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Mediterranean Archaeology and Archaeometry, Vol. 8, No. 2, pp. 21-29 Copyright © 2008 MAA Printed in . All rights reserved.

THE NABATAEANS AND Zeyad al-Salameen

Nabataean Centre for Archaeological Studies Al-Hussein Bin Talal University Wadi Mousa- , P. O. Box 270, e-mail: [email protected]

Received: 24/11/2007 Accepted: 10/12/2007

Abstract Archaeological discoveries in Nabataean major places such as Petra and (Madain ) reflect a clear exogenous influence. This study will therefore try to study the possible Lycian influence upon the Nabataean cultural achievements especially in terms of the content of the tomb inscriptions and the design of the tombs.

KEYWORDS: Nabataeans, Lycians, Nabataean Tomb Inscriptions,

22 ZEYAD AL-SALAMEEN

INTRODUCTION mentions that "litigation" was behind the foreigners' existence in Petra but It has been argued by several there might have been other scholars that the Nabataeans had motivations beside litigation such as contacts with several people such as commerce. Pliny hinted to Nabataean Charcenians, Indians, Chinese and the activities outside Nabataea. He said Egyptians and these contacts were that Furat, a town on the bank of the inevitable and influential (for more “Pasitigris”, was subject to the king of details see Gogte 1990:300-1; : “this is resorted to by people McKenzie 1990:99). This is confirmed from Petra, who make the journey by the discovery of various Nabataean from there to Charax, a distance of archaeological materials in many twelve miles by water, using the tide” places outside Nabataea, such as in (VI.XXXII.145). (CIS II 160), (Wenning Historical chronicles do not 1987:23), Puteoli (CIS II 158), Cos, provide enough examples of cross- and (Roche 1996:79; cultural marriages between Schmid 1999:279,283), Southern Nabataeans and other cultures. The Arabia (Potts 1991), and other places. only Nabataean cross marriage is Unfortunately, we do not have mentioned by who says that enough historical sources to shed light Herod Antipas married the daughter on the non-political Nabataean of the Nabataean king Aretas IV (9 contacts with the surrounding BC-AD 40) and after a lengthy contemporary civilizations1. There are marriage, Antipas divorced his wife limited historical references to the and married Herodias (Jewish Nabataeans’ possible foreign relations. Antiquities 18.109). , for example, in his In 2003 the author had the refers to the existence of foreigners opportunity to discuss the Nabataean inside Nabataea. He said that there relations with other people with were "many Romans and many other professor John Healey who hinted that foreigners sojourning there, and that there was a possible link between the he [not Strabo but one of his friends] Lycians, who inhabited the saw that the foreigners often engaged southwestern parts of by the in litigation, both with one another early first millennium and spoke an and with the natives, but that none of Indo-European language and the the natives prosecuted one another Nabataeans, who had settled in the and that they in every way kept peace northern part of Arabia around the with one another” (XVI.4.21). Strabo fifth-fourth centuries B.C. (for the

geographical locations of Nabataea 1 The most important references for the political history of the Nabataeans are Josephus’ two and , see, 1). This paper will main books, The Jewish War and The Jewish try, therefore, to comprehend this Antiquities. In covering the history of the Jews possible link archaeologically. Before and the Romans, he comes across the we proceed we should identify the Nabataean relations with the Jews during times Lycians and Nabataeans of peace and war. THE NABATAEANS AND LYCIANS 23

Map (1) The geographical locations of Nabataea and Lycia

WHO WERE THE LYCIANS? second century B.C. regarding the Roman alliance with the Jews. The "Lycians" is a name given to Lycia was under the control of the the people who inhabited Lycia which Persian Empire in 546 B.C. when one is located on the southwestern coast of of the generals of Cyrus II conquered Minor in Anatolia. It is Asia Minor and they ruled Lycia until mentioned in many historical sources. 468 BC. Later, it was conquered by states that the Lycians the Great in 333 BC. In 309 came from under Serapedon, BC took over Lycia and probably through Miletus ( 1). during this period Greek culture, art They were named after , the son and language were adopted by the of Pandion II, king of who was Lycians. In 197 B.C. Antiochus III exiled by his brother and conquered Lycia and the Lycians were settled among the Termilae (The granted freedom in 169 BC. Lycia Geography of Strabo 14:3.10). became a in 46 A.D. states that the Lycian contingent Under the Roman rule, Lycia enjoyed fighting at was said to have been relative independence until the time of led by two esteemed warriors: (for more details see, Childe Sarpedon and ( II). I 1981: 55-80). Macc. 15:23 mentions that Lycia was The remaining ruins include many among the recipients of a letter from rock-cut tombs and dating from the the Roman consul Lucius Piso in the 5th Century B.C. The Lycians cut their 24 ZEYAD AL-SALAMEEN tombs in the rock and these tombs Charax. Westwards they reached bear inscriptions (see for example Greece and and northwards Schweyer 2002). Almost all the tomb they seem to have reached inscriptions are written in two and Anatolia, as we shall discuss different languages: Greek, which can below. Nabataeans are known as be dated to the first three centuries of merchants who worked as middlemen the and Lycian, which who controlled and monopolized the are older that the Greek and can be trade of aromatics, which were highly dated to the fifth and fourth centuries prized by the ancients. These B.C. (Pembroke 1965:218). commodities were highly esteemed by the Romans, , Chinese, WHO WERE THE NABATAEANS? Charecenes and possibly the Lycians. The location of Nabataean and Lycia They were a group of Arabian both help to flourish this trade. tribes who settled in Northern Arabia Nabataea’s strategic location made it a and the southern parts of the bridge between the "producers" and during the fifth-fourth centuries B.C. the "consumers" of these During the period between the second merchandises. Additionally, the main century B.C. and the first century A.D. incense trade passed via these they established a kingdom that territories. Lycia, on the other hand, covered modern Jordan, northern was located on the main trade routes Arabia, southern and southern between Cyprus and the Levant in the . Their kingdom came to an east; Greece and the Anatolian coast in end in A.D. 106 when it was annexed the west; and to the south (Keen to the Roman Empire by 1998: 31-33). It is located also close to (Bowersock 1970: 37-47) the Greek which witnessed Petra, the Nabataeans' capital, was Nabataean activities (see map 1). A an active commercial bilingual inscription was found in receiving goods from various Miletus which is not far away from producers such as Arabia, India, East Lycia and dedicated by Syllaeus the and . These commodities Nabataean Minister during his visit to were then to be distributed to other Rome during the last decade of the nations. Archaeological fieldworks in first century B.C.(Figure 1) (Cantineau Nabataea provide ample evidence for 1978:46) international and regional interaction. Pottery, and inscriptions have been found outside Nabataea including Southern Arabia, the Arabia Gulf, the and (For more details see al-Salameen 2004: 45ff). Eastwards the Nabataeans Figure 1 Miletus bilingual Nabataean- probably reached India, China and Greek inscription (Cantineau 1978.46) THE NABATAEANS AND LYCIANS 25

Another dated Nabataean In the light of the aforementioned inscription was found in Cos island evidence it is not surprising to and dedicated the construction of a postulate that the Nabataeans reached temple to the al-‘Uzza (Roche Lycia which is located within the 1996:79). Traces of a bilingual Mediterranean basin, an area which Nabataean-Greek inscription have also had close links with the Nabataeans. been discovered in Delos (Schmid The legacy of the Nabataeans is 2004: 415-426). The letters of this mostly represented in religious inscription are somewhat unclear and heritage. Nabataean tombs and only a few words can be read and temples are scattered in many areas of refer to the Nabataean minister their cities which indicate that religion Syllaeus of Obodas and probably and afterlife played an integral role in mention the Nabataean god their belief. In this article I am not (Figure 2) (Roche 1996:83-84). going to go into these aspects but will try to shed some light on the Nabataean tomb inscriptions and their similarities to the Lycian sepulchral inscriptions. Additionally, this paper will try to measure the range of Nabataean-Lycian architectural influence especially in terms of tomb architecture.

NABATAEAN AND LYCIAN Figure 2 Traces of a bilingual Nabataean- TOMB INSCRIPTIONS Greek inscription found in Delos (Roche 1996:Figure 2) The longest and most important Nabataean inscriptions have been

found in Hegra and these are tomb Additionally, a sculptured head inscriptions and they provide us with has been found in Delos and that evidence of Nabataean juridical and maybe was a part of the dedications legal aspects (Healey 1993; Abdelaziz presented by Syllaeus during his trip 2005:189-199). The Nabataean-Lycian to Rome and represents a statue of link became evident after comparisons Obodas III (Schmid 1999:279). between the Nabataean and Lycian A Greek inscription found in inscriptions inscribed on the rock cut in Asia Minor written in honour of a tombs. After a thorough investigation certain Moschion indicates the strong and study, we are able to point out the connection between the Ptolemaic following similarities between the rulers and the Nabataeans. It mentions Lycian and Nabataean tomb Moschion who was a member of a inscriptions in term of their contents:- delegation “to , to king 1. both identify the tomb owner Ptolemaious and to Petra of Arabia” and record that a person built the (Retsö 2003:337). 26 ZEYAD AL-SALAMEEN tomb for his wife and relatives, Mnneteida, and he has allocated the lower brothers, sisters as well as for his own chamber to his own household" (Bryce descendents (Pembroke 1965: 224). 1978:223). Similar Nabataean One of the Lycian sepulchral inscription reads as follows "and to inscriptions, for example, reads "this 'Aminu belongs a third of this tomb and tomb Khertuhi has built (it), (son) of burial chamber and to Arsaksah two thirds Tu…. For himself and (his) wife and his of the tomb and burial chamber. And her children and the descendents of his share of the burial-niches is the east grandmother" (Bryce 1978:223). Similar and burial niches and so for 'Aminu, his Nabataean parallels are abundant. share of the burial-niches is the south-east One of the Nabataean inscriptions in (?) side of the burial-niches which are in Hegra, for example, reads "this is the it" (Healey 1993:24) tomb and platform and enclosure which 6. as indicated by inscriptions, the Hawshabu son of Nafiyu son of Alkuf, the majority of the Lycian and Nabataean Taymanite, made for himself and his rock-cut tombs were built by males children and Habbu, his mother, and Rufu during their lifetime and in some cases and Aftiyu, his sisters and their children" it was the woman who did this (Healey 1993:1). (Pembroke 1965:225; Healey 1993:1, 2. both are formulaic, the formulas 14). vary, but within different limits 7. both refer to fines imposed on (Pembroke 1965:218; Healey 1993:1, 2, 3). those who violate the tomb 3. both contain regulations regulations. A number of Lycian tomb concerning the tomb ownership. A inscriptions refer to disciplinary Lycian inscription reads "others, agents responsible for punishing (however) let it not be permitted (?) To person who misuse the tombs and their descendents to place them within" Bryce classified those authorities into (Bryce 1978:221). A similar Nabataean two main categories: those which are inscription reads "and no-one has the deities or have religious nature and right to write for this tomb any deed of those which are secular in function entitlement or to bury in it any non- and character (Bryce 1981:81) One of relative other than by hereditary title" the Lycian inscriptions reads as (Healey 1993:3). follows "if (anyone) places anyone (else) 4. both mention names of eligible upon them, the Huwedri gods and the tomb occupants Lycian Itlehi will punish him" (Bryce 5. The Lycians were buried in 1981:81). In another example we find groups and the majority of these that "Tarhunt and all (?) the gods will groups were centered on the family punish him" (Bryce 1981:81). Another (Pembroke 1965:226) and the example says that "whoever arranges inscriptions of these families contain anyone (else) within on top, or whoever details about arrangements inside the places anyone (else) within upon (them) tomb. One of the Lycian inscriptions will pay Aitata cattle by-way of penalty reads "and he has allocated the upper Qebeliyat to the Pntrenni mother of this" chamber to his wife and the descendents of (Bryce 1981:90). The Nabataean tomb THE NABATAEANS AND LYCIANS 27 inscriptions from Hegra imposed two coverage of relatives and family main types of fines and penalties upon relations (Bryce 1979:296). those who violate, misuse or change 10. Concerning the burial rights what has been inscribed and this that the owner grants in the Lycian include the curse and payments that inscriptions and this include the should be made either to the god or to spouse, children and other the king or the governor (Healey descendents, parents, collaterals 1993:1.3.5 .8.16). Curses occur (brothers, sisters, nephews, nieces, frequently in Hegra tomb inscriptions uncles, aunts and cousins), in-laws (Healey 1993:1, 2, 8, 11, 16, 19). One of and slaves (Bryce 1978:298 ff). We the Nabataean inscriptions reads "and should mention that these elements may Dushara, the god of our lord curses are varied from one inscription to whoever removes this Wushuh from this another and we might find some of burial-niche forever" (Healey 1993:11). them and not all of them in the same Fines and Penalties imposed upon inscription. The Nabataean tomb those who violate the tomb are inscriptions of Hegra refer also to attested also in the Hegra inscriptions similar burial rights that the tomb (Healey 1993:1, 5, 9, 11, 12, 16, 19, 28, owner normally grant and this 30, 31, 34, 36, 38). One of them reads as includes the owner of the tomb, his follows "and whoever alters or does not wife, parents and their descendents as do according to what is written above shall well as his sisters, brothers and aunts. be liable to our lord in the sum of two 11. Burial right is granted thousand Haritite 's" (Healey sometimes to authorized persons. A 1993:9). Lycian inscription reads "…and of those 8. Nabataean burials and their whom he authorizes/ approves" (Bryce inscriptions refer to the relationship 1978:221). A Nabataean inscription between the tomb type and socio- reads "..and whoever produces in his hand economic position of the owner a deed of entitlement from the hand of (McKenzie 1990:115) and the Lycian Hani'u to the effect that he may be buried inscriptions reflect socio-economic in this tomb" (Healey 1993:5). aspects. The vast majority of the Lycian tomb owners and occupants CONSTRUCTIONAL ranked amongst the political, military TECHNIQUES and social elite (Bryce 1978: 298 ff). It is a commonly held opinion Many of the Nabataean rock-cut among scholars that the Nabataeans tombs in Hegra were owned also by followed the Greco-Roman, Hellenistic high-ranking military and civilian and Ptolemaic architectural patterns officials (Healey 1993: 6, 19, 24, 31, 32, (McKenzie 1990, 99). Interestingly, 34, 38). there are similarities in the design of 9. The Lycian Greek inscriptions the Lycian and Nabataean rock-cut and the Nabataean tomb inscriptions tombs (Figures 3 and 4). Most tombs from Hegra indicate a large range of are for families and their internal size tomb inhabitants and comprehensive 28 ZEYAD AL-SALAMEEN is comparatively small and is entered apartments (Cevic 2003:101) while the through steps. The Lycian burial Nabataean tombs are not arranged in chambers have flat ceiling and most the same manner as the Lycian except were designed with three burials the Petra Pylon Tombs which couches (triclinia) with enough space resemble to some extent some of the between couches to allow the Lycian tombs in terms of their general movement (Cevic 2003:105). Some of distribution. the Nabataean tombs have the same design (Figure 3).

Figure 4 Lycian rock-cut necropolis

Figure 3 Nabataean rock-cut façade from Petra Lycian facades (Figure 5) are plain with no elaboration except the profiles

on the doorframe and the carved The Lycian burial chambers were ornaments at the upper corner of the cut inside three burial couches doorway (Cevic 2003:99). Some of the (triclinia) meanwhile the triclinia were Nabataean tombs are plain but other constructed some times near the are architecturally sophisticated tombs and not inside it (Figure 4). The monuments but the evidence is not too Turkmaniyah tomb inscription in much convincing to take it as an Petra hints the triclinium was part of indication of an external influence the Nabataean tomb complex (Healey coming from Lycia. 1993, p. 238) even though some tombs were not furnished with triclinia. Additionally, the distribution of the loculi inside the tombs is different. The Lycian loculi are arranged in three directions of the tombs meanwhile in the Nabataean tombs there is no definite pattern and they were cut in the rock and distributed irregularly. There are differences in some cases such as the general distribution of the tombs. The Lycian tombs (Figure 4) Figure 5 Nabataean Façade from Bayda rise up the rock face like multi-storey THE NABATAEANS AND LYCIANS 29

Interestingly, the main Nabataean CONCLUSIONS theatre in Petra was carved in the rock The Nabataeans were open-minded and it is the only rock-cut theatre in people who absorbed what attracted the (Figure 6). The them from other civilizations and Lycian theatres in some Lycian cities molded these influences within their in southern Anatolia such as and main cultural framework. They had Sillyon are carved in the rock also contacts with the Mediterranean (Cevic 2003:108). islands and evidence of Nabataean activities have been found in different islands in the Mediterranean basin and could be attributed to their commercial activities in these islands located along the main sea from Arabia to Rome. The close similarities between the Nabataean and Lycian tomb inscriptions may be attributed to be the Nabataeans’ direct contact with these civilizations or at least to their knowledge of the cultures of these civilizations and this affected their artistic and cultural achievements, while they attempted to imitate and Figure 6 Lycian Façade emulate some of the foreign cultures.

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Electronic resources for the figures: www.fethiyeyachting.com/fethiye www.ne.jp/asahi/arc/ind/lycia/liki_eng.htm