Young, Gifted and Black ∗

Young, Gifted and Black ∗ Oral Histories of Young Activists in Cape Town and Durban in the early 1970s By Carmel T. M. Chetty Student No. 202520212 In partial completion of Master of Education Degree ∗ Acknowledgement to Nina Simone’s song that was very inspirational during this period: (W. Irvine/N. Simone) Ivan Mogull Music Ltd. EMI Tunes Pic. 1 This dissertation is dedicated to Krishna Rabilal, who was murdered on 30 January 1981 in, Matola, Mozambique by the South African Defence Force. We honour his heroism and memory through recording the stories of some of his contemporaries. It is solely by risking life that freedom is obtained… the individual who has not staked his life may, no doubt, be recognised as a person; but he has not attained the truth of this recognition as an independent self-consciousness. (Hegel: The Phenomenology of the Mind) 2 Declaration of Originality I, Carmel T. M. Chetty (Student No.: 202520212), declare that this research titled: Young, Gifted and Black. Oral Histories of Young Activists in Cape Town and Durban in the early 1970s is my own work and that all sources quoted have been duly acknowledged. This research was duly given ethical clearance by the Department of Humanities in 2005. Signed:_______________________________ Date:_________________________________ Supervisor: Crispin Hemson Co-Supervisor: Dennis Francis 3 Acknowledgements I wish to express my indebtedness to: − All the respondents in this study for their trust and courage in speaking to me about their early lives and revolutionary activities during the period which has been incorrectly described as ‘The Fifteen Year Night After Sharpeville’1 I wish to also express my heartfelt gratitude to those who had to relive the trauma of arrests, detentions, security police tortures and almost death. − my late mother-in-law, Nagamma Chetty, who, before her recent death, ensured that my home continued to function while I spent long hours in front of the computer. − my husband, Roy Chetty for his encouragement and support. − my supervisor, Crispin Hemson, for his insightful and positive critique as well as his infinite patience. − my co-supervisor, Dennis Francis, for his time and positive back-up − my sons, Leon and Krish, for their computer expertise and advice; and Che for his patience. − the wonderful staff at the following libraries who have always been extremely helpful: ¾ Edminson Library ¾ E. G. Malherbe Library ¾ Don Africana Library ¾ Killie Campbell Africana Library 1 Jaffe, 1994: 182 4 Abstract This study highlights the contribution of activists from Durban and Cape Town in the anti-apartheid struggle in South Africa in the early nineteen seventies. Historians tend to generally disregard this period, that followed the state crackdown on black political organisations and leaders, especially when writing on the 1960s Defiance Campaign and the 1976 uprising. The respondents in this study developed their political consciousness during the period when internationally there was growing popular resistance to the Vietnam War, coupled with the emergence of the militant Black Power Movement in the USA. This was also the period of the development of the Black Consciousness Movement among ‘black’ university students in South Africa. The emergence of the dynamic Black Consciousness Movement gave young individuals the ammunition to explore a new identity that could help them discard the shackles of the oppressive consciousness drummed through apartheid schooling. The thesis of this study is about the significant impact the deconstruction of racial identities had on the lives of young activists who resisted racial and class oppression, during the period incorrectly described as ‘The Fifteen Year Night After Sharpeville2’. It contends that revolutionary zeal evoked spontaneous learning. Powerful learning occurred when it was linked to the struggle against oppression. Under such conditions groups and individuals took responsibility for their own learning and developed skills and strategies that has largely stayed with them for the rest of their lives. This study presents the oral stories of some activists from the Durban and Cape Town areas and explores the activities of these two groups, hundreds of miles away from one another who pursued activities that were largely similar. The focus is on the learning that emerged through the consciousness raising and the conscientisation processes that helped activists psychologically liberate themselves from racial indoctrination. It traces the 2 Jaffe, 1994: 182 5 development of their consciousness during their youth and examines how that consciousness impacted on their lives as well as their understanding of their social identities in the present. The Black Consciousness philosophy drew individuals away from the preconceived notions rooted in the oppressive ideology of apartheid and created a new identity that promoted ‘black’ pride and solidarity. Although the groups operated almost 1700 kilometres apart, this study found that those activists who were exposed to philosophies like Freire’s ‘Education for Liberation’ converged towards a common goal for revolutionary social change. 6 TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................................................... 8 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................................... 9 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................................... 9 OVERVIEW OF THE DISSERTATION ............................................................................................................. 11 CHAPTER 1 ................................................................................................................................................ 12 SOCIO-HISTORICAL BACKGROUND ................................................................................................. 12 1.1 THE POST 1948 PERIOD ............................................................................................................... 14 1.1.1 THE POLITICAL CONTEXT ........................................................................................................... 14 1.1.2 EDUCATIONAL CONTEXT ............................................................................................................ 21 1.1.3 STUDENT ORGANISATIONS .......................................................................................................... 29 1.1.4 THE INTERNATIONAL CONTEXT .................................................................................................. 35 CHAPTER 2 ................................................................................................................................................ 40 THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS AND LITERATURE REVIEW ..................................................... 40 2.1 INTRODUCTORY COMMENTS ....................................................................................................... 40 2.2 BLACK CONSCIOUSNESS ............................................................................................................. 44 2.3 SENSITIVITY TRAINING AND ENCOUNTER GROUPS ..................................................................... 47 2.4 SOCIAL IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT THEORY ................................................................................. 49 2.5 LEARNING THEORY ..................................................................................................................... 53 CHAPTER 3 ................................................................................................................................................ 55 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY ..................................................................................... 55 CHAPTER 4 ................................................................................................................................................ 79 FINDINGS ................................................................................................................................................... 79 CHAPTER 5 .............................................................................................................................................. 127 THE STORIES .......................................................................................................................................... 127 5.1 THE EARLY YEARS ................................................................................................................... 130 5.1.1 RESPONDENT FROM DURBAN .................................................................................................... 130 5.1.2 RESPONDENT FROM CAPE TOWN ............................................................................................... 132 5.2 RAISING POLITICAL CONSCIOUSNESS ............................................................................... 134 5.2.1 RESPONDENT FROM DURBAN .................................................................................................... 134 5.2.2 RESPONDENT FROM CAPE TOWN ............................................................................................... 148 5.3 LATER LIFE................................................................................................................................ 152 5.3.1 RESPONDENT FROM DURBAN ...................................................................................................

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