "although mentionmention may be mademade ofof theirtheir radicalismradicalism on thethe oneone handhand andand of of a alower lower standard of living on the other:"9 standard of living on the other."9 The Machado government deported many of the Spanish radicals, but Cuban The Machado government deported many of the Spanish radicals, but Cuban labor leaders replaced them. Cuban Communists organized "revolutionary labor leaders replaced them. Cuban Communists organized "revolutionary fractions" among railroad workers, weavers, tobacco workers, and others. The fractions" among railroad workers, weavers, tobacco workers, and others. The Conimunists continued to organize illegally and to work through front orga­ Communists continued to organize illegally and to work through front orga nizations, eventually succeeding in establishing one of the strongest of Com­ nizations, eventually succeeding in establishing one of the strongest of Com mu~ist Parties in Latin America. In the late 1920'S they published an illegal munist Parties in Latin America. In the late i92o's they published an illegal weekly, E1 Comunista, and other propaganda material. The core of their weekly, El Comunista, and other propaganda material. The core of their strength was the urban labor unions. A central labor federation formed in 1924 strength was the urban labor unions. A central labor federation formed in 1924 by anarcho-syndicaIists, and affiliated briefly with the American Federation of by anarcho-syndicalists, and affiliated briefly with the American Federation of Labor inin thethe UnitedUnited States,States, thethe ConfederacionConfederacion NacionalNacional Obrera CubanaCubana (CNOC), passed under Communist control in the late 1920'S following the assassination(CNOC), passed of itsunder first CommunistSecretary General, control Alfredo in the lateL6pez. 1920*5 Its second following Secretary the assassination of its first Secretary General, Alfredo Lopez. Its second Secretary General, Cesar Vilar, was a confirmed Communist. The Machado government, General, C sar Vilar, was a confirmed Communist. The Machado government, although declaring this national labor confederation illegal, was unsuccessful in although declaring this national labor confederation illegal, was unsuccessful in its efforts to suppress it completely. The CNOC became increasingly important asits aefforts center ofto propagandasuppress it completely. and action Theopposed CNOC to becamethe government. increasingly In importantthe early as a center of propaganda and action opposed to the government. In the early 1930'S it instigated and supported many strikes, the most notable being among 1930's it instigated and supported many strikes, the most notable being among the textile workers, shoemakers, cigar workers, transportation workers, and the textile workers, shoemakers, cigar workers, transportation workers, and finally, the sugar workers in 1933.10 finally, the sugar workers in 1933.10 The sugar workers' strike led to the overthrow of the Machado dictatorship. The sugar workers' strike led to the overthrow of the Machado dictatorship. In December, 1932, at Santa Clara, the CNOC sponsored organization of a In December, 1932, at Santa Clara, the CNOC sponsored organization of a sugar workers' union and the strike. Communists dominated this meeting and sugar workers5 union and the strike. Communists dominated this meeting and maintained that about 20,000 workers participated in the strike that followed. maintained that about 20,000 workers participated in the strike that followed. The trade union (Sindicato Nacional Obrera de la Industria Azucarera) which The trade union (Sindicato Nacional Obrera de la Industria Azucarera) which resulted was Cuba's first national sugar workers' unionY As U.S. business resulted was Cuba's first national sugar workers' union.11 As U.S. business interests became increasingly alarmed over the strike, North American inter- interests became increasingly alarmed over the strike, North American inter

8. A History of the Cuban Republic (New York: Macmillan, 1927), p. 627. 8. A History of the Cuban Republic (New York: Macmillan, 1927), p. 627. 9.9· Ibid.,Ibid., p. 51!7.587. 10. Alexander, pp. 270-272. Regarding the affiliation of the CNOC with the AFL, see also 10. Alexander, pp. 270-272. Regarding the affiliation of the CNOC with the AFL see also Schwarz, p ..p. 166. 166. ' 11.II. Alexander, pp_pp. '271-272.271-272.

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vention once more seemed a strong possibility in Cuba, and might have taken vention once more seemed a strong possibility in Cuba, and might have taken place had it not been for the recommendations of the new U.S. Ambassador, place had it not been for the recommendations of the new U.S. Ambassador, Sumner Welles. The Communists, fearing "imperialist intervention," attempted Sumner Welles. The Communists, fearing "imperialist intervention," attempted to call off the proposed general strike. They were unsuccessful, however, as to call off the proposed general strike. They were unsuccessful, however, as other elements in the labor movement continued agitation.12 The strike forced other elements in the labor movement continued agitation.12 The strike forced Machado to relinquish his office in August of 1933, and by September 5 Ser­ Machado to relinquish his office in August of 1933, and by September 5 Ser geant Fulgencio Batista had firm control of the Cuban government.13 geant Fulgencio Batista had firm control of the Cuban government.13 On September 10 a provisional government headed by Ram6n Grau San On September 10 a provisional government headed by Ram0n Grau San Martin was established. Real control, however, remained in the hands of Batista., Martin was established. Real control, however, remained in the hands of Batista, as it did throughout the parade of chiefs-of-state who followed Grau until as it did throughout the parade of chiefs-of-state who followed Grau until BatistaBatista himself himself became President became in 1940.President in 1940. President Grau promoted improved working conditions for the urban President Grau promoted improved working conditions for the urban workers during the three and one-half months he was in office. He secured for workers during the three and one-half months he was in office. He secured for urban workers paid vacations, the eight hour work day, and higher wages. The urban workers paid vacations, the eight hour work day, and higher wages. The Communists, however, were also able to strengthen their position considerably, Communists, however, were also able to strengthen their position considerably, and they bitterly opposed what they called a "bourgeois-landlord" government. and they bitterly opposed what they called a "bourgeois-landlord" government. They worked for the establishment of a worker and peasant soviet system, They worked for the establishment of a worker and peasant soviet system, openly calling for the overthrow of the new government. During 1933 most of openly calling for the overthrow of the new government. During 1933 most of the country's trade unions joined the Communist-dominated CNOCY the country's trade unions joined the Communist-dominated CNOC.14 Ruling by virtue of his control of the army from 1933 to I944, Batista gave Ruling by virtue of his control of the army from 1933 to 1944, Batista gave thethe Cuban Cuban republic republic the best government the best it hadgovernment ever known. His it administrat­ had ever known. His administrat ions, although totalitarian, were not as harsh as Machado's and were successful ions, although totalitarian, were not as harsh as Machado's and were successful in substantially advancing the lot of the workers, in improving relations with in substantially advancing the lot of the workers, in improving relations with the United States, and in promoting internal peace, stability, and prosperity. the United States, and in promoting internal peace, stability, and prosperity. Batista profited handsomely from this prosperity, but so did the country in Batista profited handsomely from this prosperity, but so did the country in general. Labor organization continued to be heavily infiltrated by the Communists Labor organization continued to be heavily infiltrated by the Communists following the overthrow of Grau San Martin. In 1934 Bias Roca, a Party following the overthrow of Grau San Martin. In 1934 Bias Roca, a Party member since 1929, became the Secretary General of the Cuban Communist member since 1929, became the Secretary General of the Cuban Communist Party and has played a leading role in it ever since. The stronghold of the Party and has played a leading role in it ever since. The stronghold of the Communists continued to be the CNOC, which claimed to represent 300,000 Communists continued to be the CNOC, which claimed to represent 300,000 Cuban workers in January, I934. The Communist Party itself grew impressively Cuban workers in January, 1934. The Communist Party itself grew impressively after I934, the majority of its leaders claiming to be workers or "workers' after 1934, the majority of its leaders claiming to be workers or "workers' representatives." Also, front organizations were maintained, even after the representatives." Also, front organizations were maintained, even after the PartyParty waswas legalized legalized again. again. A strong A strong anti-Communist anti-Communist element element in the in labor the labor movement remained, however, and the issue of control was in question for movement remained, however, and the issue of control was in question for

12.12. Smith,Smith, pp.pp. 148-149; 148-149; Alexander, Alexander, p. 272.p. 272. I3. Fulgencio Batista Zaldivar, Respuesta... (Mexico: Imprenta "Manuel Le6n Sanchez", 13. Fulgencio Batista Zaldivar, Respuesta.. . (Mexico: Imprenta "Manuel Leon Sanchez", i960),1960 ), pp. pp. 25, 25, 386, 386, 393. 393. 14.14· Alexander,Alexander, p.p. 273. 273.

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several years. 1. several years.15 A general strike, begun by students in February, 1935, resulted in a crack~ A general strike, begun by students in February, 1935, resulted in a crack down on Communists and organized labor in Cuba. What began as a student­ down on Communists and organized labor in Cuba. What began as a student teacher strike to improve school facilities and teachers' salaries developed into teacher strike to improve school facilities and teachers' salaries developed into a general strike to overthrow the government of Provisional President Carlos a general strike to overthrow the government of Provisional President Carlos Mendieta when labor unions joined in sympathy with the students. The non­ Mendieta when labor unions joined in sympathy with the students. The non Communist unions unions took the took lead in the this leadaction inwhich this aimed action at the which establish­ aimed at the establish ment of "a civil government without Batista."16 The CNOC finally declared ment of "a civil government without Batista."16 The CNOC finally declared for the strike on March 10. The strike was ruthlessly suppressed by the govern­ for the strike on March 10. The strike was ruthlessly suppressed by the govern ment, and a reign of terror followed that effectively drove all political ment, and a reign of terror followed that effectively drove all political opposition into exile or underground. This oppressive rule continued for more opposition into exile or underground. This oppressive rule continued for more than two years. Toward the end of 1937 the restrictions eased. Although the than two years. Toward the end of 1937 the restrictions eased. Although the Communist Party was still illegal, Batista permitted the formation of a major Communist Party was still illegal, Batista permitted the formation of a major Communist front political party, the Partido Uni6n Revolucionaria (PUR), Communist front political party, the Partido Union Revolucionaria (PUR), headed by Juan Marinello, and in May, I939, allowed the publication of a headed by Juan Marinello, and in May, 1939, allowed the publication of a party organ, Hoy, edited by Anfbal Escalante. By the summer of 1938 it was party organ, Hoy, edited by Anibal Escalante. By the summer of 1938 it was clear that a truce, or compromise, had taken place between the Communists clear that a truce, or compromise, had taken place between the Communists and Batista. At its Tenth Plenum, convened in June, the Party adopted reso­ and Batista. At its Tenth Plenum, convened in June, the Party adopted reso lutions which clearly abandoned the former antagonistic attitude toward the lutions which clearly abandoned the former antagonistic attitude toward the ex-sergeant, and, in fact, agreed to support him. Following a meeting between ex-sergeant, and, in fact, agreed to support him. Following a meeting between Batista and top Communist leaders a week later, it appeared that in return for Batista and top Communist leaders a week later, it appeared that in return for Communist backing of the government, the Communists were assured control Communist backing of the government, the Communists were assured control of the trade union movement. Shortly thereafter, Batista stated that the Com­ of the trade union movement. Shortly thereafter, Batista stated that the Com munist Party was entitled to legal recognition which it was formally granted munist Party was entitled to legal recognition which it was formally granted in SeptemberY in September.17 Immediately, the Communists proceeded to reorganize the labor movement Immediately, the Communists proceeded to reorganize the labor movement under their control. In January, 1939, the Confederaci6n de Trabajadores de under their control. In January, 1939, the Confederacion de Trabajadores de Cuba (CTC) was established under the leadership of Communist Lazaro Peiia; Cuba (CTC) was established under the leadership of Communist Lazaro Pena, tobacco workers' chief. It gained the adherence of most of the urban labor tobacco workers' chief. It gained the adherence of most of the urban labor unions and soon represented a membership of 5°0,000. The CTC established unions and soon represented a membership of 500,000. The CTC established relations with the Communists' regional labor federation, the Conferaci6n de relations with the Communists' regional labor federation, the ConferacicSn de Trabajadores de America Latina (OTAL).18 Moreover, the Ministry of Labor, Trabajadores de America Latina (GTAL).18 Moreover, the Ministry of Labor, dominated by members of the Communist Party, favored the Communists and dominated by members of the Communist Party, favored the Communists and the Communist-dominated unions in arbitrations and hearings.19 the Communist-dominated unions in arbitrations and hearings.19 During these years of Batista's control, labor enjoyed considerable advance- During these years of Batista's control, labor enjoyed considerable advance ment and improvement of conditions and urban labor especially come to be one ment and improvement of conditions and urban labor especially come to be one 15· 5? Ibid., Ibid., pp. ~75-177.pp. 275-277. 16. Ibid.Ibid. 17.%7· Ibid.,Ibid., pp.pp. 277-279. 277-279. 18. Schwarz,Schwarz. p.. 166. 166. 19·19. Alexander,Alexander. pp.pp. 279-281. ~79-28L

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of his major sources of support. The Communists claimed credit for the of his major sources of support. The Communists claimed credit for the advances. The Communist Party and the PUR were united into the Uni6n advances. The Communist Party and the PUR were united into the Union Revolucionaria Comunista (URC) and, in the election held late in 1939 for the Revolucionaria Comunista (URC) and, in the election held late in 1939 for the Constitutional Convention, six of their candidates won seats. Additional bene­ Constitutional Convention, six of their candidates won seats. Additional bene fits were given to labor in the Constitution of 1940 which was drawn up by the fits were given to labor in the Constitution of 1940 which was drawn up by the Convention with Batista's backing. The section dealing with labor was one of Convention with Batista's backing. The section dealing with labor was one of the most advanced in the Americas. Bias Roca, Juan Marinello, and other the most advanced in the Americas. Blas Roca, Juan Marinello, and other Communist leaders insisted that they were responsible for the labor provisions.·o Communist leaders insisted that they were responsible for the labor provisions.20 Article 60 declared: "Labor is an inalienable right of the individual. The State Article 60 declared: "Labor is an inalienable right of the individual. The State shall employ all the resources in its power to provide an occupation for every­ shall employ all the resources in its power to provide an occupation for every one who lacks such, and shall assure the economic conditions necessary for a one who lacks such, and shall assure the economic conditions necessary for a proper existence to every worker, manual or intellectual."·1 Among the assu­ proper existence to every worker, manual or intellectual."21 Among the assu rances to labor under the new Constitution were the following: equal pay for rances to labor under the new Constitution were the following: equal pay for equal work; payment in legal tender only; provision for social insurance; eight­ equal work; payment in legal tender only; provision for social insurance; eight hour work day and 44-hour work week; child labor prohibition; one month hour work day and 44-hour work week; child labor prohibition; one month annual paid vacation; maternity benefits; right to organize and to strike; low­ annual paid vacation; maternity benefits; right to organize and to strike; low cost government housing development; protection from foreign competition in cost government housing development; protection from foreign competition in employment; and regulations and standards regarding labor contracts.·2 employment; and regulations and standards regarding labor contracts.22 Cooperation between Batista and the Communists continued through World Cooperation between Batista and the Communists continued through World War II, and the labor unions, a bulwark of support for the President, continued War II, and the labor unions, a bulwark of support for the President, continued to serve as their focal point. They made a strong appeal for popular support, to serve as their focal point. They made a strong appeal for popular support, an important part it by means of their control of Radio Station IOIO, an importantoJ part of it by means of their control of Radio Station 1010, which they they gained gained with money with raised money in the name raised of the inCTC. the The name number of the CTC. The number of registered Communist voters increased from 90,000 in 1940 to 150,000 by of registered Communist voters increased from 90,000 in 1940 to 150,000 by 1946, and they elected several of their members, including CTC chief Lazaro 1946, and they elected several of their members, including CTC chief Lazaro Pefia, to the national Congress. The daily newspaper, Hoy, and other Com­ Pena, to the national Congress. The daily newspaper, Hoy, and other Com munist publications greatly increased circulation, and in March, 1943, Juan munist publications greatly increased circulation, and in March, 1943, Juan Marinello became the first Latin American Communist to hold a cabinet post.·8 Marinello became the first Latin American Communist to hold a cabinet post.28 In the election of 1944 the Communists supported the Batista candidate who In the election of 1944 the Communists supported the Batista candidate who was refeated by Grau San Martin, although they elected nine candidates of was refeated by Grau San Martin, although they elected nine candidates of their own to the Chamber of Deputies and three more to the Senate. their own to the Chamber of Deputies and three more to the Senate. During the war, the Communists changed their party name in Cuba to the During the war, the Communists changed their party name in Cuba to the Partido Socialista Popular (PSP). Batista insisted that his cooperation with Partido Socialista Popular (PSP). Batista insisted that his cooperation with the PSP was necessary for the struggle against Nazi-fascism. He later claimed the PSP was necessary for the struggle against Nazi-fascism. He later claimed that he made an important distinction, however, between international com­ that he made an important distinction, however, between international com munism, as represented by Lazaro Pefia, and local communism, as represented munism, as represented by Lazaro Pena, and local communism, as represented 20.20. Ibid., Ibid., pp. 280-282.pp. 280-282. n. Russel H. Fitzgibbon, ed., "Constitution of the Republic of Cuba," Th. Constitutions of the 21.Ameritas R?ssel (as of . JanuaryFitzgibbon, I, I948) , (Chicago:ed., "Constitution University of Chicago of Press, the 1948), Republic p. 240. of Cuba," The Constitutions of the Americas (as of January 1, 1948J, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1948), p. 240 22. Ibid., Ibid., pp. 240-244.pp. 240-244. 23· Marinello was named "Minister Without Portfolio." Alexander, pp. 283-284. 23. Marinello was named "Minister Without Portfolio." Alexander, pp. 283-284.

This content downloaded from 129.252.86.83 on Tue, 26 Sep 2017 22:56:31 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms CARIBBEANCARIBBEAN STUDIES STUDIES / /VOL. VOL. 3 3NO. NO. 3 3 23 by Eusebio Mujal, who quit the PSP for the Autentico Party.24 by Eusebio Mujal, who quit the PSP for the A Party.24 The growing strength of the Autenticos, climaxed by the election of Grau, The growing strength of the Autenticos, climaxed by the election of Grau, was reflected in their attempts to take control of the CTC. In 1944 some of the was reflected in their attempts to take control of the CTC. In 1944 some of the leading members of the CTC were Autenticos, and they made a definite move leading members of the CTC were Autenticos, and they made a definite move to gain control of the organization from the Communists. Chief among these to gain control of the organization from the Communists. Chief among these Autenticos, claiming they were the legitimate founders of the central labor Autenticos, claiming they were the legitimate founders of the central labor federation, was Eusebio Mujal. The election of Grau San Mardn forced the federation, was Eusebio Mujal. The election of Grau San Martin forced the to Communists to come toto an agreement withwith thethe Autenticos Autenticos in in order order to to maintain maintain their position after 1944. In July of 1944 Lazaro Pefia led a CTC delegation their position after 1944. In July of 1944 Lazaro Pena led a CTC delegation to meet with the new president. Subsequently, it became apparent that Pefia to meet with the new president. Subsequently, it became apparent that Pena would remain as Secretary General of the labor central. In addition, the Com­ would remain as Secretary General of the labor central. In addition, the Com munists in the Ministry of Labor would continue to play a significant role in munists in the Ministry of Labor would continue to play a significant role in labor affairs. Politically, in return for these concessions, the Communists sup­ labor affairs. Politically, in return for these concessions, the Communists sup ported and cooperated with the Autentico administration.'6 ported and cooperated with the Autentico administration.25 Post war developments in International Communist propaganda and action Post war developments in International Communist propaganda and action 'were reflected in the PSP, and stimulated an upsurge of anti-Communism in were reflected in the PSP, and stimulated an upsurge of anti-Communism in Cuba. The new Cuban Minister of Labor, Carlos Pdo Socarra.s, was anti­ Cuba. The new Cuban Minister of Labor, Carlos Prio Socarras, was anti Communist, but had gone along with the Autentico-Communist coalition. Communist, but had gone along with the Autentico-Communist coalition. Beginning in February, 1946, however, the Cuban Communists shifted from a Beginning in February, 1946, however, the Cuban Communists shifted from a "national unity" to a strong "anti-imperialism" line. The formal break come at "national unity" to a strong "anti-imperialism" line. The formal break come at the Fifth Congress of the CTC held in May, 1947, when the Autenticos again the Fifth Congress of the CTC held in May, 1947, when the Autenticos again tried to gain control. Violence broke out when the Communists refused to agree tried to gain control. Violence broke out when the Communists refused to agree to replace Peiia as Secretary Genreal with an Autentico or an independent. The to replace Pena as Secretary Genreal with an Autentico or an independent. The murder of an Autentico delegate the night before the meeting was blamed on murder of an Aut?ntico delegate the night before the meeting was blamed on the Communists, and Labor Minister Pdo immediately suspended the meeting. the Communists, and Labor Minister Prio immediately suspended the meeting. WhenWhen thethe ConventionConvention waswas heldheld later,later, thethe CommunistsCommunists reelectedreelected LazaroLazaro PenaPeiia as Secretary General and 24 members of the 47-man Executive Council, thus as Secretary General and 24 members of the 47-man Executive Council, thus assuring themselves of continued control "of the organization. The Autenticos assuring themselves of continued control of the organization. The Airtinticos thereupon held their own convention and elected Angel Cofmo as Secretary thereupon held their own convention and elected Angel Cofino as Secretary General and an Executive Council controlled by Autenticos and independents. General and an Executive Council controlled by A a^ and independents. Thus, the split was complete. The Ministry of Labor at first stayed neutral in Thus, the split was complete. The Ministry of Labor at first stayed neutral in the struggle for control of the CTC. In the summer of 1947, however, Pdo the struggle for control of the CTC. In the summer of 1947, however, Prio removed Communists from the Workers' Palace which was being constructed removedin Havana Communists as a headquarters from thefor Workers'the CTC. PalaceThis was which followed was being later constructedin the year in Havana as a headquarters for the CTC. This was followed later in the year 24· Batista, pp. 443-445. Batista wrote in 1960 that he had been aware of and had recognized the 24?difference Batista, between pp. 443-445- "comunismo Batista wrotedel patio" in i960 and that "comunismo he had been internacional" aware of and as hadrepresented recognized in the "pe1eadifference ... entre between el comunista "comunismo Lbaro del Peiiapatio" y andel 'aut~ntico' "comunismo Eusebio international" Mujal." Aulenlicos as represented was the in thename "pelea... adopted entre by the el Partidocomunista Revolucionaria L?zaro Pena Cubano y el 'autentico' of Grau SanEusebio Martin. Mujal." It was Autenticos the most wasimpor­ the nametant non-Communist adopted by the left-wing Partido Revolucionariaparty in Cuba Cubanofrom 1935 of Grau on. MujalSan Martin. deserted It wasthe theCommunists most impor for tant non-Communist left-wing party in Cuba from 1935 on. Mujal deserted the Communists for the Aut~ticos shortly after it was founded and became" their leading labor organizer. He was the Autenticos shortly after it was founded and became their leading labor organizer. He was Batista'sBatista's czarczar ofof laborlabor from 1952-1958.1952-1958. 25.25. Alexander,Alexander, pp.'pp. 28,-286.285-286.

This content downloaded from 129.252.86.83 on Tue, 26 Sep 2017 22:56:31 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms *4 I.I. ARTICLES by a general purge of Communists. Lazaro Peiia and over a hundred other by a general purge of Communists. Lazaro Pena and over a hundred other Communists were arrested and the Communist propaganda organs were first Communists were arrested and the Communist propaganda organs were first censored and then suppressed, including Radio Station IOIO which was con­ censored and then suppressed, including Radio Station ioio which was con fiscated in I948. Gradually, and accompanied by a good deal of violence, the fiscated in 1948. Gradually, and accompanied by a good deal of violence, the chief unions went over to the Autentico branch of the CTC, especially after the chief unions went over to the Autentico branch of the CTC, especially after the government extended recognition to that faction. The important Maritime government extended recognition to that faction. The important Maritime Workers' Federation was followed by large factions of sugar workers, tobacco Workers' Federation was followed by large factions of sugar workers, tobacco workers, and others. Communist strength in the labor movement 'dwindled workers, and others. Communist strength in the labor movement dwindled steadily thereafter, and by the early 1950'S it was but a skeleton organization.2s steadily thereafter, and by the early 1950's it was but a skeleton organization.26 Pdo Socarras successfully carried the Communism issue into the political cam­ Prio Socarras successfully carried the Communism issue into the political cam pagin of 1948: "The first step," he declared in that campaign, "is to remove pagin of 1948: "The first step," he declared in that campaign, "is to remove the mask of the Communists and expose their ultimate aim of world domination. the mask of the Communists and expose their ultimate aim of world domination. My idea is to destroy the Communist Party in Cuba."" My idea is to destroy the Communist Party in Cuba."27 Inflation following the end of World War II increased the cost of living of Inflation following the end of World War II increased the cost of living of urban workers without corresponding increases in wages. Furthermore, wide­ urban workers without corresponding increases in wages. Furthermore, wide spread graft and corruption under the Grau government increased dissatisfaction spread graft and corruption under the Grau government increased dissatisfaction with the government. Under Pdo these trends continued as did repression of with the government. Under Prio these trends continued as did repression of political opposition and' suppression of individual liberty. The reforms and political opposition and suppression of individual liberty. The reforms and advances of the Constitution of I940 remained on paper, but nowhere else. By advances of the Constitution of 1940 remained on paper, but nowhere else. By 1952 much of labor, as well as large segments of the rest of the population and 1952 much of labor, as well as large segments of the rest of the population and foreign investors, were anxious for a change, but there was little· hope that the foreign investors, were anxious for a change, but there was little hope that the election of that year would satisfactorily provide a solution. Thus, when Ful­ election of that year would satisfactorily provide a solution. Thus, when Ful gencio Batista moved to take power with a coup d'etat on March IO, I952, the gencio Batista moved to take power with a coup d'etat on March 10, 1952, the government was able to marshal little support against Batista. Pdo called for government was able to marshal little support against Batista. Prio called for a general strike, but it received little support, partly because Batista had already a general strike, but it received little support, partly because Batista had already taken control of the radio and TV stations by the time the CTC declared for taken control of the radio and TV stations by the time the CTC declared for the strike. Batista responded with a decree outlawing strikes for 45 days and the strike. Batista responded with a decree outlawing strikes for 45 days and made it clear that the decree would be enforced. A terrorist labor organization made it clear that the decree would be enforced. A terrorist labor organization which had operated during the administration of President Pdo, the Acci6n which had operated during the administration of President Prio, the Accion Revolucionaria Guiteras, became ineffective as its leaders went into voluntary Revolucionaria Guiteras, became ineffective as its leaders went into voluntary exile when Batista took over.f8 Prio took asylum in the Mexican Embassy. The exile when Batista took over.28 Prio took asylum in the Mexican Embassy. The 26. Ibid., pp.pp. 286,'292.286-292. 27· Ruby Hart Phillips, Cuba, Island of Paradox (New York: McDowell, Obolensky, 1:959), p.P·245· 245. 27. Ruby Hart Phillips, Cuba, Island of Paradox (New York: McDowell, Obolensky, i95S>)> 28 .. Edmond A. Chester, A Sergeant Named Batista (New York: Henry Holt, 1:954), pp. 237- 28.2 38. Edmond The ARG A. Chester, is described A Sergeant by Chester Named as "oneBatista of (Newthe most York: feared Henry terrorist Holt, 1954),organiutions PP in 237-238.Cu~a" before The ARG Batista is described returned by to Chester power. asTaking "one of its the name most from feared an terroristearlier Cuban organizations terrorist, in Antonio Cuba"GU1t~ca.s, before Chester Batista estimated returned its to membership power. Taking at betweenits name twofrom and an threeearlier thousand, Cuban terrorist, operating Antonio as virtually Guiteras,a PItVate Chester army. estimatedChester say.: its membership "After a certain at between amount two of and killing three thousand,and slugging operating and threatening, as virtually a~e private c~G army.took overChester the says;bus drivers'"After aunion, certain which amount provided of killing one andof the slugging best sources and threatening, of income the~~ t:'ARG ad, tookorganized over thelabor. bus Somedrivers' of union,the members which ofprovided the ARG one actually of the besttook sourcesjobs as ofbus income drivers indevel:~ed Cuban organized:1: wbul~ labor. appear Some to haveof the s~me members lawful ofmeans the ARGof earning actually a tooklivelihood. jobs as Outbus driversof this rT tiXat jheye awoulc* sur case appear of the to bushave dnver some who lawful always means had oftwo earning armed bodya livelihood. guards sitting Out of in this the developed the absurd case of the bus driver who always had two armed body guards sitting in the

This content downloaded from 129.252.86.83 on Tue, 26 Sep 2017 22:56:31 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms CARIBBEAN STUDIES STUDIES / /VOL. VOL. 3 3NO.3 NO. 3 general dissatisfaction with his government, and the fact that it was Batista, general dissatisfaction with his government, and the fact that it was Batista, more than any other single figure in Cuban history, who had improved the more than any other single figure in Cuban history, who had improved the actual conditions of the urban laborer in Cuba, explain best the reasons for the actual conditions of the urban laborer in Cuba, explain best the reasons for the failure of the general strike. failure of the general strike. Batista brought limited prosperity and economic growth to Cuba, although Batista brought limited prosperity and economic growth to Cuba, although political freedom continued to suffer. After his first meeting with the dictator, political freedom continued to suffer. After his first meeting with the dictator, U.S. Ambassador Earl Smith described Batista as "a tough guy with bull-like U.S. Ambassador Earl Smith described Batista as "a tough guy with bull-like strength and exuding a forceful, agreeable personality. Here was an extra­ strength and exuding a forceful, agreeable personality. Here was an extra ordinary example," he said, "of a virile man of the soil and of mixed ante­ ordinary example," he said, "of a virile man of the soil and of mixed ante cedents, who had projected himself from a simple sergeant to the Presidency of cedents, who had projected himself from a simple sergeant to the Presidency of his country."29 He was successful in attracting more North American invest­ his country."20 He was successful in attracting more North American invest ments and tourists. To these ends he worked closely with the United States, ments and tourists. To these ends he worked closely with the United States, first through American Ambassador Arthur Gardner and later through Smith. first through American Ambassador Arthur Gardner and later through Smith. Smith himself claimed that "the American Ambassador in Cuba held a position Smith himself claimed that "the American Ambassador in Cuba held a position second only to the President of Cuba because of our vast business, cultural and second only to the President of Cuba because of our vast business, cultural and socialsocial ties."30ties."aG The economic progress, however, was accompanied by terrorism, torture, The economic progress, however, was accompanied by terrorism, torture, repraisals, and political suffocation. As Hubert Herring put it: "Under Batista repraisals, and political suffocation. As Hubert Herring put it: "Under Batista Cuba had everything - except liberty."al Furthermore, some segments of the Cuba had everything ? except liberty."81 Furthermore, some segments of the population, especially the agrarian workers, did not share the prosperity. The population, especially the agrarian workers, did not share the prosperity. The distribution of the wealth in Cuba had aways been one sided. The fact that distribution of the wealth in Cuba had aways been one sided. The fact that Cuha had one of the highest per-capita incomes in Latin America reflected only Cuba had one of the highest per-capita incomes in Latin America reflected only its greater urban population with a money economy, not the condition of the its greater urban population with a money economy, not the condition of the agrarian masses. But, for the urban worker, although there were limits, the agrarian masses. But, for the urban worker, although there were limits, the period of Batista's rule brought higher wages and generally improved living period of Batista's rule brought higher wages and generally improved living conditions, plus a sense of political importance, as the unions were, with the conditions, plus a sense of political importance, as the unions were, with the army, important pilars of strength for the regime. army, important pilars of strength for the regime. The Communists were able to regain some of their lost ground in the labor The Communists were able to regain some of their lost ground in the labor movement following the Batista coup, in spite of the fact that the Party was movementillegal. Some following of the the leading Batista Communistscoup, in spite wereof the exiled, fact that and the the Party Communist was illegal. Some of the leading Communists were exiled, and the Communist organization remained underground, stiU headed by BIas Roca, but at the same organization remained underground, still headed by Bias Roca, but at the same time" several Communist labor leaders were given jobs in the Ministry of Labor. time several Communist labor leaders were given jobs in the Ministry of Labor. rear of the vehicle." The ARG was led by a lawyer. Dr. Eufemio Fernandez, who served Prio as rearChief of of the the vehicle." Secret The\Police ARG briefly was led and by whoma lawyer, Chester Dr. Eufemio described Fernandez, as "a strange who served mixture Prio of as culture Chiefand violence,"of the Secret and (PoliceJesUs brieflyGonzalez and Cartas, whom Chesterknown asdescribed "El Emano," as "a strange and whommixture Chester of culture said was and"all violence,"violence." andThese Jesus men Gonz?lez took asylum Cartas, in known the Guatemalan as "El Extrano," embassy and On whom March Chester 10 and said a fewwas days "alllater violence." leftleft for Guatemala.These men took asylum in the Guatemalan embassy on March 10 and a few days 29· Earl E. T. Smith, The Fourth Floo,; an account of the Castro Communist Ref/oluJion (New York: 29. RandomEarl E. T. House,Smith, 1962),The Fourth pp. 15'16.Floor; an account of the Castro Communist Revolution (New York: Random House, 1962), pp. 15-16. 30.30. Ibid.,Ibid., p.p. 13.13. 3I. A History of Latin America from Ihe Beginnings to the Present, 2d ed. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf,31. A History I96I), of p. Latin 414. AmericaOne of fromthe most the Beginningsbitter condemnations to the Present, of the 2d Batistaed. (New regime York: ofAlfred terror is A.found Knopf, in Ray1961), Brennan, p. 414. OneCastro, of the Cuba most and bitter lustt

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While the Communists maintained an underground organization on the one While the Communists maintained an underground organization on the one hand, at the same time many of them joined the government party, the Partido hand, at the same time many of them joined the government party, the Partido Acci6n Progresista (PAP) and participated in Batista's Bloque Obrero of the Accion Progresista (PAP) and participated in Batista's Bloque Obrero of the PAP.3! Nevertheless, this was a period during which the Communists officially PAP.32 Nevertheless, this was a period during which the Communists officially were illegal, and as such confined their operations to political education, infil­ were illegal, and as such confined their operations to political education, infil tration into high offices, subversion, etc., but not to organized party activities tration into high offices, subversion, etc., but not to organized party activities in the open. Their strength lay almost entirely among the urban workers (and in the open. Their strength lay almost entirely among the urban workers (and there it was not large), with practically no support in rural Cuba. A Bureau for there it was not large), with practically no support in rural Cuba. A Bureau for the Repression of Communist Activities (BRAC) was established and the Com­ the Repression of Communist Activities (BRAC) was established and the Com munists were subject to a wave of terror, assassinations, and other acts of munists were subject to a wave of terror, assassinations, and other acts of violence from I957 forward. Batista began to call all of his opponents "Com­ violence from 1957 forward. Batista began to call all of his opponents "Com munists," a technique which later played into the hands of the "real" Com"' munists," a technique which later played into the hands of the "real" Com munistsmunists whenwhen Batista Batista was was overthrown. overthrown. Meanwhile, although the Communists attempted infiltration and subversion, Meanwhile, although the Communists attempted infiltration and subversion, they were unable to unseat Eusebio Mujal from his controlling position. Under they were unable to unseat Eusebio Mujal from his controlling position. Under his iron rule, the CTC, claiming over a million members, strongly supported his iron rule, the CTC, claiming over a million members, strongly supported the Batista government and, although the central labor federation promoted the Batista government and, although the central labor federation promoted improved working conditions and pay, it was also used as a political instrument improved working conditions and pay, it was also used as a political instrument to support the government. Eusebio Mujal personally benefitted handsomely for to support the government. Eusebio Mujal personally benefitted handsomely for his support, receiving an estimated $280,000 income in 1958, plus other material his support, receiving an estimated $280,000 income in 1958, plus other material benefits.33benefits.38 . Positive benefits to the laboring class under Batista included a few inexpen­ Positive benefits to the laboring class under Batista included a few inexpen sive housing developments, increased emploY1Dent through an expanded public workssive housing program, developments, generally increasedhigher wages employment (although through inflation an expanded tended publicto cancel works program, generally higher wages (although inflation tended to cancel out much of the value of these), and improved medical services and insurance. out much of the value of these), and improved medical services and insurance. The advances made by labor in no sense, however, were the result of a free The advances made by labor in no sense, however, were the result of a free organized labor movement acting in its own behalf. Strikes and other labor organized labor movement acting in its own behalf. Strikes and other labor demonstrations were discouraged and, if necessary, suppressed by the Ministry demonstrations were discouraged and, if necessary, suppressed by the Ministry of Labor with the cooperation of the CTC leadership. It became increasingly ofclear Labor that with the the organized cooperation urban of thelabor CTC unions leadership. were instrumentsIt became increasingly of power for clear that the organized urban labor unions were instruments of power for Batista,Batista, not not organizations organizations for for the the advancement advancement of theof thelabor labor force. force. The benefitsThe b~efits gained were necessary to insure continued support of the workers of the gained were necessary to insure continued support of the workers of the regime and the system. Control over local unions was maintained closely in the regimehands ofand Mujal the system. and the Control Executive over Council local unions of the was CTC. maintained A good closely example in theof this hands of Mujal and the Executive Council of the CTC. A good example of this policy took place in May of 1957, when the CTC leadership determined to get policyrid of tookElectrical place inWorkers' May of Union1957, when chief the Angel CTC Cofmo.leadership On determined suspicion ofto engagingget ridin sabotage,of Electrical Cofino Workers' was Unionremoved chief from Angel his Cofino. post asOn Secretary suspicion ofGeneral engaging of the unionin sabotage, and from Cofino the was Executive removed Council from his of postthe CTCas Secretary along withGeneral other of electricalthe union and from the Executive Council of the CTC along with other electrical 32.32. Alexander,Alexander, pp.pp. 292-294. 292'294. 33.33. Brennan,Brennan, pp.pp. 185-186.r8s-r86.

This content downloaded from 129.252.86.83 on Tue, 26 Sep 2017 22:56:31 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms CARIBBEAN STUDIES / VOL. 3 NO. 3 CARIBBEAN STUDIES / VOL. 3 NO. 3 27 union leaders. When electrical workers began a sit-dawn strike in protest, the union leaders. When electrical workers began a sit-dawn strike in protest, the Labor Ministry warned that their action was illegal and that those participating Labor Ministry warned that their action was illegal and that those participating could be arrested and dismissed from their jobs. The strike continued spas­ could be arrested and dismissed from their jobs. The strike continued spas modically and, for short periods, the telephone workers joined in sympathy. modically and, for short periods, the telephone workers joined in sympathy. Finally, Batista appointed an interventor for the Cuban Electrical Company Finally, Batista appointed an interventor for the Cuban Electrical Company who ordered all strikers back to work within 24 hours. Cofino, decided the who ordered all strikers back to work within 24 hours. Cofino, decided the strike was serving no useful purpose, and, after receiving a promise that the strike was serving no useful purpose, and, after receiving a promise that the company would not penalize any of his followers, ordered his men back to company would not penalize any of his followers, ordered his men back to work. He then left Cuba and joined the growing number of exiles working for work. He then left Cuba and joined the growing number of exiles working for Batista's overthrow.overthrow.3484 The government used the labor unions in Havana to support itself. The The government used the labor unions in Havana to support itself. The workers were mobilized for pro-Batista demonstrations, for breaking up oppo­ workers were mobilized for pro-Batista demonstrations, for breaking up oppo sition groups, for "goon squads" and terrorist gangs used against all enemies sition groups, for "goon squads" and terrorist gangs used against all enemies of the government. There are some signs that Batista may have overplayed his of the government. There are some signs that Batista may have overplayed his hand with labor to the point of alienating middle and upper class groups in hand with labor to the point of alienating middle and upper class groups in Havana. For example, in February, 1958, Batista attempted to gain solid labor Havana. For example, in February, 1958, Batista attempted to gain solid labor backing for his candidates in the forthcoming election by a decree that raised backing for his candidates in the forthcoming election by a decree that raised the minimum wage from $60 to $85 monthly in Havana, $80 in other cities, the minimum wage from $60 to $85 monthly in Havana, $80 in other cities, and $75 in rural communities. The Confederation of Cuban Employers and the and $75 in rural communities. The Confederation of Cuban Employers and the Chamber of Commerce reacted sharply.35 Much of the support which Castro Chamber of Commerce reacted sharply.35 Much of the support which Castro received in his movement against Batista came, not from labor, but from middle received in his movement against Batista came, not from labor, but from middle and even upper class business groups who hoped for an end to the growing and even upper class business groups who hoped for an end to the growing power of the CTC and a freer, but pro-business, political atmosphere. power of the CTC and a freer, but pro-business, political atmosphere.

IIII Fidel Castro's 26th of July Movement had a growing influence on Cuban labor Fidel Castro's 2cTth of July Movement had a growing influence on Cuban labor politics. The personal background of Fidel Castro Ruz had been dealt with in politics. The personal background of Fidel Castro Ruz had been dealt with in sufficientsufficient detail detail elsewhere. elsewhere. That Thathe had he both had old both and old new and connections new connections with with Communists cannot be denied, but there is stilI no certainty as to the degree of Communists cannot be denied, but there is still no certainty as to the degree of this influence when he launched his invasion of Cuba from Mexico in the yacht this influence when he launched his invasion of Cuba from Mexico in the yacht Granma in November, 1956. From its feeble beginnings, the Castro movement Granma in November, 1956. From its feeble beginnings, the Castro movement grew slowly and finally toppled the Batista regime on December 31, 1958. grew slowly and finally toppled the Batista regime on December 31, 1958. Official statements by Castro and other 26th of July Movement leaders Official statements by Castro and other 26th of July Movement leaders prior to the fall of Batista's regime suggested some changes to urban labor, but prior to the fall of Batista's regime suggested some changes to urban labor, but were more specifically concerned with land reform and the agrarian problem. were more specifically concerned with land reform and the agrarian problem. While some of his speeches called for sweeping reforms, Castro's statements While some of his speeches called for sweeping reforms, Castro's statements were not necessarily Communistic. As early as I945, Castro called for labor were not necessarily Communistic. As early as 1945, Castro called for labor 34· Hispanic American Report (Stanford University) (Hereinafter cited as HAR), X (June, 34- Hispanic American Report (Stanford University) (Hereinafter cited as HAR), X (June 1957),I957), 243.243· 35?35. Ibid., XI (Feb.,(Feb., 1958), 1958), 86. 86.

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reform in the form of increased government spending for public works to create reform in the form of increased government spending for public works to create jobs at decent wages and to promote industrialization. As a student at the jobs at decent wages and to promote industrialization. As a student at the University of Havana, Castro is reported to have taken an interest in urban University of Havana, Castro is reported to have taken an interest in urban labor wages, conditions, and grievances.3s In his famous "History will Absolve labor wages, conditions, and grievances.36 In his famous "History will Absolve Me" speech, defending his attack on the Moncada Barracks of July 26, I953, Me" speech, defending his attack on the Moncada Barracks of July 26, 1953, Castro claimed that he hoped to gain the support of, among others: " ... four Castro claimed that he hoped to gain the support of, among others: "... four hundred thousandthousand industrialindustrial andand dock workersworkers whosewhose retirementretirement fundsfunds are are embezzled,embezzled, whose benefitsbenefits are snatchedsnatched away,away, whosewhose homes homes are are wretched wretched habitations, whose wages pass from the hands of the boss to those of the usurer, habitations, whose wages pass from the hands of the boss to those of the usurer, whose future is pay cuts and dismissal, whose life is eternal work and to whom whose future is pay cuts and dismissal, whose life is eternal work and to whom relief comes only in the tomb."37 He proposed solving the housing problem relief comes only in the tomb."37 He proposed solving the housing problem "by reducing rents by fifty percent, exempting houses inhabited by their owners "by reducing rents by fifty percent, exempting houses inhabited by their owners from taxes, tripling the taxes on rented houses, demolishing the slums to erect from taxes, tripling the taxes on rented houses, demolishing the slums to erect in their places modern multiple dwelling buildings, and by financing the con­ in their places modern multiple dwelling buildings, and by financing the con strnction of housing all over the island on a scale never before seen, with the struction of housing all over the island on a scale never before seen, with the criterion that, if the ideal in the country is that each family possess its own plot criterion that, if the ideal in the country is that each family possess its own plot of land, the ideal in the city is that each family own their houseorappartment."s8 of land, the ideal in the city is that each family own their house or appartment."88 From Mexico, in October, 1955, CastroCastro wrotewrote thatthat the Cuban Revolution of the 26th of July "will achieve all reforms within the spirit and practice of the 26th of July "will achieve all reforms within the spirit and practice of our advanced Constitution of 1940," and mentioned specifically the need for our advanced Constitution of 1940," and mentioned specifically the need for 3o unemploymentunemployment insurance.30insurance. InIn the first manifestomanifesto issued issued fromfrom the the Sierra Sierra Maestra Maestra (July 12, 1957), Castro called for "democratization of trade-union politics, (July 12, 1957), Castro called for "democratization of trade-union politics, promoting free elections in all of the unions and industrial federations, ... promoting free elections in all of the unions and industrial federations,. . . establishment of the foundations of agrarian land reform tending toward establishment of the foundations of agrarian land reform tending toward distribution of barren lands, ... adoption of sound financial policy," and distribution of barren lands,. .. adoption of sound financial policy," and "acceleration of the process of industrialization and creation of new jobs."'o "acceleration of the process of industrialization and creation of new jobs."40 There were indications that Fidel was toning down earlier statements in a bid There were indications that Fidel was toning down earlier statements in a bid for aa broader basebase of support. Meanwhile, other exile groups were plotting for the overthrow of the Meanwhile, other exile groups were plotting for the overthrow of the Batista government, and at first were doubtful of the 26th of July Movement. Batista government, and at first were doubtful of the 26th of July Movement. In July of I957 Castro, Raul Chibas, and Felipe Pazos signed a united pact In July of 1957 Castro, Raul Chibas, and Felipe Pazos signed a united pact forming the Council of Cuban Liberation, calling for the people of Cuba to forming the Council of Cuban Liberation, calling for the people of Cuba to form a Revolutionary Civic Front. Exiled labor leaders, having formed a form a Revolutionary Civic Front. Exiled labor leaders, having formed a Directorio Obrero, joined in supporting this group. Castro insisted on domin- Directorio Obrero, joined in supporting this group. Castro insisted on domin

30.36. Brennan,Brennan. pp.pp. 49'50'49-50. 37. Fidel Castro Ruz. La hiItoria me absolverti (Havana: M~ndez. I959). p. II. 37. Fidel Castro Ruz, La historia me absolvera (Havana: M6ndez, 1959), p. 11. 38. Ibid., p.p. I5.15. 39· Daniel James. Cuba, The Fint Soviet Satellite in the Americas (New York: Avon Book Division 39. Daniel of the James, Hearst Cuba,Corporation. The First I96I). Soviet p. 5"2.Satellite in the Americas (New York: Avon Book Division of the Hearst Corporation, 1961), p. 52. 40 . Ibid., pp. 27. 188. citing Luis Conte Agiiero. Los dos rostros de Fidel Castro (Mexico: 40. Ibid., pp. 27, 188, citing Luis Conte Ag?ero, Los dos rostros de Fidel Castro (Mexico: EditorialEditorial Jus,Jus, I960) i960), > p.p. I6I.161.

This content downloaded from 129.252.86.83 on Tue, 26 Sep 2017 22:56:31 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms CARIBBEAN STUDIES / VOL. 3 NO. 3 CARIBBEAN STUDIES / VOL. 3 NO. 3 29 ating all anti-Batista action and refused to accept any sort of a leadership com­ ating all anti-Batista action and refused to accept any sort of a leadership com promise with other exile groups. He insisted on complete removal of the Batista promise with other exile groups. He insisted on complete removal of the Batista government. In January, 1958, Castro accused the other groups of fighting an government. In January, 1958, Castro accused the other groups of fighting an "imaginary revolution" from comfortable quarters in the United States while "imaginary revolution" from comfortable quarters in the United States while the 26th of July Movement was carrying the full burden of the war from the the 26th of July Movement was carrying the full burden of the war from the Sierra Maestra. It became especially clear that "the Castro group was not pleased Sierra Maestra. It became especially clear that the Castro group was not pleased with the role of Carlos Pdo Socarras in the anti-Batista movement, in spite of with the role of Carlos Prio Socarras in the anti-Batista movement, in spite of the financial aid that Pdo had provided. Castro insisted on the selection of the financial aid that Prio had provided. Castro insisted on the selection of Judge Manuel Urrutia LIeo as provisional president to whom the Miami-based Judge Manuel Urrutia Lleo as provisional president to whom the Miami-based group had given only token consideration, leaning more strongly toward a group had given only token consideration, leaning more strongly toward a return of Pdo. On this point Castro determined to remove the 26th of July return of Prio. On this point Castro determined to remove the 26th of July Movement from the Council of Cuban Liberation in January, 1958. Castro's Movement from the Council of Cuban Liberation in January, 1958. Castro's firmfirm attitudeattitude here,here, andand hishis brusk treatment of of internationalinternational economist economist and and banker Felipe Pazos, caused the Hispanic American Report to comment that banker Felipe Pazos, caused the Hispanic American Report to comment that "Castro's 'take'take itit oror leaveleave it' it' attitude attitude smacked smacked of of the the authoritarianism authoritarianism whichwhich he and his followers were purportedly fighting to eliminate."'l The Directorio he and his followers were purportedly fighting to eliminate."41 The Directorio Obrero and Directorio Estudiantil each wrote open letters to Castro pleading Obrero and Directorio Estudiantil each wrote open letters to Castro pleading for compromise and offering to accept Urrutia as provisional president, but no for compromise and offering to accept Urrutia as provisional president, but no agreement could be reached until July, when representatives of the various agreement could be reached until July, when representatives of the various anti-Batista organizationsorganizations metmet inin CaracasCaracas and formedformed a newnew CubanCuban RevoluRevolu­ tionary Civic Front. The endorsement of this pact in mid-August by a number tionary Civic Front. The endorsement of this pact in mid-August by a number of important exiled labor leaders, such as Angel Cofiiio, caused the rebels to of important exiled labor leaders, such as Angel Cofino, caused the rebels to hope that it might influence Cuban labor unions which remained loyal to the hope that it might influence Cuban labor unions which remained loyal to the dictator. The Directorio Obrero worked closely with the Pdo exile group and dictator. The Directorio Obrero worked closely with the Prio exile group and made strenuous efforts to undermine the position of Eusebio Muja1.42 made strenuous efforts to undermine the position of Eusebio Mujal.42 The urban labor unions played a relatively small role in the overthrow of The urban labor unions played a relatively small role in the overthrow of Batista. While certain labor leaders supported the 26th of July Movement and Batista. While certain labor leaders supported the 26th of July Movement and participated in the terrorism and sabotage which plagued Havana from 1956 participated in the terrorism and sabotage which plagued Havana from 1956 through the fall of Batista in December of 1958, these men were few and did through the fall of Batista in December of 1958, these men were few and did not represent the vast majority of workers. In Havana more support was not represent the vast majority of workers. In Havana more support was found in student groups and even among businessmen than from the urban labor found in student groups and even among businessmen than from the urban labor movement. The clandestine "Radio Cuba Libre," which began broadcasting in movement. The clandestine "Radio Cuba Libre," which began broadcasting in early 1957, urged student and labor groups to revolt, but was rewarded with early 1957, urged student and labor groups to revolt, but was rewarded with little success among working class organizations. It became clear that the rebels little success among working class organizations. It became clear that the rebels were hoping to organize a general strike such as that which overthrew Gerardo were hoping to organize a general strike such as that which overthrew Gerardo Machado in 1933, but there seemed to be little chance of success as 1958 began. Machado in 1933, but there seemed to be little chance of success as 1958 began.

-'II. XI (Jan., 1958), 20-21. See also X (Aug., 1957), 351; and X (Oct., 1957), 528. 41.-'12 . XIIbid., (Jan., XI 1958),(May, 1958),20-21. 256;See alsoXI X(Aug., (Aug., 1958), 1957), -'135. 351; See and also X Brennan,(Oct., 1957), pp. 233-23-4; 528. and Leo 42. Huberman Ibtd.t XIand (May, Paul 1958),M. Sweezy, 256; Cuba,XI (Aug., Ana/omy 1958), of 435.a Revolution, See also 2dBrennan, ed. (New pp. York: 233-234; Monthly and Leo Huberman and Paul M. Sweezy, Cuba, Anatomy of a Revolution, 2d ed. (New York: Monthly ReviewReview Press, 1961), 1961), p.p. 65.65.

This content downloaded from 129.252.86.83 on Tue, 26 Sep 2017 22:56:31 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 3? I.I. ARTICLESARTICLES Faced with new government terrorism and repression, the general attitude of Faced with new government terrorism and repression, the general attitude of the Havana worker was not receptive to the 26th of July Movement propa­ the Havana worker was not receptive to the 26th of July Movement propa ganda, especially when existing economic conditions were as good as they were. ganda, especially when existing economic conditions were as good as they were. On February 24, I958, Castro launched a new radio station from Oriente On February 24, 1958, Castro launched a new radio station from Oriente Province, "Radio Rebelde," and announced that the people would soon be Province, "Radio Rebelde," and announced that the people would soon be called upon for a general strike. The campaign for a general strike was sup­ called upon for a general strike. The campaign for a general strike was sup ported by advertisements in the newspapers of other American cities, especially ported by advertisements in the newspapers of other American cities, especially Caracas, where large numbers of exiles were located and where there were Caracas, where large numbers of exiles were located and where there wrere sympathetic, liberal governments!S In March Castro declared that "total war" sympathetic, liberal governments.43 In March Castro declared that "total war" would begin after Easter, with the general strike to begin on April 5. The strike would begin after Easter, with the general strike to begin on April 5. The strike was a fiasco, primarily because the CTC leadership strongly opposed it. There was a fiasco, primarily because the CTC leadership strongly opposed it. There were, actually, many reasons which contributed to the complete failure of the were, actually, many reasons which contributed to the complete failure of the maneuver. Castro lost the element of surprise by announcing the strike in maneuver. Castro lost the element of surprise by announcing the strike in advance, thus permitting Batista to take every precaution to insure that the advance, thus permitting Batista to take every precaution to insure that the strike failed. The police and army were alerted and, under martial law, they strike failed. The police and army were alerted and, under martial law, they were ordered to shoot strikers. Batista guaranteed imunity for any person who were ordered to shoot strikers. Batista guaranteed imunity for any person who killed a striker. He ordered employers who closed their businesses because of killed a striker. He ordered employers who closed their businesses because of the strike imprisoned. CTC chief Mujal announced that strikers would lose their the strike imprisoned. CTC chief Mujal announced that strikers would lose their jobs and right to work, along with pension and other benefits. In a television jobs and right to work, along with pension and other benefits. In a television appearance he announced: "People who treat labor well deserve well of labor, appearance he announced: "People who treat labor well deserve well of labor, and President Batista has done more for labor than any other president Cuba and President Batista has done more for labor than any other president Cuba ever had.""had."44 Some Some labor labor union union members members were were inducted inducted into intothe armedthe armed forces forces for the crisis and were to be issued arms to prevent strikes if necessary. Trade for the crisis and were to be issued arms to prevent strikes if necessary. Trade union leaders suspected of supporting the strike, perhaps as many as 500 of union leaders suspected of supporting the strike, perhaps as many as 500 of them, were arrested. Others were assassinated during the nights that preceeded them, were arrested. Others were assassinated during the nights that preceeded the 5th of April. Finally, the strike itself was poorly coordinated and was !lot the 5th of April. Finally, the strike itself was poorly coordinated and was not supported by all anti-Batista elements. The Directorio Revolucionario (DR), supported by all anti-Batista elements. The Directorio Revolucionario (DR), composed chiefly of students, and strongest in Havana, was feuding with Castro composed chiefly of students, and strongest in Havana, was feuding with Castro over control and direction of the movement, and it determined not to participate over control and direction of the movement, and it determined not to participate in or support the strike. The main issue between the DR and the 26th of July in or support the strike. The main issue between the DR and the 26th of July Movement was again Castro's authoritarian attitude regarding the Cuban Movement was again Castro's authoritarian attitude regarding the Cuban Revolution. Likewise, the Communists refused to support the strike, still Revolution. Likewise, the Communists refused to support the strike, still working at control through their own subversion and infiltration rather than working at control through their own subversion and infiltration rather than by joining with the 26th of July Movement.'5 by joining with the 26th of July Movement.45 Although the government was wholly successful in thwarting the April Although the government was wholly successful in thwarting the April general strike,strike, the the repression repression used used in thisin thisendeavor endeavor served served to create to create a real demanda real demand 43?43· SeeSee HAR HAR (Feb., (Feb., r958), 1958), 88. 88. 44.44· Brennan, p. p.203. 203. 45· HAR, XI (Apri., I958), 203; Huberman and Sweezy, p. 62; Earl E. T. Smith, p. I05; Charles 45? HAR,O. Porter XI and(Apri., Robert 1958), J. Alexander, 203; Huberman The Struggle and Sweezy,for Democracy p. 62; in EarlLatin E. America T. Smith, (New p. 105; Charles O. Porter and Robert J. Alexander, The Struggle for Democracy in Latin America (New York:York: Macmillan, I96r), 1961), p. p.r33. 133.

This content downloaded from 129.252.86.83 on Tue, 26 Sep 2017 22:56:31 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms CARIBBEAN STUDIES / VOL. 3 NO. 3 1 CARIBBEAN STUDIES / VOL. 3 NO. 3 331 among the urban population for an end to the Batista regime. The brutal ter­ among the urban population for an end to the Batista regime. The brutal ter rorism, arrests, tortures, assassinations, and disappearances continued through­ rorism, arrests, tortures, assassinations, and disappearances continued through out the remainder of 1958 and caused a shift among the urban workers. They out the remainder of 1958 and caused a shift among the urban workers. They hailed Castro as a saviour when Batista finally fled. The resistance in the city, hailed Castro as a saviour when Batista finally fled. The resistance in the city, although small in the beginning, drove Batista to the breaking point, and although small in the beginning, drove Batista to the breaking point, and increased repressions resulted in a mass reaction against him. increased repressions resulted in a mass reaction against him. It was not until the summer of 1958 that the Communists joined the 26th' It was not until the summer of 1958 that the Communists joined the 26th of July Movement. The repressive measures employed against them by the of July Movement. The repressive measures employed against them by the government and the realization that the terrorism had given the Castro forces government and the realization that the terrorism had given the Castro forces Rafael a psychologicalpsychological advantage advantage caused caused the theold-time old-time Communist Communist Carlos Carlos Rafael Rodriguez to take the initiative in establi.shing ties with Castro. Havana Rodriguez to take the initiative in establishing ties with Castro. Havana representatives of the 26th of July Movement were cold to an alliance with the representatives of the 26th of July Movement were cold to an alliance with the Communists, but meetings were arranged between Rodriguez and Castro in the Communists, but meetings were arranged between Rodriguez and Castro in the Sierra Maestra. The Communists did not join in the Revolutionary Civic Front Sierra Maestra. The Communists did not join in the Revolutionary Civic Front formed in July, but, by the fall, they had committed themselves to support of formed in July, but, by the fall, they had committed themselves to support of Castro, although they played no important part in Batista's overthrow. Castro, although they played no important part in Batista's overthrow. In September, Radio Rebelde announced that the 26th of July Movement In September, Radio Rebelde announced that the 26th of July Movement was "against interference in the trade unions; for union democracy and free was "against interference in the trade unions; for union democracy and free elections; against the collaborationist policy imposed upon the rank-and-file of elections; against the collaborationist policy imposed upon the rank-and-file of the Confederation of Cuban Workers; against firing for. trade-union, political the Confederation of Cuban Workers; against firing for trade-union, political and economic reasons; ... for freedom of assembly and association ..."46 In the and economic reasons; ... for freedom of assembly and association .. ,"46 In the same month, Fidel Castro indicated that he had not abandoned hope for a same month, Fidel Castro indicated that he had not abandoned hope for a general strikestrike and and scheduled scheduled a nationala national convention convention of labor of laborleaders leaders to meet to in meet in the Sierra Maestra October 28-3 I to discuss plans for the strike and to draft the Sierra Maestra October 28-31 to discuss plans for the strike and to draft an economic, political, and social charter for the revolutionary movement. an economic, political, and social charter for the revolutionary movement. Although some 300 delegates were expected to attend, little came of the meeting, Although some 300 delegates were expected to attend, little came of the meeting, as Batista stepped up his campaign of terror and repression against anyone as Batista stepped up his campaign of terror and repression against anyone showing sympathy for the rebels.47 showing sympathy for the rebels.47 Nevertheless, certain elements in the labor movement began to support Nevertheless, certain elements in the labor movement began to support Castro, mainly by committing acts of sabotage and disturbance in Havana, Castro, mainly by committing acts of sabotage and disturbance in Havana, further embarrassing the Batista government. The underground Labor Unity furtherMovement, embarrassing led by David the Batista Salvador government. until he wasThe capturedunderground and Labor jailed Unity by Batista's Movement, led by David Salvador48 until he was captured and jailed by Batista's police,police, waswas very very active.48 active. The November election, in which Batista's candidate, Andres Rivero Aguero, was The easily November elected election, by a very in which small Batista's number candidate, of voters, Andres settled Rivero nothing. Aguero, The 26th wasof Julyeasily Movementelected by awarned very small voters number that ofit voters,would settledbe dangerous nothing. to The vote 26th and, in of July Movement warned voters that it would be dangerous to vote and, in

46.46. James,James, p.p. 188.188. 47-47· HAR,HAR, XIXI (Sept., (Sept., 1958), 1958), 495. 495. 48. Theodore Draper, Castro's Revolution, Myths and Realities (New York: Frederick A. 48. Theodore Draper, Castro's Revolution, Myths and Realities (New York: Frederick A. Praeger,Praeger, 1962),%962), p. p. 25. 2,.

This content downloaded from 129.252.86.83 on Tue, 26 Sep 2017 22:56:31 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 3322 I.I. ARTICLES spite of police protection, most laborers stayed away from polling places. spite of police protection, most laborers stayed away from polling places. Terrorism on both sides continued after the election and, in 'December, the Terrorism on both sides continued after the election and, in December, the Cuban Congess declared a '''state of emergency" giving Batista unlimited Cuban Congess declared a "state of emergency" giving Batista unlimited authority to rule by decree. Disorders continued in the city, and large numbers authority to rule by decree. Disorders continued in the city, and large numbers {)f troops defected to the rebels in the East. On the 31st, Fulgencio Batista and of troops defected to the rebels in the East. On the 31st, Fulgencio Batista and several of his close associates fled to Santo Domingo, taking with them, several of his close associates fled to Santo Domingo, taking with them, according to a time-honored custom, a substantial portion of the public funds. according to a time-honored custom, a substantial portion of the public funds. There was general relief in Havana when Batista left, and Castro's barbudos There was general relief in Havana when Batista left, and Castro's barbudos 'Were welcomed enthusiastically. Eusebio Mujal and other top CTC officials -were welcomed enthusiastically. Eusebio Mujal and other top CTC officials joined Batista in the Dominican R~public or came to the United States. Castro joined Batista in the Dominican Republic or came to the United States. Castro immediately declared a general strike, except for radio, TV, and some of the immediately declared a general strike, except for radio, TV, and some of the press, in order to preserve order. This strike was a complete success, and, press, in order to preserve order. This strike was a complete success, and, although it caused some local inconveniences, it prevented serious rioting, although it caused some local inconveniences, it prevented serious rioting, looting, and also the formation of any other government than the provisional, looting, and also the formation of any other government than the provisional, 26th of July government of Urrutia. Urrutia was sworn in at Santiago on the 2.6th of July government of Urrutia. Urrutia was sworn in at Santiago on the 3rd and on the next day the general strike was ended. The new government 3rd and on the next day the general strike was ended. The new government 'Was to rule by decree and was given sweeping jurisdiction in order to establish was to rule by decree and was given sweeping jurisdiction in order to establish the Revolution and thoroughly eradicate all the evils of the old regime. The the Revolution and thoroughly eradicate all the evils of the old regime. The real ruler of Cuba, of course, was Fidel Castro, who led a long, triumphant real ruler of Cuba, of course, was Fidel Castro, who led a long, triumphant procession across the island and entered the capital on January 8. procession across the island and entered the capital on January 8.

IIIIll Organized urban labor, which had done little to support the revolution against Organized urban labor, which had done little to support the revolution against Castro, and had been one of the last loyal supporters of Batista, viewed the new Castro, and had been one of the last loyal supporters of Batista, viewed the new government with apprehension. There was a serious unemployment problem in government with apprehension. There was a serious unemployment problem in Havana, and neither the government nor the union treasuries were in a position. Havana, and neither the government nor the union treasuries were in a position to directly aid those without jobs, both sources of funds having been pilfered toby directlythe outgoing aid thoseofficials. without But the jobs, government both sources launched of afunds bold programhaving beenof pilfered by the outgoing officials. But the government launched a bold program of public works and housing developments which alleviated the employment public works and housing developments which alleviated the employment problem and helped to bring worker support to the new government. At the problem and helped to bring worker support to the new government. At the samesame time, time, the the government government moved moved to insure to itsinsure control its of control the CTC of and the actedCTC and acted quickly to remove remaining Batista supporters from its leadership echelons. Controlquickly ofto the remove CTC wasremaining placed securely Batista in supporters the hands of from members its ofleadership the 26th echelons. Control of the CTC was placed securely in the hands of members of the 26th ·ofof JulyJuly Movement Movement when when Labor Labor Minister Minister Manuel Manuel Fernandez Fernandez issued aissued decree a decree reducing the Executive Council of the CTC from 22 to 9 members, 7 of whom reducing the Executive Council of the CTC from 22 to 9 members, 7 of whom belonged to the 26th of July Movement.49 Elections held in February and March belonged to the 26th of July Movement.49 Elections held in February and March endorsed the Castro organization. David Salvador was appointed provisional endorsed the Castro organization. David Salvador was appointed provisional chief of the CTC which claimed nearly 2,000,000 members, organized into 33 chief of the CTC which claimed nearly 2,000,000 members, organized into 3 3 49-49· SeeSee HAR, AR, XII XII (Apr., (Apr., X959l, 1959), 88·89. 88-89.

This content downloaded from 129.252.86.83 on Tue, 26 Sep 2017 22:56:31 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms CARIBBEAN STUDIES / VOL. 3 NO. 3 CARIBBEAN STUDIES / VOL. 3 NO. 3 3333

50 industrialindustrial federations federations and and about about 1,8001,800 locallocal unions.unions.00 The 26th of July Moveinent, once in control of the CTC, moved to unify The 26th of July Movement, once in control of the CTC, moved to unify the leadership strongly behind it. Appointments were made to this end, and, the leadership strongly behind it. Appointments were made to this end, and, later, changes were made in the organization to further regulation by the later, changes were made in the organization to further regulation by the Movement, which in reality come to mean government control. In March, Movement, which in reality come to mean government control. In March, Marcos A. Hirigoyen, head of the Transportation Workers' Union, and a 26th Marcos A. Hirigoyen, head of the Transportation Workers' Union, and a 26th ofof JulyJuly man, man, declared: declared: until now only the names of the persons in the offices of leadership have until now only the names of the persons in the offices of leadership have been changed. And with that we have not achieved unity. Unity is been changed. And with that we have not achieved unity. Unity is achieved by taking account of the inclines that exist in the organization, achieved by taking account of the inclines that exist in the organization, from a local factory union to the CTC itself. With this idea we must from a local factory union to the CTC itself. With this idea we must adjust ourselves to the principle of unity on the basis established by the adjust ourselves to the principle of unity on the basis established by the Prime Minister and l£der maximo of the Revolution, Dr. Fidel Castro Prime Minister and Uder mdximo of the Revolution, Dr. Fidel Castro Ruz.51Ruz.61

Such unity was gradually accomplished as recalcitrant labor leaders 'were Such unity was gradually accomplished as recalcitrant labor leaders were weededweeded out. The emphasis of the Revolution was the agrarian reform movement, but The emphasis of the Revolution was the agrarian reform movement, but the urban workers were asked to rally around the government's program of the urban workers were asked to rally around the government's program of stimulating agricultural production and promoting the advancement and well­ stimulating agricultural production and promoting the advancement and well being of the peasant. Specifically, this meant that each laborer was required to being of the peasant. Specifically, this meant that each laborer was required to "voluntarily" contribute 4 % or more of his wages for the purchase of tractors. "voluntarily" contribute 4 ?/o or more of his wages for the purchase of tractors. Under this program, to which businesses and other segments of the economy Under this program, to which businesses and other segments of the economy also contributed, hundreds of tractors lined the streets of Havana by the end also contributed, hundreds of tractors lined the streets of Havana by the end of March, 1959, and, eventually, after a long display in the city, were turned of March, 1959, and, eventually, after a long display in the city, were turned over to the agrarian reform program. over to the agrarian reform program. Tangible benefits that urban laborers began to receive, such as reduced rents, Tangible benefits that urban laborers began to receive, such as reduced rents, new housing, and the creation of new jobs, brought considerable urban labor new housing, and the creation of new jobs, brought considerable urban labor support to the Revolution. Psychologically, the 26th of July Movement, which support to the Revolution. Psychologically, the 26th of July Movement, which had received little aid or support from the urban workers, succeeded in con­ had received little aid or support from the urban workers, succeeded in con vincingvincing urbanurban laborlabor thatthat itit was was as asmuch much "their" "their" revolution revolution as itas wasit wasthe the peasants'. This enabled them to ask the workers for sacrifices which might have peasants*.been, without This enabledthis psychological them to ask theadvantage, workers difficultfor sacrifices to exact. which might have been, without this psychological advantage, difficult to exact. 50. Mario Kuchilin's column in the Good Friday edition of Prensa Libr, presents an interesting commentary 5 . Mario onKuchil?n's Salvador: column "Sintonicemos in the Good las Friday fechas edition para ofconstatar Prensa elLibre herolsmo presents de an David interesting el gigante commentarydel 26 de Julio. on Salvador: Gloria "Sintonicemosal salvador de las los fechas obreros, para salvador constatar del el heroismoGobierno. de salvador David el degigante Cuba que delhizo 26 venir de Julio. a medio Gloria mill6n al Salvador de cubanos de los anteobreros, Palacio Salvador y los delhizo Gobierno, desfiIar Salvadorpara que de Fidel Cuba vieraque que hizo,,1 era venir capa% a mediode hacer millon eso dey cubanosmucho mas. ante hastaPalacio de y ponerlos hizo a desfilar mediopara que ejercito Fidel vierarebe1de. que Bien. elAI era Cesar capaz 10 deque hacer es del eso Cesary mucho y a mas,Salvador hasta 10 de que poner es dea desfilarFidel y medioel 26 deej

This content downloaded from 129.252.86.83 on Tue, 26 Sep 2017 22:56:31 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 3434 1.I. ARTICLESARTICLES The Communists, with long years of experience and contacts in the labor The Communists, with long years of experience and contacts in the labor movement, were able to advance their own position in the CTC rapidly during movement, were able to advance their own position in the CTC rapidly during the early months of I959, but not without creating considerable reaction from the early months of 1959, but not without creating considerable reaction from non-Communist elements. The Communists came out into the open immediately non-Communist elements. The Communists came out into the open immediately after Batista fled, and, although Castro made some anti-Communist statements after Batista fled, and, although Castro made some anti-Communist statements occasionally, their right to speak out and to organize was not seriously occasionally, their right to speak out and to organize was not seriously threatened as they did not oppose the reform measures that the government was threatened as they did not oppose the reform measures that the government was taking. The Communist daily, Hoy, began to publish on January I in Santiago, taking. The Communist daily, Hoy, began to publish on January 1 in Santiago, edited by Carlos Rafael Rodriguez. It moved to Havana shortly thereafter."2 edited by Carlos Rafael Rodriguez. It moved to Havana shortly thereafter.52 Communists appeared on radio and TV programs with increasing frequency Communists appeared on radio and TV programs with increasing frequency and there were no restrictions on their propaganda efforts, although other news­ and there were no restrictions on their propaganda efforts, although other news papers, including the 26th of July's Revoluci6n, frequently criticized them. papers, including the 26th of July's Revolution, frequently criticized them. Several lesser-known Communists gained high positions in local unions and, Several lesser-known Communists gained high positions in local unions and, gradually, more were appointed to positions in the CTC and Ministry of Labor. gradually, more were appointed to positions in the CTC and Ministry of Labor. The experience of the Communists was of key importance. The old Batista The experience of the Communists was of key importance. The old Batista leaders were discredited, many of them already in exile. Few 26th of July leaders were discredited, many of them already in exile. Few 26th of July members were qualified, or even available, for positions of leadership in the members were qualified, or even available, for positions of leadership in the labor organizations. At least one important difference between the Communists labor organizations. At least one important difference between the Communists and the 26th of July Movement members was clearly evident: The Communists and the 26th of July Movement members was clearly evident: The Communists were older, veterans of the labor movement; the 26th of July Movement men were older, veterans of the labor movement; the 26th of July Movement men were younger, idealistic men, with few labor connections prior to the fall of were younger, idealistic men, with few labor connections prior to the fall of Batista. This difference played a decisive role in the direction that Cuban labor Batista. This difference played a decisive role in the direction that Cuban labor took. The Communists of the underground resistance movement were soon took. The Communists of the underground resistance movement were soon supplemented by returning exiles, the most important of whom was Lizaro supplemented by returning exiles, the most important of whom was Lazaro Pefia who returned from Mexico early in I959. These old-time leaders of Cuban Pena who returned from Mexico early in 1959. These old-time leaders of Cuban Communism joined the less conspicuous Communists in infiltrating the labor Communism joined the less conspicuous Communists in infiltrating the labor unions and otherother Cuban institutions.institutions. The majority of the Cuban workers evidently did not want Communist The majority of the Cuban workers evidently did not want Communist leadership. A Frente Obrero Humanista (FOH) was formed by 26th of July leadership. A Frente Obrero Humanista (FOH) was formed by 26th of July Movement workers which was clearly anti-Communist and, in the union elect­ Movement workers which was clearly anti-Communist and, in the union elect ions of the spring of I959, the Communists were soundly defeated. Even the ions of the spring of 1959, the Communists were soundly defeated. Even the traditionally pro-Communist dock workers voted against the Communist can­ traditionally pro-Communist dock workers voted against the Communist can didates. The open attempts of the Communists to push their way into the didates. The open attempts of the Communists to push their way into the vacuumvacuum createdcreated by the removal ofof thethe BatistaBatista labor labor leaders leaders had had created created a a strong anti-Communist reaction by May. The overall results of the election strong anti-Communist reaction by May. The overall results of the election gave th'e 26th of July leaders solid control of the eTC.58 gave the 26th of July leaders solid control of the CTC.58

52.52. James,James, p,p. II2.112. 53· HAR, XII (July, 1959), 266. James, p. 189, reported that of the 33 federations in the r-rr5'eTC, 26th ? \ of^uly' July 959^' labor 266'leaders James> had WOn ? l89, in 28. reported Communists that had of won the in33 three, federations and in the in other the CTC,two control26th of wasJuly divided labor leadersbetween had the won two in groups. 28. Communists had won in three, and in the other two control was divided between the two groups.

This content downloaded from 129.252.86.83 on Tue, 26 Sep 2017 22:56:31 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms CARIBBEAN STUDIES / VOL. 3 NO. 3 CARIBBEAN STUDIES / VOL. 3 NO. 3 3535 In spite of these defeats, the Communists continued their efforts to gain In spite of these defeats, the Communists continued their efforts to gain control of the labor movement, and they received some aid from various mem­ control of the labor movement, and they received some aid from various mem bers of the provisional government, especially Fidel Castro's brother, Raul, and bers of the provisional government, especially Fidel Castro's brother, Raul, and Argentine-born Ernesto "Che" Guevara who had been given Cuban citizenship Argentine-born Ernesto "Che" Guevara who had been given Cuban citizenship by special decree.54 Guevara had been active in the last days of the Guatemalan by special decree.5'1 Guevara had been active in the last days of the Guatemalan regime and was important as a link between the Castros and other Latin regime and was important as a link between the Castros and other Latin American Communists. He was, and continues to be, a man of intense energy American Communists. He was, and continues to be, a man of intense energy andand has been one of thethe mostmost influential influential forces forces in in the the Cuban Cuban Revolution. Revolution. These These two men obtained the appointment of Communists to high positions· in the two men obtained the appointment of Communists to high positions in the Labor Ministry. Meanwhile, large numbers of foreigners - Russian, Eastern Labor Ministry. Meanwhile, large numbers of foreigners - Russian, Eastern European, Chinese, and various Latin American leftists - arrived in Cuba.51i European, Chinese, and various Latin American leftists - arrived in Cuba.55 The new government struggled to achieve an understanding with labor. The new government struggled to achieve an understanding with labor. It It was aware of the value of support fromfrom the the labor labor unions unions and and was was anxiousanxious to have control of them. But some of the first actions of the new government to have control of them. But some of the first actions of the new government were not well received by the workers. One such action was President Urrutia's were not well received by the workers. One such action was President Urrutia's decree of January 8, 1959, outlawing organized gambling, declaring that it had decree of January 8, 1959, outlawing organized gambling, declaring that it had corrupted public officials during Ba!ista's time. Castro insisted that the luxury corrupted public officials during Batista's time. Castro insisted that the luxury casinos remain open for foreign trade, although they should be heavily taxed. casinos remain open for foreign trade, although they should be heavily taxed. Although Urrutia and Premier Mir6 Cardona protested, Castro's view prevailed. Although Urrutia and Premier Miro Cardona protested, Castro's view prevailed. A significant reason for Castro's obstinacy was the CTC's opposition to the A significant reason for Castro's obstinacy was the CTC's opposition to the decree. Several thousand union men depended upon organized gambling for decree.their jobs. Several Fidel thousandwas wise unionenough men to make depended several upon such organized concessions gambling to the CTCfor their jobs. Fidel was wise enough to make several such concessions to the CTC to gain their support during the early days.56 Meanwhile, the government took to gain their support during the early days.56 Meanwhile, the government took positive measures which brought it labor support. Unemployment was reduced positive measures which brought it labor support. Unemployment was reduced by the creation of new public works jobs; the tax system was revised to benefit by the creation of new public works jobs; the tax system was revised to benefit the small income groups; and reductions were decreed in the electricity and telephonethe small incomerates and groups; in the and prices reductions of certain were important decreed foodin the and electricity drug items. and telephone rates and in the prices of certain important food and drug items. Most important were the 30 Ufo to 50 Ufo reduction of rents on urban dwellings. MostIn addition, important labor were disputes the 30 were?/o to resolved 50 % reduction by the Labor of rents Ministry on urban generally dwellings. in In addition, labor disputes were resolved by the Labor Ministry generally in favor of thethe unions.unions. Toward the end of the year, the Communists gained more strength through Toward the end of the year, the Communists gained more strength through their infiltration of government, especially Labor Ministry, positions. In Oc­ their infiltration of government, especially Labor Ministry, positions. In Oc tober, pro-Communist Augusto Mardnez Sanchez replaced moderate Labor tober, pro-Communist Augusto Martinez Sanchez replaced moderate Labor Minister Manuel Fernandez Garda. It became increasingly evident that govern­ Minister Manuel Fernandez Garcia. It became increasingly evident that govern ment plans to control the labor movement were being aided by the Communists. ment plans to control the labor movement were being aided by the Communists. In November, the government gave the Ministry of Labor the power to inter­ In November, the government gave the Ministry of Labor the power to inter vene in any company where a labor dispute threatened to halt production or vene in any company where a labor dispute threatened to halt production or

54-54. HAR,HAR, XIIIXIII (Apr., 1959),1959), 88.88. 55.'5. James,James, pp.pp. 195-198.195-198. 56. HAR, XIIXII (Mar.,(Mar, 1959), 25.25.

This content downloaded from 129.252.86.83 on Tue, 26 Sep 2017 22:56:31 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 36 I.I. ARTICLES create serious economic difficulties, and, through the application of this law, create serious economic difficulties, and, through the application of this law, the Ministry was able to greatly increase its power. It was through the Ministry the Ministry was able to greatly increase its power. It was through the Ministry of LaborLabor thatthat thethe Communists Communists were were able able to totake take control control of theof laborthe labor move­ move ment.57ment.57 In the fall of 1959, the government, and the Ministry of Labor in particular, In the fall of 1959, the government, and the Ministry of Labor in particular, began to harass non-Communist labor leaders. Several 26th of July labor began to harass non-Communist labor leaders. Several 26th of July labor leaders were accused of counter revolutionary activities and removed from leaders were accused of counter revolutionary activities and removed from their positions. A wave of arrests spread throughout Cuba just prior to the their positions. A wave of arrests spread throughout Cuba just prior to the Tenth Congress of the CTC held November 18-21 in Havana. Communists Tenth Congress of the CTC held November 18-21 in Havana. Communists were only a tiny minority of the roughly 3,000 delegates present at the Con­ were only a tiny minority of the roughly 3,000 delegates present at the Con^ gress, but they managed to create considerable confusion and chaos. Fidel gress, but they managed to create considerable confusion and chaos. Fidel Castro declared that the Congress looked more like a "lunatic asylum" than a Castro declared that the Congress looked more like a "lunatic asylum" than a labor congress. Capitalizing on strong anti-American feeling, the Communists labor congress. Capitalizing on strong anti-American feeling, the Communists succeeded in securing the withdrawal of the CTC from the Inter-American succeeded in securing the withdrawal of the CTC from the Inter-American Regional Organization of Workers (ORIT), on the ground that it was controlled Regional Organization of Workers (ORIT), on the ground that it was controlled by the AFL-CIO of the United States. The Congress proposed the creation of by the AFL-CIO of the United States. The Congress proposed the creation of a new Inter-American labor confederation to be organized by the CTC. Other a new Inter-American labor confederation to be organized by the CTC. Other anti-American measures were also adopted. The real struggle broke out over the anti-American measures were also adopted. The real struggle broke out over the election of a new Executive Council of the CTC. The delegates overwhelmingly election of a new Executive Council of the CTC. The delegates overwhelmingly voted down a "unity" slate endorsed by both David Salvador and Fidel Castro voted down a "unity" slate endorsed by both David Salvador and Fidel Castro which included three Communists in the list of thirteen. A second "unity" slate which included three Communists in the list of thirteen. A second "unity" slate was approved when the prominent Communist names were removed.58 In spite was approved when the prominent Communist names were removed.58 In spite of thisthis defeat,defeat, thethe CommunistsCommunists were were able able to continueto continue their their infiltration infiltration and and expansion of control. The Congress adopted a series of procedures for the expansion of control. The Congress adopted a series of procedures for the "purification of counter-revolutionary elements" within the labor movement "purification of counter-revolutionary elements" within the labor movement which came to be used chiefly against the anti~Communists.58 which came to be used chiefly against the anti-Communists.59 A definite trend was evident in the attitude of the government as it A definite trend was evident in the attitude of the government as it increasingly supported Communists and opposed anti-Communists. This ten­ increasingly supported Communists and opposed anti-Communists. This ten^ dency, with regard to the labor movement, cannot be separated from the larger dency,international with regard development to the labor of movement, deteriorating cannot U.S.-Cuban be separated relations from the andlarger closer international development of deteriorating U.S.-Cuban relations and closer Soviet-Cuban relations. After November, 1959, non-Communist leaders in the Soviet-Cuban relations. After November, 1959, non-Communist leaders in the labor unions were accused of counter revolutionary activity and purged, begin­ labor unions were accused of counter revolutionary activity and purged, begin ning with the chief of the Theater Artists, Manuel Fernandez, on December 9. ning with the chief of the Theater Artists, Manuel Fernandez, on December 9. By April, 1960, more than twenty elected labor leaders had been arbitrarily By April, i960, more than twenty elected labor leaders had been arbitrarily removed from their posts and replaced by Communists or Communist sym­ removed from their posts and replaced by Communists or Communist sym pathizers.6o David Salvador objected to these purges and to the growing Com- pathizers.60 David Salvador objected to these purges and to the growing Com

57.57- James, pp.pp. 190, 195.195. 58. AR,HAR, XII XII (Jan., (Jan., i960), 196o), 599. 599·See alsoSee alsoJames, James, pp. pp.190-192. I90-192. 59·59. SeeSee James,James, p.p. 192.I92. 60. Ibid.,Ibid., pp.pp. 192-193.I92-193.

This content downloaded from 129.252.86.83 on Tue, 26 Sep 2017 22:56:31 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms CARIBBEAN STUDIES / VOL. 3 NO. 3 CARIBBEAN STUDIES / VOL. 3 NO. 3 3737 munist control, but he was apparently unable to stop the trend, and, in fact, munist control, but he was apparently unable to stop the trend, and, in fact, only endangered his own position. For a while, Salvador himself headed the only endangered his own position. For a while, Salvador himself headed the CTC committee in charge of the purges; This committee collected evidence CTC committee in charge of the purges. This committee collected evidence against accused labor leaders which was transmitted to federations or local against accused labor leaders which was transmitted to federations or local unions so that the workers in mass assembly could decide whether or not to unions so that the workers in mass assembly could decide whether or not to remove the leaders. Invariably, those accused were removed. Conspicuous remove the leaders. Invariably, those accused were removed. Conspicuous among those removed in December and January were labor officials who had among those removed in December and January were labor officials who had been outspoken in their opposition to Communists serving on the Executive been outspoken in their opposition to Communists serving on the Executive Committee of the CTC. New authority given the Labor Ministry regarding the Committee of the CTC. New authority given the Labor Ministry regarding the employment of any worker in the republic and the use of the militia to back up employment of any worker in the republic and the use of the militia to back up decisions and intimidate unions promoted this trend further.G1 decisions and intimidate unions promoted this trend further.61 Early in 1960, Fidel sent David Salvador on a mission to France, apparently Early in i960, Fidel sent David Salvador on a mission to France, apparently toto getget him him out out of of the the way. way. When When he hereturned returned in March in March and andfound found that 22that of 22 of the 28 26th of July Movement labor federation chiefs had been removed, he the 28 26th of July Movement labor federation chiefs had been removed, he openly criticized Labor Minister Martinez Sanchez, Raul Castro, and the purge openly criticized Labor Minister Martinez Sanchez, Raul Castro, and the purge policy. The conflict with Martinez finally led to his own expulsion from the policy. The conflict with Martinez finally led to his own expulsion from the CTC on August 2. In November he was captured while trying to leave Cuba CTC on August 2. In November he was captured while trying to leave Cuba and sentenced to prison as a counter revolutionary. Meanwhile, others who had and sentenced to prison as a counter revolutionary. Meanwhile, others who had supported him were more successful in escaping and a number of labor leaders supported him were more successful in escaping and a number of labor leaders joined the growing community of exiles in Miami and elsewhere.S! joined the growing community of exiles in Miami and elsewhere.62 By the end of 1960, the PSP had men in key places and controlled a sub­ By the end of 1960, the PSP had men in key places and controlled a sub stantial number of workers. That all the workers had not accepted Communist stantial number of workers. That all the workers had not accepted Communist dictation, however, was evidenced when the electrical workers loudly protested dictation, however, was evidenced when the electrical workers loudly protested the Communist infiltration. Dissatisfied with the new management of the the Communist infiltration. Dissatisfied with the new management of the nationalized electric company, which had withdrawn privileges formerly toler­ nationalized electric company, which had withdrawn privileges formerly toler ated by the company,company, and and confrontedconfronted with with a arumor rumor that that Electrical Electrical Workers' Workers' Union chief Amaury Fraginals was soon to be purged, about 1,000 of the 6,000 Union chief Amaury Fraginals was soon to be purged, about 1,000 of the 6,000 union members demonstrated before the Presidential Palace on December 9, union members demonstrated before the Presidential Palace on December 9, 1960, shouting "Cuba Sf, Rusia No." Fraginals had been active in the terrorism i960, shouting "Cuba Si, Rusia No." Fraginals had been active in the terrorism in Havana against Batista and was a 26th of July Movement member. He was in Havana against Batista and was a 26th of July Movement member. He was appointed to head the electrical workers in January, 1959. After President appointed to head the electrical workers in January, 1959. After President Dortic6s agreed to talk with Fraginals and other leaders, the demonstrators Dorticos agreed to talk with Fraginals and other leaders, the demonstrators quieted down, but nothing came of the talks. A few days later Fraginals heard quieted down, but nothing came of the talks. A few days later Fraginals heard that he was a marked man, and he went into hiding on December 13. The CTC that he was a marked man, and he went into hiding on December 13. The CTC leaders convened a meeting of the union and the 2,000 workers who attended leaders convened a meeting of the union and the 2,000 workers who attended expelled Fraginals and his associates "dishonorably."s3 From that moment on' expelled Fraginals and his associates "dishonorably."63 From that moment on 61. HAR, XIII {Mar., 1960),.25; James, p. 195; Porter and Alexander, p. 139. The other members 61. HAR, of the (Mar.,eTC purge i960), commIttee 25; James, were Jesusp. 195; Soto, Porter Jose AgUilera, and Alexander, and Odan dep. la139. Campa. The other members62. James, of the p. CTC197; purgeHAR, committeeXIII (Jan., were1961), Jesus 791; Soto, James Jose Monahan Aguilera, and andKenneth Odon O. de Gilmorela Campa "How 62. theJames, Kremlin 197; Took HAR Cuba," XII][ The(Jan., Reader's 1961), Digest, 791; JamesXUI (January, Monahan 1963), and p.Kenneth 228. O. Gilmore' How63· theDraper, Kremlin p. 45; TookHAR, Cuba,"XIII (Feh., The 1961),Reader's 878.879; Digest, James, XLII pp. (January 199-200. 1963) 228 63. Draper, p. 45; HAR, XIII (Feb., 1961), 878-879; James, pp 199-200

This content downloaded from 129.252.86.83 on Tue, 26 Sep 2017 22:56:31 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 3? I. I. ARTICLESARTICLES Cuban labor has remained cowed and submissive to the wishes of the govern­ Cuban labor has remained cowed and submissive to the wishes of the govern ment-controlled CTC leadership, thus returning the labor movement to a ment-controlled CTC leadership, thus returning the labor movement to a position not unlike that which it occupied under Batista. Revolutionary Law position not unlike that which it occupied under Batista. Revolutionary Law No. 924 of January 9, 1961, provided that any worker "in either private or No. 924 of January 9, 196 , provided that any worker "in either private or public employment" could be dismissed for counter revolutionary activities. public employment" could be dismissed for counter revolutionary activities. It made overt acts punishable by death and on January 17 three electrical It made overt acts punishable by death and on January 17 three electrical workers were executed for terrorist acts. In the meantime, more than 200 workers were executed for terrorist acts. In the meantime, more than 200 electrical workers had been dismissed for refusing to join the militia.64 electrical workers had been dismissed for refusing to join the militia.64 TheThe removal removal of David of DavidSalvador Salvadorand other anti-Communists and other anti-Communists from the labor from the labor movement paved the way for the return of Lazaro Perra to the leadership of movement paved the way for the return of Lazaro Pena to the leadership of Cuban labor. The "resurrection of Lazarus" came to a large degree as a result Cuban labor. The "resurrection of Lazarus" came to a large degree as a result of the activities of Raul Castro, who was more closely associated with Perra of the activities of Raul Castro, who was more closely associated with Pena than was Fidel. In 1959 he had no official title, but was frequently seen with than was Fidel. In 1959 he had no official title, but was frequently seen with Raul. After the Tenth Congress of the CTC he was given the title of "founder Raul. After the Tenth Congress of the CTC he was given the title of "founder of the OTC" with no official authority, but with an office at CTC headquarters of the CTC" with no official authority, but with an office at CTC headquarters from which he assumed a growing amount of power. At the Eleventh Congress from which he assumed a growing amount of power. At the Eleventh Congress in November, I96I, he was officially elected Secretary General of the central in November, 196 , he was officially elected Secretary General of the central labor federation. Like Lazaro Perra, many of the labor leaders in Cuba by 1961 labor federation. Like Lazaro Pena, many of the labor leaders in Cuba by 1961 were men who had previously held high labor postitions with the blessing of were men who had previously held high labor postitions with the blessing of Batista in the period I934-1944; or, as Daniel James put it: "Cuban labor, then, Batista in the period 1934-1944; or, as Daniel James put it: "Cuban labor, then, hashas come come full fullcircle: circle: from Communist from Communist domination under domination Batista to underCommunist Batista to Communist dominationdomination under under Castro."65 Castro."65 Union elections held in October, I96I, indicated that Communist control Union elections held in October, 1961, indicated that Communist control and government support of that control had become complete. More than and government support of that control had become complete. More than 2,000,000 Cuban workers participated "democratically." However, great em­ 2,000,000 Cuban workers participated "democratically." However, great em phasis was placed on a "firm decision of unity," in which in almost every case phasis was placed on a "firm decision of unity," in which in almost every case there was just one slate of candidates presented.6o there was just one slate of candidates presented.66 The Eleventh Congress of the CTC-R07 met in November and here the The Eleventh Congress of the CTC-R07 met in November and here the CommunistCommunist domination domination was consolidated was consolidated and manifested. and At themanifested. Ninth Con At the Ninth Con­ gress,gress, in in1959, I959, some anti-Communistssome anti-Communists had carried watermelonshad carried into watermelons the con into the con­ vention hall as symbols of those who wore the olive green uniform of the vention hall as symbols of those who wore the olive green uniform of the Revolution, but who in reality were Communist reds. Now, before the 1961 Revolution, but who in reality were Communist reds. Now, before the 1961

64-64. HAR, HAR, XIV XIV (Mar., (Mar., 1961), 35196I), 35. 65.65· James, James, p. 194.p. '94· 66. Prensa Libre (Havana: city edition), Oct. '27, I961, p. I; Prensa Libre (Havana: interior edition), 66. Prensa Oct. Libre 27, (Havana: I961, city p.edition), 5. See Oct. 27,also 1961, HAR, p. 1; PrensaXIV Libre(Dec., (Havana: 1961), interior 892-893, citing the CTC edition), Oct. 27, 1961, p. 5. See also HAR, XIV (Dec, 1961), 892-893, citing the CTC publicationpuhlication Vanguardia Vanguardia Obrero. Obrero. 67. Since about the middle of 1961 the central labor organization was called the Confederacion de 67.Trabajadores Since about the de middle Cuba, of 1961 Revolucionaria. the central labor Uponorganization the wasproposal called the of Confederation Labor Minister Martinez Sanchez deat Trabajadores the Eleventh de Cuba, Revolucionaria.Congress, the Upon name the proposal was ofchanged Labor Minister to theMartinez Central Sanchez de Trabajadores de Cuba, atRevolucionaria. the Eleventh Congress, He emphasized the name was thechanged need to tothe get Central away de fromTrabajadores the idea de Cuba, of a "confederation" and to Revolucionaria.:replace it with He emphasized the "central" the need or to getunity away idea. from the idea of a "confederation" and to xeplace it with the "central" or unity idea.

This content downloaded from 129.252.86.83 on Tue, 26 Sep 2017 22:56:31 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms CARIBBEAN STUDmS / VOL. 3 NO. 3 CARIBBEAN STUDIES / VOL. 3 NO. 3 3939 Congress, Mardnez Sanchez accused those persons of having been Mujalistas Congress, Martinez Sanchez accused those persons of having been Mujalistas and that they shouted "26! 26!" for the purpose of blocking the unity of the and that they shouted "26"! 261" for the purpose of blocking the unity of the labor movement. "Those traitors who shouted, 'Melons! Melons!' are not here," labor movement. "Those traitors who shouted, 'Melons! Melons!' are not here," Martinez declared, "but the melons are with you and we will go on being Martinez declared, "but the melons are with you and we will go on being melons, that is to say, green on the outside and red inside ... red as the symbol melons, that is to say, green on the outside and red inside ... red as the symbol of the international workers' revolutionary movement."OB The Minister also of the international workers' revolutionary movement."88 The Minister also announced that a new Organic Law of the Labor Ministry would soon be announced that a new Organic Law of the Labor Ministry would soon be drafted which would speed the advance toward socialism and help to resolve drafted which would speed the advance toward socialism and help to resolve the multiple problems facing the nation, as well as to "improve the perfection the multiple problems facing the nation, as well as to "improve the perfection of production, increase the productivity of labor, social security, etc."se BIas of production, increase the productivity of labor, social security, etc."69 Bias Roca, Lazaro Pefia, and other leading Communists also addressed the confe­ Roca, Lazaro Pena, and other leading Communists also addressed the confe rence which was totally dominated by the Communists. It is clear that they had rence which was totally dominated by the Communists. It is clear that they had gained control of the movement by this date. gained control of the movement by this date. The direction which the Cuban government had taken by the end of 196 I The direction which the Cuban government had taken by the end of 1961 left little room for doubt that Communists had gained control. The question of left little room for doubt that Communists had gained control. The question of whether Khrushchev was using Castro, or Castro was using Khrushchev, might whether Khrushchev was using Castro, or Castro was using Khrushchev, might be an open one, but there was no doubt that the basic principles of Marxism be an open one, but there was no doubt that the basic principles of Marxism had been endorsed by the Cuban government. The reasons for this are also open had been endorsed by the Cuban government. The reasons for this are also open to debate, ranging from those journalists and politicians who claim that Fidel to debate, ranging from those journalists and politicians who claim that Fidel Castro was a Communist almost from the day of his birth and that the Castro was a Communist almost from the day of his birth and that the Revolution was a carefully arranged plot to establish international Communism Revolution was a carefully arranged plot to establish international Communism in Cuba, to those who believe, as this writer does, that the establishment of in Cuba, to those who believe, as this writer does, that the establishment of Communism in Cuba was the result of a combination of circumstances, needs, Communism in Cuba was the result of a combination of circumstances, needs, opportunism, and a short-sighted foreign policy on the part of the United opportunism, and a short-sighted foreign policy on the part of the United States. But few can still reasonably argue that Cuba is not under the control of States. But few can still reasonably argue that Cuba is not under the control of Communists who are at least to some degree committed to the International Communists who are at least to some degree committed to the International Communist Movement. The urban labor unions played an important role in the Communist Movement. The urban labor unions played an important role in the progression of events which brought the Communists to power. At the same progression of events which brought the Communists to power. At the same time, the Cuban government maintained considerable independence of Inter­ time, the Cuban government maintained considerable independence of Inter national Communism, and Castro himself has frequently attacked Communists national Communism, and Castro himself has frequently attacked Communists and purged some of those with whom he has disagreed. Castro has never been and purged some of those with whom he has disagreed. Castro has never been willing to relinquish his personal control of the Revolution. willing to relinquish his personal control of the Revolution. Throughout 1959 the government waS clearly more concerned with agrarian Throughout 1959 the government was clearly more concerned with agrarian teform than with establishing a "dictatorship of the proletariat." Nevertheless, ieform than with establishing a "dictatorship of the proletariat." Nevertheless, it realized thatthat itit waswas essential essential to to maintain maintain control control of ofthe the urban urban labor labor masses masses in in order to stay in power, and it needed urban labor to press forward with the order to stay in power, and it needed urban labor to press forward with the

68. "Una quincena de acontecimientos laborales:· Traba;o (Havana), II (2a quincena de 68. "Una quincena de acontecimientos laborales," Trabajo ('Havana), II (2a quincena de cliciembre dede r96r),1961), p.p. 21.21. 69· Marta Rojas, "Hacia la tecnificaci6n:· Traba;o (Havana), II (2a quincena de diciembre 69. Marta Rojas, "Hacia la tecnificacion," Trabajo (Havana), II (2a quincena de diciembre de 1961),r96r), p.p. 24.24.

This content downloaded from 129.252.86.83 on Tue, 26 Sep 2017 22:56:31 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 4? I.I. ARTICLES agrarian reform experiments. The Cuban Revolution from the start has been agrarian reform experiments. The Cuban Revolution from the start has been characterized by a monopolistic trend on the part of the government. All com­ characterized by a monopolistic trend on the part of the government. All com petition, whether it be in the form of independent labor unions, foreign invest­ petition, whether it be in the form of independent labor unions, foreign invest ment, domestic industry, or whatever, has been systematically eliminated. At the ment, domestic industry, or whatever, has been systematically eliminated. At the same time the young Cuban socialists have been characterized by a pragmatic same time the young Cuban socialists have been characterized by a pragmatic attitude which has put little emphasis on ideological or theoretical systems. As attitude which has put little emphasis on ideological or theoretical systems. As Professor Cecil Johnson reported to the Southwestern Social Science Association Professor Cecil Johnson reported to the Southwestern Social Science Association meetingmeeting in in 1961, 196 ,

UnlikeUnlike the MarxistsMarxists the the Cuban Cuban revolutionaries revolutionaries do notdo notfeel feelconstrained constrained to interpret events in terms of an all encompasing theory. To the con­ to interpret events in terms of an all encompasing theory. To the con trary, they are very much like their American adversaries in one sense; trary, they are very much like their American adversaries in one sense; they are quite pragmatic in their handling of social problems. If a given they are quite pragmatic in their handling of social problems. If a given approach does not work, they have no hesitancy about dropping it and approach does not work, they have no hesitancy about dropping it and adopting another.7• adopting another.70 The government, faced with growing Opposltlon to its measures, took The government, faced with growing opposition to its measures, took increasingly severe measures with terrorists and counter revolutionaries. It increasingly severe measures with terrorists and counter revolutionaries. It established strong military forces as deterrents both to invasion from without established strong military forces as deterrents both to invasion from without and insurrection from from within, within, and and received received considerable considerable aid from aid fromIron CurtainIron Curtain countries in this buildup. Signs of a relaxation of the military mobilization and countries in this buildup. Signs of a relaxation of the military mobilization and a willingness to "begin anew" with the United States in January, 196r, faded a willingness to "begin anew" with the United States in January, 196 , faded rapidly after President Kennedy's inaugural address.71 The ill-fated Bay of rapidly after President Kennedy's inaugural address.71 The ill-fated Bay of Pigs invasion that followed confirmed Castro's predictions of a pending invasion Pigs invasion that followed confirmed Castro's predictions of a pending invasion and closed the door on any rapprochement with the United States, putting Cuba and closed the door on any rapprochement with the United States, putting Cuba firmly in the Soviet camp. This international situation, including the economic firmly in the Soviet camp. This international situation, including the economic warfare waged against the Cubans by the United States, was accompanied by a warfare waged against the Cubans by the United States, was accompanied by a good deal of patriotic fervor in Cuba which served to enhance Castro's position good deal of patriotic fervor in Cuba which served to enhance Castro's position with the working class. It enabled the Communists to carryon their program with the working class. It enabled the Communists to carry on their program of infiltration on a much more rapid schedule and was responsible for the of infiltration on a much more rapid schedule and was responsible for the liquidation of all opposition within Cuba that had been mounting prior to the liquidation of all opposition within Cuba that had been mounting prior to the Bay of Pigs invasion.711 Bay of Pigs invasion.72 Formal uniting of the Communist Party (PSP) with Castro's Revolutionary Formal uniting of the Communist Party (PSP) with Castro's Revolutionary organization signaled the establishment of a completely totalitarian socialist organization signaled the establishment of a completely totalitarian socialist state. In June, 1961, Castro announced that all the revolutionary parties would state. In June, 1961, Castro announced that all the revolutionary parties would

70 . Cecil E. Johnson, "Cuba: The Domestic Policies of the Castro Regime," Case Studies in Latin 70. Amedcan Cecil E. Johnson,Politic; (Arnold "Cuba: Foundalion The Domestic Monographs Policies IX) of the(Dallas: Castro The Regime," Arnold FoundationCase Studies in Lettinof Southern American Methodist Politics University, (Arnold I96I), Foundation p. IS. Monographs IX) (Dallas: The Arnold Foundation of Southern Methodist University, 1961), p. 15. 71. See HAR, XIV (Mar., I96I), 32. 71. See HAR, XIV (Mar., 1961), 32. 72 . See Theodore D,raper, "Castro and Communism," The Reporter, XXVIIi (Jan. 17, 1963), p.p. 35·35-72. See' Theodore Draper, "Castro and Communism," The Reporter, XXVIII (Jan. 17, 1963)

This content downloaded from 129.252.86.83 on Tue, 26 Sep 2017 22:56:31 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms CARIBBEAN STUDIES / VOL. NO. 41 CARIBBEAN STUDIES / VOL.3 3 NO.3 3 41 gradually be united into a single Partido Unido de la Revoluci6n Socialista gradually be united into a single Partido Unido de la Revolucion Socialista (PURS). As a preliminary measure to this union, however, a separate organizat­ (PURS). As a preliminary measure to this union, however, a separate organizat ion would implement the integration of the revolutionary organizations, of ion would implement the integration of the revolutionary organizations, of which the 26th of July Movement, the PSP, and the DR were the most impor­ which the 26th of July Movement, the PSP, and the DR were the most impor tant by the summer of 1961. This interim organization was to be known as tant by the summer of 1961. This interim organization was to be known as Organizaciones Revolucionarias Integradas (ORI). BIas Roca, Anfbal Escalante, Organizaciones Revolucionarias Integradas (ORI). Bias Roca, Anibal Escalante, and other top PSP officials soon appeared in high positions in the ORI along and other top PSP officials soon appeared in high positions in the ORI along with Fidel and Raul Castro, "Che" Guevara, and other top 26th of July men. with Fidel and Raul Castro, "Che" Guevara, and other top 26th of July men. The weight which the Communists carried in the ORI was far greater than The weight which the Communists carried in the ORI was far greater than their popular support would justify, but the party was not established by their popular support would justify, but the party was not established by popular elections. On August 21, Revoluci6n, the official organ of the 26th of popular elections. On August 21, Revolucion, the official organ of the 26th of July Movement, justified Castro's establishment of the ORIon the basis of July Movement, justified Castro's establishment of the ORI on the basis of Lenin's conception of "democratic centralism:" Lenin's conception of "democratic centralism:"

DemocraticDemocratic centralismcentralism is thethe methodmethod whichwhich LeninLenin discovereddiscovered forfor thethe application of true democracy. It is the only method for applying demo­ application of true democracy. It is the only method for applying demo cracy. It consists of democracy being applied by a central leadership. cracy. It consists of democracy being applied by a central leadership. An ideal approved by the masses is applied by a centralized leadership An ideal approved by the masses is applied by a centralized leadership of the workers' vanguard which is the party.7S of the workers' vanguard which is the party.73 By the autumn of 1961, all legal political organizations in Cuba had sub­ By the autumn of 1961, all legal political organizations in Cuba had sub scribed to this Marxist-Leninist idea. Finally, Castro announced in the wee scribed to this Marxist-Leninist idea. Finally, Castro announced in the wee hours of the morning of December 2 that the PURS was being created for the hours of the morning of December 2 that the PURS was being created for the purpose of leading Cuba through socialism to a people's democracy of the purpose of leading Cuba through socialism to a people's democracy of the "dictatorship of the proletariat," and that members would be drawn from "dictatorship of the proletariat," and that members would be drawn from workers, students, intellectuals, and even from the petite bourgeoisie. He added workers, students, intellectuals, and even from the petite bourgeoisie. He added that "the party is still not officially constituted as such; it has not yet had its that "the party is still not officially constituted as such; it has not yet had its first congress. . . There is no hurry; it will be done." This was the speech in first congress . . . There is no hurry; it will be done." This was the speech in which he announced what most of the world had already decided: that he which he announced what most of the world had already decided: that he himself waswas a dedicateddedicated "Marxist-Leninist."74"Marxist-Leninist."74 The Communist infiltration was not confined to organizations - labor The Communist infiltration was not confined to organizations - labor unions, political parties, etc.etc. - - butbut involvedinvolved thethe battlebattle for for minds minds as as well. well. News News media, Radio Habana, the press in general, became heavily saturated with media, Radio Habana, the press in general, became heavily saturated with Communist propaganda, and the national printing office had published a long Communist propaganda, and the national printing office had published a long list of pro-Soviet and pro-Communist books and pamphlets by the end of 1961, list of pro-Soviet and pro-Communist books and pamphlets by the end of 1961, many of which were aimed at the literate urban working c1ass.7s This propa- many of which were aimed at the literate urban working class.75 This propa

73?73· Draper, Castro's Rnolution,Revolution, pp. .. %:14.124. 74-74. HAR,HAR, XIVXIV (Feb., 1962), 1089.1089! 75· Among the publications of the Imprenta Nadonal in 1961 alone were: Fundamentos del 75. Among the publications of the Imprenta Nacional in 1961 alone were: Fundamentes del socialismo en Cuba, by BIas Roca; Asi se templ6 el are,o, by Nicolai Ostrovski Heroes de la soctaltsmo en Cuba, by Bias Roca; Asi se templo el acero, by Nicolai Ostrovski Heroes de la

This content downloaded from 129.252.86.83 on Tue, 26 Sep 2017 22:56:31 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 4242 1.I. ARTICLES ganda had several aims. It attempted to persuade the workers that "unity" ganda had several aims. It attempted to persuade the workers that "unity" behind Communist leaders would improve their own personal positions and behind Communist leaders would improve their own personal positions and prosperity, as well as the nation's. It stimulated anti-Americanism and fostered prosperity, as well as the nation's. It stimulated anti-Americanism and fostered friendship with the Soviet Union, China, and other Communist nations. Finally, friendship with the Soviet Union, China, and other Communist nations. Finally, it promoted sacrifices on the part of the workers to maintain the government it promoted sacrifices on the part of the workers to maintain the government which was moving toward the "dictatorship of the proletariat." This propa­ which was moving toward the "dictatorship of the proletariat." This propa ganda was exceedingly effective, combined with what Castro called "Revolut­ ganda was exceedingly effective, combined with what Castro called "Revolut ionary Terror" against counter revolutionaries, in maintaining his position and ionary Terror" against counter revolutionaries, in maintaining his position and the strength of the government. the strength of the government. Early in 1962, however, Castro made it clear that while he accepted Com­ Early in 1962, however, Castro made it clear that while he accepted Com munist aid, and even leadership in many areas, that even though he might be munist aid, and even leadership in many areas, that even though he might be a "Marxist-Leninist," he was not going to turn the reins of power over to the a "Marxist-Leninist," he was not going to turn the reins of power over to the Communists. In In March, March, An£bal Anibal Escalante Escalante was was removed removed and heand went he wentinto exile into exile in Czechoslavakia. This was follow~d by the sudden departure of the Soviet in Czechoslavakia. This was followed by the sudden departure of the Soviet Ambassador in Havana, Sergei Mihailkovitch Kudryavtsev, who had been Ambassador in Havana, Sergei Mihailkovitch Kudryavtsev, who had been active in Cuban politics.'6 The moves apparently were part of a general shake­ active in Cuban politics.76 The moves apparently were part of a general shake up in the ORI and the government in which Fidel personally emerged with up in the ORI and the government in which Fidel personally emerged with more power than before. The attacks against Escalante seemed to be primarily more power than before. The attacks against Escalante seemed to be primarily a warning to the "old" Communists that the Revolution was not going to be a warning to the "old" Communists that the Revolution was not going to be totally controlled by their ideology, and that they were as answerable for totally controlled by their ideology, and that they were as answerable for 77 theirtheir actions actions as as anyone anyone else else in in the the movement. movement.77 fortaleza de Brest, by Sergei Smirnov; Chapaev, by Dmitri F6rmanov; Cuatro nov.las y Karl Smirnov; Marx; Guat.mala Chapaev, nuestra,by Dmitri by Juan Furmanov; Marinello; Cuatro Psi

This content downloaded from 129.252.86.83 on Tue, 26 Sep 2017 22:56:31 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms CARIBBEANCARIBBEAN STUDIES STUDIES / /VOL. VOL. 3 3NO. NO. 3 3 4343

The unions held meetim;s in the weeks that followed and elected "exemplary The unions held meetings in the weeks that followed and elected "exemplary workers" for membership in the PURS. In Havana about 40 % of the PURS workers" for membership in the PURS. In Havana about 40 ?/o of the PURS membership came from this source. It was by these means that Castro was able membership came from this source. It was by these means that Castro was able to break the hold of the "old" Communists and control the country with his to break the hold of the "old" Communists and control the country with his own communist party.78 It had the effect of giving him more freedom from the own communist party.78 It had the effect of giving him more freedom from the Communist International, but economically he had already committed himself Communist International, but economically he had already committed himself strongly to Eastern Europe. More recently, following the missle crisis of last strongly to Eastern Europe. More recently, following the missle crisis of last October, the Cuban government has shown signs of moving toward the Chinese October, the Cuban government has shown signs of moving toward the Chinese bloc, or of playing a Tito-type middle role in world Communism, but economi­ bloc, or of playing a Tito-type middle role in world Communism, but economi cally the Cubans remain closely tied to the Russian bloc. The fact remains, cally the Cubans remain closely tied to the Russian bloc. The fact remains, Castro is basicallybasically pragmatic. pragmatic. InIn orderorder to to take take control control of of the the labor labor unions unions in Havana in Havana and and other other cities cities of of Cuba, the government, at least at first, made major concessions and offered Cuba, the government, at least at first, made major concessions and offered substantial improvements to the workers. It was definitely successful in bringing substantial improvements to the workers. It was definitely successful in bringing the rank-and-file workers to the support of the Castro provisional government. the rank-and-file workers to the support of the Castro provisional government. In the first months of 1959 CTC unions which stressed the unity theme made In the first months of 1959 CTC unions which stressed the unity theme made substantial gains in wages and working conditions. Public housing, rent reduct­ substantial gains in wages and working conditions. Public housing, rent reduct ions, and increased employment from public works more than compensated for ions, and increased employment from public works more than compensated for layoffs in private construction. Other benefits included improved health ser­ layoffs in private construction. Other benefits included improved health ser vices, more social security benefits, and nurseries for the children of working vices, more social security benefits, and nurseries for the children of working mothers. Furthermore, although eventually United States embargo cut down mothers. Furthermore, although eventually United States embargo cut down food and other supplies, increased foodstuff production in Cuba, particularly food and other supplies, increased foodstuff production in Cuba, particularly of vegetables and grains, helped to compensate for the import shortages and of vegetables and grains, helped to compensate for the import shortages and actually reduced the cost of some food items. The desire of the government to actually reduced the cost of some food items. The desire of the government to remove tlie dependence of the nation on sugar production alone was one which remove the dependence of the nation on sugar production alone was one which the Castro government has been most concerned with from its earliest days. the Castro government has been most concerned with from its earliest days. There was a rapid increase in educational facilities in Havana. Although teacher There was a rapid increase in educational facilities in Havana. Although teacher salaries declined, thousands of unemployed Cuban teachers now found positions. salaries declined, thousands of unemployed Cuban teachers now found positions.

comrades had lost all sense of control. They imagined they had wan the Revolution in a raffle ... comrades"How werehad lostthe allORI sense nuclei of formed?control. I'mThey going imagined to tell theyyou how.had wonIn every the Revolutionprovince the in general a raffle ... secretary "How ofwere the thePSP ORI was nuclei made formed?general secretaryI'm going of to the tell ORr; you in how. every In municipality,every province the thegeneral general secretary of of the the PSP .PSP was was made made general general secretary secretary of the of ORI; the inORI; every in nucleus,every municipality, the general secretary the general secretary- the member of theof thePSP PSP was - madewas madegeneral general secretary secretary. of the Is thatORI; what in every you call nucleus, integration? the general Comrade secretary -Escalante the member is responsible of the PSP for - thatwas policy.made general secretary.. Is that what you call integration? Comrade Escalante is responsible for that policy. UWhat results from this? . . . If extreme sectarianism still remains, it will once again give rise to anti·communism"What results fromand to this confusion. ? . . . If Becauseextreme many sectarianism people will still ask: remains, "Is this itCommunism? will once again Is thisgive rise toMarxism? anti-communism Is this socialism? and to confusion.This arbitrariness, Because thismany abuse, people this will privilege, ask: "Is all this this, Communism? is this Com. Is this munism?"Marxism?munism?" ...Is .. . this socialism? This arbitrariness, this abuse, this privilege, all this, is this Com "That"That sectarianism sectarianism fosters fosters anti-Communismanti·Communism anew anew ...... To Toisolate isolate oneself oneself from from the massesthe masses when when one is in power, that is madness. It is another matter to be isolated by the ruling classes ... but oneto beis indivorced power, fromthat isthe madness. masses Itwhen is another the workers, matter theto be farmers, isolated the by workingthe ruling class classes... is in but power, is toa becrime. divorced The fromsectarianism the masses becomes when thecounter·revolutionary." workers, the farmers, I. theF. workingSlol1e's classWeekly, is in power,XI (Jan. is 14, a crime. The sectarianism becomes counter-revolutionary." I. F. Stone's Weekly, XI (Jan. 14, 1963),1963), P- p. 3?3· 78.78. Draper,Draper, "Castro"Castro and and Communism," Communism," p. p.45. 45.

This content downloaded from 129.252.86.83 on Tue, 26 Sep 2017 22:56:31 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 4444 I.I. ARTICLESARTICLES There were problems, but the new government showed a sincere and vital There were problems, but the new government showed a sincere and vital interest in education and made substantial progress (although not as sensational interest in education and made substantial progress (although not as sensational as some of the government illiteracy figures would indicate). In Havana alone, as some of the government illiteracy figures would indicate). In Havana alone, during the first year of the Revolution, 37 new schools were built.79 In addition, during the first year of the Revolution, 37 new schools were built.79 In addition, the Ministry of Labor sponsored literary contests for workers and encouraged the Ministry of Labor sponsored literary contests for workers and encouraged cultural development and the campaign against illiteracy.so cultural development and the campaign against illiteracy.80 In the summer of I960 Castro announced the beginning of Workers' Social In the summer of i960 Castro announced the beginning of Workers' Social Circles, social clubs for labor union members, taking the facilities of the night Circles, social clubs for labor union members, taking the facilities of the night clubs, yacht clubs, recreation centers, etc. This program did not'Teally get clubs, yacht clubs, recreation centers, etc. This program did not^really get underway until the spring of I96r, however. In April, many of the clubs, underway until the spring of 196 , however. In April, many of the clubs, beaches, and other previously private recreational areas were nationalized and, beaches, and other previously private recreational areas were nationalized and, on Labor Day (May r), they were turned over to the 24 Clrculos Sociales on Labor Day (May 1), they were turned over to the 24 Circulos Sociales Obreros for the "proletarian masses." The old Havana Yacht Club at this time Obreros for the "proletarian masses." The old Havana Yacht Club at this time was renamed after Julio Antonio Mella, the first Secretary General of the was renamed after Julio Antonio Mella, the first Secretary General of the Communist Party of Cuba (I925). It is not clear just how many workers have Communist Party of Cuba (1925). It is not clear just how many workers have been able to avail themselves of these previously private facilities, but they have been able to avail themselves of these previously private facilities, but they have greatly improved workers' moraIe;81 greatly improved workers' morale.81 Although Revolutionary leaders continued to guarantee the people a higher Although Revolutionary leaders continued to guarantee the people a higher standard of living, serious shortages of some commodities resulted stemming standard of living, serious shortages of some commodities resulted stemming from deteriorating relations with the United States and failures in the govern­ from deteriorating relations with the United States and failures in the govern ment's economic planning. The first rationing took place in July, r96r, follow~ ment's economic planning. The first rationing took place in July, 1961, follow ing the impounding by the Edwin Harris Advertising Company of a 29-car-Ioad ing the impounding by the Edwin Harris Advertising Company of a 29-car-load shipment of lard worth $600,000 already paid for by the Cuban government. shipment of lard worth $600,000 already paid for by the Cuban government. This resulted in the rationing of one pound of lard and one pound of other fats This resulted in the rationing of one pound of lard and one pound of other fats per month per person.s, More rationing came in I962 when other food items per month per person.82 More rationing came in 1962 when other food items became short. Nevertheless, in spite of the claims of United States newS became short. Nevertheless, in spite of the claims of United States news magazines and "hunger strikes" in a few localities, there is little evidence that magazines and "hunger strikes" in a few localities, there is little evidence that the Cuban people have been "starving." In fact, the majority of them may be the Cuban people have been "starving." In fact, the majority of them may be living better than previously, and it is the middle and upper classes who have living better than previously, and it is the middle and upper classes who have had to tighten their belts somewhat. While the exiles coming to Miami have had had to tighten their belts somewhat. While the exiles coming to Miami have had many grievances, few if any of them appear to have been suffering from mal­ many grievances, few if any of them appear to have been suffering from mal nutrition. Reports of visitors to Cuba, in fact, suggest that there must, at least, nutrition. Reports of visitors to Cuba, in fact, suggest that there must, at least, be serious doubt as to the idea that living conditions in Cuba for the workers be serious doubt as to the idea that living conditions in Cuba for the workers havehave declined. As As Donald Donald W. W. T. T. Bruce Bruce wrote wrote to tothe the editor editor of The of TimesThe Times of of

79?79. Johnson,Johnson, p. p.II. n. 80. For example, see "Resultados del concurso literario de la revista TRABAJO," Trabaio (Havana), 80. For II example, (2. quincen. see de"Resultados didembre de del 1961), concurso pp. 80-97. literario de la revista TRABAJO," Trabajo (Havana), II (2a quincena de diciembre de 1961), pp. 80-97. SL Helvio COIona, "Cultura, deportes Y Iecre.cion," Trabaio (Havan.), II (2a quincen. de diciembre 81. Helvio de 1961), Corona, p. 136;"Cultura, Jaime deportesGravalosa, y"Los recreation," trabajadores Trabajo en el poder," (Havana), Trabaio, II (2a II quincena(2. de diciembre de 1961), p. 136; Jaime Gravalosa, "Los trabajadores en el poder," Trabajo, II (2a quincenaquineen. de de diciembre diciembre de 1961),de 1961), p. 65. p. 65. 82.82. HAR,AR, XIVXIV (Sept.,(Sept., 1961), 1961), 606. 606.

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London on February 21, 1962, after his second visit in six months to Cuba, London on February 21, 1962, after his second visit in six months to Cuba, Whatever the merits or demerits of the system of government at present Whatever the merits or demerits of the system of government at present in operation it is difficult for a visitor to that delightful island country in operation it is difficult for a visitor to that delightful island country to come to any other conclusion than that Dr. Castro and his colleagues to come to any other conclusion than that Dr. Castro and his colleagues enjoy the overwhelming support of the great bulk of its population. enjoy the overwhelming support of the great bulk of its population. The purely material reasons for this lie in the simple fact that, for the The purely material reasons for this lie in the simple fact that, for the first time, the poorer sections of the population are getting a fair share first time, the poorer sections of the population are getting a fair share of the basic necessities of life in terms of both food and clothing. It has of the basic necessities of life in terms of both food and clothing. It has been decessary to enforce some rationing, particularly of meat and fats, been decessary to enforce some rationing, particularly of meat and fats, to accomplish this and a real decline in the consumer standards enjoyed to accomplish this and a real decline in the consumer standards enjoyed by the middle class has occured in consequence.ss by the middle class has occured in consequence.83 The government issued figures, admittedly subject to varying interpretation The government issued figures, admittedly subject to varying interpretation and reliability, which indicate considerable increases in standard of living, and reliability, which indicate considerable increases in standard of living, employment, wages, social security, pensions, and other benefits.s4 Meanwhile, employment, wages, social security, pensions, and other benefits.84 Meanwhile, government officials, notably "Che" Guevara, have admitted that many government officials, notably "Che" Guevara, have admitted that many mistakesmistakes havehave been been made maae in inthe the economic economic programs programs of theof theRevolution Revolution and thatand that there have been major setbacks. Guevara's statements again tend to emphasize there have been major setbacks. Guevara's statements again tend to emphasize the pragmatic nature of the Cuban Revolution.ss the pragmatic nature of the Cuban Revolution.85 Control of organized urban labor in Cuba has become one of the main Control of organized urban labor in Cuba has become one of the main supports for the Castro government since 1959. Demonstrations by labor unions supports for the Castro government since 1959. Demonstrations by labor unions for the new government were organized early in 1959 and have been frequent for the new government were organized early in 1959 and have been frequent ever since. Especially on such occasions as May Day, and patriotic national ever since. Especially on such occasions as May Day, and patriotic national holidays, the labor unions have been the most important source of a ready-m:lCle holidays, the labor unions have been the most important source of a ready-made, "cheering section." The benefits given to the workers to a large degree were "cheering section." The benefits given to the workers to a large degree were designed to create this large, readily available supporting group within the designed to create this large, readily available supporting group within the capital. The unions were also used on many to support the anti­ capital. The unions were also used on many occasionsoccasio~s to support the anti American campaign of the government, and the chauvinistic chanting of "Cuba American campaign of the government, and the chauvinistic chanting of "Cuba 83.0Reprinted in the HAR, XV (Mar., 1962), 2, from The Timer of London, Feb. 23, X962. Mr. 83.Bruce Reprinted went inOn theto HAR,say: "InXV (Mar.,turn this1962), has 2, resulted,from The understandably,Times of London, in Feb.a volume 23, 1962. of bitter Mr.criticism Bruce which went ison airedto say: quite "In openlyturn this in thehas moreresulted, expensive understandably, hotels and restaurantsin a volume in of Havana bitter despite thecriticism fact thatwhich the is essenceaired quite of openlysuch criticism in the more is that expensive it is not hotels possible and restaurants under 'the in policeHavana state' despite to utter itthe in fact safety_ that the essence of such criticism is that it is not possible under 'the police state' to utter it in safety. "Although my own trips were not sponsored in any way by the Cuban Government, I founel myself "Although free to mytravel own wherever trips were I wishednot sponsored on the inisland, any way without by the any Cuban 'guide' Government, Or 'interpreter'; I found to take myselfwhatever free photographs to travel wherever I wished; I wished and onto theconverse island, wih without anybody any 'guide*at random. or 'interpreter'; I availed myselfto take of all whateverthose fadlties photographs and was I wished; pleased and to tonote converse that thewih Cubansanybody with at random. whom I Iavailed talked myself felt able of allto express themselvesthose facilties quite and freely,was pleased and tosometimes note that controversially,the Cubans with on whom political I talked and felt other able mattersto express ..." Other travelersthemselves have quite reported freely, andsimilar sometimes experiences. controversially, on political and other matters . . ." Other travelers84. See, have for reported example, similar the experiences. Ministry of Labor's Cuba en Citrar (Havana: Imprenta Nadonal, 84. See, for example, the Ministry of Labor's Cuba en Cifras (Havana: Imprenta Nacional, x91961).6x ). 85- For example, in March, I962, Guevara declared: "We made an absurd plan ... with absurd 85. Forgoals example, and with in March,supplies 1962, that Guevarawere totally declared: dreamed." "We made HAR, an XVabsurd (May, plan. I962),. . with 225. absurd goals and with supplies that were totally dreamed." AR, XV (May, 1962), 225.

This content downloaded from 129.252.86.83 on Tue, 26 Sep 2017 22:56:31 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 46 I.I. ARTICLES Sf, Yanquis No!" was indicative of this use. Si, Yanquis No!" was indicative of this use. A more significant use of the labor unions, however, has been their employ­ A more significant use of the labor unions, however, has been their employ ment in the militia, a ready reserve of which organized urban labor supplies ment in the militia, a ready reserve of which organized urban labor supplies most of the membership. The "Rebel Army" had served its purpose in over­ most of the membership. The "Rebel Army" had served its purpose in over throwing Batista and increasingly was a potential counter ,evolutionary force, throwing Batista and increasingly was a potential counter revolutionary force, differing little from other Latin American standing armies.86 The reserve militia, differing little from other Latin American standing armies.86 The reserve militia, supposedly established for national defense, was in reality a check against the supposedly established for national defense, was in reality a check against the army taking over. The idea of arming workers was proposed by the Communists army taking over. The idea of arming workers was proposed by the Communists in Guatemala but was not put into operation sufficiently to prevent the over­ in Guatemala but was not put into operation sufficiently to prevent the over throw of the Arbenz regime there by Col. Carlos Castillo Armas in 19·54. The throw of the Arbenz regime there by Col. Carlos Castillo Armas in 1954. The army offered virtually no resistance in that case, and the labor unions had, for army offered virtually no resistance in that case, and the labor unions had, for the most part, not yet been armed. In Guatemala the move had been slowed by the most part, not yet been armed. In Guatemala the move had been slowed by President Arbenz, himself an army man. One who had strongly urged the President Arbenz, himself an army man. One who had strongly urged the arming of the workers in Guatemala was "Che" Guevara, and he was more arming of the workers in Guatemala was "Che" Guevara, and he was more successful in promoting the idea in Cuba. The CTC and the Labor Ministry successful in promoting the idea in Cuba. The CTC and the Labor Ministry played key roles in bringing about the establishment of militia units in the played key roles in bringing about the establishment of militia units in the labor unions. Well armed and equiped, they are frequently displayed in uniform labor unions. Well armed and equiped, they are frequently displayed in uniform as a show of force. Exiled Transport Workers' Union Leader Marcos Hirigoyen as a show of force. Exiled Transport Workers' Union Leader Marcos Hirigoyen told Daniel James in 1961: "Today the unions are militia barracks. The II1ilitia told Daniel James in 196 : "Today the unions are militia barracks. The militia are present everywhere in labor. The militia, alone and exclusively, set the are present everywhere in labor. The militia, alone and exclusively, set the meetings and name the [local union] executives."81 meetings and name the [local union] executives."87 The militia, mainly urban CTC members, has been repeatedly mobilized The militia, mainly urban CTC members, has been repeatedly mobilized when danger has threatened the Cuban Revolution. A decree of January, I96I, when danger has threatened the Cuban Revolution. A decree of January, 196 , guaranteed militiamen full pay from their jobs while they were under mobi­ guaranteed militiamen full pay from their jobs while they were under mobi lization. And its existence, in many ways more closely controlled by the govern­ lization. And its existence, in many ways more closely controlled by the govern ment than any standing army could ever be, makes the possibility of overthrow ment than any standing army could ever be, makes the possibility of overthrow of the Castro government by an external force extremely difficult. as The arming· of the Castro government by an external force extremely difficult.88 The arming of so many workers makes Cuba unique among Communist countries. Nowhere of so many workers makes Cuba unique among Communist countries. Nowhere behind the Iron Curtain are the people themselves armed as they are in Cuba. behind the Iron Curtain are the people themselves armed as they are in Cuba. In addition to official action by the militia, used at times to influence labor In addition to official action by the militia, used at times to influence labor eiections and against counter revolutionary groups and activities, there is also elections and against counter revolutionary groups and activities, there is also evidence to suggest that the CTC had provided "goon squads" of strong-armed evidence to suggest that the CTC had provided "goon squads" of strong-armed thugs to eliminate or intimidate opposition. In early I960, a mob attacked the thugs to eliminate or intimidate opposition. In early i960, a mob attacked the offices of Avance, Diario de fa Marina, and other anti-Communist publications. offices of Avance, Diario de la Marina, and other anti-Communist publications. Worker gangs have also been used to break up anti-government meetings and to Worker gangs have also been used to break up anti-government meetings and to intimidate all opposition. The extent of this is unknown at present, but there intimidate all opposition. The extent of this is unknown at present, but there are rumors among Cuban exiles that such activity is as prevalent as it was under are rumors among Cuban exiles that such activity is as prevalent as it was under

86. Draper,Draper. ClI!tro'!Castro's Revolution,Revolution, p. p.25. 25. 87.87· James, p. p. 198. 198. 88. Rojas, p. p. 25. 25.

This content downloaded from 129.252.86.83 on Tue, 26 Sep 2017 22:56:31 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms CARIBBEAN STUDIES / VOL. 3 NO. 3 CARIBBEAN STUDIES / VOL. 3 NO. 3 4747 the Communist regime in Guatemala, where, following its overthrow, evidence the Communist regime in Guatemala, where, following its overthrow, evidence of widespread torture and assassinations of political opposition was found. The of widespread torture and assassinations of political opposition was found. The labor unions have also cooperated closely with the Committees of Defense in an labor unions have also cooperated closely with the Committees of Defense in an effort to discover and destroy counter revolutionary activities.sD Castro himself effort to discover and destroy counter revolutionary activities.89 Castro himself openly encouraged worker action against counter-revolutionaries after rebels in openly encouraged worker action against counter-revolutionaries after rebels in Las Villas Province hanged a 16 year old peasant teacher. He suggested that a Las Villas Province hanged a 16 year old peasant teacher. He suggested that a squad from the CTC should be formed to capture the assassins. Bo squad from the CTC should be formed to capture the assassins.90 Perhaps more important than these direct uses of organized labor to support Perhaps more important than these direct uses of organized labor to support the government, however, has been the gradual transition of the CTC from an the government, however, has been the gradual transition of the CTC from an institution promoting better conditions and benefits for the workers to a virtual institution promoting better conditions and benefits for the workers to a virtual government--agency more concerned with improving production. This situation government agency more concerned with improving production. This situation is especially significant because of the role the Communists played in its develop­ is especially significant because of the role the Communists played in its develop ment. As early as 1959 some restrictive measures had been taken by the govern­ ment. As early as 1959 some restrictive measures had been taken by the govern ment, and by March, I960, collective bargaining had been abolished and ment, and by March, i960, collective bargaining had been abolished and replaced by a system of arbitration by the Ministry of Labor. Arbitrations were replaced by a system of arbitration by the Ministry of Labor. Arbitrations were generally declared in favor of the unions when the majority of employers were generally declared in favor of the unions when the majority of employers were private concerns, but later, when the government itself was the largest employer private concerns, but later, when the government itself was the largest employer following extensive expropriations, the Ministry more often ruled against the following extensive expropriations, the Ministry more often ruled against the unions. Also, in I959, an Office of Labor Control was inaugurated which gave unions. Also, in 1959, an Office of Labor Control was inaugurated which gave the Ministry of Labor wide powers to determine the employment of individual the Ministry of Labor wide powers to determine the employment of individual workers. Established for the purpose of avoiding collusion in employment for workers. Established for the purpose of avoiding collusion in employment for political purposes or patronage, or by corrupt labor union officials, and to political purposes or patronage, or by corrupt labor union officials, and to avoid manipulation, nepotism, and racial discrimination, it, too, later became avoid manipulation, nepotism, and racial discrimination, it, too, later became widely used as an instrument of the government for the control of labor, used widely used as an instrument of the government for the control of labor, used to dismiss legally any worker who failed to comply with its politics.B1 The law to dismiss legally any worker who failed to comply with its politics.91 The law became more effective in March, 1960, when Decree No. 76I required every became more effective in March, i960, when Decree No. 761 required every worker to register with the Ministry of Labor.BE worker to register with the Ministry of Labor.92 In September, 1960, the Labor Ministry-responded to the government's need In September, i960, the Labor Ministry responded to the government's need to increase production by tightening up working requirements, insisting on more to increase production by tightening up working requirements, insisting on more working time and establishing penalties for "crimes against production" for working time and establishing penalties for "crimes against production" for workers who refused to cooperate with the speed-up system reminiscent of the workers who refused to cooperate with the speed-up system reminiscent of the Soviet Union's Stakhanovist policies of the I93o'S.91 The shortage of technical Soviet Union's Stakhanovist policies of the i^o's.93 The shortage of technical personnel and the tremendous management problems that accompanied natio­ personnel and the tremendous management problems that accompanied natio nalization contributed to the problems of Cuban industry, and thus, indirectly, nalization contributed to the problems of Cuban industry, and thus, indirectly,

89. James,James, pp. pp. 204-205, 204-205, 307-308. 307-308. 90._ "Una quincena de acontecimientos I.. borales," p. 23. 90. "Una quincena de acontecimientos laborales," p. 23. 9I.91. Rojas,Rojas, p .•p.8. 28. 51.·92. James,James, p. p.x95. 195. 93. Ibid., p. X99, citing Dr. Aureliano Sanche. Arango, "Situad6n de los campesinos y obreros dentro 93. deIbid., I.. reforma p. 199, agraria," citing Dr.Cuba, Aureliano z96z, supplement Sanchez to Arango, Cuade",os, "Situation No_ 47 (Paris:de los March-April,campesinos y obreros dentro de la reforma agraria," Cuba, 1961, supplement to Cuadernos, No. 47 (Paris: March-April, x96x),1961), p. 40.

This content downloaded from 129.252.86.83 on Tue, 26 Sep 2017 22:56:31 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 48 I.I. ARTICLES to Cuban labor.94 Soviet labor officials in Cuba worked closely with the to Cuban labor.94 Soviet labor officials in Cuba worked closely with the Ministry of Labor and the CTC on these problems.95 Ministry of Labor and the CTC on these problems.95 In August, 1961, the CTC was reorganized, making it more manageable In August, 1961, the CTC was reorganized, making it more manageable from CTC headquarters. Unions were established for each plant and a national from CTC headquarters. Unions were established for each plant and a national federation for each industry, eliminating much overlapping. The number of federation for each industry, eliminating much overlapping. The number of national federations was reduced to twenty-five. Also, professionals such as national federations was reduced to twenty-five. Also, professionals such as doctors, teachers, and engineers were allowed to organize for the first time. doctors, teachers, and engineers were allowed to organize for the first time. The reorganization program, the government hoped, would expedite worker The reorganization program, the government hoped, would expedite worker cooperation in fulfilling production goals of the four-year industrial plan to cooperation in fulfilling production goals of the four-year industrial plan to begin in 1962. A great deal of emphasis was placed on "unity" of the labor begin in 1962. A great deal of emphasis was placed on "unity" of the labor movement.D" This theme became more and more dominant and was pursued movement.90 This theme became more and more dominant and was pursued by the Communists and the government alike in an attempt to marshal the by the Communists and the government alike in an attempt to marshal the labor unions behind the production plans. The CTC was also called upon about labor unions behind the production plans. The CTC was also called upon about this time to provide "Patria 0 Muerte" brigades to volunteer work in building this time to provide "Patria Muerte" brigades to volunteer work in building schools as part of the illiteracy campaign. By the end of the year, the govern­ schools as part of the illiteracy campaign. By the end of the year, the govern ment claimed that 60,000 workers wer participating in this program, about half ment claimed that 60,000 workers wer participating in this program, about half inin urbanurban areas. areas.9797 Meanwhile, the CTC launched a vigorous campaign against absenteeism. Meanwhile, the CTC launched a vigorous campaign against absenteeism. ThisThis theme waswas carriedcarried into into the the national national federation federation congresses congresses and the and CTC the CTC Congress held in November, 1961. President Osvaldo Dortic6s delivered the Congress held in November, 1961. President Osvaldo Dorticos delivered the opening address to the CTC-R delegates and declared: "Comrade workers! opening address to the CTC-R delegates and declared: "Comrade workers! ·Fight and triumph! Fight for our Revolution and achieve the final victory of Fight and triumph! Fight for our Revolution and achieve the final victory of our Socialist Revolution." He emphasized that the Revolution needed the our Socialist Revolution." He emphasized that the Revolution needed the sacrifice of the working class, but that no one could deny that the Revolution sacrifice of the working class, but that no one could deny that the Revolution had provided the working people great benefits. He told the workers that they had provided the working people great benefits. He told the workers that they now held the political power in Cuba; that they no longer struggled to gain now held the political power in Cuba; that they no longer struggled to gain benefits from a dominant group that was indifferent the working class. benefits from a dominant group that was indifferentto to the working class. Instead,Instead, Dortic6s Dorticos said, said, the the Cuban Cuban workers workers were were now now the theowners.9S owners.98 At these At these meeting~ it became completely evident that the unions no longer existed for meetings it became completely evident that the unions no longer existed for the workers, but for the government. The new CTC-R chief, Lazaro Peiia the workers, but for the government. The new CTC-R chief, Lazaro Pena declared:

We must not only consider the specific aspirations and demands of the We must not only consider the specific aspirations and demands of the workers as we have done before, but also, and this is now the most workers as we have done before, but also, and this is now the most

94. Even Huberman and Sweezy, highly favorable and optimistic about the revolutionary 94? Even Huberman and Sweezy, highly favorable and optimistic about the revolutionary reforms, admit this;this; seesee p. p. 199. 199. 95. Rojas,Rojas, p.p. 27.27· 96. AR,HAR, XIV XIV (Sept., (Sept., 1961), 1961), 694; 694; Rojas, Rojas, p. 27.p. 27. 97. Margot Obaya, "Cuba: Territorio libre de anaIfabetismo," Traba;o (Havana), II (2a quin­ 97. Margot Obaya, "Cuba: Territorio libre de analfabetismo," Trabajo (Havana), II (2a quin cena de diciembrediciembre dede 1961),196r), p. p. 10. IO. 98. "Una"Una quincena quincena de de acontecimientos acontecimientos laborales," laboraIes," p. 23.p. 23.

This content downloaded from 129.252.86.83 on Tue, 26 Sep 2017 22:56:31 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms CARIBBEAN STUDIES / V:0L. 3 NO. 3 CARIBBEAN STUDIES / VOL. 3 NO. 3 4949 important, the new tasks and obligations that correspond to us in ·the important, the new tasks and obligations that correspond to us in the establishment of socialism, in the construction of the new society ... establishment of socialism, in the construction of the new society... Our 2 f constituent congresses adopted in one form or another a common Our 25 constituent congresses adopted in one form or another a common determination: to toeliminate eliminate those those labor labor contracts contracts that that hindered hindered th!! the development of production, the increase of the productivity of labor, development of production, the increase of the productivity of l?bor, the advance of the economy of our socialist revolution, as a new volun­ the advance of the economy of our socialist revolution, as a new volun tary contribution of the workers.D9 tary contribution of the workers." Specifically, this meant that workers gave up many of the rights and Specifically, this meant that workers gave up many of the rights and benefits that they had gained under Batista. Some of them were cleat cases of benefits that they had gained under Batista. Some of them were clear cases of "featherbedding," but others, such as the 9-day annual sick leave, were ended "featherbedding," but others, such as the 9-day annual sick leave, were ended because of abuses of privileges which slowed production. Instead of correcting because of abuses of privileges which slowed production. Instead of correcting the contracts to eliminate the abuses, benefits were now lost altogether. The the contracts to eliminate the abuses, benefits were now lost altogether. The new contracts permitted introduction of labor-saving machinery and other new contracts permitted introduction of labor-saving machinery and other innovations designed to improve production. "Che" Guevara .made it clear that innovations designed to improve production. "Che" Guevara made it clear that the government would not tolerate opposition to the new contracts. Some of the government would not tolerate opposition to the new contracts. Some of the national federations went further than others, even voting to forego. Christ­ the national federations went further than others, even voting to forego. Christ mas bonuses so that the money could be used for industrializatioIi.1oo mas bonuses so that the money could be used for industrialization.100 The campaigns to eliminate absenteeism and to promote the unity of the The campaigns to eliminate absenteeism and to promote the unity of the working class continued through 1962. The unions had become no more than working class continued through 1962. The unions had become no more than servants of the state, and specifically of the Ministry of Labor, which com­ servants of the state, and specifically of the Ministry of Labor, which com pletely controlled the labor movement and the workers. In March, 1962, pletely controlled the labor movement and the workers. In March, 1962, Guevara emphasized that labor should accept the discipline of "democratic Guevara emphasized that labor should accept the discipline of "democratic centraJism" when a new austerity law was put into effect. The Ministry centralism" when a new austerity law was put into effect. The Ministry eventually established penalties for absent and tardy workers in the summer eventually established penalties for absent and tardy workers in the summer of 1962. Penalties included public disgrace, salary deductions, shortening of of 1962. Penalties included public disgrace, salary deductions, shortening of vacations, suspensions, or transfers to other jobs. Furthermore, not only a vacations, suspensions, or transfers to other jobs. Furthermore, not only a minimum salary of 90 pesos was established, but also a maximum of 200 pesos, minimum salary of 90 pesos was established, but also a maximum of 200 pesos, with all wage changes subject to the Labor Ministry'S approva1.101 with all wage changes subject to the Labor Ministry's approval.101 In September, 1962, Lazaro Peiia emphasized what he called "socialist In September, 1962, Lazaro Pena emphasized what he called "socialist emulation" at the National Council meeting of the CTC-R, with more emphasis emulation" at the National Council meeting of the CTC-R, with more emphasis placed on production by exemplary "vanguard workers." "Socialist emulation," placed on production by exemplary "vanguard workers." "Socialist emulation," Peiia said, "while voluntary, was nevertheless a moral obligation for every Pena said, "while voluntary, was nevertheless a moral obligation for every Cuban worker to do his utmost at.every task that faced his country-/' .President Cuban worker to do his utmost at every task that faced his country." President Dortic6s assure4 the meeting that "socialist emulation" would be .coordinated Dorticos assured the meeting that "socialist emulation" would be coordinated with the national economic plans for. I963, although wage rates ~ould .be tied with the national economic plans for 1963, although wage rates would ,be tied to production only in the case of new workers.102 to production only in the case of new workers.102 99.99? Ibid.,Ibid., pp. pp. :21-22. 21-22. IOO. Ibid., pp. 20-23; HAR, XIV (Jan., I962), 988. 100. Ibid., pp. 20-23; HAR, XIV (Jan., 1962), 988. IOI.101. HAR,HAR, XV XV (Oct., (Oct., 1962), 1962), 707. 707. I02.102. Ibid.,Ibid., (Nov., (Nov., 1962), 1962), 805. 805.

This content downloaded from 129.252.86.83 on Tue, 26 Sep 2017 22:56:31 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 5050 I.I. ARTICLES Thus, by 1963, there was no doubt that the freedom of Cuban organized Thus, by 1963, there was no doubt that the freedom of Cuban organized labor had been lost. The Communists had taken it over completely, and the labor had been lost. The Communists had taken it over completely, and the CTC was being operated as an appendage of the government for the benefit of CTC was being operated as an appendage of the government for the benefit of the government's economic plan, as part of a vast totalitarian socialist dictator­ the government's economic plan, as part of a vast totalitarian socialist dictator ship.ship.

IVIV The development of organized labor in Cuba has been closely associated with The development of organized labor in Cuba has been closely associated with the Communist Party and with· the Cuban government. Communist were the Communist Party and with the Cuban government. Communist were significant leaders in the early organization of Cuban labor and have played significant leaders in the early organization of Cuban labor and have played an iII\portant role in it ever since. Since the 1930'S the governments of Cuba an important role in it ever since. Since the 1930's the governments of Cuba have been closely involved with the organized urban labor movement and have have been closely involved with the organized urban labor movement and have consistently made the CTC a strong base of support for their policies and consistently made the CTC a strong base of support for their policies and maintenancemaintenance of power.of power. The "dictatorship of the proletariat" in Cuba has meant the subordination The "dictatorship of the proletariat" in Cuba has meant the subordination of the interests of the working class to the interests of the state as a whole, at of the interests of the working class to the interests of the state as a whole, at present interpreted through "democratic centralism" by a select group of leaders, present interpreted through "democratic centralism" by a select group of leaders, few of whom are "proletarian" workers. This subordination of labor to govern­ few of whom are "proletarian" workers. This subordination of labor to govern mentment control control is not is notnew innew Cuba; in Cuba;it was ait definite was a characteristicdefinite characteristic of both Batista of both Batista regimes. At the same time, ~he pragmatic nature of the Cuban Revolution has At the same time, the pragmatic nature of the Cuban Revolution has presented a strong challenge to the old-guard Communists of Latin America as presented a strong challenge to the old-guard Communists of Latin America as they have been unable to completely dominate. the Cuban Revolution. The they have been unable to completely dominate the Cuban Revolution. The success of the Communists in infiltrating and controlling Cuban labor reflects success of the Communists in infiltrating and controlling Cuban labor reflects their long experience and interest in the Cuban proletariat, but it also reflects their long experience and interest in the Cuban proletariat, but it also reflects the ab~ence of a strong free trade-union movement. The chief reason the Com­ the absence of a strong free trade-union movement. The chief reason the Com munists have been able to control the labor unions has been the power vacuum munists have been able to control the labor unions has been the power vacuum created whenwhen previous previous totalitarian totalitarian governments governments were were overthrown. overthrown. The GuateThe Guate­ malan experience of 1944-1954 suggests the same thing. While the Cuban labor malan experience of 1944-1954 suggests the same thing. While the Cuban labor movement has been one of the largest and most powerful in Latin America, movement has been one of the largest and most powerful in Latin America, it does not necessarily follow that it has been healthy. Although it has been it does not necessarily follow that it has been healthy. Although it has been at times successful in gaining certain benefits and advantages for the urban at times successful in gaining certain benefits and advantages for the urban workers, the CTC has been used for political ends which have not always workers, the CTC has been used for political ends which have not always benefitted the workers or the nation, and it has not served as an adequate benefitted the workers or the nation, and it has not served as an adequate spokesman for the workers' interests. The experience of the CTC should interest spokesman for the workers' interests. The experience of the CTC should interest other Latin American workers' organizations. other Latin American workers' organizations.

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