The Royal Society of Edinburgh

Review 2007 (Session 2005-2006) The Royal Society of Edinburgh Review 2007

The Royal Society of

Printed in Great Britain by Henry Ling Limited, Dorchester, DT1 1HD Edinburgh ISSN 1476-4342 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH

REVIEW OF THE SESSION 2005-2006 The Royal Society of Edinburgh 22-26 George Street Edinburgh, EH2 2PQ

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Cover illustration by Aird McKinstrie. Design by Jennifer Cameron THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH

REVIEW OF THE SESSION 2005-2006

PUBLISHED BY THE RSE SCOTLAND FOUNDATION ISSN 1476-4342

CONTENTS

Proceedings of the Ordinary Meetings ...... 3 Proceedings of the Statutory General Meeting ...... 5 Trustees’ Report to 31 March 2006 ...... 27 Auditors’ Report and Accounts ...... 47 Schedule of Investments ...... 73 Activities Prize Lectures ...... 77 Lectures...... 177 Conferences, Workshops, Symposia, Seminars and Discussion Forums ...... 217 Publications ...... 247 The Scottish Science Advisory Committee ...... 249 Evidence, Advice and Comment ...... 255 Inquiries ...... 257 Events for Young People ...... 259 Research and Enterprise Awards ...... 263 Medals, Prizes and Prize Lectureships ...... 267 Grants Committee ...... 269 International Programme ...... 271 Fellows’ Social Events ...... 277 Grants, Sponsorship and Donations ...... 279 Changes in Fellowship During the Session ...... 281 Staff ...... 283 Obituary Notices...... 285 Index ...... 381

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ORDINARY MEETINGS 6 February 2006 reported that all those on the list Chairman (page 281) had been elected. Sir Michael Atiyah, OM, FRS, PRSE, Lecture HonFREng, HonFMedSci, Hon FFA Towards the Semantic Web: the Approval of Scrutineers for Return of the Link. Professor Ballot for Election of New Wendy Hall CBE FREng, University Fellows March 2006 of Southampton. (page 197) Professor Colin Bird and Dr Ian 20 September 2006 Sword were appointed. Chairman Lecture Sir Michael Atiyah, OM, FRS, PRSE, The Gannochy Trust Innovation HonFREng, HonFMedSci, Hon FFA Award Lecture. John Harrison. Approval of Scrutineers for (page 95) Ballot for Election of New 6 March 2006 Fellows March 2007 Chairman Professor Charles Withers and Professor John Mavor FREng FRSE. Professor Hector MacQueen Election of Fellows Lecture Professor Colin Bird and Dr Ian The Vikings and Scotland: The Sword who had acted as Scruti- Northern World and its Signifi- neers for the postal ballot for the cance for Scotland. Magnus election of new Fellows in 2006 Magnusson Hon KBE FRSE. (page 216)

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PROCEEDINGS OF THE STATUTORY GENERAL MEETING Minute of the Statutory General Meeting held on 9 October 2006, ending the 223rd Session

The Annual Statutory Meeting Annual Review for Fiscal Year took place in the Society’s Wolf- 2005/06 son Theatre on Monday 9 October Sir Michael commented that, in 2006 at 5.30 pm. Sir Michael addition to producing the formal Atiyah OM, President, took the Trustees’ Report and Accounts for Chair. Sir Michael reported that 2005-2006 in accordance with for the first time the meeting was Charity Regulations, an illustrated being web-cast live; absent Annual Review of highlights of Fellows could access this via a the year (with a summary financial password-controlled section of review) was again produced, and the RSE website; those wishing to this had been widely circulated to comment or raise questions could all Fellows, as well as to many do so live by email; and a video others interested in the Society. recording of the proceedings Feedback on the contents and would be available on the website format of the Annual Review was for those unable to view it live. invited. Following changes in Minutes recommended accounting The Minutes of the Annual practice, the formal Trustees’ Statutory Meeting held on Report also contained the finan- Monday 10 October 2005 were cial statements of the RSE taken as read, approved by those Scotland Foundation and the BP Fellows present and signed by the Research Fellowships Trust which President as a correct record. had been consolidated with those of the RSE for the first time this Matters arising year. The Trustees’ Report was At the meeting on 10 October available to any Fellow who would 2005 Professor David Finnie like a copy. expressed concern over the failure Office Bearers’ Reports for of the Society in the last few years Session 2005/06 to produce timely obituaries of deceased Fellows, and asked that Sir Michael invited Professor Gavin steps be taken to address this. Sir McCrone, General Secretary, Mr Michael reported that progress Edward Cunningham, Treasurer, had been made and was recorded and Professor Andrew Walker, in a paper circulated with other Fellowship Secretary, to report. He ASM papers, and although a suggested that Fellows’ discussion backlog remained it had been of the reports should take place reduced and was continuing to be addressed.

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after all three reports had been report of its findings was pub- presented. lished in June 2006. It makes 37 General Secretary’s Report key recommendations and emphasises that diversity of Professor McCrone reported on energy sources will be crucial to highlights from the following security of supply. report, which had been circulated to Fellows. In January 2006 a Steering Group, Chaired by Professor David In the year past, the Society had Ingram, was established to continued to make a strong provide independent advice to the contribution to the advancement Scottish Executive on the distribu- of learning and useful knowledge tion of its 2006/2007 funding for – in keeping with its Royal the Scottish Science Centres; and Charter, and had done so by to consider if and how the Society successfully delivering a wide might be involved in providing range of public benefit activities, independent advice on funding which reached people of all ages distribution in future years, both from across Scotland and beyond. in relation to the Scottish Execu- Professor McCrone then reported tive-funded Science Centres and the following highlights and wider Science & Society pro- issues of activities during the gramme. Society’s October 2005-October 2006 Session: The Group has now fulfilled its remit. It provided advice on core Providing authoritative, inde- funding for the Centres, but was pendent advice and making not asked to advise on the recommendations to policy distribution of funding for decision-takers individual science & society The Inquiry into Scotland’s future initiatives. It also recommended, energy supply was launched in and RSE Council agreed, that the May 2005. Instigated by the RSE’s Society should be prepared to act Council, it was Chaired by as an independent source, which Professor Maxwell Irvine and its discharged the Science Centre / Secretary was Professor Roger wider Science & Society pro- Crofts. The Inquiry took evidence gramme in future years. The from over 70 expert witnesses; Scottish Executive welcomed this received over 160 written submis- positive response, but following sions; held meetings in Lewis, discussions has decided that it Orkney, Shetland, Inverness, wishes to consider further how it Aberdeen, Glasgow, London and will implement its “Scottish Edinburgh; and an Inquiry Science Centres Network Strate- delegation visited Finland. The gy”. The work of the Steering

6 Proceedings of the Annual Statutory Meeting

Group is now therefore complete. Only through the input of Fellows For its part, the Society stands were these informed papers, ready to provide independent which contribute to policy advice in the future, if it considers formulation and debate, pro- it is well placed to do so, and duced. Views expressed in the should the Scottish Executive Society’s responses do not of request it. In the meantime I course reflect the view of every would like, on behalf of the Fellow. Nor does the Society seek Society, to thank Professor Ingram to present that they do. Its and his Group for their considera- responses are a broad consensus ble input and hard work. of views received in relation to a With the input of the multi- particular issue. That approach disciplinary Fellowship, during the must be accepted where such a year, the Society produced 17 diverse Fellowship of more than authoritative responses to a wide 1400 Fellows exists. Such diversity range of public, mainly Govern- should not, however, be seen as a mental, consultations. Amongst weakness, but as a strength. the responses were: An Avian Influenza Working - The UK Honours Degree: Group, under the chairmanship of Provision of Information Professor John Coggins, is currently examining the implica- - A European Institute of Technol- tions of this disease threat for ogy? Scotland. The Society is aware of a - Best Value in Public Services major investigation in this area - Towards a Transport Strategy for being undertaken jointly by the Scotland: Consultation on Rail Royal Society and the Academy of Priorities Medical Sciences and therefore - Developing Proposals for saw no merit in seeking to Coastal and Marine National duplicate the work of this inquiry, Parks hence the much narrower remit of - Aquaculture and Fisheries Bill itsr Working Group, which will monitor the effects in Scotland - Crofting Reform Bill and advise Council accordingly. - Enhancing Our Care of Scottish The intention is to report by late Landscapes spring of next year. - Strengthening Judicial Inde- The Society signed a two-year pendence in a Modern Scotland contract with the Scottish Funding - Developing a New Strategy for Council under which it has the Scottish Funding Council undertaken to provide the Council - A Policy on Architecture for with expert opinion on strategic Scotland research opportunities. The

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Society is currently seeking the from the University of Aberdeen, assistance of relevant Fellows in was appointed to this role in responding to the Funding August. Professor Glover intends Council’s first request for advice. to consult widely about the most This relates to the strategic effective way for engaging the importance to Scotland of science community on science research in bionanotechnology. strategy and issues. Members of The Society is treating this very the Committee have been asked much as a pilot exercise. The by Professor Glover to remain expectation is that it will receive involved, during the first half of some five requests for advice 2007, in framing the recommen- under this contract in each of the dations to Ministers about the next two years. way forward. Time will tell what, The Society continued to provide if any, continuing role the Society the Scottish Science Advisory might have. For its part the Committee with the necessary Society stands ready to support if support to enable it to undertake required and if it considers it is a broad range of activities in best placed to do so. providing advice to the Scottish The Society is most grateful to the Executive. members of the Committee, past Uncertainty over the Committee’s and present, for their contribu- future meant replacement tions to its work, and especially appointments to it, due to have wishes to thank Professor Wilson been made in 2006, did not take Sibbett for the leadership and place. Instead, the terms of the direction he has given during his existing Chairman and the other five-year period as Chair and the members were extended until 31 Committee’s Head of Secretariat, December 2006. The Society has Dr Avril Davidson. In the Society’s since been informed by the view the Committee has helped to Scottish Executive that the lay a secure foundation on which Committee will continue in its the contribution, profile and role present form until the end of this of science in Scotland can be built calendar year, after which the further. Society will cease to have any Supporting and enhancing formal responsibility for it. Scottish research-based excel- This change arises from the lence creation of the new post of Chief The Society awarded grants Scientific Advisor for Scotland totalling £1.7m to support some within the Scottish Executive. The of the most able researchers from Society was delighted when RSE Scotland, elsewhere in the UK, Fellow Professor Anne Glover,

8 Proceedings of the Annual Statutory Meeting

and overseas, to develop their with both the Research Council ideas here in Scotland. These schemes operating on a UK-wide awards support work in areas basis. Ten Scottish Enterprise such as healthcare, the environ- Fellowships and four BBSRC ment, the ageing population, and Enterprise Fellowships were in advancing social and economic awarded. No new PPARC Enter- well-being. The awards would prise Fellowships were awarded, not have been possible without but the administration of existing the continuing financial support Fellowships continued. of organisations such as BP, the The Society continued its impor- Caledonian Research Foundation, tant partnership with the Lloyds TSB Foundation for Gannochy Trust, inviting and Scotland, the Scottish Executive judging nominations for Scot- and specific purpose legacies land’s top innovator. Later this bequeathed to the Society. To month, the 2006 Gannochy Trust each of these the Society offers its Innovation Award of The Royal sincere thanks. Society of Edinburgh will be made In November 2005 Lloyds TSB to Dr Marie Claire Parker for her Foundation for Scotland entrusted innovation “Protein-coated a further £900,000 to the Society Microcrystal (PCMC) Technology.” over three years to fund the next This innovation has many poten- phase in a successful programme tial applications, including of Research Fellowship awards enabling some people with focusing on the ageing popula- diabetes to take insulin by means tion and improving the quality of of an inhaler, rather than injecting life of older people. In April it. 2006, part of the Lloyds TSB Communicating knowledge and Foundation for Scotland’s annual understanding meeting was devoted to explain- ing the work of the Research Publishing Journals Fellows and postgraduate stu- Six issues of the Proceedings A dents appointed previously under journal and four issues of Transac- this scheme. tions were published on behalf of Supporting the commercialisa- the Society by the RSE Scotland tion of research and innovation Foundation. Copies of the journals were also sent to over During the year the Society 300 exchange partners world- continued to administer three wide. Both journals continued to Enterprise Fellowship Schemes, be highly regarded by academics funded separately by Scottish as publication vehicles, and Enterprise, PPARC and BBSRC, maintain a respectably high

9 Review of the Session 2005-2006

impact factor in comparison to the Royal College of Surgeons in similar journals in their fields. Edinburgh. Professor Sir Alfred Work is ongoing on a new-look, Cuschieri spoke on Inside Surgery broader remit Transactions from Without: Therapeutic journal. New publishing contracts Interventions from Images. have been agreed this year and Discussion Forums on the environ- the journal will be re-launched in mental theme of Earth, Wind, Fire May 2007. and Water, included: Events - Tropical Storms: Professor Brian The Society’s Public Events Lee, University of Portsmouth Programme delivered some 30 + and Dr Julian Heming, Met Lectures, Discussion Forums and Office Conferences, attended by over - Earthquakes: Professor Robin 2000 people. Lectures included: Spence, University of Cambridge - Towards the Semantic Web: the and Mr Pete Sweetnam, Mercy return of the Link by Professor Corps Wendy Hall, University of - Tsunami: Dr Chris Browitt, Southampton Journalist and Julia Horton and - The Re-wilding, North America’s Diane Johnson of Mercy Corps. Great Plains by Richard Man- Another Discussion Forum ning, Environmental Reporter addressed the issue, Science -Shakespeare, Jonson and the Meets Religion: Professor Simon invention of the Author by Conway Morris and Professor Professor Ian Donaldson, Wentzel van Huysteen Australian National University A conference on The Creation of - Composite Individuality: A Wealth, supported by Bank of Gaian View, by Dr Lynn Margu- Scotland, debated the future of lis, University of Massachusetts Scotland’s economy and produced - Antarctic Ice Sheets and Climate some positive conclusions. Change by Dr Mike Bentley, Islam and Democracy was another University of Durham successful, major conference held - Solidarity in the Enlarged in May. Speakers included European Union, by the Vice Professor John Esposito from President of the European Georgetown University and Parliament, Jacek Saryusz-Wolski Professor Tariq Ramadan, Visiting Once again, the Society participat- Fellow at Oxford St Anthony’s ed in the Edinburgh Lecture series, College. The Conference was held in 2006 in association with supported by Prince Alwaleed of the Quincentenary celebrations of Saudi Arabia; the Edinburgh Institute for the Study of The Arab

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World and Islam; and the Foreign During the period, the Young and Commonwealth Office. People’s programme ran 11 Talk Much of it was broadcast to the Science schools’ lectures. Lectur- Arabic-speaking world by British ers, who are all volunteers, and to Satellite News and Al-Jazeera whom we offer sincere thanks, television. visited schools throughout In September, Magnus Magnus- Scotland, from Dumfries to the son’s lecture The Vikings & Highlands, and covered diverse Scotland: The Northern World & topics, including genetics and the Its Significance was the inaugural chemistry used in common event of a two day conference and medicines. Other activities a Workshop on the Vikings’ included: impact and influence. This was a · Startup Science Masterclasses joint conference with the Norwe- for S1 and S2 students in gian Academy of Science and Dundee, St Andrews, Aberdeen, Letters, supported by the National Glasgow and Heriot-Watt Museums of Scotland and Historic Universities. Scotland. · Maths Masterclasses in Aber- In addition there were events deen, Dundee, West Lothian primarily for Fellows. These and Glasgow for Primary 6 and included the Triennial Dinner, held 7 students. at the University of Edinburgh in · Roadshows in Stranraer and June, attended by the Presidents Fort William. A two-day event, of the Royal Irish Academy, the including science workshops for Academy of Sciences of the Czech primary and secondary school Republic and senior representa- students, there were also talks tives of the British Academy and for secondary students and for the Royal Society. members of the public. Young People’s Programme · Two Science, Engineering and Technology Summer Schools in The Young People’s programme partnership with Heriot-Watt continued to thrive. The Educa- University introducing Higher- tion Team produced a set of grade students to university life. CD-Rom and web-based teaching resources based upon the Discus- · A Christmas Lecture, Who Are sion Forum held for Higher-grade You?, by Professor Sue Black at students in St Andrews on Climate Elgin Academy for local school Change. This enabled schools students and separately for the throughout Scotland to hold their general public. The lecture own mini-discussion forum and explored the topics of identity contribute to a national survey of and forensic anthropology, students’ views. drawing on Professor Black’s experiences around the world. 11 Review of the Session 2005-2006

Communicating Generally tations and the Launch of our Full reports were published, on Energy Inquiry Report. This the Society’s web-site and in print, technology enabled people of many events in the Public anywhere in the world with Events, Young People’s and broadband internet connection to International Programmes. These participate virtually in our events. were widely distributed. In the next session, the ambition is to extend the use of this The website was and is updated technology. regularly and provides informa- tion for Fellows and the public. Promoting the international There has been appreciable media awareness of Scottish research coverage of many of the Society’s and innovation activities during the year; most The success of the RSE’s interna- notably of the Independent tional programme continued. A Energy Inquiry. new bilateral agreement was Three issues of ReSourcE, the signed with the Slovenian Acade- Society’s newsletter, were pub- my of Sciences & Arts. An informal lished and distributed to the agreement was signed with the Fellowship and around 2,000 Royal Swedish Academy of other decision-makers and Sciences. interested members of the public. The programmes of international Fellows also received the monthly exchanges were well subscribed, e-bulletin, which enables them to with over 50 exchanges taking keep up to date with and, if place. Visits were made to or from appropriate, further disseminate Armenia, Australia, Belgium, information on the Society and its Bulgaria, Chile, China, Croatia, work. Feedback from Fellows Denmark, France, Germany, suggests this to be a welcome Hungary, Italy, Japan, Jordan, means of communication. Latvia, The Netherlands, New The fifth issue of Science Scotland Zealand, Poland, Russia, Slovakia, (on Energy), which aims to South Africa, Spain, Taiwan, promote the excellence of Scottish Turkey, Ukraine, and USA. These research, particularly to an represented a significant increase overseas audience, was published in the total length of international in May 2006. exchanges supported by the Society. A further innovation during this year was the successful web casting of two of our events: the Lloyds TSB Foundation for Scotland Research Award Presen-

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The Society’s European Policy four Honorary Fellows elected in Forum also organised a successful March 2006. Many of these new conference on Language Learning Fellows attended an Induction Day and Teaching in Scotland in March held at the Society in May, at 2006, a full report of which is which they received certificates available, and there are plans for recognising their Fellowship. This follow-up events. Other interna- was the second year in which the tional events held by the Society, Induction Day has been held. It is included: much welcomed by new Fellows - a High-Tech Forum in Life and has now become a mainstay Sciences, hosted by the Universi- of the programme of activities. ty of Edinburgh, and a Fellows were involved in all areas Micronanotechnologies of activity – as speakers or organ- workshop held at the RSE, both isers of events; as contributors to with the National Science the independent expert advice Council of Taiwan provided; and as conduits for - a reception to raise awareness many partnerships and relation- of the International Exchange ships. The individual and Programme and specifically the collective part that Fellows played Bilateral Programme with the in the success of the Society’s Chinese Academy of Sciences activities is invaluable and Council amongst the postdoctoral is extremely grateful for their research community of Scotland support. interested in working with their In recognising outstanding counterparts in China achievements, Royal Medals were - a joint event with the Academy awarded in July to Sir David Jack of Sciences of the Czech CBE FRS FRSE for his many Republic on Nanomedicines of innovative pharmaceutical drug the Future held at the University discoveries, and to one of the of Strathclyde in November world’s leading Mathematicians, Sustaining and utilising the Professor Sir John Ball FRS FRSE. expertise of our multi-discipli- The Medallists were approved by nary Fellowship, and the RSE’s Patron, Her Majesty The recognising outstanding Queen and recommended by the achievement and excellence Society’s Council, in recognition of intellectual endeavour, which has The Society currently has 1314 had a profound influence on Ordinary Fellows, 33 Correspond- people’s lives, world-wide. ing Fellows and 71 Honorary Fellows. This includes 55 new Ordinary, four Corresponding and

13 Review of the Session 2005-2006

The following prizes were also The report is by no means exhaus- awarded: tive, but offers a flavour of the - The Makdougall Brisbane Prize wide range of achievements in to Professor Colin McInnes which the Society has been FRSE, Professor of Engineering engaged in the past year. Without Science, Department of Me- the willingness of Fellows to chanical Engineering, University devote the time they volunteer to of Strathclyde. the Society, it would not be able to make the contribution the it - The Henry Duncan Prize Lecture- makes to public benefit activities. ship to Professor James Hunter, Thanks to all Fellows who work so UHI Centre for History, UHI productively, together with the Millennium Institute Society’s hard-working staff. - The BP Prize Lectureship in the Humanities to Professor Graeme There are also Office-Bearers who Laurie, Professor of Medical step down today, having success- Jurisprudence, School of Law, fully completed their tenure: University of Edinburgh - Vice-President, Professor John - The CRF Prize Lectureship in Arts Coggins, who has devoted a & Humanities to Baroness great deal of his time and Onora O’Neill of Bengarve, expertise to the Society’s Principal, Newham College, activities on a number of fronts Cambridge over many years. A major international award, - International Convener, Profes- created during this period, will sor Rona MacKie who has made also seek to recognise excellence. a significant contribution in Established in collaboration with driving the International Wolfson Microelectronics and the dimension of the Society’s work IEEE, this annual award aims to forward. Rona’s contribution encourage and reward those will not be wholly lost as she responsible for transforming will continue as a Trustee on developments in electronics and Council for a further year, electrical engineering which are subject of course to the out- profoundly improving people’s come of the election ballot lives. The exceptional winner of which we will hear about the award will receive a $20,000 shortly. prize and a prestigious gold - Councillors, Mr Ewan Brown medal. The new award is being and Professors Tariq Durrani funded by Wolfson and the and Ron Asher. Although Society offers particular thanks to stepping down as Trustees, their CEO, Professor David Milne, Ewan will continue to serve as for his support.

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Chairman of our Audit & Risk still have a considerable way to go Committee, and serve on the to get beyond the vulnerable base Investment Committee; Tariq from which we have had to work will continue to serve on the for a number of years. International Committee. The results also demonstrate that The Society thanks all of them for the management and staff of the their dedication to its work, whilst Society continue to perform to a at the same time fulfilling de- high standard. manding jobs and honouring other commitments. Although I do not want to detract in any way from what I have just Treasurer’s Report said, I do have to add that there is Over recent years, changes have more to these results than meets been introduced to improve the eye. governance amongst charities in This is where my slide show comes Scotland. I am pleased to be able in. What I want to do is to talk to say that the Society continues you through a disaggregation of to comply with these require- the figures to highlight certain key ments. Because of the nature of features and I will be doing this the Society’s activities, our ac- on a consolidated basis for the counts have always been difficult Society and the Foundation and to disentangle; at least I certainly the BP research Fellowship Trust. speak for myself. And the recent changes have not made compre- You will not be able to relate the hension any easier. So, in an figures to the accounts - unless effort to understand them myself, you are a real genius - but for I have prepared some explanatory those of who do not posses this slides. attribute, please bear with me so that you can enjoy my final trick. Results for 2005/06 Operating Results You will have seen from the annual accounts that in 2005/06 Figure 1. The first point is that the the Society made a surplus of Society’s income, in the main, is £551K compared with a surplus earned from funders for delivering of £184K in 2004/05. At the a diversity of programmes in both same time, the net assets of the the public and private sectors. It is Society improved by £1.2M to worth emphasising that the £11.2M by the end of 2005/06. Society over recent years has acquired considerable compe- These results are encouraging and tence in providing these indicate that the Society’s financial programmes and, as a conse- position is improving, albeit we quence, is recognised as a

15 Review of the Session 2005-2006

distinctive provider in its chosen enhance the margins from all of fields. our activities. Compared to last year, income In terms of overheads, these have from the public sector declined been contained compared with marginally, while that from the last year and indeed compared private sector decreased by as with earlier years. much as 27%. This is not good If I now summarise the preceding news, but it does need to be set in figures, the Society’s net deficit on the context that lead and lag its operational activities was times for programmes can be reduced by 22%. To my mind, variable over extended time this figure is a key measure by periods. Indeed, in recent years, which we should judge our we have experienced a bit of an management and the outcome for up and downer. For example, our 2005/06 is encouraging. None- income over the past three years theless, it is essential in the has been oscillating at around the medium term that we should same level. This is a matter of reach breakeven and that, over the concern, although mitigated in longer term, we should secure the short term by an overall surpluses. Only then will the improvement in margins. financial position of the Society Contribution to Indirect Costs strengthen sufficiently to enable Figures 2. The allocation of costs us to undertake more fully to individual programmes is not innovative programmes on our an easy exercise to carry out, but own account. for our purposes here, these RSE’s Own Resources figures are a reasonable approxi- Hitherto the deficit from our mation. They show the extent to operational activities has been which our public sector activities offset from our own resources. Of contribute to our overheads; these, the principal source is indeed some 80%. And, most income from the use of our hearteningly, they achieved a property for rental and for significant increase in margin conferences. Lettings for confer- from 20% last year to 23% in ences has continued to grow 2005/06. Meanwhile a more modestly and contributed £62K. modest increase of just 1% was However, this activity offers the obtained from our private sector significant additional benefits that activities. it supports our academic interests, From my perspective, it is critical while disseminating knowledge to that we maintain and, preferably, our wider community.

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Another significant amount is Some Additional Points your subscriptions And now two final slides (Figures Overall, the surplus achieved in 4&5): 2005/06 was just about double The first one is just for informa- last year’s outcome; a very credita- tion, although I should like to ble performance. draw your attention to the extent The Adjustments of our dependency on public Figure 3. Now, we come to the sector sources, which has now somewhat distorting elements. increased from 55% of operating The most important ones are, first, income in 2002 to 71% in 2005/ the £150K which relates to 06. This is not necessarily a bad income which we have received in thing because the reality is that advance for certain operational much of the Society’s distinctive- activities and which we now have ness is of direct relevance to an to recognise as income in the year increasing spread of public sector in which the funds were received; programmes. On the other hand, this means that when they are our awareness of this fact is a implemented in future years, the stimulus for developing our costs will appear without the activities amongst private sector offsetting effect of the income. funders. At the same time this dependency at operational level Also important is the substantial should be set in the context that windfall which we received in terms of the RSE total incoming through the transfer from the resources, public sector funders Edinburgh Drug Absorption represent 55% of the total in Foundation to carry out certain 2006. programmes agreed before it was wound up. And I should also The final slide shows the composi- mention that we received a further tion of the Society’s assets. Here I instalment of a very welcome and want to highlight the obvious generous legacy. point that our main asset is our building. At the moment, our These adjustments total £316K. income from our property repre- Add in this amount, and, hey sents a return of 4.6%. Even presto, there are the same figures accepting that part of the building which I mentioned at the begin- is used for accommodating our ning and they correspond to the staff and the conference facility, Net Incoming Resources line in the return is not earth shattering, the Annual Accounts. especially if the full market value of the site were to be taken into

17 Review of the Session 2005-2006

the calculation. Given the other somewhat higher, in the order of financial constraints on the £50K. This is not an outcome we financial strength of the Society would wish, but it does reflect the and on its ability to act flexibly, I up and down nature of the am assessing how we might timings of our activities as I improve on it. mentioned earlier. Conclusion Finally I would like to record my In conclusion, let me just mention appreciation of the management that we expect the outcome for team in identifying new growth the current year to match the opportunities and also Kate and budget. This projected that our her team in absorbing and operating deficit would be implementing the effects of regulatory changes.

Figure 1 Operational activities 2006 2005 Income £’000 Public sector 2,040 2,062 Private sector 835 1,154 Total 2,875 3,216

Figure 2 Contribution to indirect costs Public sector 471 409 Private sector 111 137 Total 582 546

Indirect overhead costs (792) (816) Surplus/( Deficit) on operational activities (210) (270)

Other Income RSE own income Property and conference income (net) 262 240 Own investments 43 21 Subscriptions from Fellows (net) 140 128 Total RSE income (net) 445 389

Overall surplus/(deficit) 235 119

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Figure 3 Adjustments SORP Related Restricted income fund 150 - FRS1 14 9 Windfalls 124 41 28 15 Total adjustments 316 65

Per accounts 551 184

Figure 4 Some measures Public sector dependency Operating Income 71% 64% Contribution to indirect overheads 81% 75%

RSE own resources As % of operating income 15% 12% As % of total income 12% 10% As % of Surplus/( Deficit) on operational activities 212% 144%

Contribution of employees (£’000 per employee) Operating Income 106 119 Contribution to indirect overheads 22 20

Figure 5 Net Assets £’000 Fixed assets- property 4,278 Investments for restricted funds 4,660 RSE own investments 964 Long term assets 9,902 Net short term assets 1,308 Net Assets 11,210

19 Review of the Session 2005-2006

Fellowship Secretary’s Report received a certificate, acknowledg- Professor Walker presented the ing their Fellowship of the RSE. A following report: new development this year was to display, on the day, a graduation- “I take this opportunity to provide style board of portraits of all the the Society with a brief report on new Fellows and to provide a aspects of the process by which booklet containing these photo- we elect Ordinary, Corresponding graphs and short descriptions of and Honorary Fellows. each their individual expertise. You will recall that last year saw This was another excellent the successful introduction of a initiative developed by the Postal Ballot for the election of Fellowship Office. new Fellows. This year we Now a few brief comments on the continued this arrangement and statistics. Our new Ordinary almost half of the Fellowship Fellows are spread across our four again used the opportunity to discipline sectors as follows: Life register their votes. The scruti- Sciences 33%, Physical Sciences & neers delivered the results of the Engineering 27%, Arts and ballot at the Ordinary Meeting on Humanities 27%, and Business 6th March, where we were able to and Industry 13%. This repre- announce the election of: sents a further step towards 55 Ordinary Fellows, four Honor- re-balancing some of the under- ary and four Corresponding represented subject areas within Fellows. the Fellowship. In particular, the On the 8th May, all new Fellows Society is keen to increase its were invited to attend an induc- representation in the Arts and tion event held here in the Society Humanities and in the Business Rooms. We were delighted by the and Industry sectors, as these excellent attendance, which represent only 18% and 7% included 48 of the new Ordinary respectively of the current Ordi- Fellows, one Honorary Fellow and nary Fellowship. The current three Corresponding Fellows. quotas for Fellowship provide for Following a sociable lunch, they relatively more places for these were all given the opportunity to candidates whilst keeping the meet the Society’s staff and to strong Life Science and Physical tour the Rooms, and to hear an Sciences & Engineering sectors overview of the Society’s activities. evenly balanced. We would encourage Fellows to nominate This was followed in the early more candidates from within the evening by a ceremony at which under-represented subject areas. they were formally admitted as Fellows, signed the Roll Book and

20 Proceedings of the Annual Statutory Meeting

Another area of concern is the new Corresponding Fellows, so male / female balance. The please bear this in mind as we proportion of the Ordinary approach the end of May nomina- Fellowship which is female now tions deadline next year. stands at the rather low figure of This year for the first time, the 8.0%, but shows a welcome Fellowship was given the opportu- increase from below 5% in 1999. nity to provide evidence-based Eight women were elected as comment on candidates ahead of Ordinary Fellows this year. And, the first deliberations of the averaged over the six annual sectional committee. This ensured elections since 1999, 17% of the that pertinent information, known intake of Ordinary Fellows has by our Fellows, was available to been female – somewhat ahead of the sectional committees at the the percentage of female profes- outset – both positive and sors in UK universities during this negative. This year too, the period (roughly 14% according to sectional committees are config- HESA data for 2002/03). This ured in the same discipline suggests we are redressing the clusters as recently introduced past imbalance, albeit rather This seems to be working well, slowly. Noting the increasingly reducing the numbers of commit- prominent role that women now tees and exposing at an early play in academic, professional and stage candidates in specific business circles, Fellows may wish various subject areas to wider to bear these statistics in mind scrutiny. These procedures, and when considering future candi- indeed the full process that takes dates for election. candidates through from nomina- While talking about where we tion to the announcement of the would welcome more nomina- election results on the first tions, I should also mention Monday in March, will be consid- Corresponding Fellows. This ered in a major review of the section of the Fellowship, in terms Society’s election process to be of its distinction, lies above carried out next year. Ordinary but a little short of that Finally some ‘thank-yous’. Firstly, expected for Honorary Fellows. the Society is extremely grateful to They are also required to be those Fellows who take the time resident overseas and, conse- to nominate candidates for quently, they contribute an Fellowship. Secondly, we particu- important part of the Society’s larly thank the many Fellows who profile as we expand our interna- give of their time and expertise to tional activities. There are up to service on the sectional commit- ten places available each year for tees and sector groups to help

21 Review of the Session 2005-2006

with the difficult task of assessing committee had resigned before candidates for Fellowship. And the discussions were concluded. thirdly, on a personal note, I Sir Alan suggested that reports express my considerable gratitude should contain a clear disclaimer to Lesley Campbell and her very that the Fellowship was not modest team in the office here for necessarily committed to the all the work they carry out in the conclusions of any report but that course of each annual Fellowship the Society felt it important to air election cycle and the support the matters in question. they provide me throughout the Professor McCrone replied that it year. would not be practical to circulate Sir Michael then invited com- reports to the whole Fellowship ments and/or questions on the for endorsement but that Council reports: read and approved all of them Professor Malcolm Fluendy prior to publication. He felt it was expressed concern over confusion sufficient to state that a report he felt was caused by the number had been approved by RSE and variety of publications Council. produced by the Society. He felt Professor James Irvine drew there was insufficient distinction attention to the importance of the between newsletters, events RSE maintaining its independ- reports and position papers and ence. He noted that 40% of RSE that how much weight each income came from the Scottish carried should be clarified as well Executive and expressed concern the extent to which they reflected that this could compromise the the position of the Society. Sir independence of the RSE, as it is Michael agreed that everything the policy of the Scottish Executive must be done to make this clear. to support research that reflects Professor McCrone added that it its own policies rather than to was particularly important to support science in general. distinguish between opinion and Professor Irvine felt there was an evidence publications. imbalance in the RSE approach to Sir Alan Peacock supported some important aspect of Scot- Professor Fluendy’s observations. land, in particular relating to land He personally had disagreed with management and farming in parts of the Fisheries Report and Scotland. In addition, the Scottish was concerned about some issues Executive gave verbal support to arising from the Energy Report, small businesses in Scotland but particularly in view of the fact that little tangible support. Some of both of the economists on that the RSE events appeared to reflect this leaning. Finally, the RSE had

22 Proceedings of the Annual Statutory Meeting

provided no significant opportu- mines what programmes are nity to debate the problems available but this never impinges created in Scotland by European on our independence. initiatives and Professor Irvine Lady Balfour commented that it believed this is a problem that would be impossible to engage in should be addressed, particularly the activities the RSE does without in relation to farming and small finding dissent from within and businesses in Scotland. without. The RSE cannot hope for Sir Michael agreed that it was vital unanimity from such a large and to maintain the Society’s inde- disparate membership. However, pendence and integrity but it is important to continue pointed out that it has to operate considering how best to dissemi- within the public domain. It is nate our work. Huge progress difficult to attract funding from had already been made in terms non-government bodies and of the RSE premises and publica- therefore unavoidable that money tions but the Society must keep has to be accepted from public looking forward strategically and bodies. taking advantage of existing and Professor McCrone endorsed this future technologies. and added that funds are only Professor John Frances asked for accepted on the understanding assurance that the Society will that the RSE independence and continue to maintain a pro- judgement are maintained. The gramme dedicated to science in funders involved do not in any Scotland. He was concerned way interfere with the decisions about the status of the science in concerning RSE appointments and society programme being admin- do not offer comment on people istered through the Scottish or research undertaken. It will Executive, particularly in relation always be difficult to maintain to issues such as ethical and social balance in an organisation of the responsibility. Professor McCrone nature of the RSE. Professor confirmed that the Society McCrone also made it clear that remains committed to the wider the RSE does not know in advance understanding and knowledge of what individual lecturers will say. science but pointed out that Finally he pointed out that several financial assurances cannot be presenters at the Creation of given. Wealth conference had represent- Sir William Reid asked Professor ed small businesses in Scotland. Walker, Fellowship Secretary, for Mr Cunningham underlined that assurance that as well as appoint- money given to the RSE deter- ing new science and business

23 Review of the Session 2005-2006

Fellows, administrators would also clean papers. All of those pro- continue to be appointed. posed for election had been Professor Walker agreed that the elected by an overwhelming lists issued were not exhaustive majority. Sir Michael thanked the but that all identified disciplines Scrutineers and congratulated are covered and will continue to those elected for the first time and be so. those re-elected. He also thanked Professor Jim Atkinson compli- the retiring Office-Bearers and mented the Society on the Energy Councillors, specifically John Report and urged that pressure Coggins, Rona MacKie, Ron should be put on Parliament and Asher, Ewan Brown and Tariq the Scottish Executive to imple- Durrani. ment the suggestions made Council within the recommended times- President cales. He also recommended that Sir Michael Atiyah OM nano-science should the subject of the next RSE report. Vice-Presidents Professor Jan McDonald Sir Michael had been passed one Professor John Mavor question which had been received Lord Patel of Dunkeld electronically from Professor Michael Wilson, who asked how General Secretary widely the Society distributes its Professor Gavin McCrone CB publications. Sir Michael replied Treasurer that these are distributed very Mr Edward Cunningham CBE widely to all Fellows and many Fellowship Secretary other interested parties through- Professor Andrew Walker out the UK and overseas. Ordinary Members Election of Officers and Council Professor Sue Black OBE for the 224th Session Professor Rona MacKie CBE Sir Michael reported that all Professor April McMahon Fellows entitled to vote were sent Ms Shonaig Macpherson CBE a ballot paper by the General Professor Christopher Whatley Secretary on 8 September. Profes- Executive Board sors William Firth and James Murray were confirmed as General Secretary Scrutineers at the meeting on 20 Professor Gavin McCrone CB September and examined all the Treasurer returned ballot papers on 6 Mr Edward Cunningham CBE October. There were 507 returned ballot forms of which 502 were Curator Professor John Howie CBE

24 Proceedings of the Annual Statutory Meeting

International Convener suggested that a small group Professor Sir Neil MacCormick of Fellows competent in the Programme Convener field should be appointed to Professor David Ingram OBE consider each request and submit a response to Council. Research Awards Convener He felt that at present the Professor Peter Holmes CB Society responds to too many Young People’s Convener requests and that it would be Professor Miles Padgett better to limit responses to matters on which it has Any Other Business something to say. a) Admission of Fellows Professor McCrone agreed Two Ordinary Fellows who that the Society should had not previously been concentrate of the quality of inducted were present and its responses but pointed out invited to sign the Roll: that input from the Society Professor Olivia Fiona Robin- always appeared to be highly son – formerly the Douglas valued. Often requests were Professor of Roman Law and made with very short dead- now Honorary Professorial lines and therefore it would Research Fellow, School of not be practical to consult Law, University of Glasgow more widely than it did (elected in 2006). already and since Council only meets three times a year, Professor John David Mait- the suggested consultation land Wright – former process would probably not Professor of Mathematics, be possible. University of Reading and now Research Professor of Professor Paul Jarvis agreed Mathematics, University of that it was important to add Aberdeen (elected in 978). more gravitas to the reports. However, he felt that the b) Other business Fellowship contained many Professor Geoffrey Boulton skilful people with a great expressed concern about RSE deal of knowledge and that it responses to Government would be sad to see an end requests. He felt these were of the practice of seeking less well directed and cogent responses. A lot of unexpect- that they might be with the ed information can and does current practice of writing out surface through that means. to Fellows in the field to invite comment. Professor Boulton

25 Review of the Session 2005-2006

Presentations RSE Inquiry into Scotland’s Fellows’ Biographical Index – Energy Future presentation by Dr Charles Professor Maxwell Irvine, Waterston Chairman of the Energy Inquiry Dr Waterson presented Council committee gave a brief overview with a Fellows’ Biographical Index, of the report published in June produced by himself and Mr 2006. Professor Roger Crofts Angus Shearer with the support CBE, Inquiry Secretary then gave of RSE staff, Jennifer Cameron, the Secretary’s perspective and Lesley Campbell and Vicki Ham- outlined the key issues. A lively mond. Dr Waterston explained discussion followed, to which that the Index contained informa- many of those present tion on former Fellows between contributed. 1783 and 2002. It is available in Sir Michael concluded by thanking the Fellows’ Room, has been the Energy Inquiry Committee and distributed to various deposit particularly Professors Irvine and libraries and is also available Crofts for their contribution to the electronically on the RSE web-site. meeting. Finally he thanked all of those who had attended the meeting and remarked on how successful the meeting and the ensuing discussion had been. Sir Michael Atiyah OM

26 TRUSTEES’ REPORT TO 31 MARCH 2006 The Council of the Society present pack and an introduction to the their report for the financial year operations of the RSE through ended 31 March 2006. discussions with the Chief Structure, governance and Executive and senior staff. management Reporting to the Council through The RSE Council, chaired by the the Executive Board are several President, comprises twelve operational committees, including Trustees, including three Vice- the International Committee, the Presidents, the General Secretary, Research Awards Committee, the the Treasurer, the Fellowship Meetings Committee and the Secretary and five ordinary Young People’s Committee. These members. Subject to annual re- Committees largely, but not election, Council members serve exclusively, comprise Fellows of for three years, except the General the RSE and are concerned with Secretary and Treasurer, who may the operational delivery of the serve for up to four years. All are RSE’s varied activities. All Fellows volunteers and unpaid. are actively encouraged to participate in the RSE’s activities. The Council is responsible for the There are two other charitable strategic direction and policies of trusts founded by and closely the RSE, and normally meets connected to the RSE: the BP quarterly. Research Fellowships Trust (the BP An Executive Board has delegated Trust) and the RSE Scotland responsibility from the Council for Foundation (the Foundation). The the operational delivery of many Foundation plays a leading role in of the RSE’s activities. It is chaired the continued development of the by the General Secretary, and also RSE’s public outreach activities has as its elected members, the and manages the premises in Treasurer, the Convenors of the George Street and its Trustees are main operational committees and appointed for three years by the the Curator, as well as the Chair of RSE Council. The BP Trust was the RSE Scotland Foundation and created following a donation of senior executive staff. The Board £2m in 1988 from BP to support a meets quarterly and reports to the scheme of three-year post- Council. The Council members doctoral research fellowships in and the office-bearers serving on specified subjects and which are the Executive Board are all elected awarded at the sole discretion of annually by the Fellowship in a the RSE. The RSE President, postal ballot. New members of General Secretary and Treasurer Council and the Executive Board are the BP Trustees, ex officiis. are given an extensive briefing

27 Review of the Session 2005-2006

The financial statements of the - select suitable accounting Foundation and the BP Trust are policies and apply them consolidated with those of the consistently RSE for the first time this year, - make judgements and estimates following changes in recommend- that are reasonable and prudent ed accounting practice. This has required restatement of prior year - ensure that the recommenda- figures. tions of the Statement of Recommended Practice (Ac- The Scottish Science Advisory counting by Charities) have Committee, whose members are been followed appointed following open competition by the Council of the - prepare the accounts on a RSE, provides independent going concern basis unless it is strategic advice on scientific issues inappropriate to assume the to the Scottish Executive. Its RSE will continue its activities. funding, received as a separate The Council has a responsibility grant from the Scottish Executive, for keeping proper accounting is administered through the RSE. records which disclose with Statement of Council’s responsi- reasonable accuracy at any time bilities the financial position of the RSE and which enable it to comply Under the Laws of the RSE, the with the Law Reform (Miscellane- Council has responsibility to ous Provisions) (Scotland) Act control all matters concerning the 1990 and the Charities Accounts affairs of the RSE and set the (Scotland) Regulations 1992. It overall strategy and policy. has general responsibility for The Treasurer of the RSE has a taking such steps as are reasona- duty to present to the Fellows at bly open to it to safeguard the the Annual Statutory Meeting the assets of the charity and to accounts for the preceding prevent and detect fraud and financial year to 31 March. other irregularities. Under charities legislation, the Risk management Council is required to prepare The Audit and Risk Committee, accounts for each financial year operating on a joint basis with the which give a true and fair view of Foundation, reports directly to the state of affairs of the RSE and Council and the Foundation, and of its financial activities during the is chaired by an ordinary member year then ended. of Council. Its remit includes In preparing these accounts, the keeping under review the effec- Council should: tiveness of internal control and

28 Trustees’ Report to 31 March 2006

risk management systems in the better integration in the delivery RSE and its connected charities. of the RSE’s programmes The Council believes that the The RSE seeks to achieve these existing systems and the structure objectives by: of decision-taking and reporting through the staff management 1 Providing authoritative, inde- group, Executive Board and pendent advice and making Council continues to provide recommendations to policy assurance that risks are properly decision-takers. assessed and carefully managed. 2 Supporting and enhancing Objectives and activities excellence in the Scottish research base. The RSE’s mission is the Advance- ment of Learning and Useful 3 Supporting the commercialisa- Knowledge. To fulfil this, it tion of research and innovation. promotes learning and puts the 4 Communicating knowledge and multidisciplinary expertise of its understanding. Fellows to work for the good of 5 Promoting the international Scotland and its people. It has two awareness of Scottish research roles: and innovation. - to serve as Scotland’s national 6 Sustaining and utilising the academy of science and letters expertise of its multidisciplinary - to support research and Fellowship, and recognising innovation in Scotland outstanding achievement and The RSE has set three strategic excellence. objectives over the period of its Achievements in the year corporate plan from 2004-2007: Overview - to continue to deliver a range of This section includes the main core activities, including those achievements of the RSE, the covered by existing arrange- Foundation and the BP Trust, ments with funders and reflecting the fact that the partners Financial Statements are present- - within these activities, to ed on a consolidated basis for this prioritise selected action areas Group of connected charities. and, where necessary, seek the Their activities are described in resources needed for develop- more detail below, according to ment the six main strands set out in the - to encourage wider Fellowship Corporate Plan. and public participation and

29 Review of the Session 2005-2006

The highlights in what was a the Presiding Officer, The Rt successful year and which are Hon George Reid MSP, and the detailed in the report included: RSE Vice-President, Professor - A smooth handover of Presiden- John Coggins. This provided an cy from Lord Sutherland to Sir impressive setting for a con- Michael Atiyah, from the structive discussion on Statutory Meeting in October attracting and retaining 2005. research talent in Scotland. - A major independent inquiry - A Steering Group on Science into Scotland’s Energy Future. and Society, chaired by Professor Following extensive analysis and David Ingram, set up to give consultation begun in May independent advice to the 2005, a comprehensive report Scottish Executive on the award from a committee chaired by of grants for various Science Professor Maxwell Irvine was and Society initiatives. launched in June 2006, to much - Significant growth in the RSE’s acclaim. international activities including - An award of £900,000 over 3 four new agreements signed years by Lloyds TSB Foundation with overseas National Acade- for Scotland to fund the next mies, increases in the numbers phase in a successful pro- of international exchanges and gramme of awards for research the visit of the EU Research into the ageing population and Commissioner Dr Janez Potoc- improving the quality of life of nik. older people. - The third Gannochy Innovation - A major independent review of Award presented to John the Scottish Executive-funded Harrison in October at an RSE Research Fellowship impressive ceremony at the programme carried out by Sir Royal Museum of Scotland. The John Enderby. This found the Gannochy Trustees agreed to scheme to be well-run and continue this annual award and providing very good value for with increased funding from money. Recommendations for 2006/07. significant enhancement and - The Edinburgh Drug Absorption expansion of the scheme were Foundation choosing the RSE as made. the recipient of a transfer of its - The announcement of all RSE remaining funds of £124,000. Research Awards in the Scottish The funds will be used to Parliament Debating Chamber organise a series of internation- in a session jointly chaired by al conferences on Drugs

30 Trustees’ Report to 31 March 2006

Futures, dealing with different successful applicants, however, aspects of the scientific, medical remained encouragingly high. and social issues of drug Providing independent advice development, delivery and use. The RSE started an independent Against a positive background in Inquiry into Energy Issues for operational delivery, it is also Scotland in May 2005. The Inquiry pleasing to report that the was conducted and funded financial position strengthened, independently of Government with an increase in net incoming and we are particularly grateful to resources from £184,000 to the Binks Trust for generous £551,000. The sum shown for support. 2005/06 includes £150,000 in restricted income received in the Chaired by Professor Maxwell year to be expended in future Irvine and with Professor Roger years and £293,800 in various Crofts as Secretary, the Inquiry Restricted Funds not available for Committee took evidence during the general running of the RSE. the year from nearly one hundred The net incoming resource (before expert witnesses, received nearly transfers or investment gains) two hundred written submissions arising in the General Fund is and held meetings in Lewis, £40,800, reflecting that normal Orkney, Shetland, Inverness, operational activity contributed a Aberdeen, Glasgow, Edinburgh modest, but growing, amount to and London. In addition, a the overall surplus. delegation visited Finland to observe its approach to energy There were some low points in the issues. Following approval of the year – most notably the death of Report by Council, a Summary Professor Ian Stevenson, who had Report was published and ably served the RSE as Programme launched at the RSE in June. This Convener, until ill health forced was web-cast live. The Summary him to retire; some conferences and the Full Report were available were cancelled or postponed, thereafter, without charge, on the mainly because of difficulties in RSE website, and the Summary raising the necessary external Report was freely distributed. The funds; there was also a disap- Report attracted widespread pointing decline in the number of attention and comment. Without suitable applicants for Enterprise the dedication and expertise of Fellowships. This lead to a decline the Inquiry Committee and of almost £200,000 in income donations from a range of from Scottish Enterprise and no sources, it would not have been appointments were made to the possible to undertake this major PPARC scheme. The quality of

31 Review of the Session 2005-2006

activity. Events will be arranged can be made available to inform throughout Scotland to enhance MSPs on topical subjects. public understanding of this Supporting research excellence complex issue. The RSE’s Research Awards Using the expertise of its Fellows, continue to support some of the the RSE responded to various most outstanding young scientists consultations and submitted and innovators working in evidence and advice to 21 parties. Scotland today. The benefits of These submissions are also their research are far-reaching, available on the RSE website. The with work in areas such as Scottish Executive launched its healthcare, energy, the environ- Scottish Science Centres Network ment, communications Strategy in December 2005, with technologies and our ageing nearly £11m being available over population, all advancing the three years. The Steering Group social and economic well-being of on Science and Society, chaired by Scotland. It is only through Professor David Ingram, gave valuable partnerships with key independent advice to the bodies such as BP, the Caledonian Scottish Executive on the distribu- Research Foundation, the Lloyds tion of funds in 2006/07. The TSB Foundation for Scotland and Steering Group also advised the the Scottish Executive that we are RSE Council on the feasibility of able to provide these awards. To setting up a separate charitable each of these partners, we offer company to disburse funds for our sincere thanks for their this important activity, and continuing support. discussions with the Scottish Executive are continuing. Each year we hold an award ceremony to announce the awards The Scottish Parliament Science made to an invited audience, Information Scheme continued to including funders and policy- attract enquiries from MSPs and makers. In 2005 it was held in the their researchers, and attempts Scottish Parliament and combined were made during the year to with a seminar on attracting and encourage greater use of the retaining research talent in which scheme, which is run in associa- new and existing award holders tion with the Royal Society of also contributed their experience Chemistry. The Science in Parlia- and views. The report of proceed- ment event in November 2005 ings is available on the RSE provided an opportunity to website. promote the Scheme with exam- ples of the types of briefing that This April, part of the Lloyds TSB Foundation for Scotland’s annual

32 Trustees’ Report to 31 March 2006

meeting was devoted to the work September 2005 and made the of Research Fellows and postgrad- following recommendations to uate students appointed enhance and expand the scheme previously under this scheme to to fulfil the Scottish Executive’s enable a wider audience to policy objective to attract and appreciate the importance of their retain research talent in Scotland: work. - Personal (three-year) Postdoctor- The following awards were made al Research Fellowships should during 2005-2006: be lengthened to a minimum of - one BP Personal Research four years to enable the Fellowship Research Fellows to apply for Research Council grants. This - three Scottish Executive Personal would also place the Research Research Fellowships Fellows in a strong position to - three Scottish Executive Support secure a permanent academic Fellowships position within their University. - three Scottish Executive Science - The Personal Research Fellow- Fellowships for Teachers. ships should cover Full Economic Costs. - seven CRF European Research Fellowships - The number of Personal Research Fellowships made each - Cormack Prizes: one Undergrad- year should be increased to at uate Prize, two Postgraduate least six. Currently the RSE can Prizes and five Vacation Re- award up to three. search Scholarships - The schemes should be extend- - six Lessells Travel Scholarships ed appropriately to include Arts In May 2005 an independent and Humanities subjects. expert group was formed to The Review took place against the review the Research Fellowships background of introducing Full funded by the Scottish Executive’s Economic Costing for university Enterprise, Transport and Lifelong research and was received posi- Learning Department. The tively by Scottish Executive officials Steering Group was chaired by Sir and Ministers. However, spending John Enderby CBE, FRS, and also constraints in the current year included Sir Brian Follet FRS, have meant that it was not Professor Wilson Sibbett CBE, FRS, possible either to introduce the FRSE and a Scottish Executive Full Economic Costing in 2006/07 Observer. They reported on the or to provide the significant extra success and value of the pro- funding to implement the other gramme to RSE Council in Enderby recommendations at this

33 Review of the Session 2005-2006

time. The RSE Council believes basis. The BBSRC scheme attract- that Full Economic Costing and ed an excellent number of the Enderby recommendations are applications for a new Fellowships key aspects of developing a smart, programme. Following a rigorous successful Scotland and it is selection process, the first BBSRC hoped that they will be taken Enterprise Fellows took up post in forward as part of the next October 2005. During the year, Scottish Executive Spending ten Scottish Enterprise Fellowships Review. Also supported by the (a decline from the previous year), Scottish Executive are the Royal four BBSRC Enterprise Fellowships Medals of the Royal Society of and no PPARC Enterprise Fellow- Edinburgh, its most prestigious ships were awarded. award recognising research The Gannochy Trust Innovation excellence and scholarship. The Award of the Royal Society of 2005 medals were awarded to Edinburgh is Scotland’s highest Professor Sir David Edward for his accolade for individual achieve- outstanding contribution to law ment in innovation. It was created in the European Union and in 2003, in partnership with the Scotland and Professor William Gannochy Trust, to encourage and Hill, one of the world’s most reward Scotland’s young innova- eminent quantitative geneticists. tors for work which benefits Supporting commercialisation Scotland’s wellbeing. The purpose and innovation of the award is to encourage The Enterprise Fellowships younger people to pursue careers schemes run by the RSE aim to in fields of research which increase the commercialisation of promote Scotland’s inventiveness academic research through internationally, and to recognise technology transfer from the outstanding individual achieve- academic institution into a ment, which contributes to the profitable commercial company. common good of Scotland. In This activity helps create sustaina- 2005 this award was presented to ble companies with high-value Mr John Harrison in recognition jobs and contributes to the of the contribution he has made economy in the long term. to the development of surfactant technologies and solutions. The RSE is responsible for three Enterprise Fellowship Schemes, Communicating knowledge and funded separately by Scottish understanding Enterprise, PPARC and BBSRC. A. Communications Both the Research Council The RSE website is updated schemes operate on a UK-wide regularly and provides informa-

34 Trustees’ Report to 31 March 2006

tion for Fellows and the public. B. Publications Details of all the activities The RSE continues its long supported by the RSE are tradition of publishing with its posted on the site, as are two journals, Transactions: Earth reports from events and press Sciences and Proceedings A: releases. The majority of Mathematics, which are application forms for Research published on behalf of the RSE Awards and Exchange Fellow- by the RSE Scotland Foundation. ships submitted are downloaded from the site and Six issues of the Proceedings A lecture tickets are available journal were published during online and are increasingly this financial year on a regular processed by this method. bi-monthly schedule – issues Media briefings and press 135.2 to 136.1 inclusive. Four releases are provided for all issues of Transactions were major events and launches and published. Copies of the there has been appreciable journals are also sent to over media coverage of most of the 300 exchange partners world- significant activities in the RSE wide. Both journals are highly programme. regarded by academics as publication vehicles, and they Three issues of ReSourcE, the maintain a respectably high RSE newsletter, were published impact factor in comparison to and distributed to the Fellow- similar journals in their fields. A ship and around 2,000 others, new-look, broader remit including business leaders, Transactions journal will appear journalists, research institutes, next year with a slight change in schools, MPs, MSPs and title to include Environmental interested individuals. Fellows Sciences and with a revised also receive a monthly e- cover design. A dedicated bulletin, which enables them to marketing drive will re-launch keep up to date with and, if the journal with a Special Issue appropriate, further disseminate (provisionally entitled Holocene information on the RSE and its Environmental Change – work. The fifth issue of Science Lessons from Small Islands) to Scotland (on Energy) was reflect the environmental published in May 2006. Science theme. Scotland aims to promote the excellence of Scottish research, particularly to an overseas audience.

35 Review of the Session 2005-2006

C. Events gence: In Your Life Today by The Events Team delivered Professor Aaron Sloman and public events as follows: Professor Wolfgang Wahlster; Science Meets Religion by - 16 Lectures, including The Professor Simon Conway Robot in your Head by Morris and Professor Wentzel Professor Noel Sharkey; the van Huysteen; Earth, Wind, Gunning Victoria Jubilee Prize Fire and Water: Tsunami by Dr Lecture: Energy – A Challenge Chris Browitt, Julia Horton for Materials Chemistry by and Diane Johnson of Mercy Professor Peter G Bruce; Corps. Climate Change by Professor John Mitchell; The Lisbon These all met with an encourag- Earthquake: 250 Years On ing response, with audiences and Counting by Lord being over target in most cases. Sutherland of Houndwood; - A conference Creation of Who You Are or Where You Wealth, supported by Bank of Are? by Professor Sally J Scotland, to debate the future Macintyre; and the CRF Prize of Scotland’s economy. The Lecture, entitled Once There speakers were drawn from Was a Golden Age – How We across industry and com- Judge Television: Then and merce, the universities and Now by Joan Bakewell. the public sector and the Several full reports have been audience also represented a published and are available in wide range of interests. A full hard copy from the RSE, or on report of the lively debate was the RSE website. published which included - The RSE lecture in the Edin- conclusions such as the need burgh Lecture series, held in to build on existing success association with the Quincen- and to promote a joined-up tenary celebrations of the approach to economic Royal College of Surgeons in development. Edinburgh. Professor Sir - The Robert Cormack Bequest Alfred Cuschieri spoke on workshop held at the Univer- Inside Surgery from Without: sity of St Andrews, including Therapeutic Interventions a lecture Beauty in a dark from Images. Universe by the 2005 Carne- - Four Discussion Forums: The gie Centenary Professor, Ethics Of War by Professor Mario Livio. Richard Sorabji and Professor - In addition there were events John Kelsay; Artificial Intelli- primarily for Fellows and

36 Trustees’ Report to 31 March 2006

these included the Triennial primary and secondary school Dinner, held at the University students, talks for secondary of Edinburgh in June, students and a talk for the attended by the Presidents of wider community. the Royal Irish Academy, the - A Discussion Forum for Academy of Sciences of the Highers students in St Czech Republic and senior Andrews on Climate Change. representatives of the British This year the Education Team Academy and the Royal produced a set of CD-Rom Society; the New Fellows and web-based teaching admission ceremony and resources based upon the induction in May; and the Discussion Forum so that Annual Statutory Meeting in schools throughout Scotland October. could hold their own mini- D. Education discussion forum and The Young People’s programme contribute to a national covered the length and breadth survey of students’ views. of Scotland with: - Two Science, Engineering and - 11 Talk Science schools’ Technology Summer Schools lectures. Lecturers visited in partnership with Heriot- schools throughout Scotland, Watt University introducing from Dumfries to the High- Highers students to university lands, and covered diverse life. topics, including genetics and - A Christmas Lecture, Who Are the chemistry used in com- You?, by Professor Sue Black mon medicines. OBE FRSE at Elgin Academy - Startup Science Masterclasses for local school students and for S1 and S2 students in separately for the general Dundee, St Andrews, Aber- public. The lecture explored deen, Glasgow and the topics of identity and Heriot-Watt Universities. forensic anthropology, drawing on Professor Black’s - Maths Masterclasses in experiences around the Aberdeen, Dundee, West world. Lothian and Glasgow for Primary 6 and 7 students. Promoting the international awareness of Scottish research - Roadshows in Stranraer and and innovation Fort William. A two-day event, the roadshows include The success of the RSE’s interna- science workshops for tional programme continued during the year. New bilateral

37 Review of the Session 2005-2006

agreements were signed with the ty of Edinburgh, and a Microna- Academy of Sciences of the Czech notechnologies workshop held Republic and the Hungarian at the RSE, both with the Academy of Sciences. An informal National Science Council of agreement was signed with the Taiwan Norwegian Academy of Science • an Open Day for Chinese and Letters and with the Cuban researchers in Scotland, held at Academy of Sciences. the RSE in September, arranged The programmes of international by the RSE China Forum exchanges were well subscribed, • a joint event with the Academy with a total of 53 exchanges of Sciences of the Czech taking place – 26 on the bilateral Republic on Nanomedicines of programmes run with China, the Future held at the University Poland and Taiwan and 27 on the of Strathclyde in November open programme with visits to or from Armenia, Australia, Belgium, Utilising the expertise of the Bulgaria, Chile, Croatia, Denmark, Fellowship France, Germany, Hungary, Italy, The multidisciplinary membership Japan, Jordan, Latvia, The Nether- of the RSE makes it unique lands, New Zealand, Russia, amongst learned societies in the Slovakia, South Africa, Spain, UK. Its peer-elected Fellowship of Turkey, Ukraine, and USA. men and women encompasses These represented increases in the excellence in the Sciences, Arts, length of international exchanges Humanities, the Professions, from a total of 8 to 55 weeks for Industry and Commerce. In the bilateral exchanges, and from 37 Ordinary Fellowship this is to 83 weeks for open programme represented as: the Life Sciences exchanges. The RSE European (36.4%); Physical Sciences, Maths Policy Forum masterminded a and Informatic Sciences (37.6%); successful visit in May 2005 by the Social Sciences, Arts and Humani- recently appointed EU Research ties (18.5%); Economics, Business Commissioner Dr Janez Potocnik and Industry (7.5%). and arranged a conference on The RSE currently has 1320 Language Learning and Teaching Ordinary Fellows, 33 Correspond- in Scotland in March 2006. The ing (overseas) Fellows and 71 RSE was also involved in several Honorary Fellows. In March 2006, high-profile international events, following the most careful including: scrutiny of 177 Candidates for • a High-Tech Forum in Life Fellowship by the 12 specialist Sciences, hosted by the Universi- discipline committees (Sectional Committees) and review of their

38 Trustees’ Report to 31 March 2006

recommendations by the four Council is extremely grateful for sector groups, then the Fellowship their support. committee and Council, and The year under review included finally a postal ballot of current the handover of Presidency and Fellows, the RSE announced the other key changes in Senior Office election of 55 Ordinary, four Bearers. It was also the first full Corresponding and four Honorary year of operating the new govern- new Fellows. Most of the new ance and management structures Fellows attended and much approved in 2004. Both of these appreciated the induction day in were successful and the streamlin- May. ing of the structures is making a RSE Fellows are involved with the positive contribution to the Young People’s programme as effectiveness of operations. speakers and workshop/master RSE Scotland Foundation class organisers. In the Interna- tional area they are often key In addition to the publication of speakers at international meetings journals, the Foundation has been and take lead roles in relation- successfully facilitating the ships with sister academies, etc. dissemination of useful knowl- Evidence and Advice submissions edge through letting the are compiled from views polled conference facilities in George from the Fellowship. Fellows are Street. Gross income from this heavily involved in Conference activity was higher than the organising committees and at an previous year, through a small earlier stage are instrumental in increase in numbers of lettings suggesting meetings for future and increased recovery of costs sessions. Fellows serve on the incurred. The Foundation is also Editorial Boards of the Transac- responsible for letting surplus tions and Proceedings A journals, space to tenants and this has and the Executive Editors in continued successfully. particular, play a vital role in BP Research Fellowships Trust maintaining the high standard of The income from the BP Trust’s papers published. Fellows also investments, which are managed serve on the committees responsi- separately from the RSE own ble for short-listing, interviewing funds, were just sufficient to and selecting recipients of the support the appointment of one various Research and Enterprise new three-year postdoctoral Awards administered by the RSE. research fellow in 2005/06; there The part that these Fellows play, were three such research fellows individually and collectively, in the in post during the year. The success of the RSE’s activities research fellowships are adminis- cannot be underestimated. The

39 Review of the Session 2005-2006

tered by the RSE. As the costs of The key objectives and financial maintaining a steady state of targets for 2006 – 07 are to widen three Fellows in post is increasing the impact, throughout Scotland faster than sustainable investment and internationally, of operational income, the Trustees made programmes and to achieve the representations to BP for addi- financial performance measures tional funding to maintain the set in its 2006/07 budget. highly prestigious nature of these The RSE has three operational awards. The initial response was programmes for 2006/07: not encouraging but further discussions with BP are taking 1 Public Benefit place. - promoting, sharing and Performance monitoring supporting Scottish scientific and cultural research, excel- The performance of the Group, lence, innovation and relative to the detailed targets set knowledge transfer in in the Management Plan ap- Scotland and internationally proved by Council, is reported quarterly to the Executive Board, - recognising outstanding which then reports to RSE Council achievement and excellence and to the Trustees of the other - providing authoritative, connected bodies. The over- independent advice to policy whelming majority (> 95%) of the decision-makers targets were reached or exceeded; 2 Fellowship those that were not arose either through unexpected external - maintaining and recognising changes or not being able to Fellowship expertise secure the resources necessary to - communicating and engag- deliver them to the very high ing with the Fellowship to standard expected. As many of the encourage even greater objectives have long-term out- participation in the RSE’S comes, measurement, where activities. possible, is carried out on a periodic basis by review of the 3 Management & Administra- impact of schemes, for example tion the Enderby review of research - managing financial, human fellowship. resource, communication and Future plans information technology systems and controls Plans for 2006-2007 have been developed in the context of the - maintaining the building and existing three-year Corporate Plan. its facilities and services

40 Trustees’ Report to 31 March 2006

All of the key outputs within delegated the detailed monitoring each of these programmes will of performance to the Investment contribute to one or more of Committee, which includes at the following public benefit least one ordinary member of outcomes: Council, and which makes - attracting and retaining comparisons against a composite world-class research talent in benchmark reflecting the mix of Scotland. assets held and the WM income constrained Charities index. The - awareness of Scotland as a income targets for the year for world-class location for both portfolios were exceeded, research and development. although the total return values - fostering knowledge transfer have underperformed by 2% (RSE) from a science and cultural and 4% (BP Trust) relative to the base. benchmark. Representatives of the Investment Committee meet twice - public appreciation and annually with the investment understanding of science and managers to discuss their compli- culture. ance with the constraints set by - inspiring young people, the Committee and risk environ- primarily in the field of ment. In the year under review no science, but also other areas compliance issues arose which covered by the wider school required to be reported to the curriculum. Committee. - informing decisions taken by Operating policies – grant Parliaments and policy- making makers. The RSE makes grants to individu- Financial review and policies als in higher education Investment powers and policy institutions in support of research activities in the categories of The management of the invest- Postdoctoral Research Fellow- ments of the RSE and the BP ships, Support Research Research Fellowships Trust is Fellowships, Post-graduate carried out by Speirs & Jeffrey & Studentships, Undergraduate Co on a discretionary basis. The Vacation Scholarships and objectives set by the Council are Enterprise Fellowships. Each of first to ensure a sufficient level of these categories is specifically income to meet the target set funded from various sources, annually by the Council and including the RSE’s restricted thereafter to invest for capital funds. The basis of eligibility and growth potential. The Council has selection varies according to the

41 Review of the Session 2005-2006

detailed scheme regulations, the financial statements. The which are published on the RSE’s General Fund represents the website (www.royalsoced.org.uk). balance of unrestricted funds Grants are also made in support arising from past operations, of research activities of Fellows of which are not invested in fixed the RSE, including support for assets or designated for a specific travel connected with research or purpose. The Council has exam- scholarship, small scale specialist ined the requirement to hold meetings, to assist research unrestricted funds, and concluded visitors to Scotland to undertake that, whilst the present level of collaborative research work with a reserves gives adequate working Fellow, to assist a visiting lecturer capital for core costs, it would be to come to Scotland, to assist desirable to have a General Fund research collaboration between reserve in the range of three to six two institutions in Scotland or months’ expenditure on central between universities and industry costs. They have also reviewed the and to assist in the publication of purposes and amounts of each of books written by Fellows. These the designated funds and are grants are funded by the RSE’s satisfied that it is appropriate to designated Grants Fund. The continue to allocate the unrestrict- Grants Committee is responsible ed funds for the purposes for making awards in accordance described in note 2 to the finan- with the detailed rules set out by cial statements. In particular, the the Council of the RSE for the RSE should continue to maintain a disbursement of the Grants Fund. Development Fund to give Details of committee membership flexibility to respond to new are to be found in the RSE’s initiatives on a timely basis annual directory and on its without the need for specific website. fundraising. Reserves policy and funds Implementation of SORP 2005 The RSE holds a number of The financial statements have restricted funds resulting from been drawn up to conform with bequests for particular purposes, the recommendations of the details of which are set out in revised Charity Statement of note 2 to the financial statements. Recommended Practice (SORP The Council has also created 2005). Compliance with SORP designated funds, where the RSE 2005 will become mandatory in has also set aside sums from its 2006 – 07 under the new charity unrestricted funds, the purposes accounting regulations issued of which are set out in note 2 to under the Charity and Trustee Investment (Scotland) Act 2005

42 Trustees’ Report to 31 March 2006

and applicable from 1 April 2006. previous practice which was to The main changes, other than carry forward such income to be minor presentational changes, are recognised in the period in which the consolidation of the two the activity took place. connected charitable trusts and Implementation of SORP 2005 the review of accounting for has also required a change of multi-year grants, such as post- accounting policy in relation to doctoral research Fellowships. This the recognition of income has required changes in account- received to fund research fellow- ing policy and restatement of ships. This has resulted in the prior year figures, as described in restatement of the 2005 figures note 20 to the financial state- as set out in note 20. A further ments. restatement was required to Result for the year incorporate the FRS 17 pension For the first time, as part of the adjustments. The net movement implementation of SORP 2005, in funds for the year after includ- the results presented comprise the ing gains on investments, and FRS consolidated accounts of the RSE 17 pension movements, rose to and its two connected charitable £199,000 in the General Fund trusts, the Foundation and the BP and £1,238,000 overall. This Trust. The results and balances of reflects a number of non-recurring these connected trusts are items and the continuing recovery included in the consolidated of the investment portfolio. financial statements as restricted Income and Expenditure funds. Total incoming resources The overall result at the net Total incoming resources of incoming resources, or revenue, £3.72m have decreased by 0.7% level was a surplus of £551,000, or £0.026m from last year. This with the General Fund result comprises increases in voluntary contributing £40,800 of this sum. income and investment income As well as non-recurring items, offsetting a decrease in income this result includes £150,000 of for charitable activities. The latter restricted purpose income arises mainly from the change in received in advance of carrying out accounting policy on research the activities for which the income fellowships, as receipts taken to has been provided. SORP 2005 income in the year were less than requires that such income be in 2005. recognised as received and placed in a fund against which the future Voluntary income (note 4), which costs are set. This is a change from includes grants, has increased as a result of the receipt of the balance

43 Review of the Session 2005-2006

of £124,000 from the Edinburgh key speakers. Income for other Drug Absorption Foundation. This activities has remained broadly fund is a restricted fund to be steady reflecting the maintenance used to support a series of of activity levels. conferences on the broad theme Resources expended of Drugs Futures. This will include pharmacology, neuroscience, Total resources expended have genetics, psychology and social decreased by 11% (£0.4m) from policy aspects. Subscription last year. This is a direct result of income from Fellows, including the changes in support for generous support from voluntary Research and Enterprise awards contributions, and associated Gift discussed below. Cost of generat- Aid tax recovery increased by ing funds (note 6) includes the £15,000. The first instalment, cost of the Fellowship office, the £28,000, of a legacy from the costs of building management in estate of Mrs SM Heggie, widow respect of income from letting of of Dr James Heggie was received surplus space as well as fundrais- and has been added to the ing costs, both direct and Heggie fund, designated to be management time in securing used in support of young people funding. Grants payable of activities. Investment income (note £1.81m have decreased by 19% 4) was boosted by interest (£0.43m). The 2005 expenditure received on cash, much of which is included £0.28m for the estab- held in the designated and lishment of the provision for restricted income funds. future commitments on the fellowships awarded with funding Incoming resources from charita- from the Lloyds TSB Foundation ble activities (note 5) includes for Scotland. A decrease in the funds raised for the RSE’s Inquiry average number of Scottish on energy which reported after Enterprise fellows in post and the financial year end. Fluctua- hence payments of their awards tions in numbers of appointments comprises the balance of the reduced the income for Research difference. and Enterprise Fellowship schemes from the Scottish Other expenditure on charitable Executive and Scottish Enterprise, activities has remained broadly offset by new Enterprise Fellow- steady, other than the increased ships funded by BBSRC. Meetings expenditure on the RSE’s Inquiry income fell as a number of on energy. planned conferences were Governance costs have decreased deferred to fit with availability of by about £4,000 (2%) overall and represent less than 4% of total

44 Trustees’ Report to 31 March 2006

income. During the year, the £124,000 from the Edinburgh Council undertook a review of the Drug Absorption Foundation. level and purpose of all the Fundraising Designated Funds. The transfers shown in the Statement of Over the past year, an assessment Financial Activities represent the has been made of the potential release from the Capital Asset for fundraising. The conclusion Reserve of a total of £101,000 to reached is that the RSE is better match the writedown of buildings placed to obtain support for and the capital repayment of the specific programmes than to loan to the Foundation; and a secure funds though the more transfer on consolidation from the traditional methods. As a conse- RSE Scotland Foundation restrict- quence the RSE is now developing ed fund balance to the General programmes from funding and Fund equivalent to the net inter- one of these is being actively entity income received in the RSE. progressed. Balance sheet Conclusion and future prospects Consolidated net assets continue The consolidated results for the to rise, being up 12.4% overall to year reflect satisfactory progress in a total of £11.2m; the major operational activities. The RSE reason being the 15% increase aims to continue to maintain its from £4.88m to £5.62m in the careful financial management to investment portfolio and the provide small surpluses to increase in restricted income increase the level of General Fund funds. Net current assets have and give financial flexibility. The increased by 54% to £1,665,000. new Corporate Plan for 2007 – Of the total cash balance, 2012 which is in preparation will £714,000 is allocated to Desig- set out the framework within nated funds, the major part of which this will be achieved. which is the Development Appeal Signed on behalf of the Council Fund and the Building Mainte- Edward Cunningham CBE nance Fund; a further £779,000 Treasurer relates to restricted funds includ- September 2006 ing the capital receipt of

45

AUDITORS’ REPORT AND ACCOUNTS We have audited the financial applicable law and United statements of Royal Society of Kingdom Accounting Standards Edinburgh (RSE) for the year (United Kingdom Generally ended 31 March 2006 which Accepted Accounting Practice). comprise the statement of Our responsibility is to audit the financial activities, the group financial statements in accordance balance sheet, the charity balance with relevant legal and regulatory sheet, the cash flow statement requirements and International and the related notes. These Standards on Auditing (UK and financial statements have been Ireland). We report to you our prepared in accordance with the opinion as to whether the accounting policies set out therein financial statements give a true and in accordance with the and fair view and are properly Statement of Recommended prepared in accordance with the Practice 2005 and applicable Laws of the RSE, the Law Reform accounting standards. (Miscellaneous Provisions) This report is made solely to the (Scotland) Act 1990 and Charities RSE Trustees, as a body, in accord- Accounts (Scotland) Regulations ance with regulation 7 of The 1992. We also report to you if, in Charities Accounts (Scotland) our opinion, the Trustees’ Annual Regulations 1992. Our audit work Report is not consistent with the has been undertaken so that we financial statements, if the RSE might state to the RSE Trustees has not kept proper accounting those matters we are required to records, if we have not received all state to them in an auditors’ the information and explanations report and for no other purpose. we require for our audit, or if To the fullest extent permitted by information specified by the Law law, we do not accept or assume Reform (Miscellaneous Provisions) responsibility to anyone other (Scotland) Act 1990 and Charities than the RSE and the RSE Trustees Accounts (Scotland) Regulations as a body, for our audit work, for 1992 is not disclosed. this report, or for the opinions we We are not required to consider have formed. whether any statement in the Respective responsibilities of Trustees’ Annual Report concern- Trustees and Auditors ing the major risks to which the As described in the statement of charity is exposed covers all Trustees’ responsibilities, the existing risks and controls, or to Council is responsible for the form an opinion on the effective- preparation of the financial ness of the charity’s risk statements in accordance with management and control proce- dures.

47 Review of the Session 2005-2006

We read other information order to provide us with sufficient contained in the Trustees’ Annual evidence to give reasonable Report and consider whether it is assurance that the financial consistent with the audited statements are free from material financial statements. We consider misstatement, whether caused by the implications for our report if fraud or other irregularity or error. we become aware of any apparent In forming our opinion we also misstatements with the financial evaluated the overall adequacy of statements. Our responsibilities the presentation of information in do not extend to any other the financial statements. information. Opinion Basis of audit opinion In our opinion the financial We conducted our audit in statements: accordance with International - give a true and fair view of the Standards on Auditing (UK and state of the Group’s and the Ireland) issued by the Auditing RSE’s affairs as at 31 March Practices Board. An audit includes 2006 and of the Group incom- examination, on a test basis, of ing resources and application of evidence relevant to the amounts resources for the year then and disclosures in the financial ended; and statements. It also includes an assessment of the significant - have been properly prepared in estimates and judgements made accordance with the Laws of the by the Trustees in the preparation RSE, the Law Reform (Miscella- of the financial statements, and of neous Provisions) (Scotland) Act whether the accounting policies 1990 and Charities Accounts are appropriate to the RSE’s (Scotland) Regulations 1992. circumstances, consistently - have a Trustees’ Annual Report applied and adequately disclosed. which is consistent with the We planned and performed our financial statements. audit so as to obtain all the Henderson Loggie information and explanations Registered Auditors which we considered necessary in September 2006

48 ACCOUNTS

Group statement of financial activities (incorporating the income & expenditure account) for year ended 31 March 2006

Note No General Fund Designated Funds Restricted income Restricted funds 2006 Total 2005 Total Restated £££££ £

Income Voluntary income 4 656,584 41,361 - 143,942 841,887 660,916 Activities for generating income 4 - - - 203,257 203,257 202,169 Investment income 4 43,411 59,623 - 190,761 293,795 266,663

Incoming resources from generated funds 699,995 100,984 - 537,960 1,338,939 1,129,748 Incoming resources from charitable activities 5 229,706 - 1,920,940 232,537 2,383,183 2,618,649

Total incoming resources 929,701 100,984 1,920,940 770,497 3,722,122 3,748,397

Expenditure Cost of generating funds 6 (109,753) (2,944) - (69,258) (181,955) (180,207) Charitable activities 6 (664,330) (25,636) (1,770,940) (384,627) (2,845,533) (3,236,511) Governance 6 (114,799) (6,025) - (22,780) (143,604) (147,621)

Total resources expended (888,882) (34,605) (1,770,940) (476,665) (3,171,092) (3,564,339)

Net incoming resources before transfers 21, 22 40,819 66,379 150,000 293,832 551,030 184,058

Transfers between funds 189,578 (101,818) - (87,760) - -

Other recognised gains/(losses) Gains/(losses) on investment assets Realised gains 2,816 11,996 - 59,951 74,763 50,955 Realised losses (371) (1,582) - (13,013) (14,966) (7,399)

2,445 10,414 - 46,938 59,797 43,556

Unrealised gains 23,785 101,311 - 560,341 685,437 383,042

Actuarial losses on Lothian Pension Fund (58,000) - - - (58,000) (1,000)

Net movement in funds 198,627 76,286 150,000 813,351 1,238,264 609,656

Restated balance brought forward at 1 April 2005 96,498 5,763,669 - 4,112,724 9,972,891 9,363,235

Balance carried forward at 31 March 2006 295,125 5,839,955 150,000 4,926,075 11,211,155 9,972,891

49 Review of the Session 2005-2006

Group balance sheet at 31 March 2006

Note 2006 2006 2005 2005 ££££

Fixed assets Tangible fixed assets 14 4,278,484 4,381,913

Fixed asset investments Investments at market value 15 5,624,323 4,879,164

9,902,807 9,261,077

Current assets Debtors 16 176,516 135,243 Cash at bank and in hand 303,379 495,552 Money Market deposits – Designated funds 714,060 681,660 Money Market deposits – Restricted funds 860,288 118,342 Money Market deposits – General funds 188,252 8,501

2,242,495 1,439,298

Current liabilities Creditors: amounts falling due within one year 17 (576,796) (363,711)

Net current assets 1,665,699 1,075,587

Total assets less current liabilities 11,568,506 10,336,664

Provision for liabilities and charges 18 (237,351) (287,773)

Net assets excluding pension fund 11,331,155 10,048,891

Lothian Pension Fund Defined Benefit Scheme liability (120,000) (76,000)

Net assets after pension fund liability 11,211,155 9,972,891

Funds General Fund 19 415,125 172,498 Less: Pension reserve (120,000) (76,000)

295,125 96,498 Designated Funds 21 5,839,955 5,763,669 Restricted Funds 22 5,076,075 4,112,724

Total funds 11,211,155 9,972,891

The accounts were approved by the Council on 4 September 2006 and signed on its behalf by:

Edward Cunningham, CBE Treasurer

50 Auditors’ Report and Accounts

RSE balance sheet at 31 March 2006

Note 2006 2006 2005 2005 ££££

Fixed assets Tangible fixed assets 14 2,365,581 2,420,445

Fixed asset investments Investments at market value 15 (a) 2,539,320 2,179,527 Historical cost: 2006 £2,006,102 2005 £1,921,750 Loan to RSE Scotland Foundation 15 (b) 1,937,944 1,984,752

6,842,845 6,584,724

Current assets Debtors 16 95,435 62,285 Cash at bank and in hand 222,502 377,985 Money Market deposits – Designated funds 714,060 681,659 Money Market deposits – Restricted funds 779,411 118,341 Money Market deposits – General funds 269,129 8,500

2,080,537 1,248,770

Current liabilities Creditors: amounts falling due within one year 17 (582,371) (265,726)

Net current assets 1,498,166 983,044

Total assets less current liabilities 8,341,011 7,567,768

Provision for liabilities and charges 18 (237,351) (287,773)

Net assets excluding pension fund 8,103,660 7,279,995

Lothian Pension Fund defined benefit scheme liability (120,000) (76,000)

Net assets after pension fund liability 7,983,660 7,203,995

Funds General Fund 19 415,125 172,498 Less: Pension reserve (120,000) (76,000)

295,125 96,498

Designated Funds 21 5,839,955 5,763,669 Restricted Funds 22 1,848,580 1,343,828

Total funds 7,983,660 7,203,995

The accounts were approved by the Council on 4 September 2006 and signed on its behalf by:

Edward Cunningham, CBE Treasurer

51 Review of the Session 2005-2006

Group cash flow statement for the year ended 31 March 2006

2006 2006 2005 Restated 2005 Restated ££ ££

Cash flow statement Net cash inflow/(outflow) from operating activities 349,343 73,955

Returns on investments and servicing of finance: Interest received 69,048 45,072 Dividends received 225,422 220,533

294,470 265,605 Capital expenditure and financial investment: Purchase of tangible fixed assets (19,343) (11,791) Proceeds from sale of investments 429,971 244,101 Purchases of investments (429,893) (244,101) Capital receipt 124,015 882

104,750 (10,909)

Net cash flow before financing: 748,563 328,651 Appeal receipts 13,361 22,475

Increase in cash in the year 761,924 351,126

Reconciliation of net cash flow to movement in net funds

Increase in cash in the year 761,924 351,126 Net funds at beginning of year 1,304,055 952,929

Net funds at end of year (note 28) 2,065,979 1,304,055

Reconciliation of net movement in funds to net cash outflow from operating activities

Net incoming resources before transfers 551,030 184,058 Retirement benefit scheme current service cost 81,000 68,000 Retirement benefit scheme contributions (89,00) (74,000) Retirement benefit scheme finance cost (6,000) (3,000) Appeal receipts (13,361) (22,475) Dividends receivable (224,827) (221,591) Interest receivable (69,048) (45,072) Depreciation 122,773 119,324 Capital distribution from Fleck Bequest (shares and cash) - (41,079) Capital distribution from Edinburgh Drug Absorption Foundation (124,015) - (Increase)/decrease in debtors (41,872) 4,967 Increase in creditors 213,085 56,792 Movement on provision for liabilities (50,422) 48,031

Net cash inflow/(outflow) from operating activities 349,343 73,955

52 Auditors’ Report and Accounts notes to the financial statements

1 Accounting basis Designated Funds Piazzi Smyth Legacy Fund – to fund high The accounts have been drawn up to Staff Restructuring Fund – to provide flexiblity altitude astronomical research comply with the provisions of the Law Reform in staffing arrangements CASS Fund – to fund academic / industrial (Miscellaneous Provisions) (Scotland) Act Development Appeal Fund – to provide liaison 1990 and the Charity Accounts (Scotland) development finance to implement the Retailing Seminar Fund – to fund a Regulations 1992, and follow the RSE’s Corporate Plan. recommendations of the Statement of programme of seminars on retailing Capital Asset Reserve Fund – representing Recommended Practice for charities (SORP) Fleck Bequest Fund – to promote interest, the book cost of the rooms at 22-24 George approved by the Accounting Standards knowledge and appreciation of science and Street and 26 George Street together with Board in February 2005 and applicable its applications throughout Scotland accounting standards. The accounts have the building project loan to the RSE Scotland been prepared under the historical cost Foundation. Edinburgh Drug Absorption Foundation Fund – to fund a series of conferences on the broad accounting rules as modified to include the Building Maintenance Fund – a reserve to theme of ‘Drugs Futures’. revaluation of investments. The accounts support the future maintenance of the fabric comprise four primary financial statements: of the rooms. Restricted Income Fund – income funds the statement of financial activities received for expenditure on current projects. incorporating the income and expenditure Dr James Heggie Fund – income from this account, the Group and RSE balance fund supports the RSE’s activities with RSE Scotland Foundation – a trust to sheet and the cash flow statement. young people. advance the education of the public in Scotland in science, engineering and Grants Fund – a fund created by contributions The consolidated financial statements include technology. the financial statements of the RSE and and legacies from Fellows and used to of entities which are under its control: RSE provide grants to support research activities BP Research Fellowships Trust – a trust Scotland Foundation and BP Research to Fellows. to fund postdoctoral research fellowships in Scotland. Fellowships Trust. As the objectives of each of Programme Fund – a fund created to act as these entities are narrower than the Society, a source of funding for meetings activities. they have been treated as restricted funds. 3 Accounting policies No SOFA or income and expenditure for the C H Kemball Fund – income from this fund is Incoming resources Society has been presented as permitted used to provide hospitality for distinguished by SORP. visitors from other learned societies and Voluntary income Academies. Subscriptions are accounted for on the basis of the subscription year to October 2006 2 Funds Restricted Funds and include income tax recoverable on the The RSE’s funds are classified in accordance Robert Cormack Bequest – to promote subscriptions paid under Gift Aid. with the definitions in SORP into Restricted astronomical knowledge and research Revenue grants are credited to income in Funds, where there are restrictions placed by in Scotland the period in which the RSE becomes entitled a donor as to the use of income or capital, to the resources. Designated Funds where the Society has set Lessells Trust – to fund scholarships abroad aside sums from its unrestricted funds for a for engineers Donations of a recurring nature from other particular purpose and the General Auber Bequest – to fund research in Scotland charitable foundations and one-off gifts and (unrestricted) Fund. The classifications made and England by naturalised British citizens legacies included in other income are taken are as follows: over 60 years of age to revenue in the period to which they relate. General Fund Prizes Fund – to fund various prizes Investment income A discretionary Fund available to Council to Interest and dividends are accounted for meet the ordinary activities of the Society. Dryerre Fund – to fund postgraduate in the year in which they are receivable. scholarships in medical or veterinary physiology Incoming resources for charitable activities Incoming resources for activities are accounted for on an accruals basis.

53 Review of the Session 2005-2006

notes to the financial statements

Publication income receivable in foreign Charitable activities Minor equipment is charged against revenue currencies is converted into sterling at rates Grants payable are recognised as a liability in the year of purchase. Computer and of exchange ruling at the date of receipt. when the RSE is under an actual or audio-visual is depreciated on a straight line constructive obligation to make a transfer to basis over 3 – 20 years. Incoming resources for research fellowships a third party. Where grants are time related are accounted for in the period in which the to future periods and are to be financed by Investments RSE becomes entitled to the resources. specific grants receivable in those future Investments are stated at their market value Income received for specific projects, and periods they are treated as liabilities of those at the balance sheet date. Gains and losses received in advance of the commencement periods and not as liabilities at balance sheet on disposal and revaluation of investments of the project, is deferred. If the project were date. Such grants are disclosed as future are charged or credited in the statement of not to proceed as planned the RSE would commitments. financial activities and allocated to funds in not be entitled to retain the funds. For accordance with their proportionate share of performance related grants, where entitlement Governance costs the investment portfolio. to the incoming resource only arises with the Governance costs are those incurred in performance of the specific outputs agreed connection with the management of RSE Pensions under the contracts, income is deferred. assets, organisational administration and The RSE participates in defined benefit compliance with constitutional and statutory pension schemes which are externally funded. Resources expended requirements. The cost of providing pensions is allocated Expenditure and support costs over employees working lives with the Society Tangible fixed assets, depreciation All resources expended are included on and is included in staff costs. an accruals basis, having regard to any and repairs constructive obligations created by multi The RSE’s principal assets are its buildings in year grant commitments. George Street, Edinburgh. Under FRS15 the Society depreciates the buildings assuming a Where directly attributable, resources 50 year life. It is the policy of the Council to expended are allocated to the relevant maintain the buildings to a high standard. functional category. Overhead and support Provision is made to provide for upkeep of the costs are allocated to functional category buildings as required through a designation on the basis of direct staff costs in each from General Fund. Any permanent diminutions area of activity. in value are reflected in the statement of financial activities. Costs of repairs and Cost of generating funds maintenance are charged against revenue. The cost of generating funds includes expenditure incurred in supporting the Expenditure incurred in the improvements to Fellowship and incurred on fundraising 26 George Street is being depreciated over initiatives. the period of the lease to the RSE Scotland Foundation from the date of completion of the refurbishment to 30 June 2047.

54 Auditors’ Report and Accounts notes to the financial statements 4 Incoming resources Current year 2006 Voluntary income Activities for Investment Promotion of Other charitable Total 2006 generating income research activities ££££££

Fellows 176,022 - - - - 176,022 Individuals and legacies 41,361 - - - 13,572 54,933 Companies - - - - 35,000 35,000 Charitable trusts 143,942 - - 258,210 181,889 584,041 Scottish Executive 479,000 651,000 412,060 1,542,060 Public sector bodies - - - 560,305 38,611 598,916 Bank interest - - 63,999 - - 63,999 Other interest ------Dividends - - 101,806 - - 101,806 Other 1,562 - - - - 1,562

841,887 - 165,805 1,469,515 681,132 3,158,339 RSE Scotland Foundation – Rental income - 203,257 - - - 203,257 RSE Scotland Foundation – Charitable activities - - - - 232,536 232,536 RSE Scotland Foundation – Interest - - 838 - - 838 BP Research Fellowships Trust – Interest - - 4,211 - - 4,211 BP Research Fellowships Trust – Dividends - - 122,941 - - 122,941

841,887 203,257 293,795 1,469,515 913,668 3,722,122

Prior year 2005 Voluntary income Activities for Investment Promotion of Other charitable Total 2005 generating income research activities ££££££

Fellows 161,397 - - - - 161,397 Individuals and legacies 37,475 - - - 21,164 58,639 Companies - - - - 11,700 11,700 Charitable trusts 50,524 - - 562,678 153,697 766,899 Scottish Executive 411,002 - - 678,542 302,974 1,392,518 Public sector bodies - - - 629,873 39,448 669,321 Bank interest - - 42,424 - - 42,424 Dividends - - 92,603 - - 92,603 Other 518 - - - - 518

660,916 - 135,027 1,871,093 528,983 3,196,019 RSE Scotland Foundation – Rental income - 202,169 - - - 202,169 RSE Scotland Foundation – Charitable activities - - - - 218,573 218,573 RSE Scotland Foundation – Interest - - 603 - - 603 BP Research Fellowships Trust – Interest - - 2,045 - - 2,045 BP Research Fellowships Trust – Dividends - - 128,988 - - 128,988

660,916 202,169 266,663 1,871,093 747,556 3,748,397

55 Review of the Session 2005-2006 notes to the financial statements 4 Incoming resources (continued) 4a Voluntary income 2006 2005 Restated £ £ Contributions from Fellows Admission fees 15,400 15,400 Annual subscriptions 138,971 126,507 Income tax recoverable under Gift Aid 21,651 19,490 176,022 161,397 Lessells Trust additional receipt 19,917 9,445 Fleck of Saltcoats capital distributed - 41,079 Appeal receipts 13,361 22,475 Legacies 28,000 15,000 Scottish Executive Grant – General activities 479,000 411,002 Edinburgh Drug Absorption Foundation 124,025 - Other income 1,562 518 841,887 660,916

In addition to the donations set out above, the RSE receives donations made specifically in support of activities which are included in activities income (see note 27d).

5 Incoming resources from charitable activities 2006 2005 Restated £ £

Scottish Executive Grant – Research Fellowships 651,000 632,542 Franco-Scottish PhD scholarships 12,000 - Caledonian Research Foundation 21,410 21,186 Scottish Enterprise 426,550 615,953 BBSRC Enterprise Fellowships 83,932 - PPARC Enterprise Fellowships 37,823 59,920 Lloyds TSB Foundation for Scotland 236,800 541,492

1,469,515 1,871,093

Scottish Executive Grant re Scottish Science Advisory Committee 170,626 149,372 Scottish Executive Grant – International activities 170,001 119,975 Scottish Executive Grant – Science & Society 72,060 - Gannochy Trust 96,277 100,000 Meetings 40,906 76,362 Inquiry income 105,000 - Gifts in kind (secondments of staff) 8,750 37,625 International activities - 34,750 Educational activities 15,102 10,290 Sale of sundry publications 2,410 609

681,132 528,983

RSE Scotland Foundation – Journal publications 110,038 126,250 RSE Scotland Foundation – Conference facilities letting 122,498 92,323

232,536 218,573

2,383,183 2,618,649

Further information relating to grants, donations and receipts and their application is set out in note 27.

56 Auditors’ Report and Accounts notes to the financial statements

6 Resources expended

2006 2005

Direct costs Support costs Total 2006 Direct costs Support costs Total 2005 (Note 11) (Note 11) Restated ££££££ Costs of generating funds Fundraising - 26,282 26,282 - 19,560 19,560 Fellows’ subscriptions - 83,471 83,471 - 83,475 83,475 Appeal donations - 2,944 2,944 - 3,129 3,129

- 112,697 112,697 - 106,164 106,164 RSE Scotland Foundation Building management - 68,933 68,933 - 73,793 73,793 BP Research Fellowship Trust Investment fees 325 - 325 250 - 250

Total costs of generating funds 325 181,630 181,955 250 179,957 180,207

Charitable activities Prizes and grants 97,886 29,912 127,798 99,363 31,744 131,107 Promotion of research (note 8) 1,417,593 274,117 1,691,710 1,828,759 270,504 2,099,263 Meetings 38,163 167,903 206,066 64,273 153,791 218,064 International 109,275 97,175 206,450 125,682 94,438 220,120 Science & Society and Education 32,524 64,184 96,708 10,714 71,658 82,372 Evidence 31,438 98,735 130,173 1,291 83,912 85,203 Publications and library 20,413 12,424 32,837 23,938 12,841 36,779 Academic industry links - 7,678 7,678 - 8,004 8,004 SSAC 170,627 - 170,627 149,372 - 149,372

1,917,919 752,128 2,670,047 2,303,392 726,892 3,030,284

RSE Scotland Foundation Journal Publications 70,653 27,664 98,317 103,099 30,517 133,616 RSE Scotland Foundation Conference facilities letting - 77,169 77,169 - 72,611 72,611

70,653 104,833 175,486 103,099 103,128 206,227

Total cost of charitable activities 1,988,572 856,961 2,845,533 2,406,491 830,020 3,236,511

Governance (note 10) RSE 14,538 106,286 120,824 27,612 98,692 126,304 RSE Scotland Foundation 1,785 19,938 21,723 1,250 18,879 20,129 BP Research Fellowships Trust 1,057 - 1,057 1,188 - 1,188

Total governance costs 17,380 126,224 143,604 30,050 117,571 147,621

Resources expended 2,006,277 1,164,815 3,171,092 2,436,791 1,127,548 3,564,339

Central support costs as set out in note 11 have been allocated to activities in proportion to the employment cost in each area of activity.

57 Review of the Session 2005-2006

notes to the financial statements

7 Grants payable

2006 2005 £ £

Promotion of research (note 8) 1,691,710 2,099,263 Prizes and grants 127,798 131,107

1,819,509 2,230,370

8 Promotion of research 2006 2005 £ £

Scottish Executive Fellowships 513,322 545,708 Franco-Scottish PhD scholarships 12,010 - CRF European Fellowships 17,332 16,804 Scottish Enterprise Fellowships 373,331 532,688 Lloyds TSB Foundation for Scotland Fellowships 221,772 517,690 PPARC Enterprise Fellowships 35,521 53,307 BRSRC Enterprise Fellowships 71,607 289 Robert Cormack Bequest 5,314 4,240 John Moyes Lessells Scholarship 19,060 23,474 Auber Bequest Awards 5,600 1,000 Henry Dryerre Scholarship 16,484 15,874 Designated funds DS McLagan Travel Grant 1,802 28

1,293,155 1,711,102 Direct costs: General Funds Library 1,789 25

RSE 1,294,944 1,711,127 BP Research Fellowships Trust 122,649 117,632

1,417,593 1,828,759 Support costs (note 6) 274,117 270,504

1,691,710 2,099,263

An analysis of institutions and individual awards made under this expenditure heading is included in the Society’s Review 2006,obtainable from the address on the back cover.

58 Auditors’ Report and Accounts notes to the financial statements

9 Publications

2006 2005 £ £

Income Journals 110,038 126,250

Expenditure Journals RSE – Editorial and management costs 16,877 16,761 RSE Scotland Foundation – Publishing costs 59,070 96,994 Support costs – Editorial 12,424 12,841 Support costs – Publishing 27,664 30,517

116,035 157,113 Year book and directory 11,583 10,917 Other publications 3,536 2,364

131,154 170,394

The RSE Scotland Foundation became publisher of the RSE’s journals and year book with effect from the 1997 volumes. The RSE retains copyright and incurs editorial costs in respect of these publications. The RSE has made a donation to the RSE Scotland Foundation equivalent to its net deficit on publications.

10 Governance 2006 2005 £ £

Management and secretariat 109,356 120,276 Audit fee 9,005 8,172 Other professional advice from auditors 5,305 294

123,666 128,742 RSE Scotland Foundation – Management and secretariat 19,938 18,879

143,604 147,621

59 Review of the Session 2005-2006

notes to the financial statements 11 Support costs 2006 2005 £ £

Total payroll 842,023 763,268 Less: Paid by SSAC (71,510) (66,667)

Salaries (note 12) 770,513 696,601 Value of secondments 8,750 37,625 Staff training, agency and recruitment costs 25,205 21,131 Non- cash pension cost adjustments (14,000) (9,000)

790,468 746,357 Other costs Establishment expenses 129,120 123,024 Computer and equipment costs 16,751 23,007 Communication, stationery and printing costs 53,378 56,263 Travel and subsistence, hospitality 19,506 18,003 Publicity 19,196 24,183 Miscellaneous 1,796 4,044 Professional fees 11,827 13,343 Depreciation 122,773 119,324

374,347 381,191

Total central costs 1,164,815 1,127,548

Support costs have been allocated to activities in proportion to the employment cost in each area of activity as set out in note 6.

12 Employees Total 2006 Funded Funded by SSAC Funded by RSE Total by Foundation 2006 2005 £££££

Wages and salaries 682,790 (76,637) (60,219) 545,934 626,495 Social security costs 50,640 (5,048) (5,455) 40,137 47,033 Other pension costs 108,593 (14,398) (5,836) 88,359 89,740

842,023 (96,083) (71,510) 674,430 763,268

The average number of employees of the RSE including those employed under joint contracts with the RSE Scotland Foundation was 27 (2005: 27).Of these 2 were employed in respect of The Scottish Science Advisory Committee. One member of staff earned over £60,000 per year and is a member of a defined benefit pension scheme.

13 RSE income and result for the year

General fund Designated Funds Restricted funds RSE Total 2006 RSE Total 2005 £££££

Total incoming resources 1,020,265 100,984 2,257,643 3,378,892 3,349,055

Surplus / (deficit) for the year 128,577 66,379 282,918 477,874 91,041 Transfers 101,818 (101,818) - - - Gains / (losses) on investments 26,229 111,727 221,838 359,794 150,307 Actuarial loss on Lothian Pension Fund (58,000) - - (58,000) (1,000)

Net movement in funds 198,624 76,288 504,756 779,668 240,348

60 Auditors’ Report and Accounts notes to the financial statements

14 Tangible fixed assets

Group 22 – 24 George Street 26 George Street Improvements Computer Total Purchase cost Purchase cost and equipment £££££

Cost At 1 April 2005 1,103,038 1,647,468 2,136,070 345,506 5,232,082 Additions - - - 19,343 19,343 Disposals - - - (40,036) (40,036)

At 31 March 2006 1,103,038 1,647,468 2,136,070 324,813 5,211,389

Depreciation At 1 April 2005 132,365 197,695 260,370 259,739 850,169 Disposals - - - (40,036) (40,036) Charge for the year 22,060 32,950 44,467 23,295 122,772

At 31 March 2006 154,425 230,645 304,837 242,998 932,905

Net book value At 31 March 2006 948,613 1,416,823 1,831,233 81,815 4,278,484

At 31 March 2005 970,673 1,449,773 1,875,700 85,767 4,381,913

RSE Net book value At 31 March 2006 948,613 1,416,823 - 145 2,365,581

At 31 March 2005 970,673 1,449,773 - - 2,420,446

15 Fixed asset investments Value at Investments Proceeds on sale Gain / loss Revaluation Market value at 1 April 2005 made at cost of investments 31 March 2006 ££ ££££

(a) Fixed asset investments Managed Funds 453,794 75,507 (68,221) 8,471 125,092 594,643 Fixed interest 602,737 105,972 - - (1,740) 706,969 UK equities 1,082,252 29,515 (145,598) 25,067 202,903 1,194,139 Cash deposits 40,744 (210,994) 213,819 - - 43,569

RSE 2,179,527 - - 33,538 326,255 2,539,320 Managed Funds 495,153 75,507 - - 71,599 642,259 Fixed interest 834,539 105,972 - - (5,365) 935,146 UK equities 1,293,305 31,981 (216,152) 26,259 292,951 1,428,344 Cash deposits 76,640 (213,538) 216,152 - - 79,254

BP Research Fellowships Trust 2,699,637 (78) - 26,259 359,185 3,085,003

4,879,164 (78) - 59,797 685,440 5,624,323

The gain on sale of investments measured against their historical cost was £181,526 (2005: Surplus (£48,956). The historical cost of investments was £4,423,314 (2005: £-4,277,377).

61 Review of the Session 2005-2006

notes to the financial statements

15 Fixed asset investments (continued)

(b) Loan by RSE to RSE Scotland Foundation 2006 2005 £ £

Due within one year 46,808 46,808 Due after one year 1,891,136 1,937,944

1,937,944 1,984,752

The loan bears interest at 4% per annum, capped at the amount of rent received by the Foundation and is repayable over the period to 30 June 2047, the expiration of the lease of 26 George Street.

16 Debtors 2006 2005 £ £

General debtors 65,361 29,991 Prepayments and accrued income 5,827 7,577 Income tax recoverable 24,247 24,717

RSE 95,435 62,285 RSE Scotland Foundation - Debtors 63,734 54,020 RSE Scotland Foundation - Prepayments 6,492 8,550 BP Research Fellowships Trust 10,855 10,388

Group 176,516 135,243

17 Creditors: Amounts falling due within one year Group 2006 2005 £ £

General creditors 244,301 210,467 Accruals 10,364 4,308 VAT payable 6,098 6,665 University of Glasgow (note 22) 3,263 1,049 Deferred income 176,698 77,216 Symposia income deferred 44,550 3,620 Advance receipts – Publications 91,522 60,384

576,796 363,709

Deferred income and advance receipts analysis At 1 April 2005 Received in year Recognised in year At 31 March 2006 Gannochy Trust award 2,892 198,385 (96,277) 105,000 Publications receipts 2,000 - (2,000) - SSAC income 12,324 170,000 (170,626) 11,698 French PhD scholarships 60,000 12,000 (12,000) 60,000

77,216 380,385 (280,903) 176,698

Journal receipts 60,384 141,176 (110,038) 91,522

Symposia income 3,620 45,783 (4,853) 44,550

62 Auditors’ Report and Accounts notes to the financial statements

17 Creditors: Amounts falling due within one year (continued) RSE 2006 2005 £ £

General creditors 209,284 175,193 RSE Scotland Foundation current account 148,576 8,648 Deferred income 176,698 77,216 University of Glasgow (note 22) 3,263 1,049 Symposia income deferred 44,550 3,620

582,371 265,726

18 Provision for liabilities and charges £ Commitments for research fellowships At 1 April 2005 – Group & RSE 287,773 New commitments: Lloyds TSB Foundation for Scotland Research Fellowships 221,772 Grants cancelled or recovered - Grants paid in the year (272,194) Recovery of administrative expenses -

At 31 March 2006 237,351

The provision represents amounts payable under a constructive obligation in respect of research fellowships due as follows: 2006 – 07: £169,459; 2007 – 08: £67,892.

19 General Fund £

At 1 April 2005 172,498 Prior year adjustment (note 20) (76,000)

96,498

Net movement in funds for the year from statement of financial activities 198,627

At 31 March 2006 295,125

20 Prior year adjustments and change of accounting policy As previously stated Research Fellowships FRS 17 Adjusted total Lloyds TSB Foundation Retirement benefits for Scotland ££££

Incoming resources 3,460,624 287,773 - 3,748,397 Resources expended (3,285,566) (287,773) 9,000 (3,564,339) Other gains/(losses) 426,598 - (1,000) 425,598

Net movement in funds 601,656 - 8,000 609,656 Balance brought forward April 2004 9,447,235 - (84,000) 9,363,235

Adjusted Balance carried forward 31 March 2005 10,048,891 - (76,000) 9,972,891

63 Review of the Session 2005-2006

notes to the financial statements

20 Prior year adjustments and change of accounting policy (continued)

Changes in accounting policy The implementation of SORP 2005 included a review of the nature of the grants received and payable for Research Fellowships. It has been agreed that there is a constructive obligation for Fellowships extending beyond the balance sheet date in respect of the Lloyds TSB Foundation Research Fellowships and in accordance with SORP guidance a provision has been made for the future costs of the Fellowships Scheme; the income received, which was previously treated as deferred income, has now been recognised in full. The full implementation of FRS 17 Accounting for Pensions has required the recognition on the balance sheet of the opening pension liability of £76,000.

21 Designated Funds

At 1 April 2005 Investment Other income Expenditure Gains / (losses) Transfers At 31 March 2006 income

££ ££ ££ £

Capital Asset Reserve 4,405,198 - - - - (101,818) 4,303,380 Building Maintenance Fund 207,086 8,456 - (6,025) - - 209,517 Staff Restructuring Fund 44,113 1,801 - - - - 45,914 Development Appeal Fund 336,453 13,912 13,361 (2,944) - - 360,782 Programme Fund 94,008 3,839 - - - - 97,847 CH Kemball Fund 18,829 880 - - 3,107 - 22,816 Grants Fund 486,139 22,708 - (18,746) 80,250 - 570,351 Dr James Heggie Fund 171,843 8,027 28,000 (6,890) 28,368 - 229,348

5,763,669 59,623 41,361 (34,605) 111,725 (101,818) 5,839,955

The transfers represent the release from the Capital Asset Reserve of a total of £101,000 to match the depreciation of buildings and the amount of capital repayment of the loan to the Foundation.

22 Restricted Funds

At 1 April 2005 Investment Other income Expenditure Gains / (losses) Transfers At 31 March 2006 income

££ ££ ££ £

Robert Cormack Bequest 99,651 4,655 - (6,993) 16,450 - 113,763 Lessells Trust 354,033 16,537 19,917 (25,025) 58,442 - 423,903 Auber Bequest 324,873 15,175 - (11,074) 53,630 - 382,604 Prizes Fund 69,729 3,257 - (5,871) 11,510 - 78,625 Dryerre Fund 422,704 19,745 - (23,606) 69,780 - 488,623 Others 72,838 3,402 - (1,227) 12,023 - 87,036 Edinburgh Drug Absorption Foundation - - 124,025 - - - 124,025 Restricted Income Fund - - 1,920,940 (1,770,940) - - 150,000

RSE 1,343,828 62,771 2,064,882 (1,844,736) 221,835 - 1,848,580 RSE Scotland Foundation 19,151 838 435,794 (266,142) - (87,760) 101,881 BP Research Fellowships Trust 2,749,745 127,153 - (136,728) 385,444 - 3,125,614

Total 4,112,724 190,762 2,500,676 (2,247,606) 607,279 (87,760) 5,076,075

64 Auditors’ Report and Accounts notes to the financial statements

22 Restricted funds (continued) “Prizes Fund” comprises The Keith Fund, The Neill Fund, The Makdougall-Brisbane Fund, The Gunning-Victoria Fund, The James Scott Prize Fund, the Bruce-Preller Lecture Fund, The WS Bruce Memorial Fund, The Dr DA Berry Fund, The Henry Duncan Prize Lecture Fund and The BP Prize Lecture in the Humanities Fund. “Others” comprise the Piazzi-Smyth Legacy Fund, The Retailing Seminars Fund and The CASS Fund. The Restricted Income Fund represents restricted income received and expended in the year. Under the terms of the Lessells Trust the University of Glasgow is entitled to 10% of additional amounts received by the RSE from the Trust. The balance included in creditors at 31 March 2006 represents the total sum apportioned but not yet paid over to the University (note 17).

23 Analysis of assets between funds

Group General Designated Funds Restricted Funds 2006 2005 £££££

Fund balances at 31 March 2006 are represented by: Tangible fixed assets 147 2,365,435 1,912,902 4,278,484 4,381,913 Investments 142,246 822,516 4,659,561 5,624,323 4,879,164 Loan to RSE Scotland Foundation - 1,937,944 (1,937,944) - - Current assets 57,533 2,774 116,209 176,516 135,243 RSE Scotland Foundation current account (148,576) - 148,576 - - Deposits 188,252 714,060 860,288 1,762,600 808,503 Cash 303,379 - - 303,379 495,552 Current liabilities (127,856) (2,774) (446,166) (576,796) (363,711) Provisions for liabilities and charges - - (237,351) (237,351) (287,773) Pension fund liability (120,000) - - (120,000) (76,000)

295,125 5,839,955 5,076,075 11,211,155 9,972,891

RSE General Designated Funds Restricted Funds 2006 Restated 2005 £££££

Fund balances at 31 March 2006 are represented by: Tangible fixed assets 147 2,365,435 - 2,365,581 2,420,445 Investments 142,246 822,516 1,574,558 2,539,320 2,179,527 Loan to RSE Scotland Foundation - 1,937,944 - 1,937,944 1,984,752 Current assets 57,533 2,774 35,128 95,435 62,285 RSE Scotland Foundation current account (148,576) - (148,576) (8,648) Deposits 269,129 714,060 779,411 1,762,600 808,500 Cash 222,502 - - 222,502 377,985 Current liabilities (127,855) (2,774) (303,166) (433,795) (257,078) Provisions for liabilities and charges - - (237,351) (237,351) (287,773) Pension fund liability (120,000) - - (120,000) (76,000)

295,125 5,839,955 1,848,580 7,983,660 7,203,995

24 Pension costs (a) Universities Superannuation Scheme The RSE participates in the Universities Superannuation Scheme, a defined benefit pension scheme which is externally funded and contracted out of the State Earnings-Related Pension Scheme. The assets of the scheme are held in a separate trustee-administered fund. The fund is valued every three years by a professionally qualified independent actuary using the projected unit method, the rates of contribution payable being determined by the trustee on the advice of the actuaries. In the intervening years the actuaries review the progress of the scheme.

65 Review of the Session 2005-2006

notes to the financial statements

24 Pension costs (continued)

(a) Universities Superannuation Scheme (continued) It is not possible to identify each Institution’s share of the underlying asset and liabilities of the scheme and hence contributions to the scheme are accounted for as if it were a defined contributions scheme. The cost recognised within the result for the year is equal to the contributions payable to the scheme for the year. The latest actuarial valuation of the scheme was at 31 March 2005. The most significant assumptions, those relating to the rate of return on investments and the rates of increase in salary and pensions are as follows:

Past service Future service liabilities liabilities Investment return 4.50% 6.20% Salary increase 3.90% 3.90% Pension increase 2.90% 2.90% At the valuation date the market value of the scheme’s assets was £21,739.7 million and the value of past service liabilities was £28,308.1 million. The value of the assets represented 77% of the benefits that had accrued to members, after allowing for expected future increases in earnings. The contribution rate payable by the RSE was 14.0% of pensionable salaries. The actuary has confirmed that it is appropriate to take the pension charge to be equal to the actual contribution paid during the year.

(b) Lothian Pension Fund The RSE also participates in the Lothian Pension Fund, a defined benefit pension scheme established under Local Government Pension Fund Regulations. This scheme has determined that it is possible to ascertain the shares of assets and liabilities relating to individual admitted bodies. The assets of the scheme are held in a separate trustee-administered fund. The fund is valued every three years by a professionally qualified independent actuary using the projected unit method, the rates of contribution payable being determined by the trustee on the advice of the actuaries. In the intervening years the actuaries review the progress of the scheme. The latest actuarial valuation of the scheme was at 31 March 2005. The major assumptions used by the actuary were that, over the long term, the return on the scheme’s assets would be 6.2% per annum, salary increases would average 4.4% per annum and present the future pensions would increase at a rate of 2.9% per annum. At the valuation date the market value of the scheme’s assets was £2,089 million and the value of past service liabilities was £2,445 million. The value of the assets represented 86% of the benefits that had accrued to members, after allowing for expected future increases in earnings. The contribution rate payable by the RSE was 315% of employees contributions of 6% of pensionable salaries, amounting to 18.9%. The actuary has confirmed that it is appropriate to take the pension charge to be equal to the actual contribution paid during the year.

66 Auditors’ Report and Accounts notes to the financial statements

24 Pension costs (continued)

(b) Lothian Pension Fund (continued) The valuation at 31 March 2005 has been updated by the actuary on an FRS17 basis as at 4 May 2006. The major assumptions used in this valuation were:

2006 2005 2004 2003 2002 % %%%%

Rate of increase in salaries 4.6 4.4 4.4 4.0 4.3 Rate of increase in pensions in payment 3.1 2.9 2.9 2.5 2.8 Discount rate 4.9 5.4 5.5 5.4 5.9 Inflation assumption 3.1 2.9 2.9 2.5 2.8

The assumptions used by the actuary are the best estimates chosen from a range of possible actuarial assumptions which, due to the timescale covered, may not necessarily be borne out in practice.

Scheme assets The fair value of the scheme assets, which are not intended to be realised in the short term and may be subject to significant change before they are realised, and the present value of the scheme’s liabilities, which are derived from cash flow projections over long periods and thus inherently uncertain, were: Value at Value at Value at 31 March 2006 31 March 2005 31 March 2004 £000 £000 £000

Equities 2,170,000 1,616,000 1,554,000 Bonds 156,000 134,000 116,000 Other Property 283,000 193,000 149,000 Cash 40,000 146,000 18,000

Whole scheme assets 2,649,000 2,089,000 1,837,000

£000 £000 £000 of which RSE share 1,130 485 345 Present value of scheme liabilities (1,250) (561) (429)

Surplus/(deficit) in the scheme – Pension liabilities (120) (76) (84)

67 Review of the Session 2005-2006 notes to the financial statements

24 Pension costs (continued)

(b) Lothian Pension Fund (continued) The movement in the net pension liability during the year comprised: Value at 31 March 2006 Value at 31 March 2005 Value at31 March 2004 £000 £000 £000

Deficit at beginning of the year (76) (84) (109) Current service cost (81) (68) (49) Past service cost, settlements and curtailment - -- Employer contributions 89 74 60 Net return on assets Expected return on employer assets 39 29 18 Interest on pension scheme liabilities (33) (26) (19)

6 3 (1) Actuarial gains Actual return less expected return on pension 171 13 48 Experience losses on Scheme liabilities (30) - (1) Changes in assumptions underlying present (199) (14) (32)

Actuarial gains/(losses) (58) (1) (15)

Deficit at end of the year (120) (76) (84)

History of experience gains and losses 2006 2005 2004 2003 Difference between the expected and actual return on scheme assets: Amounts (£,000) 171 13 48 (11) Percentage of year end scheme assets 15.2% 2.7% 13.9% (5.5)%

Experience gains and losses on scheme liabilities: Amounts (£,000) (30) - (1) (96) Percentage of year end present value of scheme liabilities (2.4)% - (0.2%) (31.2)%

Total amount recognised in statement of financial activities: Amounts (£,000) (58) (1) 15 (119) Percentage of year end scheme assets (4.6)% (0.2)% 3.5% (38.6)%

(c) Pension charge The total pension charge for the year, including FRS17 adjustments, was £94,593 (2005: £89,740).

25 Transactions with Council members No member of Council received any payments other than reimbursements of expenditure on travel and subsistence costs actually and necessarily incurred in carrying out their duties as Councillors and Officers. The aggregate of such reimbursements to those Council members who charged expenses amounted to £6,344 (2005: £3,930).

26 Connected charitable trusts (a) RSE Scotland Foundation The RSE Scotland Foundation is a charitable trust, recognised in Scotland as Scottish charity number SCO24636. It was created in March 1996 with the object of advancing the education of the public in Scotland in science and engineering and in so doing to conserve the scientific and cultural heritage of Scotland. The President, General Secretary, Treasurer, Curator and a Vice-President of the RSE are ex officiis Trustees of the Foundation, which draws on the resources of the RSE in carrying out its objects. The Foundation also has five nominated Trustees. The Foundation became publisher of the RSE’s journals under a Publications Rights License effective from 1 January 1997.

68 Auditors’ Report and Accounts notes to the financial statements

26 Connected charitable trusts (continued)

(a) RSE Scotland Foundation (continued) On 1 July 1997 the RSE granted to the Foundation a 50-year lease over 26 George Street carrying an obligation to refurbish the building within a three year period. The Council of the RSE agreed to make funding of up to £2.3 million available to the Foundation in support of the refurbishment. The agreed terms of the loan are as described in note 13. (b) BP Research Fellowships Trust The BP Research Fellowships Trust funds a scheme of three-year post doctoral fellowships administered by the RSE.

27 Supplementary information: grants, donations and receipts

(a) Scottish Executive Grants Income 2006 2005 £ £

Enterprise, Transport and Lifelong learning Department Promotion of research 651,000 668,542 Scottish Science Advisory Committee 170,000 160,000 Activities grant 479,000 411,000 International activities 170,000 119,976 Science and Society 72,060 - Other departments Scotland in the Netherlands - 18,000 Brain science event - 15,000

1,542,060 1,392,518

Direct costs Staff and other costs 2006 Total 2005 Total ££££

Scottish Science Advisory Committee 170,000 - 170,000 160,000 Meetings - 182,553 182,553 119,826 Science & Society and Education 12,677 83,970 96,647 60,839 Publications 23,218 12,424 35,642 36,292 Promotion of research 525,333 125,667 651,000 622,542 Joint Scottish French PhD studentships 12,000 - 12,000 36,000 Evidence 846 73,235 74,081 76,331 International activities 109,275 60,725 170,000 152,974 Management and secretariat - 106,286 106,286 79,081 Buildings - - - - Establishment expenses - 30,565 30,565 35,209 Maintenance - 13,286 13,286 13,424

853,349 688,711 1,542,060 1,392,518

The Scottish Executive provides grant-in-aid under the powers of S.23 National Heritage (Scotland) Act 1985 to meet the costs of Scottish Executive-funded Research Fellows, the cost of maintaining the RSE’s premises and a share of the RSE’s staff and other costs.

69 Review of the Session 2005-2006

notes to the financial statements

27 Supplementary information: grants, donations and receipts (continued)

(a) Scottish Executive Grants Income

At 31 March 2006 the financial commitment in respect of Personal and Support Fellowships awarded subject to Scottish Executive funding in the years 2006-7, 2007-08 and 2008-09 amounted to £356,800, £219,000 and £97,500 respectively. These amounts are treated as obligation of future years to be financed by specific funding expected to be made available from the Scottish Executive.

(b) Scottish Science Advisory Committee

Expenditure in relation to the Scottish Science Advisory Committee comprised: 2006 2005 £ £

Balance brought forward (12,324) (1,696) Chairman’s fee, salaries and other staff costs 93,995 91,469 Establishment 14,528 14,589 Office costs 2,154 4,121 Travel and subsistence 5,452 6,784 Committee and working groups 7,624 7,452 R&D in Business 39,447 - E-Health Initiative 2,444 - PR and publicity - 15,786 Printing - 4,446 Professional services 4,982 4,725

170,626 149,372 Balance carried forward 11,698 12,324

170,000 160,000

(c) Recurring donations in support of activities Expenditure in relation to the Scottish Science Advisory Committee comprised: Caledonian Research Foundation Scottish Enterprise Lloyds TSB Foundation for Scotland £££

Income Promotion of research & innovation – Receipts 21,410 426,550 236,800 Meetings – income 7,463 - -

28,873 426,550 236,800

Costs Promotion of research 17,332 373,331 221,772 Lectures 5,483 - - RSE administration and staff costs recovery 6,058 53,219 15,028

28,873 426,550 236,800

70 Auditors’ Report and Accounts notes to the financial statements

27 Supplementary information: grants, donations and receipts (continued)

(c) Recurring donations in support of activities (continued)

The Caledonian Research Foundation supports postdoctoral fellowships in biomedical sciences and European visiting fellowships; a prize lecture and an international conference.

The Lloyds TSB Foundation for Scotland supports postdoctoral fellowships, postgraduate studentships and lectures and conferences to fund and disseminate research aimed at improving the quality of life for an ageing population.

(d) Other donations in support of activities

The RSE gratefully acknowledges all those who make donations in support of activities. The companies, trusts and other bodies which made donations of £1,000 or more in support of activities in the year ended 31 March 2006 were as follows:

Aberdeenshire Council Institute of Physics Binks Trust James Weir Foundation Buccleuch Estates Ltd Scottish & Southern Energy plc Darwin Trust Scottish Enterprise Energy Team HBOS Scottish Natural Heritage Highlands & Islands Enterprise Total E & P UK plc

28 Analysis of net funds/(debt)

At 31 March 2006 Cash flows At 1 April 2005 £££

Cash at bank 303,379 (192,173) 495,552 Deposits – general 188,252 179,751 8,501 Deposits – designated funds 714,060 32,400 681,660 Deposits – restricted funds 860,288 741,946 118,342

2,065,979 761,924 1,304,055

71

SCHEDULE OF INVESTMENTS £8,052 £4,944 £81,188 £33,425 £76,370 £60,053 £52,988 £72,375 £77,070 £79,635 £33,268 £69,301 £96,560

Value

0 (93) (197) (227) £133,138 (279) £111,364 (127) 5,681 2,179 £135,676 1,367 £134,227 2,138 9,600 8,049 6,993 19,380 £133,380 (2,774) £103,198 10,150 45,678 £168,498 (1,716) 15,667 19,550

29,051 2,601 6,975 39,171 5,871 45,240 £125,160 ion. Year Ended 31 March 2006 0 75,507 0 105,972 8,249 5,037 No. Market Cost Proceeds on Sale for Year Market 7,716 4,632 8,500 60,180 4,984 25,219 14,000 66,920 11,824 63,968 Closing Opening Purchase Sales Gain/(Loss) Revaluation Closing 130,000 133,497 130,000130,000 132,860 133,365 105,000 111,643 Investments- movements at valuat Ord 25p 3,700 62,308

Value £££££ £ Investment Current Holdings Aberforth Geared Cap & Int Trust 45,000 50,850 Investment & Unit Trusts Aberdeen Asian Income Fund 75,000 7.25% Treasury 2007 Treasury 5.75% 2009 Treasury 5% 2014 Other Fixed Interest 2010/49R B of Scotland 7.387% European Inv't Bank 4.75% 2018 70,000 100,000 78,086 Aberforth Smaller Co Trust plc 5,000 52,900 Royal Society of Edinburgh Schedule

Gilts 7.5% Treasury 2006 Treasury 5% 2012 Treasury 5.5% 2008/12 Duneden Income Growth Inv Trust 57,000Murray International TrustScottish Mortgage & Trust Financials 114,000 Barclays 27,600 24,000 122,820 113,220 HSBC Holdings Ord US$ 0.50 7,500 62,775 Prudential Provident Financial Legal & General Group Ord 2.5pLloyds TSB Group 68,000 77,010

Royal Bank of Scotland

73 Review of the Session 2005-2006 £0 £0 £0 £4,732 £42,628 £30,395 £23,205 £43,348 £16,353 £26,105 £49,394 £32,021 £42,066 £45,189 £72,520 £51,388 Value

0 5,573 1,978 2,832 9,583 3,138 4,713 2,630 34,600 £116,400 14,424 12,840 (6,852)

0 4,140 (5,094) 10,263 2,102 19,718 2,243 21,718 6,433 7,920 22,890 5,415 20,474 4,574 13,382 49,041 10,120 ion. Year Ended 31 March 2006 0 4,140 5,515 1,376 0 23,273 0 2,102 38,921 0 0 No. Market Cost Proceeds on Sale for Year Market 7,446 41,598 3,750 34,950 1,500 30,570 2,300 2,881 30,519 7,142 37,353 3,850 13,215 1,772 36,964 5,451 47,707 8,000 59,680 1,021 13,037 37,775 20,000 81,800 14,200 38,873 Closing Opening Purchase Sales Gain/(Loss) Revaluation Closing Investments- movements at valuat Value £££££ £ Investment Current Holdings

National grid B pref Scottish Power Industrials BOC Group Rotork Ord 5p 0 Utilities National Grid Transco Sainsbury (J) Ord 25p Northgate Ord 5p Rank Group GUS Firstgroup BAA Glaxo Smith Kline Ord 25p Ports Holdings Services Associated British £0.25 3,282 39,811 Unilever Ord 1.4p Pharmaceuticals Astrazenica Diageo

Royal Society of Edinburgh Schedule Consumer Burberry Group

74 Schedule of Investments

Value £2,495,748

6,021 £51,517 9,976 £58,617 £326,255

£33,538

£210,994 £213,820 ion. Year Ended 31 March 2006

£2,138,780

8,868 48,641 Closing Opening Purchase Sales Gain/(Loss) Revaluation Closing 1,132,958 Investments- movements at valuat Value £££££ £ Investment Current Holdings No. Market Cost Proceeds on Sale for Year Market Shell Transport & Trading Org 25p2,752 TOTALS 45,496

Royal Society of Edinburgh Schedule Resources BP Ord US$0.25

75

PRIZE LECTURES Caledonian Research Foundation Prize Lecture 2005 Joan Bakewell 17 (Edinburgh) and 19 (Glasgow) October 2005 TELEVISION AND CULTURE. WAS THERE EVER A GOLDEN AGE?

Joan Bakewell was born in Stockport Cheshire and educated at Stockport High School for Girls and Newnham College, Cambridge where she took an Honours Degree in Economics and History. Her broadcasting career spans some 40 years: she first made her mark in television in the 1960s as a presenter of BBC 2’s Late Night Line Up. In the 1970s she presented BBC travel programmes and Granada’s Report Action. In the 1980s she was Arts Correspondent for BBC television, and in the 1990s she wrote and presented The Heart of the Matter for BBC 1, and My Generation and Taboo for BBC 2. Currently she presents Belief for BBC Radio 3. Her autobiography, The Centre of the Bed, was published in the autumn of 2003; her book, Belief, in May 2005. She has been Chair of the British Film Institute, served on the board of the Royal National Theatre, and is currently Chair of the National Campaign for the Arts.

There is much glib and casual talk put them into some sort of these days about television that historical perspective. boils down to a focus on two The Golden Age – as a phrase – concepts that are now rooted in derives from the Greek and the discourse about the state of Roman poets who, imagining the television and media as they are beginning of things, conjured this today. The concept of “the golden idea of a utopian time, a Golden age” and the concept of “dumb- Age when all was harmony and ing down”. They go together in man lived in peace with himself the sense that if you believe that and nature. That was clearly a the first describes any part of fiction. But the term lives on television’s history, you probably because what it says is meaningful also believe that latter has taken for people. Why is that so? over in the last decade. You will probably also be over 50 years of First, The Golden Age always age, of the male gender and have describes the past: it is never now. recently left the higher realms of Rarely do people say “we’re living television employment, and feel in a Golden Age”, although we the youngsters are getting “it” may well be – a golden age of wrong. Whatever “it” is. I intend supermarkets, for example, almost to examine both concepts and to certainly a golden age of cheap

77 flights – but somehow we don’t In 1825, when Samuel Coleridge acknowledge that yet. It always was working on his treatise, The take time to view things in Use of a University (which was perspective. never published), he describes Some examples: The Golden Age what he calls his new ‘clerisy’, the of Jazz was in the 1930s and 40s; members of his National Church. of English poetry in the late 16th They are to be: century; of the novel in the mid “distributed throughout the 19th century; of Impressionism in country so as not to leave the the late 19th century; Russian smallest integral part or division poetry the 1820s; American without a resident guide, guardi- photography in 1940s. You get an and instructor; the object and the idea. final intention of the whole order So, Golden Ages were always in being these : to preserve the the past. They usually describe an stores and to guard the treasures activity that was relatively new, of past civilizations, and thus to and when people were experi- bind the present with the past; to menting with a new form. In the perfect and to add to the same case of cheap flights that process and thus to connect the present would be mass marketing. In with the future; but especially to consequence, many of the diffuse through the whole dominant players exhibited community and to every native characteristics later seen to be entitled to its laws and rights, that “amateurish”. The Golden Age quantity and quality of knowledge came and went because the which was indispensable both for process was evolving at a rapid the understanding of these rights rate and the swift evolution of its and for the performance of the practice either leads to new duties correspondent.” things, or gets stuck in familiar That was Coleridge’s vision of the modes. Think Elizabethan poetry, intelligentsia and it was the for example – a major surging shadow of that concept that breakthrough that slowed down stood behind the idea of public the decades into the metaphysical service broadcasting as Lord Reith poets. Then, as time went by, conceived it, and as generations “The Golden Age” is recalled and schooled in his BBC sought to referred to, often to disparage follow. That’s why, in 1970, when what came later. Something of the Nicholas Garnham and I inter- excitement, it was felt, had been viewed all the main players in lost. British television as it was then, and used them to illustrate our portrait of television at that time, Prize and Bequest Lectures

we called our book The New the end of the channel, around Priesthood. We conceived of 11.15pm each evening, to discuss television at that time as having and review the night’s pro- the role within the culture that grammes and to talk about what Coleridge defined. No one would was coming up the following day. assign to it that role today. (The We were on air, 364 days a year, book, long out of print, captures no summer breaks and no the mood of the movers and weekends off. We were there as shakers in television at that time, consistently as the daily news. Not who saw it as their role to make surprisingly, we built up a follow- the best programmes they could ing. Television was the focus. conceive, and to spread them as But it was also our subject matter widely as possible among every- that drew the audience. People one.) wanted to see programmes talked This, then, was the supposed about and within hours of their “Golden Age” of Television and being transmitted. Sometimes the its characteristics were appropri- star from a television play, which ately those of a newly arrived may have gone out live, would technology. To us today it appears come into our studio still in clumsy, awkward, amateurish. It costume to talk about the role. was also black & white and We talked about sport, about changing rapidly. Only in 1955 comedy, about drama, about the had there been any challenge to daring new documentaries – like the monopoly in the BBC. BBC2 Man Alive – and about the many arrived in 1963, the year before I new current affairs programmes. was signed up to join one of its In the 1960s there might be as most adventurous running shows: many as six current affairs pro- Late Night Line Up. Line Up had a grammes each week. The BBC had small but very significant place in Panorama, Gallery, Tonight, 24 television history. Hours. ITV had This Week and Our programme brief was to talk World in Action as well as the about television itself. We began, many regional programmes the quite humbly, as an early-evening, different ITV companies were each 15-minute programme carrying obliged to transmit. There was a trailers for what was coming on lot for Line Up to discuss and to BBC2 throughout the evening. In criticise. Television itself was the those days BBC2 only began hot topic of the day. transmitting at 7pm. Our trailers – The primacy of current affairs in interviews with producers, writers, the television schedules was at its star actors and such – proved so peak in the 60s and 70s. In a successful that we were moved to series of BBC4 programmes in

79 Review of the Session 2005-2006

March of this year, Steven Barnett discussing next day in the office, – Professor of Communications at the factory, the school, the the University of Westminster – neighbourhood – what today we examined television’s programme call the ‘water-cooler effect’. schedules over four decades. He Television was seen as important, discovered that current affairs are a way of learning more about the now at their lowest peak-time world, of catching up on a level since 1955. Since then, too, neglected education, of being in the entire scheduling of program- touch with places and people ming has changed. In 1955, 10% previously unknown. of BBC programmes were arts & Television was an important player culture and 25% were children’s; in the cultural landscape, which at only 1% soaps. By 1995, soaps that time was extending the had risen to 4% and by 2005 are horizons of everyone. It helped to nearly 20%. If we are measuring a create the culture we have today. golden age by the place in the Today we take it for granted: in schedules for high culture and the 60s and 70s it was still a serious programmes, then the dazzling miracle and a challenge peak for drama, current affairs, to radical young programme arts and science was certainly in makers who wanted to open up the 60s and 70s. Incidentally, debates on every conceivable News has remained steady over subject. Many of those debates four decades at around 12-13%. happened on ‘Late Night Line Up’. But there were other considera- In 1968, revolution swept the tions. Television at that time also campuses of Europe, the workers provided a ‘cultural glue’. It united and students of Paris took to the people who might otherwise have streets and threatened to bring nothing in common but a love of down the French government. Coronation Street, or an eager- Late Night Line Up invited all the ness to see the latest exploration ringleaders to come to London; into the lives of people different we handed our studio over to from themselves, or the animal them and invited them to explain kingdom only then being opened their intentions. A cartoon in the up by the pioneering and endur- popular press at the time shows ing genius of David two gendarmes in a Paris street, Attenborough. There were no one saying to the other “It’s quiet VCRs or DVDs in those days, so tonight”, to which the other the entire audience watched the replies, “Yes they’re all over in programmes simultaneously. On London on Late Night Line Up.”. Line Up we discussed the very Many writers, artists, directors, programmes they would be musicians wanted to be heard on

80 Prize and Bequest Lectures

this new medium. Line Up opened regional ITV companies’ head- its doors. In our tiny cramped quarters – Granada in Manchester, studio (originally meant for Yorkshire in Leeds, Scottish weather forecasting) we brought Television in Glasgow, Westward together the latest emerging in Plymouth and so on. There was groups – The Bee Gees, the Kinks, a convergence, each morning, on Elton John, Fleetwood Mac, Janis these major television factories. Joplin and Jimmie Hendrix; Through their gates flocked the classical musicians such as Lucio many disciplines it takes to get Berio, Arthur Bliss, Stockhausen, television programmes on the air: John Cage; jazzmen such as make-up girls, costume and set Buddy Rich, Duke Ellington; folk designers, set builders, actors, legends such as Arlo Guthrie. We presenters, dancers, lighting men pioneered the mixing of genres, and cameramen, writers, produc- convinced that the existing ers, editors. They were almost barriers between so-called always in the same building, popular art and high art needed making television. There were to come down. So we would mix obviously also planners and poetry with politics, fashion with schedulers, controllers and philosophy: Allen Ginsberg, finance executives, but they didn’t Martha Gellhorn, Roger set the tone, the mood of the McGough, James Baldwin. There building. In that sense, it felt as if was always an excuse somewhere the creative forces were in power, in the television schedules to and for us indeed, in that sense, it enlarge on such diverse subjects. I was a Golden Age. focus on Line Up because first, it’s In 1982 along came Channel 4, what I know, and also because it created to give greater choice to represents a microcosm of the the public. It was the result of times and the attitudes of the consultation and lobbying among times, which are so different from the very people who had led the today. creativity of the 1970s. People like There was another sense in which Roger Graef, creator of the fly-on- looking back now those days is the-wall documentary style; Tony touched with a nostalgia for a Smith, editor of 24 Hours and Golden Age. The programme creator of Nationwide. Channel 4 makers knew where they were, was to be a second public service literally. They were either in the broadcaster. It was the deliberate BBC’s Television Centre, or at Lime policy of Jeremy Isaacs, its first Grove Studios, or one of the director, to schedule programmes major regional BBC headquarters, for minority groups: actually or they were at one of the major seeking out those whose tastes

81 Review of the Session 2005-2006

might lie beyond what was not yet themselves were required to be referred to as “the mass market”. managers. Management experts Television was not yet commodi- would have you believe that fied. It remained in the aspirations before the management revolu- of those who were making it an tion, all was careless, slipshod, arena for ideas – a place where unfocused, financially out of the audience could learn and control. Well they would say that engage with all that was going wouldn’t they? I am not here to on, and share in the diversity of argue the merits of management the country’s theatre, music, systems, but their way of thinking comedy, sport and current affairs. certainly shifts and governs the Coleridge would have approved. philosophy of institutions. The fact is that for all the disparage- In the 1980s and ‘90s all that ment now heaped on the old BBC changed. Changes fuelled by two in the name of management things: technology and manage- efficiency, it certainly worked, it ment. In the 1980s, with the operated within the licence fee, it arrival of John Birt, the new delivered on its remit. management system he put in place at the BBC closed down the So, in those early days we had design and scenery departments, novelty, cohesion, enthusiasm and make-up went, the costume something else. We had permis- department, too. Even the sion. This was a question of celebrated radiophonic workshop, leadership, and with the arrival of which famously created the Hugh Carleton-Greene as Direc- signature tune for Dr Who, was tor-General of the BBC in the early abolished. Such restructuring was 1960s, the spirit of enquiry and no doubt at the behest of the disrespect was given free rein, and management consultants brought was to puncture for ever the hide- in by John Birt at an estimated bound hierarchy of good manners cost to the BBC of £22 million a that had inhibited creativity. As a year. The role of management as consequence, we had That was the crucial determinant of how the Week that Was, the pro- institutions should function – the gramme that began the entire new and prevailing ethos of the dismantling of the culture of 1980s – was taking shape in the deference and led on to the whole BBC, as it was doing in all other swathe of satire and comedy aspects of life in Britain. As I am shows that have their current sure you will know, it has done expression in Little Britain and the same in those illustrious and Bremner Fortune and Bird. historic centres of learning called Carlton-Greene’s philosophy was universities. Programme makers that the BBC should lead with

82 Prize and Bequest Lectures

innovative and original pro- day. The list also included Nell grammes the public could never Dunn’s Up the Junction and dream of, but would enjoy and Dennis Potter’s Stand up, Nigel support. He would have scoffed Barton and Vote, Vote, Vote for at focus groups, as being unin- Nigel Barton. There were some 32 formed about what was possible single plays in all, and – this is and unimaginative about the what seems so amazing today – creative process. Ask the public they were all made within just one what television they want and year and transmitted in a prime they will only answer – they only time slot on BBC1. That has to can answer – in terms of what count as some kind of Golden they know. What focus group Age. could have conceived of Monty Today the single play is all but Python or Fawlty Towers? I dead as a genre. By the 1980s the understand The Office played best writers were already writing badly to focus groups. series: fine series such as, in 1981 Another inspirational figure of the Alan Bleasdale’s Boys from the time was a young drama producer Black Stuff; 1985 Troy Kennedy from Scotland, a short stocky Martin’s Edge of Darkness; and in ebullient man, who had been 1986 Potter’s Singing Detective. made a producer – and given Today they are creating series like great freedom to follow his own Shameless, Bodies, and Outlaws – taste – under Sydney Newman, the series that, on the whole, live and charismatic Canadian who die by the ratings. Shameless is revolutionised BBC television the exception: it got poor ratings drama when he took over as its at the start but Channel 4 stuck Head in the 1960s. This Scotsman with it. In Mactaggart’s day, even was James McTaggart, the when a play had low ratings mastermind behind the Wednes- (which some of them did), the day Play, a man deeply committed single play was guaranteed its slot to traditional values, with an eye at the heart of the television for talent and ideas. His story culture. James’ legacy has been to editors included the young Tony give his name to the annual Garnett and Ken Loach. In January MacTaggart lectures at Edin- 1965 he began delivering a series burgh’s Television Festival where of single plays by writers such as the corporate world of broadcast- Simon Raven, John Hopkins, Hugh ers and the eager world of Whitemore, Michael Hastings, independent producers come David Mercer, Troy Kennedy together to argue creative, but Martin and Christopher Logue: a also management, matters of roll call of the best writers of the

83 Review of the Session 2005-2006

contemporary television. It would mounted in sequence on a music break James MacTaggart’s heart. stand, and changed by hand as For us then, the programme the camera focused on them. Line makers, the ‘60s and ‘70s had Up was black & white at the start, indeed been golden: and for the only later pioneering the BBC’s public we produced vibrant and first colour cameras. There was original programmes that con- little scope for visual interest. The stantly challenged and often focus was on the talk, the ideas, outraged them. It was where the the person. Production values debate about the kind of society were nil, camera angles hardly we lived in was taking place and changed, the style of interview we set the agenda. No one was respectful and unassertive. worried us about ratings; no one Until Robin Day and John Freeman talked about programme costs. came along and changed the way The existing BBC structure was interviewers talked, to interrupt an such that others took care of such interviewee who was speaking matters, and we, the creative was considered bad form. Some- people, were allowed to get on thing of that tradition endured in with what we were good at, which arts and general programmes was making programmes. Today such as Line Up. there is no one in any creative As an example of our work on programme making team who is Line Up, a copy of my interview not aware of financial constraints with the artist Marcel Duchamp, or the need to achieve audience the father of conceptual art figures. That is in the parlance talking at length – the only such “the name of the game”. Having record – is in the Tate Modern. said that, the BBC of the ‘60s This interview was done in an knew that Line Up was cheap to afternoon and transmitted with put on the air and so kept it going minimal editing later that night. for some eight years, between No effort was made to contextual- 1964 and 1972. ise who my guest is or his work, Now we come to the downside, there were no external points of and there was a downside – a not- reference, no alternative views, or so-Golden-Age. The technology comments. The piece is stark, was very rudimentary then. Line traditional and old fashioned. But Up had a very small studio, three it did one thing supremely well, cumbersome cameras, three chairs something we scarcely counted at and a coffee table, not much the time, and to which little more. Captions were made by regard has been paid since: it sticking letters of the alphabet focused on the human face, it onto cards which were then listened to one individual, gave

84 Prize and Bequest Lectures

them time, allowing them space whole days, two cameras running for their mannerisms, personality all the time, with magazines of and idioms to emerge. Today film running 10 minutes at a time there would be so much cutting and costing £120 each – a lot of and styling of the content that its money in those days. There was identity would be that of the film- no portable monitor to check as maker, rather than the subject. For we filmed and the film had to be all its crudeness, that was its value developed when we got back to then and its value now. London. That could take an age, It is also interesting to note the but we had the time. Abundant other cultural differences from resources resulted in a film way today. My accent, which was a ahead of its time in style and good deal more ‘cut-glass’ in approach. those days, because the Queen’s The claims we make – that English was expected of broad- something of value about televi- casters, and the fact that sion in the ‘60s and ‘70s has been Duchamp is smoking. In fact we lost – concern ideas, freedoms, all smoked, even the presenters, leadership and originality. during the programmes. Strangely enough, those concerns The very basic form in the Duch- are endorsed by, of all people, amp interview quickly developed John Birt, architect of the massive in all sorts of ways as the technol- overhaul of the BBC that changed ogy advanced. A short while later, so much. Giving this year’s an interview with the French McTaggert Lecture he had this to novelist, Georges Simenon, say: demonstrates two great leaps “Though much in the public forward. We were outside the service is blooming there are areas studio, a move of major signifi- of programming in need of cance in the plays of the time, visionaries. And the overall which lost the fustiness of studio balance needs to shift towards sets and moved freely into the more art, more authorship, more contemporary landscape. Also the scholarship, more substance – in interview was made on film, not short some of the schedules are a tape, a great advance in the bit barren. We need more truth subtlety and beauty of the image. and we need more beauty…” We took two cameras and had and he goes on: plenty of time to edit. The film- maker was interested in the “let us not tabloidise our intellec- aesthetic of film and also in a tual life.” post-modern examination of the So how has it happened? And, medium, We filmed for three indeed, what is John Birt’s

85 Review of the Session 2005-2006

responsibility for the direction chance in the market place. In the television has taken? I speak autumn of 1986, Tebbit attacked primarily of the BBC in this Kate Adie’s reporting from Libya. discussion because it is by far and In September, Douglas Hurd away the embodiment of public named Marmaduke Hussey as the service broadcasting which has, in Tory choice to be Chairman of the the popular mind at least, prime BBC. Hussey moved quickly to responsibility for “keeping up settle the Panorama case out of standards”. court and all in the Current Affairs So it time to turn now to the department were suddenly aware concept of “dumbing down” – a they were under attack. The Tory phrase that pollutes the discourse press joined battle and ran a with its implied elitist condescen- sustained campaign, vilifying the sion and class snobbery. It is BBC and suggesting that the BBC always an insult and as such has, was in a state of collapse. The as a phrase, no place in an truth was that it was making examination of exactly what has serious programmes the govern- happened. ment didn’t like. Real Lives, a programme that attempted to I prefer to explore how technology give a balanced look at the and management have had an situation in Northern Ireland, was impact on ideas and on the way denounced as being uncritical, our society talks to and sees itself. precipitating a rare strike among But politics come into this too. the BBC’s journalists. I was one of Mrs Thatcher had no love for the them. Then a first World War One BBC. In 1984 the Panorama drama series, The Monocled programme, Maggie’s Militant Mutineer, which a BBC press Tendency, looked into the alleged release described as being factual, extreme-right wing connections of turned out to be a dramatised certain MPs. Neil Hamilton and version by Alan Bleasdale, based Gerald Howarth sued. By 1986, on a true story. The nuance the year when the case came to mattered. The anti-BBC press was court, Norman Tebbit had become up in arms. In February 1987 Chairman of the Conservative Special Branch raided BBC Party and was intent on getting Glasgow and seized material tough with the BBC. This ran intended for a programme about parallel with the emergence of Britain’s Secret Society. Within six independent programme-making months of his arrival, Hussey companies, which the Tories felt sacked the BBC’s Director General, should, in accordance with their Alasdair Milne and brought in own philosophy, be given a John Birt from LWT as deputy

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Director-General, in charge of BBC the department heads and Journalism. Things were about to executive producers. The world change. For me they certainly Mrs Thatcher was creating – changed: ten days after a momen- highly individualistic, self-interest- tous meeting, when John Birt ed, centred on the free market – confronted the entire News & arrived at the BBC. Current Affairs department with The world of television was his changes, I was sacked. Cover- substantially overhauled by the age of the arts had no place in Broadcasting Act of 1990, which current affairs and was one of the opened the ITV franchises to areas where savings could be competitive bidding and let made. Channel 4 sell its own advertising. What was at stake was the BBC’s The BBC was now required by law licence fee. The BBC depends on to buy at least 25% of its pro- it. Today it amounts to £2,940 gramming from independent Million – raised annually from the producers. Two years later John viewing public. If the Thatcher Birt became Director-General and government moved against the in 1996 split the BBC into licence fee in the then pending Production and Broadcast. Now negotiations about its renewal, BBC staff producers had to bid for the BBC would be pole-axed. commissions from their own John Birt set about safeguarding colleagues, the BBC Controllers, the licence fee and he did that in competition with the now with a major management fiercely-competitive ITV and the revolution. It was in tune with the burgeoning independent market. times; it matched his own temper- Competition was fast and furious. ament. He had after all trained as At the same time Birt ordered a engineer and it was his aim to cuts. The BBC Production Hand- transform the BBC into a well- book at the time declared that it oiled, precisely functioning would have to win commissions machine – and thus ensure the by “efficient working and compet- future of the licence fee. He pulled itive pricing”, continuing, “the it off. This and the BBC website major effort will have to be in the are his greatest achievements. programme-making process, if we You will notice I haven’t spoken are to bridge our funding gap. about programme style and The time spent on set-up, the content for quite a while. That’s shooting and recording of appropriate, because systems and programmes and the length of structures became the overriding time in post-production is where concern of BBC management and the key savings will be made.”. filtered down into the ethos of The producers had become

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salesmen of their own wares, to The success of the genre was not the programme controllers who in doubt. But what happened wanted to beat the opposition at under the financial and competi- any cost. The BBC accounts tive constraints of the time was department was expanded to deal that the idea was copied and over with all the administration. and over. In the end, it seemed Where are the programmes in all they were just too many. That’s this? Several interesting ideas when people began to notice and developed at that time and suited speak critically of the lack of new the new imperatives: programmes ideas: the phrase “dumbing about ordinary people were cheap down” was suddenly on every- to make, often fascinating and one’s lips. popular with the public. There Greg Dyke’s arrival put many of had been a fine tradition of John Birt’s changes into reverse. observational documentaries from He changed the mood, the the time of Man Alive in the ‘60s. attitude: he put a lot more money Now the idea was pushed further, into programmes. Posters declar- giving us ever more intrusive ing “One BBC” went up round keyhole pictures of individual BBC offices. One of them read: lives. The docu-soap was born. “Cut the Crap”. Not the most Among the heroes of the genre elegant of phrases – Lord Reith were the airport courier, Jeremy would have winced – but it was and Maureen and her driving one that struck home. People school exploits, both of whom knew exactly what it meant. became nationally famous, got Morale recovered. But Dyke is a themselves agents and took off highly competitive man, with a round the country, making public string of triumphs at LWT he was appearances. The public picked up every bit a populist. He set out to on this and saw there was a good beat ITV and he succeeded. He did living to be made, a whole lot it with a massive increase in more exciting than many routine money for programmes and the jobs, if only you could feature on promotion of popular taste. Thus, a television programme. Their a programme series on Impres- craving for self-exposure was to sionism was presented by Rolf play well with the populist regime Harris and a series on geology was that came in when Greg Dyke presented by Alan Titchmarsh. succeeded John Birt in 2000. The notion of dumbing down, of Where one series had succeeded, falling standards, comes into play others followed: popular and when serious programming is entertaining programmes about relegated to off-peak times of day ordinary people living their lives. – to liberate peak hours for

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popular and competitive schedul- ‘80s and ‘90s fuelled a huge ing. Thus under Greg Dyke, consumer boom and a shameless Panorama was moved to late on a pleasure in spending money on Sunday, often referred to as the ourselves. It represented a new graveyard slot but where I had for freedom for ordinary people, and years earned a healthy audience they wanted to see programmes for The Heart of the Matter. Highly about renewing their homes, popular programmes were now buying and selling houses, stripped across five days a week by decorating, gardening, improving BBC, ITV and Channel 4 – The their way of life. Far from being Weakest Link, EastEnders, Big “dumbing down”, this seems to Brother’ – the art of scheduling me to express an aspirational wish had fallen to the claims of ratings. we all have to make life better. Heart of the Matter had already And it perfectly reflects what has suffered in the 1990s when there happened in the broader culture. was much concern with audience In the ‘60s and ‘70s, the broader share – that percentage of the public was only beginning to total audience that each pro- explore the possibilities of the gramme commands. We were told consumer society; Harold Macmil- our target share was 21%: that’s lan’s phrase from the 1960s – so very high for an issues-based mocked at the time – “you’ve documentary, albeit a popular one never had it so good”, was about like ours. We already had 19%, to come true. In the ‘80s and ‘90s we pushed it to 20% and were national measurements of poverty deemed to have failed. We were and need began to rate a televi- subsequently moved later, where sion set as a necessity of life; we could get a larger share of the, people expected to have a car, by then – 11pm – dwindling families began to have two, audience. We reached our 21% foreign travel filtered down from target, but with fewer actual the upper class and wealthy to viewers. This was deemed a virtually anyone who could get a success. If you care about ratings few hundred pounds together. it is indeed a success; if you care This social revolution bred an about public service broadcasting, interest in how to spend and in it was a betrayal of what it stands how to enjoy all these new for. Ratings as a prime criterion commodities. will regularly be in conflict with Along with the economic revolu- the other values that public service tion went a personal one. Given broadcasting implies. more leisure, but also more Sometimes but not always. pressure, given the fragmentation Thatcherism – throughout the of working life, of the work/home

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balance as women entered the landscape. It took over the workplace, there were many crises summer schedules in 2000 and in personal and family life. has dominated them ever since. It Television has come to reflect was joined by Celebrity Big these. Wife Swap is a deliberately Brother in 2003, also is repeated saucy title with a shamelessly every year. Television was rocked populist appeal. In fact, the by its impact, its popularity, and by programmes offer, in the most the tabloid response – which was entertaining form, an insight into to embrace it totally, making the nature of marriage, its celebrities of its characters and tensions and rewards, revealing prompting a chance for everyone with considerable accuracy the to become somebody. It is the subtle ways men and women ultimate democratisation of the interact, and in the interest of the television technology. As a bond they have, modulate and programme, it is well conceived, adjust their behaviour. Or not. thoughtfully constructed, finely Similarly programmes about child contexted – and absolute ’sch- care and nannies actually teach us lock’. It commands the biggest skills about child care which we audiences, the biggest advertis- might assume we knew already, ing, the daily news agenda. It is and didn’t. Likewise cookery! indeed dumbing down, but it Cooking has become a national makes the BBC green with envy, as obsession, with innumerable and one BBC executive put it to me: copycat programmes featuring “We should have thought of different cooks. But the format that!”. was transcended by the arrival of What do people mean when they Jamie Oliver and his campaign express concern about falling against obesity in schools and the standards, citing Big Brother? unhealthy nature of school meals. They certainly mean the bad Is this dumbing down? I don’t language, overt sex and general think so. It was the essence of bad behaviour. In terms of both what public service broadcasting the old moral ways and, indeed, should do and is now working its contemporary ways of behaving, way into the government’s health Big Brother’s standards are low. initiatives. But it is an entertainment; its And then came Big Brother – a contributors are volunteers; its stroke of brilliance to take its title place in the schedules is prime from the ever-looming figure who time, but not in any way pro- spies on all our lives in George longed or dominant over the year. Orwell’s dystopian novel 1984. It I hate it: but it is part of the transformed the television cultural landscape, a landscape

90 Prize and Bequest Lectures

shaped by other technological average two films a week. The considerations. choices extend into the future like As well as the five terrestrial a hall of mirrors, replicating ever channels, there are now 38 more into the greater distances shopping channels, 22 children’s that lie ahead. How could it not channels, 26 for sport, 29 for be that, in all this cacophony of music, 30 for pornography, 86 for options, the issues of the moment lifestyle – and dozens of film, would be competition and news, religion and ethnic minority ratings, of which Big Brother is a channels – and that’s only the prime example. beginning. When the analogue In 2002, The Communications Act spectrum is closed down in 2012, brought in Ofcom as the regulato- it will be possible to have hun- ry body. This together with the dreds more. We are looking at producers’ association PACt, millions of books in the biggest nudged the BBC into offering far library in the universe. Amid all more of its programmes to this, at present, the five terrestrial independent producers. Soon channels still hold their own in some 50% of its programmes the overall viewing picture in the could be made by non-BBC UK, and at the heart of the five organisations. With the renewal nestles the cherished and seem- of the licence once again in the ingly threatened concept of public offing, the talk is now of how to service broadcasting, supposed sustain public service broadcast- upholder of so-called standards in ing, that is programmes created this great new sci-fi world of for the benefit of the public, over television broadcasting. and above concerns about ratings But see it from the audience point and competition. Ofcom have of view, and there is even more. If issued a Broadcasting Review the broadcasters have many which proposes a new concept, channels, digi-cameras, slick that of Public Service Publishing, a editing facilities and simultaneous channel committed to public transmission – so do the public. service to which independents bid They can now make and edit their for space. There is talk too of the own films on camera, on their BBC’s licence being top-sliced to mobile phones. They not only support that other public service have VCR and DVD to record channel, Channel 4. All this must programmes, they have computer be debated and fought for. Now is games, the web, and a constant the time. supply of films from organisations As for programmes – my lecture such as Screen Direct, who keep tonight has been looking back, me supplied with around, on not forward. I believe the BBC has

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over the years, despite the Britain, Dead Ringers, Waking the buffeting of ratings wars and the Dead. Quality is proliferating stringencies of Birt budgeting, a rather than in decline. The BBC’s record of marvellous and creative Natural History Unit, legendary for achievements. ITV has often set the many programmes it made the pace: The Jewel in the Crown, with David Attenborough, is Brideshead Revisited, Cracker, currently producing more pro- Prime Suspect were all theirs. With grammes than ever. This country’s digital channels came BBC4, television – often despite its devoted every evening to the arts confusing and conflicted organi- and a huge success; BBC3, where sation – has wonderful such wild successes as Little programme makers. They are Britain and Nighty Night began, world class – at the front line of sets the pace for adventurous and standards. As we move towards outrageous comedy. Scattered the ending of analogue in 2012, across the channels, not always the system must be created that easy to run down, are plenty of can best sustain them. fine programmes. You will have Copyright Joan Bakewell 2005 your own list: The Blue Planet, Coast, The Power of Nightmares, 7 up - recently 49 up, The History of

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The Royal Society Clifford Paterson Lecture Professor Wilson Sibbett Chair, Scottish Science Advisory Committee 31 October 2005 OPTICAL SCIENCE IN THE FAST LANE The Clifford Paterson Lecture is a Royal Society Prize Lecture to be given at the Royal Society in London and one other location of the speaker’s choice. The Clifford Paterson Lecture is given annually on electrical science and technology, inclusive of the science and technology of electronic materials, components and systems. The General Electric Company Limited endowed the lecture in 1975 in honour of Clifford Paterson. Clifford Copland Paterson FRS undertook the creation of the GEC Research Laboratories in 1919. This followed a career at NPL, Teddington where he became a world expert in the measurement of photometric units. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1942. Wilson Sibbett is currently the Chair of the Scottish Science Advisory Committee (SSAC) and Chief Advisor on Science to the Scottish Executive. Distinguished for his research on ultrashort pulse laser science and technol- ogy, Professor Sibbett, in his work with ultrafast exposure streak cameras, first demonstrated the technique of direct sub-picosecond observations of physical phenomena.

Professor Sibbett presented that was under pressure to deliver several complementary aspects of to a war effort. his research, set in a context that The transitioning of fundamental matched at least some of the science towards practical scientific criteria that qualify for a Clifford and technological outcomes Paterson Prize Lecture. continues to be a challenge and Sir Clifford Paterson became Professor Sibbett’s specialist area renowned as the person who of femtosecond optical science could take cutting-edge research and technology is typical of many results on the development of possible current examples. the magnetron from a university The starting point of the lecture laboratory and translate them was an introduction to the basics rapidly and efficiently into device of laser physics with a particular designs that were compatible for emphasis being directed to the volume production in an industry methodology by which the output (The General Electric Company) of the lasers can be produced in

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the form of a periodic sequence of electrical-to-optical (wall-plug) intense, ultrashort light impulses. efficiencies as high as 10-15%! Although the so-called mode- Professor Sibbett gave a brief locking techniques had been overview of some of the advances around since the mid-1960s, in ultrafast laser development Professor Sibbett concentrated where versatility and practicality here on a scheme described as as have been realised for a range of Kerr-lens mode locking (or KLM) laser types. because this brought practicality Additionally, by picking up both to the entire sector of ultrafast on selected emphases on specific laser development. characteristics of available ultra- Discovered in his research group fast lasers, and on ongoing at the University of St Andrews in application-related challenges in 1989, the KLM technique enabled optoelectronics and photonics, he lasers to produce picosecond (10- indicated why he believes that the 12s) and femtosecond (10-15s) evolving generation of more optical pulses with unprecedented integrated and controlled, ultra- system simplicity and reliability as compact, femtosecond lasers can well as with exceptionally en- deliver to an ever-widening user hanced output powers and base. tunability. By way of illustration, he included Although first demonstrated in a brief descriptions of ultrafast titanium-doped sapphire laser, science and technology, ranging there have been numerous from snapshot-femtosecond subsequent developments that imaging, multi-photon imaging, have led to refined system micromachining in the eye and in configurations that offer desirable biological cells, optical time attributes such as higher efficien- division multiplexing in data- cies and reduced physical communications, through to footprints. weapons decommissioning using In contrast to the early ion-laser- ultrafast lasers. pumped dye lasers, where The consistent theme throughout electrical-power to femtosecond- was one of translating laboratory pulse efficiencies were as low as research through to laser systems 10-5%, he was able to now that are fit for a wide variety of present examples of modern purposes. Clifford Paterson diode-pumped solid-state would hopefully approve! counterparts that have stunning

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The Gannochy Trust Innovation Award Lecture John Harrison Development Director, Surfactant Technologies Ltd (STL) 6 February 2006

Good evening ladies and gentle- Enterprise Fellowship in Oil and men and may I say what a Gas. From this point the technolo- pleasure and honour it is to be gy was developed through a presenting to you this evening as number of SMART Awards from the winner of the Gannochy the DTI and Scottish Executive. A Innovation Award of the Royal number of other awards gave Society of Edinburgh 2005. recognition to both the company I would like to take the opportuni- and the technology, culminating ty this evening to give you all a in the winning of the Gannochy complete overview of our MicroE- Award in October 2005. We have mulsions technology and all the also been finalists in the Ernst & details of our company, including Young Entrepreneur of the Year our background, our company Awards for the last three consecu- structure, the markets and tive years. To the end of February industrial applications where we 2006, we have secured almost hope the technology will have £700K of revenues; we have six greatest impact, the benefits and employees working both full and advantages of the technology, part time for the business, and we some information on our interna- have offices and access to manu- tional operations, our facturing facilities in locations in manufacturing and product Grangemouth and Aberdeen in approvals and the key lessons that Scotland and in Houston, Texas in we have learned. Most important- the USA. ly I would like to guide you To date, operating as a small start through what the Gannochy up company, we have operated off Award has done for us to date, a “shoe string” budget, being what our status is at present and funded with just over £0.5million what the award holds for the over the last five years. The large future of our technology, and the majority of this seed funding has Scottish economy at large. been provided by the winning of The whole project was begun numerous technical and commer- back in 1999 by the winning of a cial awards and by a considerable Royal Society of Edinburgh and level of investment by the found- Scottish Enterprise (RSE/SE) ers. In addition, the company has been supported by the Bank of

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Scotland and the DTI with the that you will agree that there is a award of a Small Firms Loan considerable amount of work Guarantee Scheme. This sum, ongoing in association with the along with the revenues from application of this technology sales of products and services, has from our base here in Scotland. totalled over £1million and has I’d like now to introduce you to been sufficient to secure our some of the key areas of applica- Intellectual Property (IP) portfolio tion within the oil and gas and to develop the company to its industry that have been identified present status. You will notice the and where we are actively demon- lack of business angel and strating, using and marketing the traditional VC investment and I technology. First of all, the will comment upon this later on in technology has application in the presentation. downhole cleaning and remedia- I would now like to move on to tion applications – that is to say outline our company structure. cleaning operations within the Surfactant Technologies Ltd (STL) well itself. Conditions here are has been set up as a holdings and hostile, often with high pressures management company primarily and high temperature ranges developing and maintaining the from just above freezing to over Intellectual Property (IP) portfolio. 100 degrees centigrade, and the This IP is then exclusively licensed products also have to cope with to a range of wholly owned various salinity loadings from subsidiaries and spin-out compa- fresh water to saturated brine nies, with each selling and systems. The technology therefore marketing the technology to its must be robust enough to cope own industrial sector. For example with these extreme environmental we set up Surface Active Solutions variables and must clean oil Ltd (SAS) to focus on the oil and contamination and displace/ gas industry. We have then set up remove oil contaminated residues and launched Aboleo Ltd to effectively in order to be success- market the technology to the inks ful. The technology must also be & printing industries. We have set capable of cleaning a variety of up Ocean Blue Solutions Ltd as a surfaces from steel hardware to shell company to market to the rock formations, and particulate consumer sector and we have also matter such as sands and barites. set up MicroChem Technologies The technology can also be used LLC (MCT) – a US company set up to clean mud pits, vessels and with partners in the United States surface system engineering. to focus on the waste manage- Again, the technology must ment sector. Accordingly I think efficiently clean a variety of oil-

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based contaminants from surfaces applications has a huge market without entailing the use of potential associated with it, often excessive logistics and without being in the order of £1billion per suffering detrimental effects from annum globally. other chemistries. I’d now like to move on and talk The third key area of opportunity about the innovation itself. As you really is the holy grail of the will have gathered, this is an industry and this is the onsite advanced chemical cleaning cleaning of oil-contaminated technology which relies upon solids and particulates such as surfactant chemistry. Surfactants drill cuttings and barite solids are molecules that have the such that they may be disposed of capability to reduce the interfacial in an environmentally sound surface tension within the manner. This has not been medium that they are dissolved possible in the last 25 years or so and can thus lower interfacial and represents an area of tremen- surface tensions between liquid/ dous value for the technology. solid, liquid/liquid, and liquid/air The final area of application is in interfaces. Surfactants are schizo- the splitting and remediation of phrenic molecules consisting of oil-contaminated slops and other two very different moieties. One liquid waste streams. This has part of the molecule is hydrophilic application in both the upstream (water-soluble) and the other part offshore industry and the down- is hydrophobic (oil-soluble). These stream refinery markets. These molecules therefore have two very very complex waste streams are different and distinct tendencies. notoriously difficult to deal with When such molecules are intro- and SAS has been able to demon- duced into systems of oil and strate that we can use the water they align themselves at the technology to treat these waste oil-water interface with the oil- streams in order to produce a soluble part of the molecule clean oil phase for recycling and becoming solubilised into the re-use, a clean water phase for organic phase and the water- filtration/polishing and disposal soluble part being solubilised into and also a clean solids phase also the aqueous phase accordingly. for safe disposal. When surfactant molecules are linear in structure, they align The key drivers in all these areas themselves in parallel to each are operating efficiencies and other, forming a liquid membrane hence operating cost, and also one molecule thick at the inter- European environmental legisla- face. This forms a radius of tion. Each and every one of these

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curvature of zero i.e. a flat monol- sions, so gaps are left at the oil- ayer. water interface. Oil droplets can Imagine now if we re-design the therefore coalesce under this molecular structure such that the scenario and the result is bulk molecule resembles a cone or a phase separation of the emulsion wedge shape. When these into separate and distinct organic molecules now align themselves and aqueous phases. at the interface, they will form a Microemulsions on the other radius of curvature at that inter- hand form droplets which are so face. In this manner surfactants small that they do not scatter light have the ability to break down oil and therefore these systems into small droplets and disperse appear to us as transparent and them into an aqueous medium optically isotropic solutions. The and vice-versa. These spheroid molecular packing at the oil/water structures are often referred to as interface is also very much more micelles. More complex structures efficient such that there are no can also be formed depending on areas of direct oil/water contact at relative component concentra- the interface. This yields much tions, oil type, surfactant design lower interfacial surface tensions – and on environmental variables sometimes orders of magnitude eg. temperature and salt concen- lower that those achieved in trations. Therefore we can assume emulsion systems. Microemul- lamellar phase structures, worm or sions are also thermodynamically rod type micellar structures, stable – that is to say that they hexagonal and bi-continuous form spontaneously and do not structures etc. These structures are require an energy input to form. dynamic in nature but we can Emulsions require to be manufac- visualise them accordingly as tured by inputting energy through distinct structures in order to shearing and agitation. When this simplify our understanding of input of energy is withdrawn the these systems. emulsion structure begins to Emulsions are well known and break down again. work in a similar way to micro- So we have here a unique chemis- emulsions. However the droplets try that is patent-protected, formed in emulsions are relatively employing new materials technol- large – large enough to scatter ogy (albeit in liquid form). This is light, and so they appear to us as an enabling technology, since it cloudy colloidal solutions or provides a new set of capabilities suspensions. The molecular and therefore enables us to carry packing at the interface is also not out field operations in a way not as efficient as with microemul- previously possible. It is also a

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game-changing technology, sion systems formed to recover oil setting a new paradigm in the for re-cycling and a clean water industry with performance data fraction for safe disposal on site. that has not been achieved We now have successfully devel- before. oped fully integrated systems that The key benefits of the technology can also clean up the solids are as follows: Firstly, the products recovered within the same are water-based. The products are process, again for safe disposal at water-soluble, they are non-toxic the site of production, producing and they are readily biodegrada- virtually zero waste at source. ble, giving them a very strong set The STL Group now has interna- of Health, Safety and Environmen- tional operations with a global tal (HSE) advantages. manufacturing and supply chain Secondly, the technology is more network led by UK operations. efficient than more conventional Manufacturing development is cleaning technologies, both in carried out at the UK base to terms of its speed and in its service the easttern hemisphere cleaning capabilities. This there- and this capability has now been fore has significant ramifications established in Houston to service on improving costs as less the western hemisphere accord- chemical is required. ingly. There is significant export potential to the eastern hemi- The most important advantage, sphere from our Scottish however, is on the practical side. manufacturing bases, covering a The technology allows for waste geographic area from Scotland to minimisation, and in the field has New Zealand and everywhere in given results reducing waste between. production by 70-100%. But what does this equate to in real Our UK operations are based terms? In some instances this has primarily in Grangemouth in resulted in the amount of oil central Scotland and in Aberdeen being discharged to the environ- in the North East. Our US opera- ment being reduced by as much tions are now established in the as two orders of magnitude and, Clear Lake area to the south-east on average, can reduce the of Houston, Texas. amount of hazardous oil contami- Thus far we have achieved a set of nated waste by as much as 1000 ongoing approvals for use in the metric tonnes per well drilled. We field by a number of key operator can separate out recovered solids clients – predominantly ExxonMo- and recycle the wash solution, and bil, BP, Shell, British Gas, Statoil, we can even split the microemul- Chevron Texaco and ConocoPhil-

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lips. These service packages are go a regime of extensive testing delivered via a number of the and evaluations. This involves global service providers in this carrying out a series of toxicity industry, including MI/SWACO, tests on several species of marine Baker Hughes, SPS International, organism found in a number of BJ Services, ICS, OTT and TWMA. different trophic levels within the And so to the important part of marine ecosystem. Other tests are the presentation – the Gannochy also carried out to evaluate the Award itself and the prize money biodegradability and various allocation. Just what impact is this physico-chemical characteristics of award having on our operations? the chemicals for assessing their bioaccumulation potential, for In summary, the award is provid- example. This data is then com- ing finance for two specific areas. piled into two different 25-30 The first is in the area of European page detailed Harmonised product certification. Prior to Offshore Chemical Notification being able to market each Format Forms (HOCNF Forms) for chemical product, it is a legal each product to be certified – one requirement that the products be form for the UK and one form for certified by the government of the Norwegian governments. This each geographic region prior to process is carried out in conjunc- being used offshore. This can tion with the use of extensive accrue costs of up to £10K per government guidelines specific to product and usually takes 3-6 each European country. months to complete. This work is broadening our offering and the In the UK this data is submitted to range of commercially available the Centre for Environment, products and, in turn, the number Fisheries and Aquaculture Science of oil and gas industry applica- (CEFAS), where it is subject to tions that can be addressed. The processing through a computer second area to be targeted is the modelling program known as the manufacturing setup. On average CHARM Model. From this a this costs £3-5K per product and I Hazard Quotient (HQ) value is will cover this in more detail in a generated according to a loga- moment. rithm and a DTI/CEFAS Template is produced as a certificate to So I would like to focus first on confirm completion of the the European product certification process. Each product is given a process. Each chemical compo- coloured rating according to a nent from each product must be sliding scale depending on the submitted to independent HQ value, eg. Gold, Silver etc. in accredited laboratories to under- the UK. A similar process is used

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in Norway and the products are long and arduous process, but given a similar colour rating – in has to be completed and reas- this case Green, Yellow, Red etc. sessed for every level of This data is also stored in the manufacturing, from small scale national databases and can be through to intermediate and then accessed by the oil operators and bulk manufacturing. their service companies according Thus far, as a direct result of the to their requirements. Gannochy Award, we have carried With regard to the setup of the out four manufacturing jobs in manufacturing processes, again Scotland – one for the down- this is a complex operation stream oil and gas refinery involving a number of individuals industry, two for the upstream oil within subcontractor organisa- and gas industry and one for the tions – predominantly managers, inks and printing sector. process engineers, team leaders, Although this innovative group of plant managers etc. A range of companies alone may not appar- considerations has to be taken ently have a significant number of into account, including volumes, employees, the innovation itself in packaging and labelling require- much broader terms will have a ments, lead times and logistics. A significant economic benefit to variety of processes must also be the Scottish chemical manufactur- completed, including preliminary ing industry and related risk assessments, and chemical supporting logistical (engineering and operating hazard assessments and service) operations based in for HS&E; operational health Scotland. For an area and major statements must be completed industrial chemicals sector that is, along with an environmental and has been, suffering signifi- impact statement for each stage cant decline over recent years, it is of the manufacturing process. IPC innovations in new materials authorisation must also be technology such as this which has acquired from the water authori- the possibility to stimulate and ties and the Scottish rejuvenate the sector and geo- Environmental Protection Agency graphic area providing exciting (SEPA). Process operating sheets new world-beating opportunities must also be produced along with once more. This has many obvious Quality Assurance and Quality social knock-on effects that are so Control (QA/QC) and analysis needed in deprived areas that protocols. Technical and engineer- have so much to offer. History ing training must also be itself indicates the very real completed prior to production opportunities that exist in such an beginning. This therefore can be a area, and the specialist skill sets

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still remain in the region which Before moving on to other will enable this technology to industries, I would like to high- flourish. light some of the challenges that But the benefits are indeed far we have faced thus far in setting more significant and broadly felt up the business over the first few than just on a local basis. The years. Good planning and advantage of locating in Scotland organisation have been key, both has meant that the group and our in terms of market research and partners now support sales and business planning. Attaining the product exports across the eastern right legal structure surrounded hemisphere from the local by the right legal and professional manufacturing base servicing an representation has also been area which spreads from Scotland essential and it has taken some to New Zealand and all regions in years to find the right partners in between. In addition, the group this respect. In addition, finding has set up sales lines in the the right people for the team has Americas, resulting in inward also been a challenge, not only to investment into the country. find those who are committed to the vision of the founders and It has also meant that there will be who share the same sense of significant environmental benefits determination, but also those both in Scotland in the local who truly understand the require- vicinity and also covering a far ments and demands with broader geography. It is hoped developing young companies and that the technology will be used growing the strategies of these to remediate oil contamination companies. and waste management problems at the BP Grangemouth facility Securing the intellectual property and beyond in the oil and gas portfolio has also been key for the offshore sector. In addition, there STL Group. In our case it was will be very significant reductions imperative to secure an assigna- on environmental impacts from tion rather than an exclusive other industry operations. In a licence deal, and this process took nutshell, many thousands of three years with a great deal of metric tones of oil contaminated legal expense. However, having hazardous waste will be secured this vital asset, it has been remediated, or not even produced possible to move the business on in the first instance, by the commercially with product sales successful implementation of this initiated in the knowledge that technology. access to, and ownership of, that IP was secure.

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Finding suitable facilities and at model can be proven, I would the right location has been suggest that debt funding is an difficult and especially so when extremely viable alternative route. flexibility and the right to expand We now face a new set of chal- have been required. In addition, lenges as we progress in finding facilities at the right price developing and growing the for small growing companies has business. One of the most also not been quite so straight- challenging areas for us has been forward. This is an essential in combating the politics and foundation that is required upon vested interests that exist within which to grow an emerging the industry. Breaking contractual business. relationships that may have been Finally, the funding of such a established for some years is not business has also been a chal- easy, and in some circumstances lenge. We have chosen the route can be virtually impossible. It of debt funding over the more takes both patience and a consid- traditional business angel and erable amount of work to venture capital funding routes. influence not just key individuals Although this has made cashflow within organisations but also the more of an issue, it has made organisations themselves. In some more sense for STL in the longer instances one has to simply accept term. We found it hard to secure that strategies may not be aligned investment in the early years from in their entirety and therefore individuals and organisations that alternate routes to market must could share the long-term vision be sought. of the company founders and Legislative issues have been a finding interests that were aligned considerable hindrance for us – over similar timescales was very particularly with regard to the difficult indeed. In fact, realising a lengthy and expensive process of company valuation that provided the product certification process. an incentive to gain a significant Time and a lack of resources have level of investment was extremely also always been against us. rare, if not impossible, even Particularly so with regard to despite having achieved proof of people and working capital. concept, the securement of the IP Within our organisation it has portfolio, having the support of a been particularly the intangible professional team and proof of assets and, most importantly sales in the international market- looking forward, the quality of place with a huge potential our people that will ultimately upside in the medium to longer determine the level of our success. term. So long as a sound business Clearly, increasing the value of

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what we do both in terms of the will also continue to be expanded products and the services that we in order to support this growth, offer will be what maximises our and closer relationships are being value in the medium to longer- built with suitable financial term. backers in order to support our Our facilities and the flexibility working capital needs. Flexibility that we are able to maintain in will be key to managing cashflows order to grow and adapt to our throughout the often painful changing requirements will also process of rapid growth and be important. In Scotland this has expansion, but we believe that it not been simple to secure and can be done without the need for continues to be one of the most securing business angel or VC important foundations that we funding, and hence the company need in order to build our future strategy will remain on track as operations. the founders have laid out over the past five years. The absolute key though has, and will continue, to be maintaining For those who are interested in and developing the continuing our continuing development, strategic working partnerships please feel free to visit our new that have been established over websites from the end of February the past three years. These of this year, namely partnerships, be it through www.surfaceactive.com and technology development and/or www.surfactanttechnologies.com. sales and marketing, will be These sites will be kept updated essential in maximising market such that all relevant information penetration of the technology at regarding the companies and the large and ultimately in maximising technology can be readily ac- the value of our proposition for cessed. merger and/or ultimate exit. And now for something com- We have successfully run to date a pletely different – Aboleo – the parallel role of development and company that we have set up to marketing such that the market is focus on the inks and printing well educated and aware of the sector. This company is being technology on a global basis. launched this year through the Networking and customer winning of another Scottish interfacing will continue to be a Enterprise SCIS Award for new full time activity and a rigorous PR product development. Thus far we campaign will ensure continued have identified three significant gain in market share. Our export areas of application for the strategy and international logistics technology within the sector. First in the area of inks manufacture,

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secondly within niche applications microemulsion technology is of precision cleaning – particularly indeed more efficient in its so in the market of cleaning UV- cleaning performance and will based inks. Finally there are reduce downtime by enabling a opportunities in the areas of single-pass cleaning operation to janitorial products – floor clean- be employed without encounter- ers, wipes and the like. Each of ing problems such as “ghosting” these areas is driven once again by and smearing residues. There may economics and operating cost, as even be evidence to suggest that well as tightening environmental our cleaning technology could legislation. However, the main also increase the operational life distinction as a driver in this of the screens accordingly – market segment is the need for another significant value added in outstanding quality and product a field that needs every advantage performance. The volumes of it can find. Waste minimisation is product are smaller but the high also being achieved in this sector, added value of the products for bringing with it all the Health, very significant opportunities is Safety and Environmental advan- great, offering huge potential. As tages discussed above. for the oil and gas sector, each And so ladies and gentlemen I and every one of these applica- must bring the presentation to a tions is valued at over £1billion close. However, this cannot be per annum. done without saying a few words Screen printing is one niche area of thanks. on which we will begin to focus In no particular order I would like our efforts for the printing of CD, to first thank Scottish Enterprise labels etc. These clients can range for their continued support of our from small scale to the extremely various projects and certainly large scale, operating on a 24/7 without this support we would basis with bespoke operating not be where we are today. In equipment. In this market, time is particular I would like to thank money and downtime minimisa- both Andy McNab and Campbell tion is key. We firmly believe that Murray for their support in the our technology can offer substan- early days. tial benefits in this regard and the first active trial of the product I would also like to thank Michael range is now underway. Initial McCuaig and all those at the Bank screening of our products to date of Scotland for their continued suggests that, compared to the support. We look forward to more traditional solvent-based continuing with our working technologies being used, our

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relationship for many years to Finally, and by no means least, I come. would like to thank all those at I would like to thank our Board the Gannochy Trust and the RSE and the Team at large for their for making this truly remarkable commitment to the cause and for award possible and for providing their support in all aspects of me with these opportunities. May running the business. Again I look I end by providing some insight forward to many more years of into the returns on this award by working together in building a informing you that the STL Group whole host of successful high have already completed and growth companies in Scotland continue to negotiate a number and beyond. of major supply deals that will result in £5-15million of revenues I would like to thank friends and over the coming three years, with family for their total dedication considerable knock on effects for and understanding over all these the economy, environment and years, without which I most social wellbeing of Scotland at certainly would not have managed large in the years to come. to achieve the things that I have. Their sacrifice both personally and Thank you very much indeed for financially has been more than I your attention. could have ever asked for and I am truly grateful in this regard.

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The British Academy Shakespeare Lecture 2006 Professor Ian Donaldson FBA FRSE, Director, Humanities Research Centre, Australian National University 24 April 2006 SHAKESPEARE, JONSON, AND THE INVENTION OF THE AUTHOR The British Academy Shakespeare Lectures were established in 1910 through a gift from Mrs Frida Mond, who proposed that a lecture be given each year ‘on or about 23 April’ on some topic relating either to Shake- speare or to some aspect of the literature of his age.

‘On or about’ recognizes the was indeed the pattern of Shake- inevitable difficulties of program- speare’s life - may seem, to ming, but also perhaps a lingering modern observers, an intriguing uncertainty as to the precise date coincidence, but in earlier times it on which Shakespeare was carried a more portentous actually born. We know that significance, seemingly reflecting Shakespeare was christened in the will of heaven, expressed Holy Trinity Church, Stratford- through a particular conjunction upon-Avon, on 26 April 1564, of planetary forces. In the final act and it’s satisfying to imagine that of Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar, he may have been born three days Cassius, anticipating his own earlier, though there’s no surviving imminent death on the plains of evidence to support this assump- Philippi, realizes the significance tion. Over time, however, the of the present date: temptation to commemorate on one and the same day England’s This is my birthday; as this very national poet and her national day saint has proved irresistible. And Was Cassius born. . . . if Shakespeare was not actually 5.1.72-3 born on St George’s Day, it’s a And later in the battle, facing remarkable fact that he died on the inevitable end: that day, 23 April, in 1616. This This day I breathed first. Time is was the same day, as legend has come round, it, or nearly the same day, as And where I did begin, there honesty forces one to admit, that shall I end. Spain’s most celebrated national My life is run his compass. writer, Cervantes, also met his 5.3.25 death (22 April 1616). Shakespeare’s Cleopatra, revelling To be born and to die on the very with Antony shortly before her same day in the calendar - if this

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death, is struck by the same Jonson had quarrelled with one of realization, that this day is the his retainers ‘on a St George’s anniversary of her birth (3.13). Day’. This was probably (as my Robert Burton, an ardent believer colleague Tom Cain has recently in astrology, satisfyingly met his suggested) in 1605, on or about death on the anniversary of his Shakespeare’s forty-first birthday, birth, while Oliver Cromwell died while Howard was being solemnly on the same day of the year on inducted into the Order of the which he had fought two of his Garter. Howard thereupon had famous battles, of Dunbar and Jonson brought before the Privy Worcester. Such symmetries were Council to answer charges of greatly prized in early modern ‘popery and treason’ in relation to England, and even when seeming- the recent staging of his tragedy ly absent might be coaxed Sejanus. Shakespeare had been a persuasively into existence. principal actor in that play, and Thomas Dekker admired the may conceivably, as Anne Barton seemingly well-shaped life of has suggested, have helped in its Elizabeth I, who ‘came in with the composition. fall of the leafe, and went away in The date of Ben Jonson’s own the Spring: her life (which was birthday - an occasion not yet dedicated to Virginitie) both celebrated by a British Academy beginning & closing up a miracu- lecture - was for many years a lous Mayden circle: for she was matter of dispute, despite his borne upon a Lady Eve, and died seemingly unambiguous an- upon a Lady Eve’. nouncement in his poem praising Shakespeare’s great friend and the achievements of his friend, Sir rival Ben Jonson had little trust in Kenelm Digby, who had won a the operation of the stars and no notable naval victory off the coast special respect, it would seem, for of Turkey in 1628: ‘Witness his St George’s Day. While visiting action done at Scandaroon,/ Upon Scotland, the country of his my birthday, the eleventh of June’. forebears, in 1618-19, he told For many years it was felt that this William Drummond of Hawthorn- line must be textually corrupt, as den that he could set horoscopes, poets don’t normally refer to their but didn’t believe in them, and own birthdays in this manner in that Henry Howard, first Earl of poems ostensibly in praise of Northampton — James’s close somebody else. The line was advisor, a crypto-Catholic, em- consequently amended to read, ployed in the pursuit of Jesuits following the authority of an and seminary priests – had inferior manuscript, ‘Upon his become his ‘mortal enemy’ after birthday, the eleventh of June’.

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Digby’s still-extant personal clearly continued to act, each to horoscope, drawn up in his own the other, as a powerful creative hand, clearly shows however that stimulant, irritant, and example. he wasn’t born in that month at Shakespeare stands as the all, but in July 1603. By a freakish archetypal model of what the chance, however, Digby was American critic Hugh Kenner, eventually to die on 11 June speaking of T. S. Eliot, was to term 1665, prompting an enthusiastic ‘the invisible poet’. He is the deus elegist to marvel, somewhat abscondus of his own creative inaccurately, over the symmetries world, whose seemingly mysteri- of his life: his birth, his famous ous and illegible personality has naval victory at Scandaroon, and prompted centuries of ingenious his death all seemingly occurring speculation; whose very identity is on the same day and month of still vigorously disputed in the year. monographs bearing such titles as The lives and careers of Shake- The Shakespeare Enigma; The speare and Ben Jonson, the two Shakespeare Conspiracy; Shake- supreme writers of early modern speare, Thy Name is Marlowe; Did England, were intricately and the Jesuits Write Shakespeare?; curiously interwoven. Eight years Was Shakespeare Shakespeare? A Shakespeare’s junior, Jonson Lawyer Reviews the Evidence. He emerged in the late 1590s as a is the writer who seems, in the writer of remarkable gifts, and suggestive title of Jorge Luis Shakespeare’s greatest theatrical Borges’s haunting fable, every- rival since the death of Christo- thing and nothing, his personal pher Marlowe. Shakespeare identity so widely dispersed played a leading role in the throughout - so fully projected comedy that first brought Jonson into - the characters who inhabit to public prominence, Every Man his imaginative world that it is In His Humour, having earlier seemingly nowhere ultimately to decisively intervened - so his be found. eighteenth-century editor, Jonson is a writer of a quite Nicholas Rowe, relates - to ensure different kind, who manifests that the play was performed by himself (or so it seems) through- the Lord Chamberlain’s Men, who out his work, forever creating and had initially rejected the manu- presenting versions and portraits script. Though their professional of himself. He is, one might say, pathways, like their styles of the visible poet, whose writings writerly self-presentation, were pronounce his personal opinions, soon to diverge in ways I want his literary ambitions, his material now to describe, the two men needs, his physical appearance,

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the date of his birth, his very absent from the text; the other, name; who incorporates and seemingly immanent; more instantiates himself within the pressingly, more personally, at our literary text: side – assumes a particular Being a tardy, cold, interest in relation to the question Unprofitable chattel, fat and of authorship. old, Shakespeare significantly uses the Laden with belly, and doth word ‘author’ self-referentially on hardly approach only two occasions in the entire His friends, but to break chairs canon, and then with an air of or crack a coach. mild self-deprecation. ‘One word Rest in soft peace, and, asked, more, I beseech you’, says the say here doth lie speaker of the Epilogue of 2 Ben Jonson his best piece of Henry IV, ‘If you be not too cloyed poetry . . . with fat meat, our humble author will continue the story with Sir Father John Burgess John in it, and make you merry Necessity urges with fair Katherine of France; My woeful cry, where, for anything I know, To Sir Robert Pye; Falstaff shall die of a sweat – And that he will venture unless already a be killed with To send my debenture. your hard opinions.’ The word Tell him his Ben emerges again in the final Chorus Knew the time, when to Henry V: He loved the muses; Thus far with rough and all Though now he refuses unable pen To take apprehension Our bending author hath Of a year’s pension, pursued the story, And more is behind. . . In little room confining mighty men, It is hard to think of another poet Mangling by starts the full writing in English – not even John course of their glory. Skelton, whose skittish measures Jonson follows in the lines just This author seems to apologize read, or Yeats, who studied humbly, bendingly, through his Jonson’s verse with such attention actors, not just (in time-honoured – who so frequently offers himself style) for a lack of personal talent, as the object or subject of his own but - one might almost say - for poetic scrutiny. the very genre in which he dares to write; for the physical limita- This contrast between the two tions of the playhouse in which he writers – the one, seemingly

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works, and the dubious status of theatre of his time. Like the his chosen literary vehicle: the musical composer (a word first drama. Such diffidence speaks to recorded in the late 1590s) the an age in which plays, in the scale dramatic author, as an accredited of literary creation, were not professional category and a highly regarded; in which Sir person worthy of public notice, Thomas Bodley, with fatal lack of did not yet fully exist. speculative instinct, famously There was not even yet a settled instructed his librarian not to term to describe such a person. bother collecting mere playbooks The words most commonly used for his grand new repository in in modern times to denote a Oxford; in which dramatic compo- writer of plays, dramatist and sition was still largely a backroom playwright, did not appear until and anonymous affair. after the Restoration, if the Oxford The actual identity of the humble English Dictionary is to be trusted, author of 2 Henry IV, the bending and seem to have been slow even author of Henry V, would probably then to move into popular have been unknown to the currency. ‘Playwright’, as it majority of playgoers in the happens – the OED has missed 1590s. Nowhere in the theatre of these examples – is a word that is this time was the author’s name actually found in a couple of displayed or evident. Theatre epigrams written by Ben Jonson programs did not yet exist, and before 1612, where it is used as a while theatrical playbills advertis- term of unmitigated contempt. ing the pieces to be performed The word may be Jonson’s might include the titles of the invention. Here’s one of the works in question and the names epigrams, ‘To Playwright’. of one or two principal actors – Playwright me reads, and still who were often well known to the my verses damns: play-going public — the authors’ He says I want the tongue of names were not thought worthy epigrams; of mention in playbills until the I have no salt: no bawdry, he final years of the seventeenth doth mean; century, when their public accredi- For witty, in his language, is tation attracted comment as obscene. something of a novelty. So far Playwright, I loathe to have thy from constituting an ‘enigma’ or a manners known ‘conspiracy’, Shakespeare’s relative In my chaste book: profess them invisibility as a writer of plays was in thine own. an unsurprising consequence of the working conditions of the

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This playwright presumptuously bombastic player and would-be dares to pass judgement on a writer, a stealer of the ideas of traditional poetic form, the others, an ‘upstart crow’, ‘beauti- epigram, of which, as a mere fied with our feathers’. He is theatrical hack, he has no knowl- (Greene goes on) ‘an absolute edge or understanding. From the Johannes fac totem’ – a do-all, a second epigram addressed to the Jack of all trades. Factotem here is same figure, it’s possible to an obvious term of abuse, and yet deduce that the hack in question it would also have reflected with may have been John Marston, increasing accuracy the sheer who did in fact write poetry as range of Shakespeare’s profes- well as plays, though Jonson’s sional duties in the Lord neologism witheringly confines Chamberlain’s company, as player him to the theatre. ‘Stage-wright’ and shareholder, overseeing the is another, equally hostile Jonsoni- hiring and payment of musicians an term to describe the same kind and scribes and tiremen and of theatrical drudge. The suffix stagehands and casual actors, the reveals Jonson’s own valuation of payment of rent, the division of much dramatic work in his day as income. Like Molière later in menial labour, and also perhaps a France, like Garrick and Sheridan lingering sensitivity about the later in England, Shakespeare led trade he himself had not entirely a busy and versatile professional yet abandoned. After leaving life, in the midst of which, Westminster School, William miraculously, he found time also Drummond of Hawthornden to write his plays. Years later Ben noted, Jonson ‘was put to another Jonson was to call Inigo Jones, his craft (I think was to be a wright or collaborator on the Court bricklayer) which he could not masques, by a similarly abusive endure’. Bricklaying was a craft to name, Dominus Do-all, that which, after various theatrical similarly expressed quite accurate- disasters, Jonson’s critics on more ly the extraordinary range of than one occasion suggested he Jones’s professional duties. might return. Jonson was never much of an Both Shakespeare and Jonson actor, according to John Aubrey, entered the theatre as actors, and but Henslowe soon began to give moved into writing only by him additional work, patching degrees. In the first unmistakable and mending old plays for revival, reference to Shakespeare after his and working collaboratively with arrival in London from the Thomas Dekker, Henry Chettle, provinces, Robert Greene in 1592 Henry Porter, and others in his famously describes him as a team on plays that Jonson chose

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significantly not to include an authorial identity, a dramatic amongst his later published work, character resembling and repre- and that are known today chiefly senting himself, a figure who by their titles: Hot Anger Soon hovers generally just out of sight, Cold, Page of Plymouth, Robert II, almost within earshot, at the very The King of the Scots’ Tragedy. borders of the dramatic action: ‘he With such jointly-written plays, it do’ not hear me I hope’, says might often have been difficult to Carlo Buffone in Every Man Out of say precisely where responsibility His Humour (Grex before Act 1, for particular scenes, lines, and 342); ‘I am looking, lest the poet episodes finally lay. When Jonson hear me’, says the Stage-Keeper in and two fellow-actors from the Induction to Bartholomew Fair Pembroke’s company, Robert Shaa (7-8). This figure of The Author and Gabriel Spencer, were sends his agents and emissaries incarcerated in Marshalsea Prison occasionally forward to speak on in 1597 following the perform- his behalf in prologues and ance of the notorious, now-lost epilogues, inductions and satirical piece, The Isle of Dogs - choruses, and threatens at times co-written by Jonson and Thomas to intervene directly, to walk if Nashe (who had prudently fled to need be straight on to the stage, the safety of Great Yarmouth) - all to set matters right. Ben Jonson those concerned, including the seems, like Bernard Shaw after actors, who may have added their him, to have been a disconcerting- own improvised material, seem ly close and demanding observer sturdily to have denied responsi- of his own plays in performance, bility for whatever it was that had to judge from Sir Vaughan’s caused the offence; a pattern later rebuke to the character of Horace repeated when Jonson and one of - a thinly disguised representation his two co-authors, George of Jonson - in Dekker’s satirical Chapman, were arrested follow- comedy Satiromastix in 1601: ing performances of another play you shall not sit in a gallery, when which angered those in authority, your comedies and interludes Eastward Ho! In such contexts as have entered their actions, and these, the very notion of author- there make vile and bad faces at ship seemed as elusive as some of every line, to make gentlemen the authors themselves (John have a eye to you, and to make Marston on this occasion appears players afraid to take your part. to have slipped through the net). In the Induction to Jonson’s own Yet as Jonson’s career advanced comedy Cynthia’s Revels one of from the late 1590s he began the three child actors (who are increasingly to create and assert struggling between themselves as

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to who is to speak the prologue) must note, a poet hath two heads asks where the author of the play as a drum hath. One for making, may be at this moment. One of the other repeating; and his his companions insists that he is repeating head is all to pieces. nowhere near at hand; for this Earlier in his career, at the start of author, unlike other authors, his satirical comedy, Poetaster, always keeps his distance, always Jonson had famously presented a behaves decorously behind the Prologue clad in full armour, who scenes: speaks in robust defence of the We are not so officiously befriend- play’s Author, and explains his ed by him, as to have his presence dress as follows: in the tiring house, to prompt us If any muse why I salute the aloud, stamp at the book-holder, stage swear for our properties, curse the An armed Prologue, know, ’tis a poor tireman, rail the music out of dangerous age, tune, and sweat for every venial Wherein who writes had need trespass we commit, as some present his scenes author would. . . Forty-fold proof against the This elaborate denial, markedly at conjuring means odds with other evidence of Of base detractors and illiterate Jonson’s behaviour in the play- apes. house, may well have prompted a In a wry rejoinder to this flamboy- smile amongst members of the ant gesture, Shakespeare begins company. Gossip Mirth in Jon- Troilus and Cressida with another son’s later comedy, The Staple of Prologue who enters clad in full News, has glimpsed the author in armour another mood, ‘rolling himself up and down like a tun’ in sweaty . . . but not in confidence agitation as he issues last-minute Of author’s pen or actor’s voice, directions to the actors in the but suited tiring-room (61-74). In like condition as our argu- ment. Never did vessel of wort or wine work so! His sweating put me in ‘Suited’: with this gentle play on mind of a good Shroving-dish words, Shakespeare insinuates his (and I believe would be taken up own sense of what may or may for a service of state somewhere, not be appropriate to the nature an’t were known) – a stewed of theatrical representation. It is poet! He doth sit like an un- possible that Jonson himself braced drum with one of his could have been inside that suit of heads beaten out. For that you armour at the opening of Poetas- ter, speaking in his own voice

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about the perils and pains of in the action of his own comedy authorship. It is even more likely just ended, Poetaster. that he appeared in his own Jonson scatters these small self- person at the end of that play, in a portraits throughout his plays in highly unusual and complementa- almost Hitchcockian style as a kind ry scene that was performed only of personal signature, a reminder once in the theatre before being of human agency, of the tenuous (in the words of the quarto text) but enduring link between artist ‘restrain’d . . . by Authoritie’. In and artefact. Viewed in one light, this Apologetical Dialogue, the they could be seen as a means of figure of The Author is discovered maintaining vestigial control over in his study, lamenting the the work which the author has ignorance of his audiences and entrusted to the skills of the his critics, declaring his total players and the critical judgement indifference to their opinions, and of the play-going public. Viewed - in a wonderfully tormented another way, they seem to moment of simultaneous self- acknowledge, often with some exposure and retreat - his wish to humour, the author’s impotence, be left alone. his inability any longer wholly to There’s something come into my direct or possess the work he has thought brought into being. That must and shall be sung, When we do give, Alfonso, to high and aloof, the light Safe from the wolf’s black jaw A work of ours, we part with and the dull ass’s hoof. our own right; Though such a personal appear- For then all mouths will judge, ance by a dramatic author was (to and their own way; the best of my knowledge) The learned have no more without precedent on the English privilege than the lay. stage, it was a not uncommon Jonson wrote these lines to his device, as Jonson would have friend Alfonso Ferrabosco – known, in Greek Old Comedy. composer, violist, lutanist, and Jonson imports into the English musical instructor to Prince Henry theatre, and aligns himself with, a – on the publication of his musical model of authorship derived Lessons in 1609, adding some partly from the example of words of classical consolation, Aristophanes and his contempo- taken from the writings of Horace raries and partly also from ‘those and Persius, urging authors to pay great master spirits’, the poets of no heed to anyone’s judgement Augustan Rome – Virgil, Horace, other than their own. Giving a Ovid – who are central characters

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creative work ‘to the light’, prominence, and confer new whether through publication or status upon, the hitherto obscure performance, parting with the writer of the dramatic work. authorial ‘right’ - a word of great Jonson, one might say, invents the resonance in his work, anticipat- idea of the author – not in the ing in a moral, if not yet strictly same manner that he may invent legal sense, the modern notion of such words as ‘playwright’, ‘stage- intellectual property, of copyright - wright’, ‘poetaster’, terms not was always for Jonson a painful if hitherto known in English, but as not traumatic act, which he Renaissance rhetoricians under- negotiates at times philosophical- stood invention, inventio, as a ly, at times with sardonic humour. happy discovery of an already ‘When I suffered [the work] to go existing term or subject which abroad’, Jonson writes of The could be manipulated in a novel Masque of Queens, ‘I departed way. The word ‘author’ was as old with my right; and now, so secure as creation itself, its dignity an interpreter I am of my chance, deriving from its evident associa- that neither praise nor dispraise tion with the godhead, ‘the shall affect me’. ‘It is further author of eternal salvation’, ‘the agreed’, says the Scrivener in the author . . . of peace’, ‘the author Induction to Bartholomew Fair, and finisher of our faith’, as the reading out Articles of Agreement King James Bible has it; ‘the with the Author, which purported- author both of life and light’, as ly bind the spectators at the Hope Jonson himself writes in his ‘Hymn Theatre to behave themselves with On the Nativity of My Saviour’. In good sense and decorum, this regard it resembles those It is further agreed that every etymologically related terms so person here have his or their free- favoured by Jonson, ‘poet’ and will of censure, to like or dislike at ‘maker’, whose significance Sir their own charge; the author Philip Sidney - ‘God-like Sidney’, having now departed with his as Jonson knowingly calls him - right, it shall be lawful for any had ringingly defended in his man to judge his six penn’orth, Apology for Poetry: his twelve penn’orth, so to his Neither let it be deemed too saucy eighteen pence, two shillings, half a comparison to balance the a crown, to the value of his place – highest point of man’s wit with provided always his place get not the efficacy of Nature; but rather above his wit. give right honour to the heavenly The author: such repeated Maker of that maker, who having references – even in humorous made man to his own likeness, set contexts such as this — bring into him beyond and over all the works

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of that second nature: which in describe another of his collabora- nothing he showeth so much as tors, his choreographer on several in Poetry, when with the force of a court masques, Thomas Giles: divine breath he bringeth things ‘The author was Master Thomas forth far surpassing her doings, Giles’, he says, when describing with no small argument to the the intricate dances devised for incredulous of that first accursed The Masque of Queens. fall of Adam: since our erected wit The precise meaning of that word maketh us know what perfection author was still unsettled at this is, and yet our infected will time. Like the notorious word keepeth us from reaching it. But ‘begetter’ (‘To the only begetter of these arguments will by few be these ensuing sonnets, Mr W. H.’), understood, and by fewer grant- the term could bear a variety of ed. Thus much (I hope) will be meanings, indicating even at given me, that the Greeks with times the patron of an artistic some probability of reason gave work rather than its actual creator. him the name above all names of Thus Lorenzo de’ Medici was learning. described as the ‘author’, the It is curious to note that Jonson auctor, of the church of San Gallo resisted his colleague Inigo in Florence. The use of this word, Jones’s use of the term ‘architect’ F. W. Kent observes, ‘may imply to describe his profession, as that that Lorenzo was both entrepre- word carried – presumptuously, in neurially and creatively involved in Jonson’s view – a similar loading. its construction’, but ‘architectural God was ‘the great architect’, as historians almost unanimously Raphael, for example, was to call attribute its design to Giuliano da him in Paradise Lost, book 8. Sangallo.’ In Thomas Hobbes’s Architectonike was the term used discussion ‘Of Persons, Authors, by Aristotle to describe the and things personated’ in Chapter ultimate end to which all knowl- 16 of Leviathan the author is seen edge is directed and subordinate: as the ultimate owner and virtuous action. Jones’s ‘Almighty authorizer of words or actions architecture’, on the other hand, that may however be spoken or was for Jonson mere technical negotiated or personated on his work, a kind of trade dangerously behalf by someone else, who is close to bricklaying. Nor did variously described by Hobbes as a Jonson – despite the two men’s persona, a person, an actor. close and brilliantly successful The word Person is latine; instead collaborations – ever use the word whereof the Greeks have pro- ‘author’ in relation to Inigo Jones, sopon, which signifies the Face, as though he did use that term to Persona in latine signifies the

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disguise, or outward appearance Leviathan, asking where authority of a man, counterfeited on the finally rests both within the Stage; and sometimes more theatre, and in society at large, particularly that part of it, which presenting an array of petty disguiseth the face, as a Mask or officials who serve as agents or Visard: And from the Stage, hath deputies – persons, in Hobbes’s been translated to any Represent- terminology – who act on delegat- er of speech and action, as well in ed authority, claiming, in a wild Tribunalls, as Theaters. collision of conflicting interests, Hobbes is here exploring a license or warrant for their actions question that lay at the very heart deriving variously from the Judge of contemporary political and of Pie Powders, from a guardian, religious debate: where civil from a husband, from the king, authority ultimately lay. Quentin from the commonwealth, from Skinner, to whose acute analysis scripture, from the Master of the of this section of Leviathan I am Revels. ‘Sir, I present nothing but much indebted, points to a what is licensed by authority’, curious oddity in Hobbes’s use of protests the puppeteer, Lantern the theatrical analogy, for in the Leatherhead, as the Puritan Zeal- theatre of Hobbes’s time ultimate of-the-Land Busy angrily authority lay not with the author demolishes his show. ‘Thou art all but with the regulating officer, licence, even licentiousness itself, acting on the monarch’s behalf, Shimei!’, exclaims Busy. ‘I have known as the Master of the the Master of the Revels’ hand Revels, who licensed plays for for’t, sir’, responds Leatherhead. theatrical performance. Jonson, Busy: ‘The Master of Rebels’ hand, according to John Aubrey, was thou hast’, says Busy: ‘Satan’s’. In Hobbes’s ‘loving and familiar an epilogue written for perform- friend and acquaintance’ and ance of the play at Court, Jonson closely associated with him and makes it clear that final authority, his intellectual circle during the the ultimate licence or warrant for 1620s and ‘30s. It’s tempting to what is allowed in the kingdom, is wonder if Hobbes’s thinking on firmly vested in King James the question of authorship may himself. not have been stimulated by his When Bartholomew Fair was familiarity with Jonson’s own performed before King James in dramatic practice, even, conceiva- 1614, Shakespeare had already bly, through conversations with retired to Stratford upon Avon, Jonson himself. A comedy such as having made, in what must seem Bartholomew Fair explores the to modern eyes an astonishing act very terrain of chapter 16 of of neglect or renunciation, no

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apparent effort to bring his works editions of classical authors, and together in collected form, to in part on the great folio edition present a Shakespearian canon to of King James’s works published the world. As is well known, earlier that same year, Jonson was Jonson’s attitude to publication signalling his wish not only to from his earliest years had been in elevate drama to a more serious striking contrast to that of literary status, but to present Shakespeare. He methodically himself as no mere playwright, prepared quarto editions of his but rather as an author of classical individual plays – including, range, dignity, and proportion. defiantly, those which had not As we meet this evening to succeeded in the theatre, and celebrate, on or about his four those over which he had, legally hundred and forty-second speaking, as Joseph Lowenstein birthday, Shakespeare’s unrivalled has shown in remarkable detail, genius, his undisputed standing no formal rights of ownership – in the field of English letters, it is confidently proclaiming his worth recalling, if only in passing, authorship on the title pages. In that during the century or so 1616, the year of Shakespeare’s following his death it was Ben death, the printer and bookseller Jonson, not William Shakespeare, William Stansby produced under who was reckoned by many good Jonson’s watchful eye a folio judges to have been the greatest collection of The Works of writer England had ever produced. Benjamin Jonson: a volume Such a verdict, however fantastical comprising more than a dozen it may appear to later generations, Court masques, a handful of was perhaps in part encouraged entertainments, a panegyrical by Jonson’s more forward style of address to King James on his entry self-presentation, of which I’ve to the first session of parliament tried to give some taste tonight, in 1604, two substantial collec- but validated too by his sheer tions of verse, and – most versatility and ambition as a writer, controversially — a group of nine venturing as he did into so many plays, a kind of writing never branches of humanistic learning: before included in England in any as poet, as deviser of Court and volume bearing the serious title civic entertainments, as dramatist, Works. ‘Pray tell me, Ben’, wrote as historian, philologist, rhetori- one wag later, ‘where doth the cian, as writer on statecraft, social mystery lurk,/ What others call a conduct, theology, as England’s play you call a worke’. Yet first literary critic worthy of the through the 1616 folio, modelled name. Jonson too in his own as it was in part on Renaissance fashion was a great factotum, a

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Dominus Do-All, but he found a That styling is repeated in the title more flattering name to describe of Jonson’s poem ‘To the Memory his chosen role, and that name of My Beloved, The Author, Mr was Author. William Shakespeare, and What When in the early 1620s members He Hath Left Us’, in which those of Shakespeare’s old company, words, THE AUTHOR, are signifi- heading off a venture from a rival cantly emphasized in large-sized bookseller, began to prepare for upper-case typography. Jonson’s publication a collected folio poem places Shakespeare above edition of his dramatic works, they all other English writers for the were assisted by Jonson himself, stage, alongside the greatest who prepared two poems which dramatic authors of antiquity, stand at the head of the 1623 Aeschylus, Euripides, Sophocles, First Folio. He may also – as Seneca; hailing him as a ‘Starre of numerous small stylistic touches Poets’, now standing high in the suggest – have drafted the heavens, visible and illuminating famous address ‘To the great to all. The dramatic author is no Variety of Readers’ that is signed longer an anonymous backroom by the players John Heminge and boy, but has become at last a star. Henry Condell: In another brief poem accompany- ing Martin Droeshout’s famous It had bene a thing, we confesse, engraving of Shakespeare, Jonson worthie to have bene wished, that vouches for the likeness of the the Author himselfe had liu’d to portrait, but urges the reader to set forth, and ouerseen his owne study not Shakespeare’s picture writings; But since it hath bin but his book, through which his ordain’d otherwise, and he by personality is expressed, and his death departed from that right, life continues. Jonson’s two we pray you do not envie his poems at the head of the 1623 Friends, the office of their care, folio have proved over the years to and paine, to haue collected & be the most formidable barrier to publish’d them. . . those wishing to prove that ‘The Author himselfe’: Shake- Shakespeare was not Shake- speare here is dignified with the speare, but somebody else; to styling that, throughout his assert that no real evidence exists lifetime, he was generally reluc- to link the player from Stratford to tant to adopt, but that is now the works attributed to him. A emphatically accorded to him by not uncritical appraiser of his his friends, to whom the ‘right’ of greatest colleague’s writings, publication has passed. Jonson could scarcely have expressed himself more clearly or

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unambiguously than he does on England, much imitated and this occasion, affirming that this emulated in the years to come, man, known and beloved by him, and in the establishment of pictured in the accompanying Shakespeare’s own reputation as a illustration, was indeed ‘THE writer, in Jonson’s own phrase - AUTHOR’ of the works this astonishingly predictive in 1623 - volume contains. ‘not of an age, but for all time’. In death as in life, Ben Jonson and The volume may also be seen as a William Shakespeare are intimate- landmark in the history of author- ly linked through these verses in ship itself; as what one might the opening pages of the 1623 term, in homage to Roland Folio; a book which, together with Barthes, Michel Foucault, and Jonson’s own 1616 Folio, was to much vexed textual argumenta- become a foundational volume in tion still to come, the birth of the the history of collected editions in author.

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Caledonian Research Foundation Prize Lecture 2006 Professor Ronald McKay National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS) Monday 22 May 2006 at The University of Dundee Wednesday 24 May 2006 at RSE IMPLEMENTING THE PROMISE OF STEM CELLS IN SCIENCE AND MEDICINE In 1990, as part of an agreement with the Caledonian Research Founda- tion, the Society created an annual Prize Lectureship in Biomedical Science. In 1994 it was agreed that the prize Lectureship would alternate annually between Biomedical Sciences and Arts & Letters subjects. Prize Lecturers are expected to be of the highest international repute and this years’ recipient is certainly no exception to that rule. For the last ten years Ronald McKay has been head of the Laboratory of Molecular Biology at NINDS at Bethesda, Maryland. He is a Scot who graduated from the University of Edinburgh in 1971 with Bsc Summa cum Laude and PhD in Molecular Biology. After postgraduate appointments with MRC in London and at the University of Oxford, he was appointed Staff Scientist in 1978 at Cold Spring Harbour Laboratory in New York. From 1984 to1993 he was Professor in Human Biology, MIT Cambridge Massachusetts. In 1998 Professor Mckay provided the first clear evidence that neuronal precursor cells could be identified. He demonstrated that contrary to accepted dogma, multipotential stem cells remain in the adult nervous system and these can proliferate and form clones which differenti- ate into neurons in vitro. His pioneering work has provided much of the experimental basis for the development of treatments for Parkinson’s, Alzheimer’s and demyelinating diseases.

It is a great pleasure for me to give the visual system. He had been this lecture in Edinburgh. I telling us about how the retina is thought I might start off by connected to the rest of the brain talking about the origins of the and about the experiments of an nervous system and explain why I American called Roger Sperry, became interested in stem cells. who concluded that the initial This story takes place after a contact between the axons – the lecture at the old medical school, wires going from the eye into the just on top of the hill here, by a brain – was appropriately man called Michael Gates who mapped. As you look at me here, was, appropriately enough, the image on your retina is interested in the development of

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mapped directly before it goes It seemed to me that the solution into your brain. Sperry’s conclu- to this problem was the idea of sion was that, prior to functional stem cells. We knew from work in connections – information Holland and at CalTech that, in flowing to the system – these spite of its extraordinary complexi- wires from the retinal detectors ty in adult animals, the vertebrate had a position which must be nervous system is derived from a specified by chemicals that told very simple tube of cells. The the brain that this wire was theory was that different neu- different from the next one. So, rones are made in different as I walked out of the building, I positions in the nervous system can remember quite distinctly because different signals impinge thinking “these academics they’ll on this, initially very simple group say anything”. It seemed that of identical cells. there was no possibility of ever The first point that I want to figuring out the biochemistry that make, therefore, is that the whole Sperry’s hypothesis had suggest- idea of stem cells in the nervous ed. Sperry was a very system and in another tissues, but distinguished scientist, got the I am using the nervous system to Nobel Prize, so my irritation was make the general point, is old. It an intellectual one let’s just say. is not something that was Subsequently, there was a tech- suddenly dreamed up in the last nology developed in Cambridge – five years by somebody who hybridoma technology – which wanted to have their name on the allowed the generation of a front page of the world’s newspa- precise series of chemical probes, pers. We knew a long time ago even though the initial chemical that the nervous system was had not been purified, because it composed of cells that develop- was using the immune system to mental biologists call an make specific antibodies. This ‘equivalence group’, which simply technology demonstrated that means that they all have the same Sperry had been right and that the potential. This is one way to nervous system is hugely compli- define a stem cell. cated at the level of chemistry. My next goal was to pull out these So now we had another problem. cells, to get hold of them and see How on earth were we going to what they can do. This has taken understand all of this? What were quite a while but that’s the basic all these molecules doing? What underlying idea. The field is were they talking to? This seemed presented as if its primary role in to be a much bigger problem than medicine is an applied role. But I Sperry had suggested initially. want to discuss the potential of

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stem-cell biology in the context of disease and how to respond to it, two neurological diseases: stroke, but all kinds of other wonderful an acute injury to the nervous things that human beings do with system; and Parkinson’s disease, a their nervous systems. chronic, late-onset neurodegener- This lecture is going to contain ative disease. But I want you to scientific results, but I am going to remember that the field is also present them in this sequence hugely important scientifically. talking about stroke, which is an That Sperry’s initial interest in the ischaemic injury to the brain with way the nervous system was the blood supplies blocked – and constructed and later contribu- the nervous system is hugely tions were about the fundamental sensitive to such a change. In that organisation of life and our ability context, I am going to discuss a to use the nervous system to very basic cell-survival pathway detect changes in our environ- which regulates the possibility of ment. regenerating adult tissue. Then I Growing up in Edinburgh, of am going to talk about Parkin- course, I was exposed to a way of son’s disease and three specific thinking which was not simply a issues in the context of Parkin- set up to pass exams, but which son’s disease. How can we indicated that I had actually read – generate dopamine neurones? or at least could pretend that I What are the mechanisms that had read – things that David control their survival? Finally, I will Hume and others had written, also talk about where in the about the nature of thought. developing organism dopamine Although I am going to present a neurones actually come from. lot of this work as if its primary The basic idea in stem-cell biology motivation was applied, that’s just is that if you can control or a ruse really. That’s not completely understand the mechanisms that a joke, because it seems to me regulate cell number and cell type, that it is fundamentally misguided and you understand that well to view this field as threatening enough to be able to generate our understanding of human differentiated cells which carry out dignity. In fact, completely the the functions that are found in opposite is true. It is through our adult cells, then that’s a technolo- understanding of the nervous gy of tremendous promise. So I system and the development of want to come back to this idea of our abilities that we gain in our an equivalence group – that there knowledge of what makes us are cells in the early development human and what makes us able to of the brain that can give rise to perceive, not just tragedy or many kinds of cell. The three main

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cell types in the brain are: neu- division and when we took it away rones, cells that are wired up and in a manner that we hadn’t can pass information very rapidly understood, we were triggering from one to the other; and two the cells perhaps to stop dividing different kinds of glial cell, the so rapidly, and to change from the astrocytes and the oligodendro- stem-cell state into the differenti- cytes. If you think of a stem cell as ated state. We then asked how giving rise to these three types of quickly the change occurred and cell in a kind of flow-diagram way the answer was almost immedi- and has to make binary decisions, ately following withdrawal of the you can ask whether it can only do FGF protein. That, I thought, is one thing at a time, or are all the “very cool”. I am not going to go fates present in the cell at one into this in a lot of detail, but you time? How does it happen? can imagine how we are looking To look at questions like that, we with more and more precision at built a machine which allows us to this issue. When it happens and image this process over time, so what actually happens? Nobody we could see the number of days really knows. Nobody really that it takes for stem cells to turn knows how one cell gives rise to into the many cell types in the another cell. brain. Any individual cell can give This raises a lot of interesting rise to all the different cell types issues, but I want to illustrate just and it takes about a week. You one of the potential uses of this can’t speed it up. Cells divide, approach. When you withdraw they generate daughter cells – the protein and begin to restrict sibling cells – to be politically the growth of the cells, they correct and at the end we can acutely switch the expression of identify which type of cell they are. genes which encode for very We can also see that some cells important proteins. Stem cells have no real relationship to their have a special protein in the siblings, but there are others of nucleolus – a structure critically the same type which cluster important in controlling cell together. This then allowed us to growth. When you initiate the go backwards in time to ask when change from the stem cell to the this restriction occurred. When more restricted cells, this protein exactly did these cells acquire this is switched off. restriction, so they only generated The nucleolus is an important cells of a particular type? structure which has been studied At the fifth cell division, we took for many years. One of the most away protein FGF because we famous scientists to have worked believed it was keeping the cells in at the Cold Spring Harbor Labora-

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tories in New York is a woman This means that in vertebrates at called Barbara McClintock, a least, we are beginning to hugely interesting intellectual and understand the biochemistry that eclectic lady. On one of my visits controls the size of the different there, when I was still an under- compartments that regulate the graduate in Edinburgh, I was size of our tissues. Stem-cell chatting away to Barbara about biology is increasingly viewed as what I thought the nucleolus did having a very important role in and she listened to me quietly and cancer biology and my view is that then she said to me, “Well Ron, understanding this transition the reason I called it the nucleo- between the stem cells and their lus….”. Barbara knew something immediate progeny is going to be important was happening with extremely important. the nucleolus; that it was regulat- I want to take this interesting ing growth and organising growth and survival to another aspects of nuclear structure and dimension for you and talk about the way this protein is involved in a very simple experiment. In this, regulating growth looked to be we took the stem cells from the hugely interesting. If you take the nervous system at the stage of its protein out of the cell, the cell development when all the cells comes out of the growth state but would be roughly the same. We how? It now seems that it does put the cells in a dish and then we so by interacting with another asked: “do they live or die”? We protein – P53 – the control of know precisely when the cells die which is important in human because we were able to photo- cancers. graph them every 15 minutes. This Mentioning this allows me to is important, because the cells make a very general point about that die tend to disappear very the relationship of stem-cell fast – they just ‘blow up’ and go biology and cancer – which is the away. So they are not there to see transition from the stem-cell state if you just look at the end of the to a state where cells have a experiment. The experiment restricted fate. The growth showed that the cells die, essen- control switches very rapidly tially, very early. But if you add a between these two states and single protein, Delta 4, to the involves proteins that are of a very system, you immediately stop this general importance in our death process. understanding of cancer. Al- Delta 4 is a protein with a very though I’m talking about data special type of receptor, called the based on the nervous system, the notch receptor (discovered in same rule applies in every tissue. 1919 by people working on the

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development of the fruit fly, cases people think of these Drosophila). In subsequent receptors being like the insulin decades, people became increas- receptor, a series of enzymes ingly interested in this receptor carries this information into the because it has the very unusual cell cytoplasm (not immediately property of controlling pattern. into the nucleus) by modifying the There are many genes you could proteins reversibly by adding study as a developmental biolo- phosphate groups to them. gist, but what you want to It transpired that this positive understand is the pattern of the pathway, which is controlling organism, “how is the general growth, is inhibited by another organisation of the fruit fly well-known pathway. At this controlled”? The notch receptor is point, we are beginning to very important and has taught us understand how one might a lot about how the overall stimulate and regulate the growth pattern of flies, mice and men is of stem cells, because stem-cell controlled. It was thought that biologists need a lot of stem cells! when the notch receptor is Knowing this is not just some- activated when ligands such as thing that helps you grow cells in Delta 4 bind to it, it is cut by the lab but it also helps you grow protease and the internal part of cells in tissues. the receptor goes to the nucleus, where it turns on genes and the Using rats with an induced cell responds to that. ischaemic injury – which results in a region of the brain being But that process takes time, and deprived of blood and with very the response we were seeing in reproducible damage to the our experiments happens very underlying brain tissue – we used rapidly. This very rapid death a pump to introduce the protein, suggested to us that it could not Delta 4, into the space in the be under the control of the classic middle of the brain. This caused a function of the notch receptor, so massive stimulation of stem cells we came up with a story which in the brain and a very interesting has important features and I will effect on the behavioural recovery discuss in more detail later, but of the animals. summarise for you now. My basic message to you is that We showed that the notch you have to do the science to receptor directly activates the understand what you are doing. classic cancer growth pathway, in But the message is not that you which proteins are changed by understand it, but it’s so compli- phosphorylation cascade. The cated that it’ll take forever to turn receptor is bound and, in most

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into benefit. The message is that interest to those involved in either you have to understand it, stem-cell biology or cancer because if you don’t, you will biology. never know what the benefit is. So for example, there is the Sometimes, very simple experi- growth factor sonic hedgehog, ments immediately show potential which activates another receptor clinical benefits, and this is one. pathway of major interest in In stroke there are very few contemporary research in cancer available treatments for people biology. Our results have shown who have suffered this kind of that the notch receptor is activat- ischaemic damage to the nervous ing the sonic hedgehog system. system. There is some acute A further experiment showed that clinical care that can be applied to other growth factors can inhibit the injury itself, but subsequently, the pathway at between 30 and it’s very hard for individuals to be 60 minutes. This information treated in a general way after an allows us to manipulate in both injury of this type. But these kinds positive and negative pathways, of results suggest that there is something we have done using indeed a regenerative process in the cells which give rise to the the nervous system and that pancreatic islets, the insulin- perhaps we can look forward to a producing cells and were able to systematic understanding of the increase their numbers. This is mechanisms that might underlie important because, although the therapies for stroke. biochemistry is a little complicat- Now I will discuss some of the ed, the conclusions are obvious. data and give you a sense of how Further, these pathways are we came to these conclusions. If activated in tissue and that’s also you add the ligands, Delta 4 or an obvious extension of interest. Kappa 1 to the notch receptor, In another experiment, we you get an immediate activation inserted a needle into the space of the enzyme AKT. This activation that exists in all of our brains and is represented by a change in the deposited the Delta 4 protein phosphorylation status of two once only into the space. Five particular amino acids, which goes days later, there was a massive up and down in five minutes. We increase in the stem cells in that are thus able to map how the region of the adult central whole pathway is activated nervous system. What are these sequentially over time, in pulses, cells? Are they present all over the in minutes. Downstream, howev- brain? Are they influencing all er, there are changes that take kinds of other behaviours that the place days later, which is of great

128 Prize and Bequest Lectures

brain performs? We are just going What we are saying is that we to ask one question: “if we give have a test to ask questions about this rat a stroke, what happens if why these animals are showing we pump in these proteins for a this behavioural benefit. Further, few days?” there are a multiple cell types that What we are doing here is could be involved and only one something very simple. A lot of type is of the nervous system. the time when people think about There are other major cell types to measuring behaviour in animals, consider. First, those of the they think it is complicated but if vascular system – after all, it was it was complicated, we couldn’t this which was damaged initially do it in a Federal facility in the to cause the stroke. The second United States. So we do very very important tissue system that simple things. For example, you is very likely to be involved here is give a rat an injury of this type, the immune system. It is increas- you hold it up, you place it up ingly clear that in almost every against a table and you see which area of medicine, that there are paw does it puts down first. If multiple cell types interacting to you injured one side of the brain, generate the disease, or available it tends not to use the paw that is to be manipulated to generate the regulated by that side of the benefit. brain. A major component of the benefit So you can develop a very simple is the manipulation of the set of tests to look at the motor immune response that follows behaviour of an injured rat. What this kind of injury. But I am trying you see is that the animals get to take you through a set of progressively worse over the next experiments that end up in this six weeks. In the control group, behavioural test after injury, to we put artificial cerebral spinal give you a sense of where this fluid (ACSF) on its own into the field might be going. It seems brain; but when we added either very exciting that it is possible to Delta 4 or FGF2 to the ACSF, the control the numbers and activity animals were stabilised. When of stem cells in adult tissues by both proteins were added manipulating such a fundamental together, there was a very clear pathway. One way to view these behavioural benefit that lasted for responses is that regenerative several weeks. biology – my main interest – is actually just the flip-side of cancer Now we need to be clear about biology. The pathway that I have this. We are not saying that we discussed is the classic cancer have found a therapy for stroke. pathway. If you invited one of

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your colleagues interested in the come in recent years from human signalling mechanisms that genetics. regulate cancer she/he would I now want to tell you a story understand every feature of that about human genetics and use it pathway. The exciting conclusion as a way of setting your imagina- is that, if this is the case, then we tion. I want to set your already know a lot about the expectations in a particular way. molecular mechanisms that When I was a student, I went to regulate regeneration in tissues, lectures and eventually got which would suggest that captured by the idea of DNA. perhaps this field is going to start There was a particular group that moving even faster. took pity on me and showed me Now I want to talk about a how to do things. One of those in different kind of injury. In this the group was a person called Ed case, it’s one that comes on in an Southern – who became famous expected way. You don’t suddenly because he developed a technolo- develop Parkinson’s disease. You gy that made it possible to slowly find that you cannot measure the chemical distance perform certain tasks that previ- between genes for the first time. ously you took for granted. I Before that, very complicated and asked one woman I know who tedious genetics experiments were has Parkinson’s disease when she needed, which required breeding first knew that there was some- animals to know where genes thing wrong. She said that she were and how the resultant goes riding all the time and animals were related to each because the saddle is heavy, she other. Ed had developed this picked it up in a particular way to technology, which came to be put it on a fence. One day she named after him, the Southern realised she simply couldn’t stand Blot. The Southern Blot measured and swing it to her right, but had the chemical distances between to turn round and do it the other genes and was the beginning of way. She thought this completely the Human Genome Project. Now weird so went to the doctor, who we know where all human genes called in the neurologist, who told are in relation to one another and her she had this progressive their sequences. We also now motor disease, Parkinson’s know that many individuals in the disease. So, Parkinson’s disease population carry mutations in very often first appears in an specific genes that influence their asymmetric way and the main risk of getting Parkinson’s disease. advances in our understanding The Southern Blot paper was about Parkinson’s disease have published in 1975; 30 years later

130 Prize and Bequest Lectures

we are in a completely trans- dopaminergic system. Dopamine formed world. I am asking you to is a very important neurotransmit- use that measurement to calibrate ter, regulating the behaviour of your imagination and not expect many other regions of the brain. necessarily that we’re going to But the dopamine neurones have a cure for Parkinson’s themselves, the cells that make disease, or radically improve our dopamine, are a very small group. understanding of Parkinson’s They are generated in the ventral disease tomorrow, but I hope the mid-brain and they send their next 20 minutes will allow you to axons all over the brain, so they see that human genetics and have 25 times more synaptic stem-cell biology may interact in a connections than the classic types very interesting way as we go of glutaminergic neurones which forward to understand the sit in your frontal cortex. mechanisms that give rise to Dopamine neurones are a very human disease. unusual type of cell. What happens is that you find the It is quite clear that these neu- gene, but then it is very often a rones die in Parkinson’s patients. long process to understand why But because they are such a small that particular protein is influenc- group of neurones with such a ing the disease. How can we help? big effect, the idea arose that One of the reasons Parkinson’s perhaps, if the cells die, why can’t disease became a focus for you replace them? That idea has attention in the stem-cell field is some merit and one of the that it affects a particular group of reasons that our group has neurones – the dopamine neu- become well known is that we’ve rones – very dramatically. shown that you can indeed Dopamine is a neurotransmitter replace missing dopamine that has very interesting effects on neurones, by growing them in the our nervous system, one of which lab. I am going to show you data is that it regulates our sense of that support the conclusion that mood, our sense of whether this these lab-generated neurones experience is rewarding or not. If I actually work in the brain of an could, I would give you a lot of animal. I am not going to try to drugs to make you think that this persuade you that grafting was a rewarding experience. I dopamine neurones grown in the could send you out to Princes lab is the only, or perhaps the Street at the weekend and you major, reason to develop our could find a source of drugs of interest in where dopamine this type, because most recrea- neurones come from. tional drugs target the

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What I am going to try to per- potential to generate all the cells suade you is that we have to be of the body. It has transpired that, able to grow the neurones in by rather simple manipulations, order to study them intensely, to you can elicit this developmental understand how they work and potential in a laboratory, in a control dopamine release. How is controlled culture system. You it that when you feel something might imagine that this is not a good, I understand that it is trivial thing to do, but it’s not dopamine saying to other cells in hopelessly complicated. your brain that this is something In the first sets of experiments good? There are many more from our group we showed that interesting things to find out we could make dopamine neu- about dopamine neurones than rones and oligodendrocytes, simply to grow them and stick which are the cells at risk in them in an unthinking way into multiple sclerosis and demyelinat- the heads of patients. I am going ing diseases. We could also make to try to illustrate that by talking pancreatic islets which secrete about three issues around insulin in an appropriate way whether we can indeed look when they are exposed to glucose. forward to growing dopamine We did all this using mouse neurones from stem cells in large embryonic stem cells. Just briefly, numbers. I want to discuss the developmen- What might human genetics tal potential of the group of cells mean in terms of understanding that comprise the very early (8-cell the survival and function of the stage) human embryo. Depend- dopamine neurones? I am going ing on your particular cultural to tell you that dopamine neu- background there are different rones come from events that kinds of ethical problems associat- happen very early in the develop- ed with these cells, but ethical ment of a mammalian embryo. issues clearly exist here. We will look at the idea of making I am going to talk about the clinically important cells from developmental and clinical embryonic stem cells. potential and then I will make But first I want to talk about why another couple of comments embryonic stem cells? The about these embryonic cells and answer really is very simple. how they arise during embryonic Embryonic stem cells have a very development in something called special property, which is that they the epiplast. can be grown for a long period in At present, we don’t really know a laboratory outside the animal how human and mouse and retain their extraordinary

132 Prize and Bequest Lectures

embryonic stem cells fit in the embryonic stem cells, we can normal path of the early make dopamine neurones. Doing embryonic development, but we a very simple series of manipula- will find that out before too long. tions over the course of about That is clearly going to be of great three weeks in culture, we can importance to us in terms of generate different populations of understanding these cells and cells from a starting group of their properties, and also of great embryonic stem cells. These importance to us clinically. Very manipulations result in highly important things happen early in enriched populations of cells. development and which are of Although the body contains great importance subsequently. hundreds of different kinds of One of them, for example, is at cells, if these experiments are the stage where the epiplast exists done at different stages, you and some cells have already essentially get one or two cell shifted away from the early types. This is because the cells pluripotent stage and are moving have some kind of self-organising and specifying themselves as the property. They are alive and if you different cells of the body. get the conditions right, they One thing that has happened in grow and expand and take over female embryos is that one of the the system. So by the fifth stage, X chromosomes is inactivated. we have a set of cells which seem The inactivation process takes the same as if you had simply place very rapidly and with a taken out a piece of the brain and whole set of molecules involved in put the cells into culture. it, but we know very little about it This is a highly efficient system because it happens so early and the cells are alive – and that is normally. It is, however, likely to why it is so interesting. We don’t be of great importance in differ- know how all these molecules ent areas of medicine, for example interact. What we’re interested in in understanding breast cancer, is how they interact. They grow where there are clear data sug- and, if you treat them right, they gesting that the X chromosome make dopamine neurones. They becomes reactivated with dreadful seem to do this by closely mimick- consequences for that cell and, of ing what normally happens in course, for the individual affected. development. You can then take I am making the point that such cells and put them into understanding these very early animal models of Parkinson’s events is of clear general interest. disease and do various kinds of Now I am going to discuss how tests – look at the electrical we know that, using mouse properties of individual neurones,

133 Review of the Session 2005-2006

or at the way the animals use their we could stop the whole process limbs and move. in the first place? Or slow it down We have shown that these grafted significantly? Would that not be a cells really have the functions that more plausible goal? you would expect of normal I am now going to discuss three dopamine neurones. We have different kinds of data to help you also used PET to measure the think about this. One is about dopaminergic functions of the making dopamine neurones from animals. Using a radiolabel you a stem-cell source in the first can see that the projections of the place; the second is to explore the dopamine neurones in the relationship between human striatum are intense, but we can genetics and our understanding ‘blow’ them away with our drug. of the developmental biology and We can then see them replaced by function of dopamine neurones; a smaller, but quite clearly present and, finally, I’ll go back to the group of dopamine projections issue of where they come from. I derived from our graft. There is will talk about the first two at no question that these grafted some length because I think you cells have dopamine functions, will find it interesting and I am measurable by electrophysiology, trying to give you a sense of by behavioural tests, by direct where, in our group, we think inspection and by reviewing the where we want to go with this responses of the cells that are kind of technology. ‘listening’ to the dopamine. Can we make dopamine neurones So, are we going to go around from human embryonic stem sticking cells of this type into cells? We take human embryonic patients? It’s possible that we stem cells, grow and differentiate might do that and it seems more them in much the same way as we likely that we might do it in the do with mouse embryonic stem case of diabetes, where the cells cells. You can listen to the we are interested in form very electrical activity of the resultant small, localised structures – neurones, about 40% of which pancreatic islets – which secrete a are expressing the enzymes protein that goes all over the required to make the transmitter, body. But in the case of some- dopamine. After a month in these thing like the nervous system, conditions, all the neurones are where there is a whole circuitry firing trains of action potentials involved, I am sure that clinical and some are hooked up to each grafting will occur. But, would it other synaptically. They are not be much simpler to know talking to each other as neurones enough about these cells so that should. These might be consid-

134 Prize and Bequest Lectures

ered as ‘young adult’ neurones, We wondered whether Etya20 is clearly functional, able to stand on affected by this mutation and so their own two feet so to speak. contacted the people in Duke and So the answer would appear to be asked them to look a bit closer at yes. Etya20 among the 10-15 genes in There are lots of questions you this region. After initial reluc- might ask about optimising the tance, they agreed and we were system, how would you show fortunate. that these are exactly the same It did seem, statistically, as if type of dopamine neurones and Etya20 carries this change. so on, but the most important However, whether we are talking thing to remember is that these about Parkinson’s, Alzheimer’s, are human cells and that this is a cancer or diabetes, we need some hugely efficient process. Meaning understanding of the underlying that, as it takes place, all the biology in addition to statistical neurones are behaving in the arguments, to be sure that the same way. So it could be relatively gene is specifically affecting easy to understand control dopamine neurones. So one of mechanisms for the acquisition of my colleagues started growing function in these cells. dopamine neurones to clarify how Alongside all the other things we Etya20 influences their behaviour. are doing, there is information It transpired that Etya20 is a coming from the Human Genome survival factor for a specific sub- Project. If you recall my earlier set of dopamine neurones in the reference to the Southern Blot substantia nigra. The dopamine paper of 1975, when I named neurones appear in the ventral several genes as being identified tegmental area, project down in quite clearly in modulating the the bottom of the brain and up to progression of Parkinson’s the frontal cortex and their disease. Now there is another function is to control mood. They gene, Etya20. This came to our are disrupted in schizophrenia attention because the growth and mood disorders, for example, factor is selectively expressed in but the more lateral cells are the dopamine neurones in adult selectively sensitive to the injuries rats, so we searched the online that cause Parkinson’s disease. databases and found one at Duke They are selectively responsive to University in North Carolina, Etya20 because they carry a which suggested that there was a growth factor receptor which, change in the region of the when activated, causes these cells genome close to Etya20 in human to survive and, importantly, to patients with Parkinson’s disease. make more dopamine. This is

135 Review of the Session 2005-2006

exactly what we want for Parkin- I have already mentioned sonic son’s patients – something that hedgehog and it is in a diffuse helps them remain more active cloud in the ventral region of the and also protects them. brain. All the cells in this region We are deeply involved in this express a transcription factor kind of analysis. The dopamine called LMX1B and all the LMX1B- that is made in this system is positive cells all express another packaged and secreted when the transcription factor, FOXA2. cell is firing, releasing more These cells have a very unusual dopamine. Those of you interest- function in other regions of the ed in neuroscience, and who think brain. In the hind-brain, sonic that I am absolutely serious about hedgehog-positive cells generate quoting David Hume at the progeny which just exist in a line beginning of this lecture, will in the middle of the brain; but in understand that this is actually the mid-brain they form a cloud of very interesting. It’s not just that cells around the ventral mid-line. we’re thinking about keeping All of these cells have once dopamine neurones alive, but as expressed sonic hedgehog and all we do that, we are getting deep of them express tyrosine hydroxy- insights into how the cell works lase, the enzyme that is the marker and what kinds of mechanisms it for, and responsible for generat- uses to function. ing dopamine. Thus, it is clear that the tyrosine hydroxylase- So now I move to my third and positive dopamine neurones come final point – where do dopamine from the floorplate – the name neurones come from? It turns out given to this special region. that dopamine neurones come from a very unusual place, from In my introduction, I talked about the most ventral regions of the the idea that the nervous system brain. We have mapped out comes from an equivalence group, different domains in the ventral a group of cells which are initially mid-brain and it is clear that these equivalent, but which respond to dopamine neurones come from a a growth factor or a signal from site that does not generate another source. This is what is neurones in any other region of going on here and these floor- the brain. Further, this site plate cells are induced in this produces a growth factor, a region by sonic hedgehog, which morphogen, which controls the is first produced in the notochord. morphology or differentiation of This is interesting because it adjacent cells. The morphogen is shows us that the origins of the sonic hedgehog. dopamine system are in a very unusual class of cells which are

136 Prize and Bequest Lectures

FOXA2-positive. FOXA2 function it, you would say is a bit like is required for the differentiation Parkinson’s disease. When you of the floorplates and it continues put the front feet of a mouse in to be expressed in adult red ink and the back feet in black dopamine neurones. ink and let the mouse walk on a Now I want to return to the genes sheet of paper, you see that the which we know are influencing mouse strides across the paper, human Parkinson’s disease, but if but in the animals only lacking you knock them out in a mouse, one copy of the FOXA2 gene, they there’s not much wrong with the move in a sort of hopping, dopamine neurones. This is shuffling way – characteristically because these genes don’t seen in Parkinson’s patients. So it actually cause Parkinson’s disease, is clear there is something wrong they influence Parkinson’s disease with these animals early on. But – as is the case for many of the they have normal numbers of genes of great clinical interest. dopamine neurones and are not There is currently a lot of ‘hoo-ha’ completely messed up. As they in the field of Parkinson’s genet- age, however, they begin to show ics, but why? People go to an some very odd behavioural enormous amount of trouble to features. In one case, the animal knock out these genes. But they had a very stiff foot, with a tail have only got a gene, they don’t that was completely stiff and held know what the gene is doing and, to the side – and because the in particular, they don’t know why, intercostal muscles were absolute- as you age, Parkinson’s disease ly rigid, the animal could not occurs and why dopamine move its muscles correctly. This is neurones, in particular, seem to be another feature found in Parkin- so sensitive. son’s disease and other diseases that affect the nigra striatal If you knock out both copies of system. Finally, and most impor- the FOXA2 gene it is lethal, very tantly, there is an asymmetric loss early and you know this because of dopamine neurones in these critical structures for organising animals. the embryo are missing. But if you knock out only one copy of So it now seems that we have an the gene, initially everything animal model, not necessarily of seems to be perfectly normal, but Parkinson’s disease, but one then very interesting things which will teach us why dopamine happen. As soon as the animal neurones are so sensitive to these starts to walk, it does something diseases. We can take these other that, if you were just naïve about genetic tools and start mapping

137 Review of the Session 2005-2006

them on to this problem. I just ing of the disease because we can want to mention a group of identify specific cell types and studies of Parkinson’s patient focus our attention on them, in which found a polymorphism the cascade of cell types that are right next to the FOXA2 gene. It generated during development. seems, therefore, that some Also, this idea is an extension of people carry a mutation which one that was very important in the affects FOXA2 function; it is not origins of molecular biology and just something that happens in captured by the phrase attributed mice. to Jacques Monod, a very famous So let me close by doing two French molecular biologist, things. First, I want to remind you namely, “What is true for E. coli is about the different issues that I true for the elephant”. Now of have discussed and to say that course, the opposite of this is not one of the great pleasures in true. What’s true for elephant is science is that you work with a not necessarily true for E. coli. I range of people who come from mean, if you want to understand countries all over the world and how large mammals walk across move around the world in search the plains of East Africa and you of the ‘ah ha’ feeling that moti- restrict yourself to studying E. coli, vates scientists – the sort of we might be here for a very long intellectual motivation, which is so time. But if you want to under- important in scientific progress. stand the behaviour of mammals Then I want to come back to the at the cellular level, then it would general issue – why is stem-cell be very useful if you could isolate biology important? all the different cell types of a mammal and look at their proper- It is important because we ties in the same intensely-focused understand exactly how different way that molecular biologists genes act in these pathways. We were able to do by using a simple know the FOXA2 gene is directly organism like E. coli. I think that in the pathway, which is activated that captures in my view of the by Notch and DJ1. Another gene promise of stem-cell biology. This involved in Parkinson’s disease is is that it is not magic, but when thought to interact with a nega- used in combination with other tive regulator of AKT and, as I advances in contemporary mentioned, FGF looks as if it is medicine, it may lead us – if we interacting with the pathway in are patient enough and imagina- another way. tive enough and positive enough What is emerging from our – to very interesting new thera- studies is a coherent understand- pies.

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Once again, thank you very much back – and that’s what most of the for giving me this opportunity to public thinks we are talking about come. – but in others it’s going to be far VOTE OF THANKS by Professor more likely that you would use the Nick Hastie FRS FRSE, Director, biological knowledge to either MRC Human Genetics Unit, prevent the thing happening in Western General Hospital, the first place or to stimulate Edinburgh. those with factors that you I really do want to thank you for a understand from the biology. The very inspiring talk, which was very third thing that I love, is that clear and a great deal of circum- you’re introducing human spection in an area which has got genetics into the equation. I so much hype – that was tremen- would say that, because we do dous. What particularly impressed human genetics, but what I liked me is that you put up a slide of at the end relates to what people quotes of David Hume, but you in human genetics have known could quote Adam Smith without for some time now, that you can having slides. Either you are really even study the rare in human smart and ready for that question, genetics and learn about this or you’re just a polymath – as we common pathway. expect of Edinburgh scientists It’s the same arguments for who trained here and then went outstanding Alzheimer’s and away. many other diseases and you’re I suppose there are many messag- talking about the common es from your talk, all music to my pathways. If you’re wrong, often ears and to many of us here. The we can find out by studying the first is that stem-cell biology is rare or the biology you’re talking fascinating if done right. We about and then come up with really do need to understand the intelligent ways of treating it. As mechanisms which control stem- you say, it might be 15 to 20 cell renewal and what makes them years. So we need you out there, differentiate in many ways and to people like you, telling the public understand where they come from about it. In Edinburgh, they’ve in the first place. Unless you bought the same arguments, to know that, and what regulates have strong developmental them, you’re not really going to biology alongside stem cell work. do anything intelligent with them We could go on forever and ask in terms of therapeutic protocols. you more questions, but it’s great The second thing is that in some to see somebody trained in contexts, like the pancreas, it Edinburgh come back as a might be appropriate to put cells Caledonian Prizewinner. I think

139 Review of the Session 2005-2006

you’re the second, I think Ian ones coming back in 20 years, or Mattaj was the first. It’s a testa- even a shorter timeframe, to be ment to the wonderful golden era the third. On behalf of all of us, I that we have had in Edinburgh want to thank you for your great science and I hope that we will be lecture and I’ve got lots of seeing some others of the young questions for you over dinner and drinks.

140 Prize and Bequest Lectures

The Robert Cormack Bequest Lecture Athena Coustenis Paris-Meudon Observatory 12 June 2006 TITAN AND THE CASSINI-HUYGENS MISSION The Cassini-Huygens mission has (1.5 bar), like the Earth, and is the initiated its long exploration of host of an active organic chemistry the Saturnian system in July 2004, due to the presence of methane. after a 7,5 year trek through our CH4 and N2 combine to produce solar system. Since the Saturn a large variety of hydrocarbons Orbit Insertion, we have witnessed and nitriles. Some of the latter the great success of the Huygens (such as HCN, called “prebiotic”) mission, the probe descent are considered to be the precur- through Titan’s atmosphere, on sors of life on our ow n planet. An January 14, 2005. One of the exterior source brings traces of main targets of the Cassini- oxygen in Titan, in the form of Huygens mission was Titan. The H2O, CO and CO2. The tempera- combined orbiter and probe data ture on Titan is very low (varies have been a precious tool in the from 70 to180 K in the atmos- description of Titan’s atmosphere phere) due to the distance to the and surface returning wonderful Sun (10 AU). At the surface, the new data whose analysis have temperature reaches 94 K thanks revealed an amazing new world, to a greenhouse effect, as on our 10 time further from our Sun and planet. yet so close to our own planet. Titan was mainly explored in the Indeed, Titan is currently the only 80s by the Voyager 1 mission exobiological system that we can which during one flyby returned study in reference to conditions its atmospheric composition and which may have prevailed on the other characteristics. However, primitive Earth. such things as the nature of the Introduction surface or the aerosol distribution, Titan, Saturn’s largest satellite, has or the structure in the tropo- attracted the interest of the sphere remained unknown. scientific community ever since its The Cassini-Huygens mission to discovery by C. Huygens in 1655, the Saturnian system was and in particular since the realiza- launched in 1997 and arrived in tion in the early 20th century that the vicinity of the Saturnian it has an extended atmosphere. system in 2004. The instruments This atmosphere is composed aboard the mission have since essentially of molecular nitrogen

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then been returning wonderful Kennedy Space Center at Cape new information on the satellite Canaveral at during each flyby. 44 of them are 4 :43 a.m. EDT. Because of its expected until the end of the massive weight, Cassini could not mission in 2008. In what follows I be sent directly to Saturn but used discuss some of this information the « gravity assist » technique to that has been revealed to us by gain the energy required by the Cassini-Huygens mission and looping twice around the Sun. how our perception of Titan This allowed it to perform flybys physics has evolved over the past by Venus (April 26, 1998 and June year or so. 24, 1999), Earth (August 18, The Cassini-Huygens Mission 1999) and Jupiter (December 30, Cassini-Huygens is a very ambi- 2000). Cassini-Huygens reached tious mission, an extremely Saturn in July 2004 and per- successful collaboration between formed a flawless Saturn Orbit ESA and NASA (with contribution Insertion (SOI), becoming trapped from 17 countries), composed of forever in orbit like one of Saturn’s an orbiter and a probe (Huygens). moons. Although the mission’s objectives The Cassini instruments have span the entire Saturnian system, since then returned a great for Cassini (as for Voyager before amount of data concerning the it) Titan is a privileged target and Saturnian system. During its four- the mission is designed to address year nominal mission, the Cassini our principal questions about the Orbiter will make about 40 flybys satellite. The spacecraft is of Titan, some as close as 1000 equipped with 18 science instru- km (Voyager 1 flew by at 4400 km) ments (12 on the orbiter and 6 from the surface and perform carried by the probe), gathering direct measurements with the both remote sensing and in situ visible, infrared, and radar data. It communicates through instruments. one high-gain and two low-gain Additionally, the mission saw the antennas. Power is provided deployment of the European-built through three Radioisotope Huygens probe. After release from Thermoelectric Generators (or the Cassini orbiter, on December RTGs). 25, 2004, this 300 kg probe The 5,650-kilogram (6-ton) plunged into Titan’s atmosphere Cassini-Huygens spacecraft was on January 14, 2005 at 11:04 UTC launched successfully on the 15th and descended through it by of October 1997 from the means of several parachute breaks which slowed the probe from

142 Prize and Bequest Lectures

super sonic speeds of 6 km/s locations, the plasma levels, the during entry and down to 5 m/s at neutral and charged particles, the impact. The five batteries onboard surface composition, the atmos- the probe lasted much longer pheres and rings, the solar wind, than expected, allowing Huygens and even the dust grains in the to collect descent data for 2hrs Saturn system. Other instruments and 27 mns and surface data for perform spectral mapping for 1hr and 12 mns. During its high-quality images of the ringed descent, Huygens’ camera re- planet, its moons and rings. turned more than 750 images, Among them is a multimode while the Probe’s other five radar, which completely pene- instruments sampled Titan’s trates the hazy atmosphere of atmosphere to help determine its Titan. This Radio Detection and composition and structure. The Ranging (RADAR) imaging system telemetry data from Huygens was operates as a radiometer (to stored onboard Cassini’s Solid measure surface temperature or State recorders (SSRs) at a rate of 8 emissivity), a scatterometer and kilobits per second, while the altimeter (to measure the reflectiv- spacecraft was at an altitude of ity and topography along the 60,000 km from Titan. Although orbiter groundtrack) and as a some data from Huygens was lost synthetic aperture imager. This during its transmission to Cassini latter mode, nearest closest through a stream called « Chan- approach, images Titan’s surface nel A », in the end all of the at 0.5 to 2 km resolution (i.e. measurements were recovered several times poorer resolution because Titan’s weak signal was than Magellan) over about 1% of captured by Earth-based radio Titan’s surface for each flyby telescopes ! devoted to radar measurements. As well as imaging the atmos- Thus perhaps 20% of Titan’s phere and surface, the probe took surface will be mapped in long samples of the haze and atmos- thin strips -during the mission. phere. These in-situ The imager on the orbiter carries measurements complement the filters tuned to the windows (e.g. remote-sensing measurements 940 nm) in between the methane made from the orbiter. The latter bands, and so – like the HST carries a host of instruments should be able to measure surface designed to perform in-situ (on- contrasts. Additionally, polarizers site) studies of elements of Saturn, are carried which should be able its atmosphere, moons, rings and to remove most of the light magnetosphere. The instruments scattered by the haze at near 90° study the temperatures in various phase angle, so these measure-

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ments too will study the surface. studied by the Magnetospheric The exact resolution achievable Imaging Instrument (MIMI), the will depend on the scene contrast Cassini Plasma Spectrometer and the haze optical depth at the (CAPS) and the Planetary Radio time of the mission, as well as the Astronomy (PRA). The latter image motion compensation that instrument searches also for radio can be achieved, but is likely to be emissions from lightning on Titan, better than 100 m. Other filters although a similar search by are able to probe different Voyager failed to indicate any such altitudes in the atmosphere. emission. The Visual and Infrared Mapping The Cosmic Dust Analyzer (CDA) Spectrometer (VIMS) instrument measures the mass, velocity and spans other spectral windows composition of particles in Titan’s between 0.6 and 5 microns. This vicinity. These data will be valuable will allow spectral identification of in understanding the origin of surface materials with high oxygen compounds in Titan’s (~500m resolution) as well as reducing atmosphere, believed to resolved composition measure- be due to photochemical reac- ments. Looking at Titan’s tions involving meteoric water. night-side, the instrument may be The radio system on the orbiter is able to spot lightning, or thermal used to study Titan in two ways - emission from active cryovolcan- first by tracking the spacecraft ism. from Earth, to determine Titan’s The Composite Infrared Spectrom- gravity field. This in turn con- eter (CIRS) instrument allows the strains its internal structure (e.g. temperature to be profiled at the size of a rock core, and different locations in the atmos- perhaps the rigidity of the crust), phere, as well as spatially-resolved and second by multiple radio composition measurements. CIRS occultations. These will measure a operates in three different focal temperature profile, and indicate planes to cover the whole infrared the extent of Titan’s ionosphere. range from 10 to 1500 cm-1, with Direct measurements of the spectral resolutions varying from composition of Titan’s atmos- 0.5 to 15 cm-1. These data are phere versus altitude were made invaluable for verifying and above the Huygens landing site by refining models of chemistry, the Gas Chromatograph Mass photochemistry and atmospheric Spectrometer (GCMS) on the circulation. probe -as Titan’s atmosphere has The interaction of Titan with the so many components, separation Saturnian magnetosphere is being in two dimensions (by chromatog-

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raphy as well as mass spectrosco- descended by parachute. HASI py) is required. The GCMS also also includes a Plasma Wave analyzed the pyrolysis products Analyzer (PWA) which measured from the Aerosol Collector and the electrical properties of the Pyrolyser (ACP), which sucked haze atmosphere (important in deter- particles into the probe and mining haze charging and trapped them in a filter which was coagulation physics), searched for subsequently baked in an oven to thunder and lightning, and the break down the haze macromole- dielectric properties of the surface cules into smaller fragments that material. The probe also carried a can be studied in the GCMS. The radar altimeter, which estimated GCMS also had a heated inlet, so radar reflectivity and surface that the volatile component of the topography. The radar altimeter, surface material at the landing site part of the probe system itself, can be determined. passed its signal to the PWA for The atmospheric composition at science data processing. high altitude was also sampled The Descent Imager/Spectral directly, during the closest flybys Radiometer (DISR) is an optical by the orbiter -the Ion and Neutral instrument that makes measure- Mass Spectrometer analyzes ments at solar wavelengths from atomic and molecular composi- the Probe to look at the scattering tion at ~1000 km altitude. These, properties of the aerosols and to and spacecraft dynamics measure- find out at which height levels ments, allow direct comparison most of the energy from the Sun with the density profile measured is deposited in the atmosphere. by the entry deceleration of the DISR also operates in the near- Huygens probe. infrared range up to 1.6 micron. It The entry deceleration was also took pictures of the surface measured by the Huygens Atmos- on the way down and allowed for pheric Structure Instrument (HASI) the construction of large pano- which is the only probe instru- ramas and 3-D images. The DISR ment to operate prior to was capable of retrieving the data parachute deployment on the with a resolution orders of probe: the deceleration is propor- magnitude better than has been tional to density, and from the available from the orbit, albeit of a density profile and hydrostatic much smaller region of Titan’s equilibrium, a temperature profile surface. Observations in the of the upper atmosphere was methane bands determined the derived. The temperature, and methane mole fraction. pressure were measured directly The surface material was directly from 170km down as the probe investigated by the Surface

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Science Package (SSP). This is a this thick nitrogen atmosphere suite of sensors on the probe and the cloud deck surrounding destined to measure in the case of the satellite. a liquid surface (which was not Thermal Structure found at the Huygens landing site) refractive index, density, Titan’s temperature profile was thermal and other properties, measured in situ by the Cassini- allowing a coarse identification. Huygens HASI instrument at the An acoustic sounder measured probe’s landing site (15 °S, 192 the speed of sound in the atmos- °W) from 1400 km down to the phere during descent surface, where 93.65 ± 0.25 K (constraining temperature and were measured for a surface relative molecular mass with high pressure of 1467 ±1 hPa. As altitude resolution) and placed Voyager did before, HASI found bounds on the depth of any liquid Titan’s atmosphere to exhibit the reservoir. Prior to impact, the features that characterize the sounder also estimated the Earth’s thermal structure: an surface roughness at the landing exosphere, a mesosphere, a site. Having landed on a solid stratosphere and a troposphere, surface, SSP’s accelerometer and with two major temperature penetrometer measured the inversions at 40 and 250 km, mechanical properties (e.g. corresponding to the tropopause particle size, stickiness) of the and stratopause, with tempera- surface material. Tilt sensors tures of 70.43 K (min) and 186 K measured the probe’s attitude (max) respectively. Another during descent. inversion region, less contrasted than the previous ones and than The Doppler Wind Experiment what was inferred from Voyager 1 (DWE) expected data on the Titan data, and corresponding to the wind field were finally recovered mesopause can be found at 490 by measuring the probe signal on km (for 152 K). Earth by radiotelescopes. Prior to these measurements, The Cassini-Huygens mission has Flasar et al. (2005) working with already provided a wealth of data. the CIRS data provided informa- The analysis is in the first stages tion on the lower and upper and the Cassini orbiter promises stratosphere from roughly 70 to to unveil yet more of Titan’s 400 km in altitude, indicating the secrets in the years to come. presence of a stratopause around The Atmosphere of Titan 310 km of altitude for a maximum One of the most interesting temperature of 186 K. aspects of Titan is the presence of

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The HASI data taken on January, longer wavelength solar visible 14, 2005 yield more precise and radiation. The temperature lapse new information on the upper rate measured by Huygens/HASI part of the Titan atmosphere, the shows a cut-off from the dry thermosphere, where several adiabatic lapse rate. This means temperature fluctuations are that convective instabilities may observed due to dynamical (gravity occur in Titan’s lower atmosphere. and tidal) phenomena. Indeed, The surface temperature as gravity waves signatures of 10-20 determined by HASI (12K warmer K in amplitude were recorded than the effective temperature of above 500 km around an average 82K) is maintained by a green- temperature of 170 K. These house warming (mostly due to temperatures are higher than methane and nitrogen) of 22K, predicted by the models. The offset by cooling by the haze. The absence of a marked mesosphere models also place constraints on and the wave signatures observed the properties of the haze, the in the upper regions indicate a surface albedo and the presence strong regime of gravity waves as of clouds. compared with radiative process- Chemical composition es. HASI furthermore reported a lower ionospheric layer between Curiously, the bulk composition of 140 km and 40 km, with electrical Titan was more difficult to conductivity peaking near 60 km. determine than the abundances A tentative detection of lightning of the trace constituents. Cassini is under investigation (Fulchignoni finally allowed firm determina- et al., 2005). tions for the major components, with a methane mole fraction of In the lower atmosphere, below 1.41 ? 10-2 in the stratosphere, about 200 km, all current meas- increasing below the tropopause urements on Titan agree with the and reaching 4.9 ? 10-2 near the Voyager 1 profile described in surface. These Huygens GCMS section. Analytical radiative measurements (Niemann et al., transfer microphysical models (as 2005) are in good agreement with those developed initially by C. the stratospheric CH4 value McKay and updated by P. inferred by CIRS on the Cassini Rannou and co-workers to include orbiter (1.6 ±0.5 ? 10-2) and the fractal particles) show that the surface estimate given by the temperature inversion observed at Huygens DISR spectra (also 5%). the tropopause (70 K at 40 km) is The GCMS also saw a rapid the result of strong stratospheric increase of the methane signal absorption of solar UV and after landing suggests that liquid penetration to near the surface of methane exists on the surface,

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together with other trace organic the solar system: the main one in species, including cyanogen, gaseous hydrogen (HD) and the benzene, ethane and carbon second smaller one in deuterated dioxide. The only noble gas isotopes of CNO compounds detected to date is argon, found (such as methane, ammonia, and in the form of primordial 36Ar water) trapped in ices or clathrates (2.8 ? 10-7) and its radiogenic or adsorbed on grains. Or, Titan’s isotope 40Ar (4.32 ? 10-5) by atmosphere could result from GCMS which also determined volatile degassing of grains

isotopic ratios such as 12C/13C originating from the second

14N/15N reservoir and having accreted to (82.3±1, terrestrial-like), (meas- form the satellite. The fractiona- ured in N2, 183±5, that is 1.5 tion mechanisms acting during or times less than on Earth) and D/H after the formation of the satellite (measured in HD, 2.3 ±0.5 ? 10-4, could have contributed to the found then to be enhanced). The deuterium enrichment observed low abundance of primordial on Titan. Several processes have noble gases on Titan implies that been suggested, including nitrogen was originally captured exchanges of deuterium between as NH3 rather than N2. Subse- methane gas and cloud particles quent photolysis may have created or the putative ethane-methane the N2 atmosphere we see today. ocean, or even the icy crust underneath. An additional Ground-based observations of the possibility could involve isotopic 3í2 monodeuterated methane exchange catalyzed in the pres- band at 1.6 µm confirm the value ence of metallic grains in the of ~1.5x10-4 found from Voyager Saturnian nebula. data analyses of the í6 CH3D band at 8.6 µm and support the The infrared spectra taken by the evidence for a deuterium enrich- Cassini CIRS instrument in the ment in Titan’s atmosphere with 400-1500 cm-1 range at resolu- respect to the protosolar value tions of 0.5 or 2.5 cm-1 and that of the giant planets (D/H depending on the objective, ~ 2-3.4x10-5). However, the confirmed the presence of enrichment factor is not known hydrocarbons such as methane, with enough precision to allow a acetylene, ethylene, ethane, firm determination of its origin. diacetylene, methylacetylene, Several hypotheses have been propane and monodeuterated suggested. A primitive nebula methane. Also, the signatures of model was proposed in which two nitriles, such as cyanoacetylene, distinct deuterium reservoirs cyanogen and dicyanoacetylene coexisted before the formation of (the latter is observed as ice in

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emission at 478 cm-1 and has no served on Titan with Voyager or equivalent gaseous band), as well ISO. as CO2 were reported in CIRS In 1997 the Infrared Space spectra (Flasar et al., 2005). These Observatory (ISO) made new species were first discovered in a detections of Titan atmospheric special Voyager IRIS observational constituents. ISO was put into sequence, consisting of ~ 30 orbit around the Earth in Novem- spectra, recorded at grazing ber 1995 and lasted for 28 incidence over Titan’s north polar months. It carried a 60-cm region in 1980. diameter He-cooled telescope and This data yielded vertical distribu- operated in the 2-200 micron tions for most of the spectral region through 4 instru- hydrocarbons and nitriles. The ments: 2 spectrometers, a vertical distributions generally photometer and a camera. Titan increase with altitude, confirming spectra, acquired by Coustenis the prediction of photochemical and colleagues at high-resolution models that these species form in (about 10 times higher than the upper atmosphere and then Voyager/IRIS) acquired on January diffuse downwards in the strato- 10 and December 27, 1997, were sphere. Below the condensation disk-averages. Those recorded by level of each gas, the distributions the Short Wavelength Spectrome- are assumed to decrease follow- ter in the grating mode cover the ing the respective vapor saturation range from roughly 2 to 50 law. micron and show emission Ground-based high-resolution signatures of all of the expected heterodyne millimeter observa- minor constituents in Titan’s tions of Titan led by French and stratosphere (hydrocarbons, American teams offered the nitriles and CO2), albeit with a opportunity to determine vertical higher resolution allowing us to profiles and partial mapping in resolve the bands and distinguish some cases of HCN, CO, HC3N, the various contributions. As a and CH3CN which showed that consequence, a better determina- the nitrile abundances increase tion of the abundances and with altitude, in agreement with vertical distributions of these predictions by photochemical components is achieved on a disk- models which place the produc- average scale. The ISO/SWS tion zone above 300 km in the spectra also provided the first mesosphere. Subsidence causes detection of water vapor in Titan’s the abundance of these species to atmosphere from 2 emission lines decrease in the lower atmosphere. around 40 micron (the associated CH3CN and CO were not ob- mole fraction derived at 400 km

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of altitude is about 10-8), as well Carbon monoxide (CO) and as the first hint at the presence of carbon dioxide (CO2) are the only benzene (C6H6) at 674 cm-1 for a two oxygen compounds found in mole fraction on the order of a Titan’s atmosphere to date. Their few 10-10 (Coustenis et al., 1998; abundances are coupled and 2003). Since then, the benzene related to the presence of traces detection has been confirmed by of water vapor in Titan’s atmos- Cassini (Flasar et al., 2005). The phere. With this independent water vapor abundance although source provided in the form of seemingly small, implies a water hydroxyl radicals (OH, from an influx on Titan significantly external water influx contained in superior to what might be chondritic or icy meteorites, expected based on local and consequently photodissociated to interplanetary sources alone produce OH radicals in the high (rather in favor of Saturn). atmosphere), CO can then be With the detection of water vapor formed from reactions of OH and the source for the atmospheric CH2 or CH3. Carbon monoxide carbon monoxide and carbon then moves downwards and is dioxide observed in Titan was at destroyed near 500 km by action last found. Water quickly dissoci- of OH with subsequent formation ates into OH which combines with of carbon dioxide. methane photolysis products On the other hand, through (such as CH2, CH3, etc..) and photolysis, various reactions and produces CO and CO2. The mainly condensation, CO2 can be source for water on Titan can be removed to restore CO. The found in the rings of Saturn, the photochemical lifetime of carbon meteorites or comets. The Cassini/ monoxide is very long (compara- CIRS FP1 data have not so far ble to the age of Titan), and as a allowed a confirmation of the consequence, it is expected to be water vapor detection, but they uniformly mixed with the back- are compatible with the H2O ground N2 atmosphere. profile derived by ISO. Finally, the Carbon dioxide was identified in 3-micron region (only partly the Voyager 1/IRIS spectra from attainable from Earth due to the the emission feature around 667 terrestrial H2O interference but cm-1, at an average mole fraction containing another methane in Titan’s stratosphere of about 15 window near ppb, representative of the 8 mbar 2.75 micron) was observed with level and assuming a constant ISO, providing new information mixing ratio above the condensa- on Titan’s lower atmosphere and tion level. surface content.

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Carbon monoxide (CO) was first and therefore, if all the observa- detected in the near-infrared from tions are correct, there may be ground-based observations implication for large amounts of around 6350 cm-1 and a constant methane ice in the Titanian mixing ratio of 5x10-5 was atmosphere. On the other hand, derived in the troposphere with a either or both sets of observations factor of 3 uncertainty (therefore may be incorrect. in accordance with the Voyager Haze and clouds on Titan value). Microwave measurements confirmed this value and it Starting from the upper atmos- seemed that CO was, as expected, phere, the Cassini ISS camera uniformly mixed throughout the showed a faint thin haze layer that whole Titan atmosphere. Observa- encircles the denser stratospheric tions using heterodyne haze and could be the equivalent techniques suggest however that of the “detached haze layer” the carbon monoxide mixing ratio observed by Voyager 25 years ago, is more than an order of magni- except for the difference in tude lower than previous altitudes : the thin current haze estimates. When compared to the layer is indeed located 150-200 tropospheric value, this abun- km higher than the one seen by dance suggests that CO is Voyager. Current models are still depleted in the stratosphere. We unable to render the complexity of are therefore faced with an seasonal phenomena or circula- enigma regarding the carbon tion patterns on Titan which could monoxide abundance on Titan. be responsible for such an On the one hand, if CO is indeed upward shift. much less abundant in the Cassini images also show a multi- stratosphere than in the tropo- layer structure in the North polar sphere, some mechanism -other hood region and at lower lati- than the classical photochemical tudes in some cases (Porco et al., concepts -must be found to 2005). These features could be produce a satisfactory explana- due to gravity waves that have tion. It has been suggested that been detected on Titan at lower aerosols might alter the vertical altitudes. Some of these layers distribution of carbon monoxide may be related to the two global by adsorbing CO molecules and inversion layers observed in stellar transporting them in the tropo- occultations of Titan above 400 sphere in sufficient quantities so km in altitude. as to generate the enrichment The nature of the haze aerosols observed. This hypothesis requires measured by Huygens/DISR during massive condensation of methane the descent through Titan’s lower

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atmosphere came as a surprise to fact, the number density increases scientists recalling the results from by only a factor of a few over the Pioneer and Voyager, as well as altitude range from 150 km to the predictions by cloud physics surface. This implies that vertical models with sedimentation and mixing is much less than had been coagulation. The new observa- assumed in the older models tions estimate the monomer where the particles were distribut- radius to be 0.05 mm, in good ed approximately as the gas is agreement with previous values. with altitude. In any event, the However, contrary to previous clear space at low altitudes was assumptions, the DISR data show suggested earlier, was not that the haze optical depth varies observed. from about 2 at 935nm to only The methane mole fraction of about 4.5 at 531 nm, and the 1.6% measured in the strato- number of monomers in a haze sphere by the CIRS and the GCMS particle is therefore probably is consistent with the DISR several hundred (instead of 45). A spectral measurements. At very value of 256 for N gives a project- low altitudes (20 m) DISR meas- ed area equal to that of a sphere ured 5 ± 1% for the methane of radius 0.65 mm, about twice as mole fraction (Tomasko et al., large as previously assumed. With 2005). N = 512, the equivalent sphere with the same projected area has Cassini-Huygens has provided a radius of 0.9 mm, nearly three new information on the role of times the size previously used. In methane and the methane cycle in any case, it seems that the size of Titan’s atmosphere. The relative the aggregate particles is several humidity of methane (about 50%) times as large as in some of the at the surface found by DISR and older models (Tomasko et al., the evaporation witnessed by the 2005). GCMS show that there has been and will probably again exist fluid In addition, measurements by the flows on the surface, implying DISR violet photometer will extend precipitation of methane through the optical measurements of the the atmosphere. haze to wavelengths as short as the band from 350 to 480 nm, Although some argument took also helping to constrain the size place for a considerable time as to of the haze particles. The number whether Titan’s lower atmosphere density of the haze particles does could support convection or not not increase with depth nearly as and as to whether methane was dramatically as predicted by the supersaturated or not, there is older cloud physics models. In clear evidence today that clouds

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exist in Titan’s troposphere, southern latitudes and mostly although in general they tend to between 50200 °W. appear higher than expected. The large south polar system has Methane clouds in Titan’s tropo- been visible consistently essential- sphere were first suspected from ly in the near-infrared (at 2.12 variability in the methane spec- micron for instance) since 1999, trum observed from the ground while no previous indication of it by Griffith et al. (2003). Direct was aver reported. It was extreme- imaging of clouds on Titan has ly bright in 2001-2002 and recent been achieved from Earth-based Cassini images have shown that it observatories since the turning of is disappearing (indeed it was the century (e. g. Roe et al., 2002; visible only during the few first Hirtzig et al., 2006). Most of the Titan flybys and not afterwards). currently-detected clouds are Its shape is irregular and changing located in Titan’s southern with time, recently resembling hemisphere, as expected given the more a cluster of smaller-scale season on Titan (summer in the clouds than a large compact field. South) which means that solar Should it prove that this system’s heating is concentrated there as life was indeed on the order of 5- well as rising motions. Other than 6 years (fairly close to a Titan the large, bright South Pole season), stringent constraints can system observed for the past 5 be retrieved on seasonal and years or so, discrete clouds circulation patterns on Titan. detected at mid-latitudes are Note that DISR reported no infrequent, small and short-lived definite detection of clouds (Cassini/VIMS observations tend during its descent through Titan’s to indicate that they rise quickly to atmosphere. However, the data the upper troposphere and are compatible with a thin haze dissipate through rain within an layer at around 21 km of altitude hour). Keck and Gemini data by which could be due to methane Roe and colleagues indicate that condensation. they tend to cluster near 350 °W and 40 °S. They may be related to The Surface of Titan some surface-atmosphere ex- Perhaps the most intriguing part change (such as geysering or of the Titan science will be to cryovolcanism) because they don’t determine the nature of Titan’s seem to be easily explained by a surface. This feature of Titan’s was shift in global circulation. A dozen investigated in situ by the Huy- or so of large-scale zonal streaks gens probe on January 14, 2005. have also been observed by The surface from the orbiter Cassini preferentially at low

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As mentioned previously, Titan’s relatively dark. What exactly is surface has been known to be causing the albedo variations is covered with bright regions still uncertain. A plausible candi- separated by darker material from date for the darker regions could ground-based and HST observa- be accumulations of hydrocarbons tions (Coustenis et al., 2005). (in liquid or solid form), precipitat- These variations are more readily ing down from the atmosphere. attributed to the presence on the For the brighter regions the task surface of constituents with of interpreting the data is more different albedos rather than difficult. It has been hypothesized topography, although contribu- that they could be associated with tion from the latter is also some topography and more expected. The reason is that the exposed dirty ice content and this Cassini camera (Porco et al., 2005) tends to be in agreement with observing at 0.94 micron cannot findings by the Huygens/DISR see shadows and also Titan’s icy instrument whose stereoscopic bulk does not plead for high imaging revealed that the brighter topographic structures on the terrain was also more elevated surface (mountains should not than the darker, smother and exceed 3 km or so). lower-ice regions. The exact ice The ISS and VIMS cameras which can satisfy the constraints confirmed these results and imposed by all the observations is showed that the borders of these not easy to determine, hydrocar- regions were linear but not bon ice has been invoked on the smooth and that dramatic basis of Xanadu appearing bright changes in surface albedo could at all the near-infrared wave- be noted in the maps produced by lengths observed to date these measurements. The best (Coustenis et al., 2005). resolution achieved by ISS was of Titan may well exhibit cryovolcanic a few kilometers on Titan’s activity, in view of various recent surface. The large bright area reports (Sotin et al., 2005) from around the equator first observed Cassini/ISS. A bright circular by the HST and the adaptive optics structure (about 30 km in diame- in 1994 was resolved and finely ter) found in the VIMS observed by Cassini instruments. hyperspectral images is interpret- It is centered at 10 °S and 100 °W ed as a cryovolcanic dome in an and officially named “Xanadu area dominated by extension. The Regio”. The mid-latitude regions VIMS team hypothesized that is around the equator on Titan were the dry channels observed on found to be rather uniformly Titan are related to upwelling bright, while the Southern pole is “hot ice” and contaminated by

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hydrocarbons that vaporize as The Cassini instruments have they get close to the surface (to found no obvious evidence for a account for the methane gas in heavy craterization on the bright the atmosphere), mechanisms or the dark areas of Titan so far. A similar to those operating for few features interpreted as impact silicate volcanism on Earth (using craters have been announced to tidal heating as an energy source) date: Cassini’s Radar and VIMS may lead to flows of non-H2O ices saw a 440-km large in diameter on Titan’s surface. Following such impact crater on Titan during two eruptions, methane rain could separate flybys in early 2005. The produce the dendritic dark coloring of the feature indicates structures seen by Cassini- that its terrain is rough, with Huygens. If these structures are different material for the crater indeed channels, they could have floor and the ejecta and tilted dried out due to the short towards the radar during the timescale for methane dissocia- observations. The multi-ringed tion in the atmosphere. Studying impact basin was named “Circus volcanism on Titan (if Cassini Maximus” by the science team. A definitely yields evidence for it) is smaller crater of about 40 km was important, not only to understand also observed, exhibiting a the thermal history of Titan (which parabolic-shaped ejecta blanket. since it differs in its incorporation Nevertheless, craters identified by of volatiles from the Galilean the RADAR, VIMS or the ISS are satellites, must surely have evolved rare. This may mean that the differently) but also how volatiles - surface of Titan is young (less than in particular, methane -were a billion years) or highly eroded/ delivered to the surface. modified. Titan’s present environment is very Other features observed by the placid -tidal currents are weak, Cassini orbiter include “tiger rainfall -if it occurs -is soft, the scratches” or “cat scratches”, a diurnal temperature contrasts set of linear dark features visible small (and therefore winds are across a large part of the RADAR gentle). The solubility of ice in swath to the west of the large hydrocarbons is smaller than that crater. Their similarity to dunes as of most rocks in water. Thus, observed on Earth has led some except where the surface is more scientists to hypothesize that they susceptible to erosion, due to could be due to fine-grained organic deposits or perhaps material on a stringer, perhaps water-ammonia ice, Titan’s connected to fluid flows across topography should not be the surface. significantly modified by erosion. The surface from the probe

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On January 14, 2005 the Huygens pictures of a Mars-like landscape, probe manufactured by ESA complete with a dark riverbed and landed at 10.3 °S and 192.3 °W brighter pebbles. No evidence for on Titan, providing the “ground liquid was found, but the surface truth” for the orbital measure- is expected to be very humid since ments in terms of composition, methane evaporation (a 40% structure and geomorphology. increase of the abundance) was The probe flew over an icy surface, measured by the GCMS after floated down and drifted east- landing. Huygens landed on an wards for about 160 km. Several organic-rich surface, with trace of the instruments on board organic species such as cyanogens contributed to our knowledge of and ethane detected on the Titan’s surface conditions: DISR, ground. SSP, HASI, GCMS. In spite of some misadventures The HASI instrument measured (loss of the sun sensor measure- surface temperature and pressure ments, of about half the images at the landing site to be: 93.65 ± from Channel B and the probe’s 0.25 K for 1.467 ± 1 atmospheres erratic motion), the DISR imager (Fulchignoni et al., 2005). The fact and spectrometer gathered a that the surface is solid but precious set of data both in unconsolidated was verified by all spectroscopy and imaging. the data. The first part of the Starting from the first surface probe to touch the surface was image at 49 km, down to the the SSP penetrometer whose data unprecedented-quality snapshots are now interpreted as indicative of the Huygens landing site, and of the probe first hitting one of through the lamp-on data the icy pebbles littering the recorded below 700 km in landing area before sinking into altitude, this instrument played a the softer darker ground material. decisive part in untangling the The SSP detected the ground from enigma of Titan’s surface and 88 km in altitude by acoustic lower atmosphere. Panoramic sounding, revealing a relatively mosaics constructed from a set of smooth, but not flat surface for images taken at different altitudes which our best current hypothesis show brighter regions separated is gravel wet sand, wet clay, or by lanes or lineaments of darker lightly packed snow. With a material, interpreted as channels, landing speed of about 5 m/s the which come in short stubby front of the probe followed and features or more complex ones penetrated the surface, then slid with many branches This latter slightly before settling to allow dendritic network can be caused the DISR camera to take several by rainfall creating drainage

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channels, implying a liquid source “stones” could possibly be somewhere or at some times on hydrocarbons-coated water ice Titan’s surface. The former stubby pebbles (Tomasko et al., 2005). channels are wider and rectilinear. The spectra acquired during the They often start or end in dark descent gave information on the circular areas suggesting dried atmospheric properties, but also lakes or pits. No obvious crater on the surface properties. Indeed, features were observed. it was shown from spectral Stereoscopic analysis was per- reflectance data of the region formed on the DISR images seen from the probe that the indicating that the bright area cut differences in albedo were related with the dendritic systems is 50- to differences in topography 200 km higher than the large which in turn can be connected to darker plane to the South (To- the spectral behavior of the masko et al, 2005). If the latter ground constituents. Thus, the feature is a dried lakebed, it seems higher brighter regions were also too large by Earth standards to found to be redder than the have been created by the creeks lowland lakebeds. The regions and channels seen on the images near the mouths of the rivers are and could be due to larger rivers also redder than the lake regions. or a catastrophic event in the past. The spectra taken by DISR are The dark channels could be due to compatible with the presence of liquid methane irrigating the water ice on Titan’s surface bright elevated terrains before (Tomasko et al., 2005), something being carried through the chan- that had already been suggested nels to the region offshore in from ground-based observations. southeasterly flows. This migra- The most intriguing feature found tion towards the lower regions in the spectra was however the leads to water (?) ice being featureless quasi-linear unidenti- exposed along the upstream faces fied blue slope observed between of the ridges. The slopes are 830 and 1,420 nm. No combina- generally on the order of 30°. tion of any ice and organic Some of the bright linear streaks material from laboratory measure- seen on the images could be due ments has been adequate in to icy flows from the interior of reproducing this characteristic. Titan emerging through fissures. The jury is still out on the The images taken after the probe constituent(s) that create(s) this had landed on Titan’s surface signature. show a dark riverbed strewn with Although many questions still brighter round rocks. 15-cm in remain about the sequence of diameter at most, more of these flooding and the formation of all

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the complex structures observed thought and much tougher to by DISR, this data tends to clear unveil. the picture we have of Titan today Acknowledgements and at the same time enhance the impression that by studying The author is part of the CIRS Saturn’s satellite we’re looking at Team (PI M. Flasar), the HASI Team an environment resembling the (PI: M. Fulchignoni) and the DISR Earth more closely than any other Team (PI: M. Tomasko). place in our Solar System. References No biotic signatures were found 1 A.. Coustenis etal., Icarus on Titan. One of the elements in 177,89-105, (2006). the negative response (at least so 2 A.. Coustenis etal., submitted far as the present or past life is for publication, (2006). concerned) was found by the GCMS in the 13C/14C isotopic 3 F. M.. Flasar etal., Science 308, ratio which showed that no active 975-978 (2005). biota exist on Titan and that the 4 M.. Fulchignoni etal., Nature methane on Titan is of non- 438, 785-791 (2005). biologic source. 5. Griffith etal., Science 300, 628- The reality pictured by the Cassini- 630 (2003). Huygens instruments went beyond anything that has been 6 M.. Hirtzig etal., submitted for speculated about Titan’s surface. publication (2006). The diversity of the terrain 7 H.. Niemann etal., Nature 438, includes impact craters, dark 785-791 (2005). plains with some brighter flows, 8 C. Porco et al. Nature 434, mysterious linear black features 159-168. possibly related to winds, sand dunes, snow dunes and a host of 9 H. Roe et al. Icarus 157, 254. possible actors: solids, winds, 10 C. Sotin etal., Nature 435, liquids, ices, volcanism, etc… Titan 786-789 (2005). has proven to be a much more complex world than originally 11 M.. Tomasko etal., Nature 438, 785-791 (2005).

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The 36th Bruce-Preller Prize Lecture Professor Jason M Reese Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Strathclyde 4 September 2006 EXTREME FLUID DYNAMICS AND THE SEARCH FOR A NEW ENGINEERING SCIENCE

What do avalanches, traffic, At the other end of the scale, nanotechnology and the aerody- nanotechnology promises to namics of space shuttles have in transform all our lives in the common? coming century. It affords the While we could see each of these engineer an opportunity to design as involving ‘flows’ — of snow or new devices that manipulate cars or air — these are not flows fluids at the smallest scales and in in the way we think of, say, water the smallest systems. flowing down a river. So what These emerging technologies makes these different to ordinary have, however, exposed a weak- flows, and is the difference ness in our ability to predict how important? fluids flow in extreme circum- In this lecture I will mainly concen- stances. Some surprising and trate on flows of extreme speed or curious effects occur in these at extremely small scale — hence types of flows that do not happen my title Extreme Fluid Dynamics. conventionally. For example, when a space shuttle I included in my title the phrase re-enters the Earth’s atmosphere, “The Search for a New Engineer- its extreme speed generates ing Science” because engineers temperatures high enough to who are imagining and develop- ionise the air around it. The ing these technologies need a shroud of hot electrically-charged new design methodology that gases causes the well-known embodies the unusual physics of ‘communications blackout’ that these kinds of flows. shuttles suffer in the upper I thought of adding a further atmosphere. So the engineers heading: “Back to the Future”; designing new space vehicles and although that movie title is future high-speed aeroplanes perhaps a caption too far, the new need a good understanding of engineering science needed for aerodynamics in the upper technologies emerging in the 21st reaches of our atmosphere. century is, in fact, deeply rooted in the 19th century.

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The radiometer than on the dark side. Newton’s A radiometer, also called a solar Second Law tells us that the force engine is about 10cm high, and acting on each side of the vane is you still sometimes see them in proportional to the changes in shop windows where they are momentum. So if the rotation is placed as attention-grabbers. It caused by the momentum of light doesn’t look much, but at the end then the spindle should be of the 19th century it caught the turning with the dark sides attention of some of the world’s leading. But, in fact, the silver greatest physicists. sides lead the turning. The radiometer was invented in In any case, scientists calculated 1873 by William Crookes, who that light could not exert enough later became President of the pressure to turn the vanes so Royal Society of London. It is a quickly. Following that, all sorts of glass bulb containing a partial other more or less plausible vacuum or low-density gas. In the explanations were proffered. bulb, four vanes are suspended Some people even said that the on a pin. The vanes are each movement of the radiometer had silvered on one side and darkened a supernatural cause. This expla- on the other. The whole spindle nation may have appealed to turns very smartly in strong light, Crookes himself, who was and the reason for this perplexed intensely interested, as many physicists at the end of the 19th prominent 19th century figures century. were, in spiritualism. When it was first exhibited by But the real explanation is, of Crookes, the radiometer caused course, physical: it just turned out much excitement because it was to be very subtle and interesting taken as evidence that light had physics. It took the intuitive momentum. It seemed to most genius of James Clerk Maxwell, physicists at the time that the Fellow of the Royal Society of vanes were turning in a beam of Edinburgh and one of the light like a windmill turns in the greatest theoretical physicists of wind. This explanation is still all time, to work out what was sometimes taught in schools and going on. colleges — but it is wrong! This year, 2006, marks the 175th The silver side of a vane reflects anniversary of Maxwell’s birth. the light more than the dark side, Most people associate Maxwell which absorbs light. The change with his groundbreaking work on in momentum of the light is electromagnetism, but it is his therefore greater on the silver research on molecules and their interactions (called “the kinetic

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theory of gases”) that underpins Thermal creep is just one of the the subject of this lecture and curious effects that is important in which is coming back into such rarefied flows. It is a type of prominence for 21st century physics that literally comes out of technologies. thin air. Maxwell used physical If the radiometer bulb is filled arguments to understand why this with air at atmospheric pressure, effect arises, and to quantify it. the spindle does not move. The mathematics is not overly Likewise if the bulb is totally complex and can be found in any evacuated. So the explanation for textbook on the kinetic theory of the movement must have some- gases. I will return to this later thing to do with the density of the when I describe new microscopic air. air pumps which have no moving parts. Light falling on the radiometer warms up the black, radiation- Maxwell was summoned to absorbing sides of the vanes more Buckingham Palace to explain to than the silvered sides. Around Queen Victoria how the radiome- the edges of the vanes there is ter works. It seems she was mildly therefore a thermal gradient amused by the explanation of caused by the temperature how movement could be generat- difference between the hot and ed apparently out of nothing. But, cold sides. as Maxwell observed, perhaps ironically, the Queen “did not By considering the gas as mole- make much ado about nothing as cules bouncing off a surface, she had much heavy work cut out Maxwell (working, admittedly, for her all the rest of the day”. with an idea of another scientist, Osborne Reynolds) discovered The motion of the radiometer that a thermal gradient causes a indicates that flows in and around rarefied, or low-density, gas to slip devices that operate in low- over a surface from the cold density air behave differently to region to the hot region. This what we would expect. You can process is called thermal transpira- immediately see the implications tion or thermal creep. Through for an aerospace engineer Newton’s Third Law the momen- designing next-generation aircraft tum of the slipping gas causes the or space-vehicles that fly high up vanes to start turning in the in the atmosphere where the air is opposite direction. This means very thin. that the cold or silvered sides lead But the radiometer also points us the actual rotation — which is in the direction of other develop- what is observed. ing technologies too. The key issue here is one of scale.

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Rarefied gas dynamics reflected in a difference in the Fluid dynamics is the branch of macroscopic flow behaviour. classical physics that deals with In fluid dynamics, this is called the flowing material; that is, liquids continuum-equilibrium assump- and gases in motion. Mathemati- tion. In practice, it means that in cal descriptions of how fluids order to predict how a fluid flow exchange heat and momentum behaves, we assume that the internally were developed in the constituent molecules or particles early 19th century in order to of the flow exchange energy and understand the behaviour of fluid momentum almost instantane- flows that were central to the ously with each other. burgeoning technologies of the In a simple gas, molecules need to industrial revolution — such as collide some three or four times in ships, pumps, engines etc. order to equilibrate their energy These mathematical descriptions and momentum with neighbour- are the famous Navier-Stokes ing molecules. At normal equations. They are still excellent temperatures and pressures, the for predicting the behaviour of average distance molecules travel most fluid flows, including those between successive collisions, that are important in more recent which is called the mean free technologies (such as aeroplanes path, is around 1/10th of a and heart valves). However, these micrometre (where a micrometre is equations are predicated on the a millionth of a metre). assumption that the bulk, or If an aerospace engineer wants to macroscopic flow of a fluid does calculate the lift or drag of an not depend greatly on the aeroplane, for example the new microscopic physics of its constitu- Airbus A380, he or she will be ent molecules, particles or grains. interested in features of the For example, a fundamental airflow around the plane at a scale physical difference between of centimetres or metres. liquids and gases is that liquid So the scale difference between molecules are constantly in the bulk behaviour of the airflow contact with one another, but gas around the Airbus and the molecules are on average separat- molecular behaviour of the air is a ed. However, in most cases factor of a million or more. When encountered by engineers, a calculating the aerodynamic liquid flow has patterns and behaviour of everyday air-vehicles, behaviour broadly similar to that engineers can therefore effectively of a gas flow. So this microscopic ignore microscopic molecular physical difference is not normally collision effects. The conventional

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continuum-equilibrium descrip- and microscopic flow physics is a tion is quite acceptable. factor of a million or more (just as However, we have seen that in the aeroplane case, above). rarefied, or low-density, gas flows Therefore if we want to predict behave differently to these the behaviour of the flow we can everyday flows. The radiometer legitimately ignore any molecular works best when the air pressure effects and use the conventional inside the bulb is 1/100,000th of Navier-Stokes equations. The gas atmospheric pressure. Then the air can be thought of as an infinitely- is so rarefied that the molecular divisible continuum, with flow mean free path is about a centi- properties defined at every point metre. The size of the vanes is in the system. perhaps a centimetre or two, so in However, a microscale channel is a a radiometer the macro- and million times smaller than the microscopic physical effects are first. Now the mean free path — happening on very similar length the distance molecules travel scales. between collisions, which is In this case the continuum- greater than the average distance equilibrium assumption of fluid between molecules — is compara- dynamics no longer holds and ble to the width of the channel interesting new fluid motion itself. So this is very far from being occurs, which causes the vanes to a continuum-equilibrium flow. move due to temperature differ- The Knudsen number ences. A non-equilibrium flow is one in If the radiometer bulb is instead which bulk properties, like flow filled with air at atmospheric speed or density, change over a pressure the density of the air is distance similar to that which gas higher; the mean free path drops molecules travel on average to a 1/10th of a micrometre, scale between collisions. separation becomes large, An important indicator of non- continuum-equilibrium returns equilibrium is the Knudsen and we do not get any unusual number, named after the early physics. 20th century Danish physicist But we also see scale effects in Martin Hans Christian Knudsen. engineering systems that are very This non-dimensional number is small. the ratio of the gas molecular For example, if a gas at atmos- mean free path to a characteristic pheric pressure is flowing down a macroscopic length-scale of the channel 1m wide, the scale fluid system: separation between macroscopic

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If the Knudsen number is less designs. If they do, they will miss than about 0.001, then the micro/ out on some vital physics that macro scale separation is large changes the way their contraption and, as we have seen, convention- works: a gas turbine that fits in al fluid dynamics is appropriate. the palm of your hand will work However, the fluid dynamics starts differently from the gas turbines to change when the Knudsen that propel planes, even if all the number rises, either due to the lengths and continuum flow low density of the gas (which properties are properly scaled- makes the molecular mean free down. Engineers at the path larger) or when the length- Massachusetts Institute of scale of the system is small. Technology in the USA have been Micro- or nanoscale devices are having difficulties developing a usually intended to operate at gas turbine power generator the standard atmospheric pressures, size of a cigarette lighter. Their in which case the mean free path ultimate aim is to use this as a of air molecules is 0.1 microme- power source far more compact tres. For devices with a typical size and efficient than batteries or fuel of 1 micrometre, the Knudsen cells, but at the moment technical number is therefore 0.1. difficulties in the multiscale fluid dynamics and heat transfer have The characteristic length of a stalled their research programme. high-speed air vehicle, such as the Space Shuttle, could be the radius So this is the “extreme fluid of curvature of its nose cone or dynamics” of the title of my wing — say, 10 cm. But the air lecture. I will return to the devices flowing over the Space Shuttle and applications in which this when it is manoeuvring at an fluid dynamics is important, but altitude of 100 km is so thin that first I would like to describe some the molecular mean free path is of the new engineering science about 1 cm. Again, we can see that we are developing at the that the Knudsen number is University of Strathclyde to therefore about 0.1. understand these flows. So despite these two flow situa- Non-equilibrium fluid dynamics tions being very different from There are a number of different each other, they are linked techniques that engineers can use through having the same Knud- to simulate and predict flow sen number. behaviour over the range of Engineers building high-altitude Knudsen number. aircraft or micro- and nanoscale At the very lowest Knudsen machines should not just make numbers, which as we have seen suitably scaled versions of current

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is the realm of continuum- Extended hydrodynamics equilibrium fluids, the Euler and In my research group we are Navier-Stokes equations are investigating an approach which effective models. All engineering is called extended hydrodynamics. undergraduates learn about these at university. One of Maxwell’s brilliant contem- poraries, an Austrian physicist At slightly higher Knudsen called Ludwig Boltzmann, devised numbers, the Navier-Stokes an equation that remains the equations are still quite good, as basis of all molecular gas descrip- long as you allow for the gas to tions today. Boltzmann’s equation slip at solid bounding surfaces. describes how the function, f Conversely, at very high Knudsen (which is the distribution of gas number, the gas molecules spend molecules at a particular place in most of their time freely moving the flow, x, with a particular between a few, brief collisions. velocity, v) evolves in time, t: This situation is ideal for compu- The left hand side of the equation ter simulations which track each represents the drift motion of the individual molecule or groups of molecules, without collisions, molecules. But for less-rarefied under the influence of a gravita- flows the number of molecules tional or other force, g. The right that need to be tracked in three- hand side of the equation is the dimensional space would occupy collision function which repre- the most powerful computers sents the scattering of molecules available for decades. due to intermolecular collisions. So what do we do if the flow is so If we could solve this equation for non-equilibrium that even the f we would know the number and Navier-Stokes equations with slip velocity of gas molecules at any are ineffective, but the gas is so point in a flow. Together with the dense that the largest computers mass of the molecules, we can are not powerful enough to track then easily derive useful flow the individual molecules? properties. This is called the “transition- The problem is that the Boltz- continuum” regime, and it is one mann equation cannot be exactly of the uncanny coincidences of solved for anything but the engineering that, with a Knudsen simplest flows. So at Strathclyde number of 0.1, our space shuttles University we are working towards and micro- or nano-devices lie a good engineering solution that right in the middle of it. gives us acceptable accuracy without the need to compute

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expensive and time-consuming equilibrium flows. This is why molecular simulations. models of this type are often Our model is approximate, and called extended hydrodynamics. still under development — after We could take further terms in all, this is a new engineering this series to get equations even science — but it offers interesting more appropriate for non- possibilities for the future. equilibrium flows. But the Essentially, we are trying to mathematical difficulties mount construct a fluid dynamic model and the resulting equations are somewhat like the Navier-Stokes extremely cumbersome. model, only more applicable to One advantage of extended flows with a high Knudsen hydrodynamics is that we can number. keep our efficient computer codes To do this, we develop approxi- for solving the Navier-Stokes mate solutions for the distribution equations and just adapt them to function f in Boltzmann’s equa- take the more complex Burnett tion as a series in Knudsen equations. Another advantage is number around a local equilibri- that extended hydrodynamics um. The more terms we take in reverts to the Navier-Stokes this series the further away from equations whenever the flow, for continuum-equilibrium we get. whatever reason, becomes The mathematical details of the continuum-equilibrium again. technique are abstruse, but the But it does have some major first term in the series yields the drawbacks at the moment, which Euler equations — which are a are the subject of intense research very simplified model of fluid work in different countries around interactions. The next term gives the world. the Navier-Stokes relations — First of all, the details of the which is encouraging because this approximate solution technique is what we would expect for a for the distribution function can flow with only small departures be interpreted in several ways. from continuum-equilibrium. This leads to a number of differ- However, the third term yields ent forms of extended what are called the “Burnett hydrodynamic equations, and no- equations”. These are higher- one can quite agree on which is order in Knudsen number and can correct. be thought of as revised or Second, while the Navier-Stokes extended versions of the Navier- relations are linear, first order and Stokes equations which embody easy to write down, the Burnett more of the physics of non- equations are intimidatingly

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complex. They involve nonlinear The Navier-Stokes equations can and second-order terms, as well as be used to perform numerical a number of new coefficients calculations of the flow around which are difficult to determine. the shuttle, and they do produce a Finally, further flow conditions flow pattern very similar to need to be imposed at solid experiments on scale models. But surfaces — and while we can is it right in the fine, and all- make some guesses, no-one has important, detail? yet come up with a good general Engineers generally think of shock theory as to what these should be. waves as discontinuous jumps in Simple non-equilibrium applica- the density, pressure and tempera- tions and solutions ture of a flow. But real shocks have a certain thickness. So a Researchers are still working simple question we can ask is: do towards a general approach to the Navier-Stokes equations using extended hydrodynamics, predict this shock density thick- but we have made substantial ness correctly? progress in solving specific flow problems. I will therefore show This is a particularly good test for here some of our results that new fluid dynamics models demonstrate the potential of because there is a good amount extended hydrodynamics for of experimental data from the aerosciences and microscopic early days of the space pro- engineering. gramme. Also, if we want to try out extended hydrodynamics, we In order to design a safe and do not run into the problem I effective space shuttle, aerospace mentioned above — in defining engineers need to model the flow new flow conditions at surfaces. around the vehicle numerically. The bow shock is established in a The Space Shuttle re-enters the flow, not at a surface, so we only atmosphere from orbit at about need to know the freestream flow 25 times the speed of sound — or conditions. Mach 25. It drives a strong bow shock wave ahead of it, which We first tried using the Navier- compresses the air passing Stokes equations to calculate the through it and brings it to very variation in density through a high temperatures. The hot gas shock of Mach 8 — that is, eight blows over the vehicle, and some times the speed of sound. This is of its heat is transferred by the dashed red line in the figure. convection to the shuttle, which We can see that compared to must be insulated from these high experimental data — the blue temperatures by heat tiles. circles — the Navier-Stokes

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equations predict a shock which is vehicle. This gave the astronauts too thin. on Columbia’s maiden flight in However, if we use the Burnett 1981 some anxious moments equations instead we get a shock during reentry when there was prediction that is pretty much in concern about losing control of line with the experimental data — the vehicle. except there is a little divergence Non-equilibrium flows in micro- in the upstream region of the scopic devices might not generally shock. have this level of safety implica- Problems with Navier-Stokes tions, but they are certainly predictions are seen even better important in industrial design. when calculating the inverse of The world record for the smallest the shock density thickness for a computer hard disk drive is range of shocks up to Mach 11. currently held by the Toshiba Over most of this Mach number company. Its ultra-compact disk is range the Navier-Stokes model just over 2 cm wide, and can hold predicts shocks which are wrong up to four Gigabytes of data. The by up to 100% when compared urge towards miniaturisation of with experiment. For a simple case these devices means that more like this, aerospace engineers and more data has to be squeezed need their calculations to be into a smaller disk space. There- correct to within a couple of fore the data-density of the disk percent, so clearly the Navier- increases and reader heads are Stokes equations are inadequate. being designed that are ever The Burnett extended hydrody- closer to the disk surface to namic equations achieve much resolve the fine data structure. better predictions of the inverse Floating the reader head over the density thickness. While there is disk surface is an example of a still some inaccuracy, mainly at low slider air bearing. Toshiba’s Mach numbers, these results engineers need to understand the show clearly that there is an aerodynamics of this flow to opportunity here for an extended ensure that the reader arm is able hydrodynamic model. to maintain a constant separation Predicting these high-speed non- and does not crash into the equilibrium flows is important. In rotating disk underneath. For the case of the space shuttle, non- reader heads that are only a equilibrium real gas effects meant micrometre, or even less, above that the aerodynamic centre of the the rotating disk the physics of Space Shuttle Columbia was not non-equilibrium microscopic at the expected point on the flows becomes important.

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However, a problem in investigat- It is important to get these ing flows in these small pressures right, because these geometries is the lack of experi- simulations are showing us that mental data. It is extremely the pressure between the reader difficult to resolve gas velocities in head and the disk surface is such small spaces. So we have to higher in the middle than at the rely instead on a molecular edges. Therefore the head and dynamics simulation called DSMC, surface are pushing away from which is a computational model each other, and the reader arm of the movement and interactions needs to be designed to resist this of millions of representative gas movement. molecules. While it is acceptable I have shown that new fluid as an experimental substitute, it is dynamic models can successfully not a practical design tool in any capture the details and unusual but the simplest cases because it physics of non-equilibrium flows requires exorbitant computational — at least in simple cases. resources. However, there is certainly much The flow between two surfaces, work that still needs to be done one of which is moving (the disk) on making extended hydrodynam- and the other stationary (the ic solutions as robust and general reader head) is called Couette as their continuum-equilibrium flow. Here are three figures for cousins. Couette flow where the separa- In the final part of my lecture, I tion is 3, 0.4 and 0.1 micrometres. would like to look to the future The gas pressure variations are and outline a few technological plotted across half the separation and other opportunities where height for clarity, but the variation non-equilibrium is either an is symmetric across the full important feature of the flow or separation distance. offers us a new capability or The DSMC simulations — blue understanding. circles — show that we should Hypersonic aircraft expect pressure variations of between 10 and 20%. We see Concorde’s cruise speed was that the Navier-Stokes equations around Mach 2, but new aircraft predict no pressure variation at all, are on the drawing board that will but our Burnett equations do an travel at Mach 8 or higher. These excellent job of predicting the high speeds require new types of amount and shape of the pressure jet engines. variation. A “scramjet” depends on com- pression of air by the forward speed of the aircraft. Air entering

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the intake of a supersonic aircraft ful flights of the X-43A. The last, is compressed and heats up. Fuel, in November 2004, holds the usually liquid hydrogen, is then world speed record for a jet- injected and combustion acceler- powered aircraft of Mach 10. The ates the exhaust gases to an even X-43A was about the size of a higher velocity, pushing the Nissan Micra car, but unmanned, aircraft forward. The scramjet is launched from under the wings of mechanically simple, and has no a B-52 bomber, and propelled by moving parts, but it only starts a rocket booster to the speeds at operating at about Mach 5, so the which its scramjet started operat- aircraft has to be propelled to ing. It flew at an altitude of about those speeds by ordinary jets or 30 km. rockets. Because the flow is Both vehicles operate in rarefied supersonic through the whole air, and the aerodynamics of the engine, getting the fuel to burn engines incorporate shocks and has been likened to “trying to high-speed flows. This is therefore light a match in a hurricane”. an intensely non-equilibrium flow The first successful test of a problem — which is part of the scramjet was by researchers at the reason why it is far from straight- University of Queensland in forward to get scramjets to work Australia. Their HyShot project consistently and for prolonged uses scramjets designed by the periods. British company QinetiQ, as well But eventually scramjets could as an Australian design. The revolutionise air travel. Design engines are launched on the nose speeds of Mach 17 are viable, of a sounding rocket on a high meaning that a passenger aircraft ballistic trajectory, reaching would be able to fly from London altitudes in excess of 300 km. to Sydney in under two hours. Not Then the rocket is rotated to face enough time to watch an in-flight the ground, and the combustion movie! unit ignited for up to 10 seconds while falling at around Mach 7.6. Micro/Nanotechnology The first successful launch was in The fabrication of microscopic July 2002, and there have been structures and devices is now four further flights since. In its almost routine. The mass-fabrica- most recent flight in June this year tion processes used for computer HyShot reached Mach 8. chips are now being used to NASA had its own scramjet manufacture micro-electro- programme, but this has been mechanical systems — usually suspended due to budget abbreviated to MEMS. While they cutbacks. There were two success- sometimes appear to be “a

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solution in search of a problem”, — about the same size as a range of applications have been Toshiba’s disk drive. It includes proposed for MEMS. These two silicon chips that serve as hot- include filters for environmental side and cold-side thermal guards. and biological monitoring, A silicon dioxide aerogel mem- industrial and process flow brane between them provides a controllers, and the gas microtur- network of nano-sized capillaries. bines I mentioned above. The role of the thermal guards is An idea we are exploring in my to heat and cool the gas mole- research group exploits the fact cules on opposite sides of the that different gases passing down aerogel membrane. a long micro-pipe have different The increase in temperature along amounts of slip. Therefore, if the the capillaries causes a pressure pipe is long enough the compo- rise along the capillaries because nents of the gas will separate out. of thermal transpiration effects. A For example, if we pass a puff of difference in pressure between air down a long smooth micro- the hotter and colder sides builds pipe the gas that comes out first up. Pressure ratios of about two will mainly be nitrogen, while the can be easily obtained across a oxygen emerges later. This is the single Knudsen pump, but this is basis for imagining a sniffer or air- expected to rise in the future as sampler that works due to the the design and performance of physics of non-equilibrium micro- these devices is optimised. In any flows. case, a number of pumps can be One of the most interesting connected in series to make, in devices proposed — and several principle, quite large pressure have now been patented — is the differences. transpiration pump or Knudsen I would like now to return to two pump. This is a miniature vacuum flow situations I mentioned right pump without any moving parts. at the beginning of this lecture, in It works because pumping devices which non-equilibrium fluid can now be made with pipes and dynamics has barely started to channels so narrow that the flow make an impact but will, I think, is non-equilibrium even at produce useful insight in the atmospheric pressures. Then the future. same thermal transpiration effect Kinetic theory is a powerful tool that propels the radiometer can for understanding gas flows. This be exploited. is why I have concentrated on A prototype microscale pump rarefied gases. But there are other developed in the USA is 2cm wide examples of multi-scale flow

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processes; any flow system which It is easier, however, to assess has a coarse, particulate structure whether a granular flow is non- can, in principle, be ascribed a equilibrium or not than to model Knudsen number. When this is it. Unlike gas flows, simulations high enough, standard continu- are complicated by the inelastic um-equilibrium models of the collisions between grains. Also system are likely to be inaccurate. the grains are not all the same Granular flows size, and the coupling of the flow of the solid grains to the gaseous Understanding how avalanches air in between them is complex. flow is obviously critical to saving life, limb and property in moun- This snapshot of an experiment tainous regions. It is curious, (on the left) shows grains falling though, that the current model over a solid cone. The background that civil and environmental colouring indicates the average engineers use for avalanches is density of grains over a long time. taken from that for water waves. I If you compare this granular flow hope you will be able to see by with the density photograph on now why this could be a flawed the right — which is of supersonic methodology. flow of Nitrogen gas over a cone — you can see very similar flow Avalanches are from the family of features. granular flows which are ubiqui- tous in both nature and industry. This kind of simple granular flow In nature they include the forma- can be modelled reasonably well tion and drift of sand dunes, and using variants of molecular soil liquefaction during earth- dynamics that allow for inelastic quakes. Industrial applications particles. But if we assumed this include mixing, drying and was a continuum-equilibrium flow transporting granular materials and performed a fluid dynamic such as seeds, pellets and pills. simulation of it, the results would not quite match up with the Granular fluids are composed of a experimental or granular dynamics large number of macroscopic simulation. They would also likely elements (the grains) that, when be wrong in the detail. fluidised with air, undergo collisions very much like the With granular materials, I am now molecules in a gas. When the time moving away from the extreme scale of grains colliding with each flows of my lecture title. So I other is similar to the inverse of would like to outline how non- the local flow gradient, the equilibrium fluid dynamics may Knudsen number is high and non- help us understand more general equilibrium features arise. problems.

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In principle, dynamical systems We saw that shock waves were a that have a granular aspect can feature of both hypersonic and also have a Knudsen number granular flows. They appear in assigned to them, and they may traffic too. Drivers will all have sometimes display non-equilibri- experienced these shocks as the um flow behaviour. The traffic occasionally stopping for interactions between people as no apparent reason. They arise they move around cities and even when, for example, in congested buildings have some parallels in traffic one vehicle slows down a the flow of grains interacting with little, perhaps to allow another car each other. It will not be surpris- in off a slip road. The car behind ing, then, if we see the features of responds accordingly — although granular flows in the highways of there is a short delay due to the the nation. driver’s reflexes and decision- Traffic making. Since all the cars behind the first change their speed in the Although it is an everyday experi- same way, this shock wave ence, road traffic is difficult to propagates at a constant speed of model and understand. This is around 15 km/hr in a direction because of the very complex opposite to the driving direction. interactions between the particles — which in this case are cars or In Helbing’s model of urban road trucks. These interactions depend traffic, road networks are com- on the psychology of individual posed of nodes — road drivers, the driving conditions and intersections, or t-junctions — many other factors. connected by pipes — that are the road sections. A change of road Dirk Helbing at the Technical properties, like the number of University of Dresden in Germany, lanes or new speed limits, is is developing models of traffic represented by connecting two or flows as a fluid. Free traffic — with more pipe sections. cars separated by the specified stopping distances in the Highway The major advantage of develop- Code — corresponds to a high ing fluid dynamic models of traffic Knudsen number flow. Congested is the same as that for extended traffic, on the other hand, would hydrodynamics models of non- have a much lower Knudsen equilibrium gas flows. In terms of number and the movement of one numerical efficiency, it is far easier vehicle or particle strongly affects to model traffic in a large road the overall dynamics. Again, this is network as a flow in a system of a typical non-equilibrium flow pipes than to simulate each condition. vehicle individually.

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Helbing’s model is able to predict fluid dynamicists and engineers, the areas of, and transitions which makes them ripe for between, free and congested investigation in the future. traffic very efficiently. It is helping Theoretical physics has a way of police in Germany to know where becoming practical engineering and when to introduce temporary after a couple of decades, or even speed limits in response to early fewer. But it was not until the signs of congestion. rocket programmes of the 1940s Conclusions and 50s that the physics Maxwell We have come a long way from developed to understand the the quiet spinning of a radiometer radiometer in the 1870s started to spindle in a near-vacuum. become important for engineers. Increasingly now the designs of a The radiometer gave scientists range of new technologies need their first inkling that the physics to account for this molecularity, or of non-equilibrium or rarefied granularity, of fluids. In fact, this flows is different to that of presents engineers with strange everyday flows. Through the new opportunities, like tiny Knudsen number, I have shown pumps that have no moving parts, that high-altitude, high-speed or designs for aircraft and engines aerodynamics has much in to fly at almost unimaginable common with flows in small speeds. engineering systems. And that led me finally to identify non-equilib- We are just at the start of a new rium behaviour in granular and engineering science that repre- traffic flows too. sents an unexpected triumph for 19th century physics in 21st In fact, non-equilibrium flows century engineering. The develop- occur widely in nature as well as ment of exciting future technologies. Supernovas are technologies and processes non-equilibrium astrophysical depends crucially on engineers flows: the exploding star blasts becoming used to unusual out material in every direction, physics! and shock waves feature very prominently in the expanding Acknowledgements cloud of gases. I would like to finish by thanking In my description of non-equilibri- my colleagues at the University of um flows I concentrated on the Strathclyde for their support, and flow of gases because they are, at the research students of my group the moment, the best understood. for their enthusiasm, hard work But non-equilibrium liquid flows and insight on our quest to are a virtually untouched area for understand non-equilibrium flows.

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Select bibliography Duncan A Lockerby, Jason M Elizabeth Garber, Stephen G Brush Reese, David R Emerson and and CWF Everitt (eds.) “Maxwell Robert W Barber “Velcoity on Heat and Statistical Mechanics: boundary condition at solid walls On ‘Avoiding all Personal Enquir- in rarefied gas calculations”, ies’ of Molecules”, Associated Physical Review E, vol. 70, article University Presses, USA (1995) number 017303 (2004) Philip Ball “Critical Mass: How Mohamed Gad-el-Hak “The Fluid One Thing Leads to Another”, Mechanics of Microdevices — the Arrow Books, London, UK (2005) Freeman Scholar Lecture” Journal of Fluids Engineering (Transac- Jason M Reese, Michael A Gallis tions of the American Society of and Duncan A Lockerby “New Mechanical Engineers), vol. 121, directions in fluid dynamics: non- pp5-33 (1999) equilibrium aerodynamic and microsystem flows”, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London (Part A, Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Scienc- es), vol. 361, pp2967-2988 (2003)

175

LECTURES Dr Lynn Margulis Distinguished University Professor, Department of Geosciences. University of Massachusetts-Amherst 8 November 2005 Composite Individuality: A Gaian View

The individual ble evolutionary sequence for the No substitute exists for direct transition from bacteria (prokaryo- study of living beings in nature. tes) to the appearance of the first Many of today’s microbes, all of eukaryotes. which live in soils, sulphur The nucleus, we postulate, springs, microbial mats, arthro- evolved after the first merger of pod, mammal intestines or other sulfidogenic archaebacterium and microbial communities provide eubacterium merged to form the modern analogues of evolutionary symbiotic ancestor of amitochon- processes. Their behavioral, driates protists. “Archaeprotista” metabolic and genetic interactions is the name given to the formal inform us as guides to the taxon, a phylum of Protoctista. reconstruction of past events. The ancestors of these eukaryotes, Our (Michael Dolan, John Hall and by our hypothesis, never acquired I) interests in extant bacteria and mitochondria (Margulis, et al., protoctists, especially their Karyomastigont Model of the interactions as clues to the origins Origin of Eukaryotes, Paleobiol- of nucleated cells (eukaryotes) ogy, 2005). Included in this group focus on anoxic environments. are pelomyxid giant amoebae, Our own observations, aided by hundreds of parabasalids and the generosity of students and other obscure eukaryotes that other associates (e.g., Celeste dwell in oxygen depleted environ- Asikainen, Michael Chapman, ments (Margulis and Schwartz, Ramon Folch, David Grimaldi, Five Kingdoms, W.H. Freeman, 2nd Ricardo Guerrero, James MacAl- edition,1998). Descendants of lister, Margaret McFall-Ngai, H.J. these swimming archaeprotists Morowitz, Lorraine Olendzenski, today thrive in organic-rich anoxic Hannah Melnitsky, Bruce Scofield, habitats where they are amenable Dennis Searcy, Elizabeth Stephens, to study. We infer that eukaryosis, Jorge Wagensberg, Andrew Wier, the origin of nucleated cells, must Jessica Whiteside and especially have occurred by the middle Dorion Sagan among others) of Proterozoic Eon (i.e., prior to the microbial mat and termite hindgut deposition in sediments of certain communities lead us to a plausi- well-preserved microfossils such as Vandalsphaeridium (Vidal,

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1998) and the spiny spheres of regulatory system was originally the Doushantou cherts of China focused on the gestalt networking (Knoll, 2003). We (James MacAl- of members of more than 30 lister, Michael Dolan and I) have million extant species, the surmise made a short video called “Eu- arises that its operations extend to karyosis” that shows modern the inclusion beyond watery life examples of each step in the forms to their extended structures evolution of the process as (Turner, 1999) including our represented by motile microbes machines. Although not in of today. themselves alive, huge termite The composite, polygenomic mounds of Namibia and machines nature of animal, fungal and plant (as well as viruses, foraminiferan cells, well established, by many shells and beehives) do reproduce data, indicate that mitochondria, and evolve. intracellular sites of oxygen We manufacture machines, of uptake, evolved by integration of course, yet increasingly they O2-respiring alpha-proteobacteria become embedded in our systems into archaebacteria. The archae- of reproduction. Similar relation- bacteria that contributed most of ships have arisen before. Many the protein synthetic cytoplasm, flowering plants, for example, we suspect, were anaerobic or require animals to pollinate and microoxic sulfidogens. As Thermo- disperse them-although they, like plasma acidophilum does today, us and our machines, are physical- they used elemental sulphur as a ly separate. The more we consider terminal electron acceptor. the role of communications and The Gaia hypothesis technological infrastructure in our survival at current huge numbers, The Gaia hypothesis was invented the more apparent it becomes by James Lovelock over thirty years that we humans are no longer ago to explain the tendency of the simply a mammal but more, as the Earth’s lower atmosphere to 19th century painter and evolu- maintain its temperature, oxygen tionist Samuel Butler put it, a concentration, and alkalinity “machinate” life form. within rather narrow limits for million of years. The self-maintain- Knowledge of the Gaia hypothesis ing properties of cells, organisms, and its implications has expanded. communities, and ecosystems are In an attempt to unite scientific observable not only in the research at all levels towards an atmosphere but also in the understanding of our living surface sediments (soil, rocks) of planet, a new discipline, in planet Earth. Although the Gaian essence, a Gaian program of research has emerged. Now

178 Lectures

acceptable to many academics and The organisms in nature are even grant-giving organisations always organised into communi- this research program is usually ties: members of different species called Earth System Sciences (ESS). in communication with each other The planetary worldview has been that live at the same time in the in part inspired by Lovelock’s same place. groundbreaking Gaia: A New Gaia concepts, consistent with Look at Life on Earth (Oxford those of Darwinian evolution, University Press. 1979) as well as recognise that evolution only his newer biography, Homage to occurs in an environmental Gaia (W.W. Norton, 2000). An context. Machines and human independent atmospheric chemist technology, extensions of the and biological theorist, Lovelock, human body, thus increasingly aided by chemical oceanographer form a part of a global interliving M. Whitfield of the Marine system. The environment must fit Biological Association (Plymouth, the organisms as much as the UK), have generated a small organisms fit the environment, as library. Notable among the Ian McHarg (1926-1996 author of book-length works are Ages of Design with Nature and many Gaia, 1988, (W.W. Norton, NY) other works) insisted. Indeed, in and Gaia in Action, (Floris Books, that book McHarg cited Soviet Edinburgh). Much of the new experiments with closed scientific literature on Gaia can be ecosystems that showed that the found in a wonderful compendi- more kinds of living components um called Scientists Debate Gaia: a system included, the more A New Century. Other useful effective it was at recycling waste. works include: From Gaia to Bacteria alone can recycle, for Selfish Genes, Gaia’s Body (all example, but if fungi are added published by MIT Press, Cam- the system functions more rapidly bridge MA, USA) and a translation and efficiently; and the addition of V.I.Vernadsky’s 1925 classic The of plants and animals further Biosphere (Springer-Verlag, 1998). hones an ecosystem’s ability to The original Gaia hypothesis has purify and recycle. Because the been restated and extended: the larger components (e.g., plants composition of the reactive gases, and animals) were later to evolve, the oxidation state, the acidity and it stands to reason that human- the temperature of the lower fostered technology - a most atmosphere and surface sedi- recent form of “living ments of the planet Earth are organisation” to evolve - may be, dynamically regulated by the at some date in the future, activities of differentially repro- integrated into still more adept ducing interrelated organisms. ecosystems. The Gaian point with

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regard to machines is that, just are still widely held by the ram- because they are new, doesn’t pant energy-consuming peoples mean that they are not natural. of Western Europe, North America Whatever the make-up of an and lately East Asia. The monothe- ecosystem, energy, carbon and istic concept that identifies the water must creatively fit the paternal family control with growth of its organisms and nationhood was an inculcating populations for it to persist as a “meme” that began with modern whole and going concern. written history (Dawkins, The Although fully consistent with Extended Phenotype, W.H. Darwin’s vision we deplore the Freeman). Those partaking of this lack of nuance, failure to consult meme or its variations (e.g., Nature and rampant numerology Nazism) often feel no responsibili- so intrinsic to NeoDarwinism. We ty for actions that were vindicated respond by reversion to the richer by a father-like power. This 19thC Darwin-Butler formulations corporate or super-organismic lack in much of our work (e.g., Big of accountability occurred despite Trouble in Biology; Physiological the fact that at certain junctures in Autopoiesis vs. Mechanistic Neo- history (e.g. during the Reforma- Darwinism, p.265-282 in Slanted tion) the same monotheistic deity Truths: Essays on Gaia, Symbiosis was invoked by opposed warring and Evolution, Lynn Margulis and factions! As Stephen Jay Gould Dorion Sagan, Springer-Verlag, suggested in his George Sarton NY1997). Memorial Lecture, perhaps it is the division of our brain into two Gaia’s humans hemispheres that makes us have A whole Gaia style of thought is such a pervasive, and ultimately emerging in which perception is insupportable, tendency toward seen as a participatory phenome- dichotomisation. non. Scientists and others (e.g., Even cosmopolitan thinkers who the Bioneers of San Raphael reject tribalism do not necessarily California and the East Coast of extend their view to a condemna- North America Bioneers, tion of anthropocentrism. Most www.BioneersbytheBay, and the still believe that we humans are Earthwatchers) who participate in the highest of all the animal the “Whole Earth approach” species. Even more people think insist that humans become more that we are not animals at all. Just aware that we are a factor in the as the Bible regards Jews as the sum of all organisms of the chosen people the idea that biosphere. Nonetheless, en- people are superior to all other trenched Judeo-Christian beliefs life forms is often taken as self-

180 Lectures

evident. Such traditional human history. In it, human beings and ideas contrast with a Gaian technology are intrinsic to perception of people inextricably, activities of the biosphere. The subordinately and dependently biosphere, the place where life linked to the supportive Earth’s resides extends ~20 km high at biota in a 20km watery ring at the the Earth’s surface, some 8km to planet’s surface. Despite our self- the tops of mountains and 12km focus, humans objectively to the ocean’s abyss. The bio- constitute a mere fractional, sphere encompasses uncounted dispensable entity within the numbers of life forms, including immensely complex system of many not documented by science. biosphere-embedded plant, These all simultaneously indulge animal and microbial life. This in various mostly unsupportably Gaian system was here before we, rapid rates of growth, necessarily courtesy of evolution, arrived - matched by equally immense and it will be here after we (and death rates; the masses of life our increasingly unrecognisable forms trading materials and descendants) extinguish. energy are experts in photosyn- The Gaian thought style repre- thetic and chemosynthetic food sents in part a return to older production, and the intricacies of ways of seeing and relating to food sharing. For any one organ- nature. At the same time, its ism, independence from the incorporation of modern science biosphere, as Russian scientist makes it more forward-thinking Vladimer I. Vernadsky (1862-1945) and accurate than many tradition- noted, is precisely equivalent to al views of humanity in nature. death. Real life, therefore, more Like life itself, these old and new than our everyday abstractions thought styles are not dichoto- care to reveal to us, is a matter of mous, but arise from the same integrated wholes. Humanity, the organically interconnected lone cowboy roughing it out biosphere. Yet the prevailing against the cosmic backdrop of thought styles have an undeniable divine space, is an obsolete, advantage of momentum. All the deplorable mythic image. weight of Western history and What we humans reject as spoiled much reproductive success - so food, is healthy growth from the far! - attach to political groups viewpoint of the dense popula- that subscribe to the idea of man’s tions of bacteria, yeast and other domination of nature. The Gaian fungi that colonise our bread and thought style, however, extends meat. Though waste to us, the horizontally to other organisms dung of cattle is both food and and “vertically” beyond human shelter to the dancing Pilobolus

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mold and to dung beetle larvae. Gaian view increases public Uneaten cheesy crusts stuffed awareness of our absolute down a kitchen sink garbage dependence upon non-human disposal are not wasted; as source life, it is extremely valuable in the of nourishment for vast popula- challenge to unexamined, and tions of bacteria, ciliates, ultimately selfishly self-destructive mastigotes, germinating fungal ideologies such as: “nature is spores, and other life forms they pristine and should be pre- are simply ignored or systematical- served,” or “nature is a bunch of ly murdered by counter-scrubbing resources to be plundered.” humans (Garden of Microbial Deeply conjoined to other Delights, Sagan and Margulis, organisms that no amount of Kendall-Hunt, 1993). These political will alter this survival- processes are not foreign; indeed friendly fact, we are barely an electric garbage disposal is but conscious of our activities in a one of Gaia’s many more recent Gaian context. Wars, for example, forms of torture-murder energy- accelerate at specific times and using and waste recycling devices. places inevitable natural selection Consortial complexity as it preferentially destroys young male of the recently evolved The consortial quality of the primate Homo sapiens, prior to individual contradicts any inde- the optimum reproductive period. pendent-lone-cowboy notion. Medical treatment tends to What appears to be a single preserve many members of this wood-eating termite consists, same Homo sapiens population upon microscopic observation, of who, without it, would fail to many millions of bacteria and reproduce. protist microbes, only a few kinds of which actually digest the Responses of the press and the cellulose of wood. The termite reading public to Gaian processes intestine by itself is devoid of have been biased, arbitrary and ability to digest wood. Gaia is a crisis oriented. The distorted hot consortial entity comparable to a topics include an increase in single wood-ingesting termite, atmospheric carbon dioxide, water but of course she is far more pollution, acid rain, and the ozone complex. Consortia, associations, hole. By waiting to respond until partnerships, symbioses, and the social crises are upon us, we competitive interactions between risk violent positive feedback, organisms extend to the global increased natural catastrophes scale. Living and nonliving matter, and cultural disintegration. self and environment are inextrica- Lovelock, for example, suggests bly interconnected. Because a that increased storms can be

182 Lectures

expected in the wake of anthropo- botany, physiology and systems genic activities. Of course, and not engineering, to name only a few to be too dichotomous, increased that are needed for evolution Gaian consciousness may have an science in a Gaian context. As the opposite, ameliorating effect. scientific investigation of the Ironically money is thrown at system which supports us and any environmental problems in other civilization we are lucky isolated attempts to buy easy enough to leave behind, the solutions. Yet Gaia “her” self has unfunded Gaian studies are more not been seen as an entity worthy vital and relevant than many other of scientific study. Research to so-called priorities, ought to be detail biospheric regulatory widely encouraged. phenomena has not been directly If my country is not on speaking funded. Because Gaia research terms with its slave-holding, fails to fit neatly into single empire-building history, it can academic fields or budget catego- hardly recognise the existence of ries (i.e., meteorology, biology, the global Earthwide natural geochemistry, wildlife manage- history from which it emerged. ment) geobiological research at a Therefore, with regard to evolu- planetary level remains under- tion research in a Gaia context, staffed and underfunded (Gaia the USA can not even reach a state and Biota, Hinkle and Margulis in that recognises its own ignorance. Scientists on Gaia, MIT Press.). Whether classroom Gaian study as An argument is made that Gaian part of evolution science is even science, like evolution, is neither a possible in our Christian and subfield of biology nor of ecology. other monotheistic countries Study of evolution includes Gaia remains to be seen. But we laud as the historical changes of the the Royal Society of Edinburgh (as environment replete with its well as The Expert Taxonomy interactive life forms over four Institute at the University of billion years. Evolution, including Amsterdam, the Marion Institute Gaia as evolution of the Earth’s of Marion Massachusetts, and surface environment is far broader Craig Holdrege and his Nature than the competence of any Institute, Ghent New York). Most current evolutionary biologist, impressive for holistic approaches indeed, any single academic that include artistic sensibilities discipline. Many specialities, are the relevant activities of the minimally: geology and its Spanish: Luis Rico of the Media subfields such as paleontology, Lab Madrid, Professor Jorge geochemistry and geomicrobiol- Wagensberg and the Barcelona ogy; atmospheric chemistry; Museum of Science, as well as the

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science museums of Madrid and MIT Press all deserve encomium La Corunya, Dr. Ramon Folch and for their baby steps in the right the Enciclopedia Catalana who direction. As is said about the published in four languages the University of Chicago: a Gaia view gorgeous 11-volume Biosfera. of the Earth as a planet may not Publishers such as Island Press, be adequate but, so far, it is the Chelsea Greene, Lindesfarne and best we have!

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Professor Sue Black, OBE, FRSE Head of Anatomy and Forensic Anthropology, University of Dundee 13 December 2005 Forensic Anthropology - the Bare Bones Science

Forensic anthropology is the invaluable in identifying victims of science that applies reliable and the Boxing Day 2004 Tsunami & tested methodologies to establish Hurricane Katrina. However the the identity of the deceased. science has also become increas- Where the role of the pathologist ingly important in assisting UK is primarily to tell you HOW police forces and investigative somebody died, the forensic authorities with ongoing cases anthropologist will tell you WHO and cold case reviews. they were. Professor Black talked about the Within the last ten years the relevance of the science of global profile of forensic anthro- forensic anthropology to judicial pology has altered dramatically, investigations both within the UK following the demand for practi- and overseas and illustrated her tioners to assist in overseas work presentation with examples of including mass disasters, mass cases where the discipline has graves, human rights abuses and played a major role in the investi- war crimes. Such expertise was gation of crime.

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Sir Alfred Cuschieri FRSE, Director, Institute of Medical Science and Technology, Universities of Dundee and St Andrews 19 December 2005 Edinburgh Lecture Inside Surgery from Without: Therapeutic Interventions from Images

The lecture covered the nature of manipulations) facilitates this type laparoscopic (minimal access of surgery. The technology for surgery), its development and this entails the projection of the future projection in clinical image obtained by the endo- practice. The seminal feature camera onto a special sterile concerning this surgical ap- screen on top of the patient so proach is that the surgeon that the surgeon looks down on operates from 2-D images of the the image. Such an image operative field relayed on a projection system has been monitor (indirect perception) as developed at the University of distinct from traditional open Dundee and is undergoing surgery where the operator evaluation. Ultimately this or executes the operation by similar systems will replace the use normal direct stereoscopic vision of CRT or LCD monitors for (direct perception). Thus minimal access surgery. minimal access surgery imposes The advent of laparoscopic extra cerebral processing minimal access surgery (keyhole (referred to as cerebral mapping surgery) in the early 1980s has by Wade) on the operator during transformed surgical practice by the visual perception process virtue of its undoubted benefits: and for this reason, the risk of less traumatic insult to the misinterpretation of the internal patient, reduced postoperative anatomy (displayed on the pain, earlier return of bowel monitor) by the surgeon is function, shorter hospital stay and higher and accounts for the accelerated recovery to full activity majority of iatrogenic (surgeon- and work in addition to improved induced) injuries during this type cosmetic result (tiny scars) and of surgery. Research on visual diminished propensity for internal display technologies to address adhesion formation compared to this problem has indicated that traditional open surgery. There is restoration of the alignment of no surgical specialty that has not motor with the visual axes of the been influenced to a significant surgeon (such that the operator extent as a result of this develop- can see his hands during the ment, including transplant

186 Lectures

surgery. Thus live related kidney tial, eventually they transform donation is much better (reduced practice and societal needs. warm ischaemia time to the graft) Examples of disruptive technolo- and kinder to the donor when gies include the internal performed with the laparoscopic combustion engine and lap top approach. In general surgery, a computers. To a large extent, significant number of common minimal access surgery can be operations including those for considered a pertinent example certain cancers are nowadays and, to a certain extent, robotically performed with this surgical assisted surgery, which is now approach with significant benefits emerging can also be regarded as to patient outcome, certainly in disruptive. the short term. There is no question concerning Minimal access surgery is intrinsi- the benefits and valid use of cally dependent on the robots in medical practice. These supporting technologies and its systems enable complex high- future progress and that of allied precision treatment where no interventions such as intervention- margin of errors is acceptable, i.e., al radiology and interventional enable high precision surgical flexible Endoscopy is inexorably work in anatomically difficult linked to progress in medical areas (Da Vinci Robot Intuitive technologies. These can be Surgical). In certain situations, categorised as facilitative (improve they can reduce hazards to the efficiency of performance and medical staff by diminishing reduce the difficulty of execution), exposure to radiation. Some may additive (bring technical sophisti- provide an effective two-way cation and accuracy to surgical communication between doctors manipulations), enabling (make and patients through clinical ward possible certain procedure which rounding (RP7 robot, InTouch would be impossible without Health). There is certainly great them – open new therapeutic interest in research and develop- options) and disruptive. Chris- ment on robotic aids for the tensen coined the terms disabled, and undoubtedly, micro- ‘disruptive technologies’ in his and nano-robots will in the future book The Innovator’s Dilemma play a significant role in screening (Harvard University Press) to refer for gastrointestinal cancer and to novel technologies that may well replace flexible endosco- eventually replace existing ones. py for this purpose today. Although initially when first introduced their performance is far short of their ultimate poten-

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The Da Vinci robot is an example operation can start (averages 20 of a master/ slave manipulator, the minutes), intrusion of the space in principle of which has been the operating theatre restricting known for a long time as it has activities of staff (especially the been used extensively by the anaesthetist) and the risk of nuclear industry. It involves a mechanical failure for various kinematic coupling between the reasons including loss of battery hand of the operator and the power. It is more than likely; functional tip of the instrument however, than these problems will which ensures that this moves in be resolved in the second genera- exactly the same direction and to tion of these systems and equally the same extent as the surgeon’s the costs will reduce with more hand. This kinematic link can be widespread use. implemented electronically in a The radio-surgery gamma knife wireless fashion (by sensors and provides another example of the actuators) as in the Da Vinci robot benefit of robot-based technology or mechanically, by a system of in medical care because it enables push bars and pulleys. In the Da the administration of high dose Vinci system a computer is radiation with surgical precision interfaced between the operating to a very specific area of abnormal console (from which the surgeon (tumour) tissue while affecting an operates at a distance from the extremely small volume of sur- patient) and the robotic arms rounding normal tissues. This is placed at the operating table achieved by delivery of gamma which replace the surgeon’s hands radiation beams from 201 and hold/ manipulate the instru- separate cobalt60 sources. ments. Thus more accurately, this type of intervention is better The individual beams do not harm termed computer-assisted surgery healthy tissues, but with focal especially as the system’s software precise superimposition exactly reduces tremor and augments the and only on the targeted tumour, precision of movements of the the concentration of all the 201 instrument tip by computer-driven beams generates sufficient energy ‘motion scaling’. The current to ablate the tumour or abnormal generation of these surgical tissue. Such required precision is master slave manipulators carries, beyond human capability and however, certain disadvantages: thus can only be achieved by a increased capital and recurrent programmed robot. Radio- expenditure (interventions cost surgery is undertaken in a more), extra time in setting up and dedicated specialised operating sterile draping of the compo- room equipped with real time nents of the device before the imaging and its dedicated robot

188 Lectures

which delivers the beams in good nor bad – its use or misuse accordance with a schedule based by practitioners is what deter- on preoperative and continuously mines outcome. Novel procured images of the patient’s technologies always increase lesion and surrounding tissues healthcare costs in the short term, during the treatment. and when disruptive, will lead to There is little doubt that progress increased expectations and in medical technology and the demands thus adding to the future health care are linked escalation of health costs. Finally inseparably, and the major technology has a generally advances will be technologically unrecognised benefit – that of dependent whether these relate integration of medical disciplines to imaging or to intervention. In towards the concept of multi- itself, novel medical technology disciplinary disease-related will always be neutral: neither treatment groups.

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Professor Carol Padden Department of Communication, University of California 15 February 2006 Sign Language Teaching in the Age of Cochlear Implants In association with Heriot-Watt University

In Europe and America, sign not known how many sign languages have been passed languages are used in Africa, the down through generations of Middle East, Asia or South deaf people and evidence indi- America. In fact, the number of cates that these sign languages sign languages which exist world- date from the 17th or 18th wide is unknown. It is estimated centuries. More specifically, British there may be around 6000 Sign Language (BSL) can be traced spoken languages in the world; back to the first school for deaf there may be a comparable children established in 1750. number of sign languages. Then American Sign Language (ASL) is there are the Creoles and dia- linked to the first school for deaf lects… children which was founded in We have established that sign 1817; however, there are records languages are older than we providing evidence for the realise, that they have an uncount- existence of sign language in ed number of users and that they colonial America. Indeed, Spanish are found in every inhabited Sign Language existed in the Deaf continent of the world. However, Communities of the 17th century. research has really just begun. A The precise number of sign number of institutions pursue language users around the world, academic study into sign lan- or even in individual countries, is guage. Some American currently unknown. In the United universities have sign language States and Canada there are an research programmes and a few estimated 200,000-300,000 users British institutions have research of ASL as their primary language. programmes focusing on BSL: in In the United Kingdom, there are Scotland, at Heriot-Watt Universi- around 23,000 signers. Across ty, Edinburgh, whilst those in Europe, every country has at least England include University one sign language, but many have College London, the University of several: for example, in Switzer- Bristol and the University of land both French Swiss Sign Central Lancashire. Language and German Swiss Sign Language are used. However, it is

190 Lectures

There are many reasons for community of Bedouins which has studying sign languages. First of a high incidence of deafness. all, to understand human lan- There are 3000 people living in guage – particularly valuable is the community, which includes that sign languages reveal human 150 deaf people. Sign language language in a different form. has now been used by three Studying sign languages furthers successive generations and is used our knowledge of language by both the deaf and hearing acquisition and helps us under- members of the community. stand language society and These new sign languages give us language use. Moreover, studying a rare opportunity to watch a sign languages gives us insight language in its early moments of into language evolution: how development. We can see which human language began, how language structures develop early human language evolves over on and those which take more time and how languages change time to develop. Sign languages across generations of users. therefore make it possible to It is virtually inconceivable that any study questions regarding truly new spoken language could language evolution. emerge nowadays, but there are Students are interested in studies cases of new sign languages of the mind and how humans emerging around the world. Deaf learn and develop. They want to people may appear in a small area learn more about human lan- and over time – if they are not guages generally and about exposed to an already existing human language in a different sign language - they develop a modality. Students also want to new sign language. Examples of learn how languages of the world such new sign languages can be are alike and how they differ. found in Nicaragua, Surinam and Currently, ASL is one of the two Thailand, to name but a few, and fastest growing languages taught sometimes – as in Providencia, in American colleges and universi- Columbia - the language is also ties – the other language is used by the surrounding hearing Arabic. ASL is also becoming one members of the community. In of the most widely taught lan- some cases, reports of a sign guages in high schools – after language remain uninvestigated: Spanish, French and Japanese. as is the case in north-east India. However, research has been It may seem that the explosion of conducted into the case of a new interest in sign languages is in sign language in Israel. This sign contradiction with the explosion language is used by a closed of medical attention to deafness.

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However, ultimately, science needs communication, it is about the voices and ideas of all its many expanding our knowledge of the disciplines as well as of all the world and the people who live in people it aims to help. Sign it and also about expanding our language teaching in the 21st knowledge of the human mind century is not only about teaching and its creative capabilities.

192 Lectures

Professor Mark Shucksmith School of Architecture, University of Newcastle upon Tyne 17 February 2006 Social Justice in Rural Areas ECRR / Peter Wilson Lecture 2006

Social justice is a contestable ic restructuring, and partly concept with different views of because of lower take-up of what is fair, implying the alloca- welfare entitlements, especially by tion of resources and older households. Social class and opportunities according to merit, gender are still major dimensions contribution, needs or status, for of inequality. Longitudinal analysis example. Marx argued that ideas is particularly effective in revealing as well as resources are controlled these dynamic processes. by each society’s elites, and in the An example of social injustice is context of rural areas we must the inequality of access to rural thus pay attention to powerful housing. There is much less groups’ control of ideas such as council or housing association rurality and sustainability, as well stock in rural areas so that access as material inequality. In general, to housing is largely determined resources are allocated through by ability to buy a house, with market, bureaucratic, associative poorer emergent households and reciprocal systems, each with having to delay household its own logic, and the lecture formation or leave the area, so explored how inequalities and putting a strain on families and injustices arise in rural areas social support networks. One through the operation of these reason for the unaffordability of processes, linking broad historical rural housing lies in the capture of forces to individual biographies ideas of rurality and sustainability and experiences. by the prosperous middle-classes While the incidence of poverty is who construct rural areas as highest in some urban neighbour- places where houses should not hoods, one in three of rural be built, and present rural Britain’s population has experi- communities as inherently enced poverty in recent years, and unsustainable in terms of carbon sparsely populated areas have emissions, without attention to high levels of poverty. Partly this is social and economic aspects of because of persistent low pay in sustainable communities. They are agriculture, tourism and other particularly effective, through sectors, partly because of econom- what Pierre Bourdieu calls ‘sym-

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bolic violence’, at obscuring the erment. It was suggested that this power relations involved and who often amounts to tokenism, with gains and who loses from such less powerful groups and individ- policies. Yet the concept of uals still often excluded from sustainability gained currency decisions about the future of their originally in relation to considera- communities. Time-limited, area- tions of equity, both between and based approaches, in particular, within the generations, and it is a tend to reinforce the positions of paradox that this concept is now the already powerful; and greater used to promote social injustice in complexity and hidden accounta- rural areas. bility makes it harder for people to Finally, the lecture considered the ‘have a say’ in decisions which inclusiveness of recent develop- affect their lives. Developing more ments in the governance of rural inclusive and ‘just’ approaches to areas, including partnership rural development offer a chal- working and community empow- lenge to policy-makers and researchers alike.

194 Lectures

Dr Adrian Linacre University of Strathclyde 6 March 2006 DNA Profiling: Its Use in Famous Cases

Dr Linacre described what DNA first case was in 1985, but since profiling is and how it can be then there has been a large used. He explained the impact increase in the sensitivity and DNA profiling has had on forensic robustness of the test. science and that it is probably the The scope for DNA testing most powerful technique used in includes criminal (police investiga- human identification. The human tions), civil (paternities), mass genome is thought to be greater disasters (WTC, Tsumani, Kosovo) than three billion units long, yet historical and wildlife (non- we all share at least 99.5% of our human) and the sources of DNA. biological evidence used includes Within any family group, more blood, semen, saliva, urine, hair, DNA is shared by chance. He teeth, bone and tissue. talked about siblings sharing on Dr Linacre then explained the average half their DNA and background to the biological therefore looking similar and organisation of the Human sharing some of the same charac- genome and how DNA evidence is teristics; and explained how used to link a person to a scene or children inherit half their DNA an object. He described how the from each parent and that some National DNA Database has physical traits are passed on revolutionised the investigative through the generations. General- process in the UK. it is routine for ly speaking, the longer two thousands of matches to be species have been separated, the reported every week where a DNA more divergent their DNA and profile from a stain is found to humans chimpanzees share 95% match a suspect. If there is no of their DNA. suspect then either there is a large Within the human genome there scale screen, or familial searching are odd repetitive regions of DNA. is performed. Familiar searching is The number of repeats varies from very new but offers real possibili- human to human and it is these ties. differences (polymorphisms) that Finally, Dr Linacre described are used in DNA profiling. The historical cases such as that of

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Anna Anderson who claimed to remains - which is possible be the Royal Princess Anastasia because some DNA can be and how using DNA evidence it preserved in bones and teeth. He was confirmed that she was not also discussed how Y chromo- related to the Russian Royal some markers can be used in Family. This was determined from historical and current cases. the identification of their skeletal

196 Lectures

Professor Wendy Hall CBE FREng Electronics and Computer Science, University of Southampton 6 March 2006 Towards the Semantic Web: the Return of the Link

Long before the Web existed, order to enable their re-use across hypertext visionaries foresaw a different sets of documents and richly inter-linked global informa- to enable links to be customised tion network. The most often for different people. But it was the cited is Vannevar Bush, who wrote creation of the World Wide Web his seminal paper As We May by Tim Berners-Lee in the early Think in 1945. In this paper he 1990s that provided the infra- foresaw the problems of informa- structure to enable these ideas to tion overload, and the need for become reality. scientists/knowledge workers to The reasons for the success of the use machines to store and share Web are now well-documented. It information. He also discussed the worked over the internet, was possibility of machines being able based on easily accessible open to associate pieces of information standards and protocols and it in the same way that the human didn’t demand perfection - links mind moves from one idea to in the Web are allowed to fail. another using association of Hypertext researchers had previ- thoughts “.. in accordance with ously argued this would be a some intricate web of trails carried barrier to people using a hypertext by the cells of the brain”. Note the system. It turned out that this was use of the term “web”. what enabled the Web to take off Ted Nelson coined the term – it allowed for human weakness- hypertext in the 1960s and es in organising information hypertext researchers worked whilst being good enough to arduously to create systems that enable access to any information would realise the vision of an available on the internet. It is easy inter-connected world of docu- to create navigational or structural ments. My own research at links that help the user find their Southampton, which was very way around the site, but the Web much inspired by both Bush and is strangely devoid of associative Nelson, was based around a links that represent a semantic system we called Microcosm, in relationship between items of which we treated links as entities information because it is hard to and stored them in databases in create and maintain such links.

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Search engines fill this gap. When web of information derived from we see an item on the Web that data by the application of a we want more information about semantic theory that tells the but which has no link associated system how to interpret the data. with it, we send a query to a Ontologies are used to provide search engine such as Google to the semantic theory and, in the help us find the information we future, agents will be employed to want. Actually a query is an enable machine-based interpreta- unresolved link, and the search tion of the data and application engine will generally suggest integration. The semantic or multiple (sometimes many associative links emerge as the thousands) of potential end- triples created by relating two points to that link, leaving it to us data items via an ontology. The to decide which is the one we development of the Semantic Web want in the context in which we thus promises to take us much are searching.. closer to achieving the original Whereas the current Web com- vision of a richly inter-linked prises a web of documents, the information network, and ena- vision of the Semantic Web is a bling the Web to realise its full potential.

198 Lectures

Richard Manning Environmental Reporter 10 April 2006 Prairie Prospect. A Bold Act of Restoration in the Heart of North America Environmental Choices Lecture

First and foremost, this is the story This is not at all unrealistic. In fact, of a real, audacious project that is the project has been so carefully the most important act of wildlife conceived that it would be conservation in our time. Beyond difficult to imagine it wouldn’t this, though, the project lies so happen. It rests on a stretch of close to the center of the Ameri- land that almost seems headed can experience that it will toward its own restoration. The necessarily accomplish much project simply capitalises on this more. It will ultimately set the momentum. The genius behind pattern for the restoration of the the project was in finding this American spirit and its economy’s place. relationship with the natural The idea for this preserve was world. born in the late 1990s with The bare facts of the project are satellite-based mapping of all enough to merit our attention. North American grasslands, the Fully realised, it would create a area between the Mississippi River grassland preserve larger than and the Rocky Mountains, north Yellowstone National Park, about into Saskatchewan and Manitoba a fifth of the land area of Scot- in Canada and south to Texas. land, a total of 3.6 million acres. It Scientists catalogued such would quickly become the home attributes as land use, ownership of free-roaming bison, wolves and and vegetation. Two independent grizzly bears and would fill a mapping projects separately gaping hole in the world’s efforts pinpointed one outstanding toward conservation by correcting target of opportunity, a sweep of our bias against grasslands. north central Montana along the Worldwide, about 10 percent of Missouri River. The core of this the land in all other biomes enjoys area, the bulls eye, is an existing some sort of protected status, yet wildlife refuge, the 1.1 million only about one percent of acre Charles M. Russell, managed temperate grasslands are protect- by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife ed. Service.

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This is a landscape where a Thirdly, ranching itself is fast number of stars align. Firstly, the becoming marginal economically, target area is slightly more arid especially in this slightly more arid than the rest of the plains, so will place. This means the remaining not tolerate the plough. It has ranchers are broke and ready to been heavily overgrazed, but still sell cheaply. is largely vegetated with native An NGO based in Montana has grasses, shrubs and forbs. begun raising money and has Secondly, because it is so arid, already acquired several ranches, much of it was never homestead- well on its way toward the ed or otherwise claimed, so ultimate goal. The first wild bison remains in federal ownership. returned to the landscape in 2005.

200 Lectures

Professor Peter Raven Director, Missouri Botanical Garden and George Engelmann Professor of Botany, Washington University in St. Louis 5 June 2006 Biodiversity, Poverty and Sustainability for the 21st century Environmental Choices Lecture

With the explosive growth of the Century, we must make many human population from 2.5 predictions that are somewhat billion people in 1950 to over 6.5 uncertain, especially concerning billion today, and the concomitant the rate of clearing and distur- rise in consumption rates, which is bance of tropical moist forest. For proceeding rapidly in developing birds, we have recently estimated countries as well as the traditional that a quarter of the total species industrialised ones, we have could become extinct during this continued to use traditional century, but that human actions technologies, many of which are may save half of them. For other highly destructive to the environ- organisms, most of which have ment. more restricted ranges than birds, As a result, natural habitats are the loss of a quarter of all species being destroyed rapidly all over would seem to be a minimum the world; invasive alien species estimate, and the actual loss could are contributing to the endanger- be much higher. For vascular ment of species and populations plants, we already have about everywhere; hunting and gather- 100,000 species, perhaps a third ing of particular animals and of the total, in cultivation, so more plants for food or medicinal could potentially survive. purposes; and climate change are Conserving natural areas, bring- all contributing to rapidly rising ing selected species into rates of extinction globally. In cultivation, to zoos, or into stock comparison with a historical rate culture centres, blocking the of extinction of about one species spread of alien invasive species, per million per year, we now and curbing global warming are estimate that thousands of an all important steps that we can estimated ten million or more take to insure the survival of as species of eukaryotic organisms many species as possible, and our (all organisms other than bacterial individual actions are of the and viruses) are disappearing each utmost importance. In general, year, and that the rate is still rising the survival of species will be rapidly. To know how many possible only insofar as we are species will survive the 21st able and willing to construct a

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sustainable world. Wackernagel favorable outcomes of building a and his associates socially just world in which we do (globalfootprint.org) estimate that not consume more than is being we are now using about 120% of produced on an ongoing basis the world’s sustainable productivi- and it will not be possible, or only ty on a continuing basis, and that possible to a limited extent, the rate is rising. A world in otherwise. Our overconsumption which at least two billion people of the environment arises from are living in extreme poverty and individual choices and wishes, and nearly 900 million are literally can be limited only by our making starving is not a world in which a different choices and projecting large number of species can different desires for ourselves and survive. Consequently, saving our families than many of us in species becomes only one of the the industrialized world do now.

202 Lectures

Dr Mike Bentley Department of Geography, University of Durham 21 June 2006 Antarctic Ice Sheets and Climate Change Discover Antarctica Lecture Supported by the British Antarctic Survey

The potential for partial or dominated by events more than complete collapse of the Antarctic 10,000 years ago. Other parts, Ice Sheets has exercised scientists especially in the Antarctic Peninsu- and policy-makers for several la and the Amundsen Sea decades. The concern is because embayment are showing rapid the ice sheets hold enough water change in recent decades with to raise global sea level by over 60 collapsing ice shelves, retreating metres. This talk explained the glaciers, and speed up of several theory behind ice sheet collapse, major glaciers flowing into the and discussed the latest results sea. In such areas the ice sheet is from studies aimed at under- thinning rapidly. Finally, there are standing the stability of these ice a smaller number of glaciers that sheets. Current studies include have slowed down and thickened. satellite remote sensing, work The net effect (or mass balance) of from aircraft, and ground-based these different, and sometimes measurements. The East Antarctic opposing effects, is that the ice Ice Sheet, which holds the vast sheet is currently growing overall, majority of the water, is a relatively thereby offsetting some of the stable feature and seems unlikely global sea level rise from other to shrink significantly this century. sources. Depending on the rate of Indeed, the dominant behaviour is thinning and velocity increase in the reverse of intuitive expecta- the Amundsen Sea embayment tion: the East Antarctic ice sheet is and Antarctic Peninsula, this will actually expanding slightly as the eventually shift to a net contribu- warming of the atmosphere tion to global sea level rise. Latest enables the air to carry more results suggest that complete moisture, leading to greater collapse of the West Antarctic Ice snowfall on the ice sheet. Sheet is rather unlikely, but partial The West Antarctic Ice Sheet, collapse is possible and some although smaller, has more scientists believe it may even be complicated behaviour. Parts of underway. If correct, this will cause the ice sheet have been thinning a sea level rise of > 1m in the slowly ever since the end of the ice coming decades and centuries. age and so their behaviour is

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Jacek Saryusz-Wolski Vice-President, European Parliament 26 June 2006 Solidarity in the Enlarged European Union

Let me start by telling how happy I terrorist threat etc. Internal am to be in Scotland again. This is solidarity also means allowing the a perfect place for a Pole to speak newcomers to reap the benefits of about solidarity. Throughout their internal market, which is largely history the Scottish people have responsible for the wealth of the proved that they treat that word western part of the continent. The very seriously. First, they have external dimension of solidarity is accepted our soldiers during and less clear. The European Union, after the Second World War with however, should practice what it open hands. Now you have preaches - demonstrate solidarity opened your doors to the new in relations with its neighbours immigration, I must admit that I and the outside world. Its external am a little envious. You, along policy should be aimed at sup- with the Irish and the English and porting the transition efforts, Swedish, have proved to be more assisting in state building meas- skilful at attracting our young and ures, giving concrete aid to civil talented than my country is able at society, democracy and human this moment. Even our football rights. Only then the Union can players seem to play better ball for realise its ambitions and trans- Scottish teams than they do for form itself into a normative soft the Polish national team. Let me power. now address the issue in my Internal solidarity presentation. Cohesion Solidarity constitutes one of the Internal solidarity is of course principal values of European about minimising the develop- integration. It has two equally ment gap within the European important dimensions - internal Union itself. It is about striving for and external. The internal dimen- the most cohesive Union that we sion, the more obvious one, is can get. Solidarity in this very concerned with solidarity within sense constituted one of the the EU itself - assisting the poorer founding principles of European member regions and states in integration. Unfortunately, it minimising the development gap, seems that it cannot be taken for helping each other in times of granted anymore. Some politi- distress - energy supply shortages,

204 Lectures

cians, among them the possible from the new member states, future British Prime-Minister reasserted themselves and took an Gordon Brown, advocate partial active part in setting of the EP’s renationalising of cohesion policy. priorities, despite the very techni- According to such plans, the cal nature of the dossier, thus Union would take upon itself only saving cohesion as an EU’s priority. the assistance to the poorest new EU Budget tailored to the needs member states, the underdevel- of reality oped regions in the old Union I have defended the thesis that would be aided by member states you cannot have more Europe for themselves. less money ad nauseam. We have Such initiatives, although at first to provide the means to address they might seem to be reasonable, our needs. The EU has more and would result in transforming more priorities whereas the cohesion policy into charity policy. budget in relative terms is getting We have to be aware, however, smaller. We need therefore to be that whereas, even it times of more far-sighted in budgetary distress, one does not forego policy. one’s values, one might forego The European Parliament has charity. I am of the opinion that if always defended the principle that we are serious about cohesion we, the EU’s priorities have to be as the European Union, must complemented by budgetary assist the regions in need, be it in means. Therefore I and my the old or in the new member colleagues have always defended- states. more ambitious budgetary Fortunately that problem will soon thresholds. At the same time, cease to concern Scotland, as the however, we have always tried to Highlands are now being populat- be realistic. For the first time in ed by the brightest, hard-working history, during the negotiations and entrepreneurial graduates of over the seven-year financial Polish universities. perspective, the EP proposed My experience in the European budgetary ceilings lower than Parliament has taught me that those proposed by the European cohesion was not considered any Commission, being aware of the longer to be an undisputable budgetary constraints within the priority. It was only through member states. Throughout the successful lobbying of the group negotiations over the current created due to our initiative - Financial Perspective it was the ‘friends of cohesion’ - that the European Parliament, not the Parliament recognised that European Commission, which cohesion has to be defended and defended a true European interest preserved. The parliamentarians 205 Review of the Session 2005-2006

(a budget better tailored to the I fully agree that it is high time we needs of reality) much more took stock of economic integra- vehemently. tion, and in particular the single We have succeeded to a limited market. We do need better degree. The EP was able to match integration of energy markets. the EU’s political priorities with We do need better integration of financial needs in a very modest, financial markets. We do need to yet important degree, largely remove obstacles to the free through an increase (of EUR 4 movement of labour. billion) for concrete policies such As the Commission rightly points as youth exchanges, social policy, out, these are issues which have neighbourhood policy, energy direct bearing on the EU citizen’s TENs. Thanks to our intervention, daily life; on energy prices, on programmes such as Erasmus or roaming charges for mobile Galileo will have a chance to be phone users, on banking charges. supported. We also have to do our utmost in We need to seriously reconsider order to boost the integration and our budgetary policy. The policy convergence of European econo- review foreseen for the year 2008 mies. We need to pursue the will provide a perfect opportunity Lisbon agenda; promote the to do it. The Union has to be completion and smooth function- courageous in providing the ing of Economic and Monetary means necessary for realising our Union and complete the Single ambitions. We have to move Market. beyond the mentality of an We should be very practical, accountant. Otherwise we will lack therefore I welcome the idea of a credibility as a Union. fundamental review of the single Completing the Single Market market, conducted in order to look at what more needs to be For me internal solidarity has done and how. We hope that the always meant allowing the announced preparation of a newcomers to reap the benefits of report on the functioning of the internal market. In its latest single market in the 21st century communication from May 2006, will be prepared with the close the European Commission clearly cooperation of the European states its priorities - peace, Parliament. prosperity and solidarity in a new context of globalisation; but also, If we want to successfully face the and I would say even foremost, challenges which are before us; if delivery of an open and fully we want to use the potential of functioning single market. the recent enlargement to the maximum, we have no choice; we

206 Lectures

have to defend the orthodoxy of Before we contemplate opening single market! We have to remove our doors to others, besides the remaining barriers to a single Bulgaria, Romania and further market, in order to allow the down the road Croatia, we have European citizens and entrepre- to face our own internal challeng- neurs to enjoy the full benefits of es; prepare our institutions, the EU. reform our policies, and start Solidarity – the external delivering the concrete results that dimension our citizens expect of us. Above all we have to demonstrate our It is clearly not enough to willingness to finance our own demonstrate solidarity internally. aspirations. Behaving like an If the European Union seriously ostrich, which, in times of distress, strives at being perceived as a hides his head in the sand, is not coherent actor for whom values a way forward! We should not use such as solidarity do not remain formal excuses, such as non- just rhetoric, it has to adapt its ratification of the constitutional external policies accordingly. treaty, to mask our lack of courage Enlargement and stop the enlargement First and foremost, the European process. Union has to honour its commit- EU as a Global Actor ments. Besides all of our internal Secondly, we have to remain active problems and apprehensions of outside of the European conti- our citizens, we cannot afford to nent. The EU is the biggest donor forego the enlargement strategy. of aid to the developing countries. If we want to project stability, We have to continue doing that. influence our neighbourhood, be However, channelling aid is clearly perceived as a pole of attraction not enough. We have to embark and remain true to the values that on the path of reforming the we preach, we cannot close our Common Agricultural Policy in eyes to aspirations of our partners such a way as to allow the poorest outside the Union. It is clear that countries of the world to use the the European Union cannot competitive advantage that they enlarge indefinitely. It is also clear have. I’m not an advocate of that the Union has to be ready scrapping CAP – we need it if we and able to integrate, not absorb, want to salvage the diversity of new members. I prefer the term our agriculture and take care of integration capacity – absorption our exceptional landscape. I do carries negative, technocratic think, however, that we run a risk connotations – I would rather talk of the EU being perceived as about integration capacity. hypocritical. On the one hand, we

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preach non-discrimination to the with our direct neighbours, how Americans and picture ourselves effective will we be in dealing with as committed to minimising the other countries? development gap; on the other The EU policy towards a given hand we practise protectionism. neighbouring country should be We also have to be more active in linked to that particular country’s conflict resolution. Haven’t we ambition, convergence of values always said that peacekeeping and its readiness to co-operate and post-conflict management with the Union. We need, constitute our true speciality? It is however, to set clearer high time we proved it. Let’s benchmarks. Since our approach demonstrate that we can do has to be more selective and things although differently than differentiated, the benchmarking Americans do, but effectively. Let’s ought to be more country-specific. engage at the sources of potential We also need a clearer incentive conflicts, just as we are doing in structure attached to clearer and Iran. Let’s be present in those well-ordered priorities. areas of the world in which we If we want to be effective we have can make a difference, just as in to start thinking out of the box. Banda Aceh or The Congo. The most urgent need is to Neigbourhood Policy support the democratisation Last but not least we have to efforts in countries which are in develop a robust neighbourhood the throes of dictatorships. In that policy. I have decided to talk about particular sphere the European it at the end as it constitutes my Parliament has just recently greatest concern. The EU will have proved its potential as a successful to reinforce its Neighbourhood policy initiator. I am thinking Policy, otherwise it will not have about the negotiations concern- any efficient means at its disposal ing the European Neighbourhood with which it could counter-react and Partnership Instrument, ENPI. the potential destabilisation of its The amendments that the EP has neighbourhood and put our submitted would change and security in jeopardy. The European improve the instrument. If Neighbourhood policy is a key adopted, they would allow for tool of Common Foreign and strengthening of civil society Security Policy and must be able to institutions over the heads of adapt to the changing world dictatorial regimes, which hitherto around us. It must be the first of was impossible, rendering all the many instruments leading efforts to help NGOs in countries towards a pro-active and truly such as Belarus, futile. Moreover, common European foreign policy. in exceptional cases, co-financing If we cannot work constructively will not be required; or it could be 208 Lectures

provided by the EU member states and between the Union and its instead of beneficiaries, thereby neighbourhood. circumventing the need to deal If we are serious about the EU with administrations of non- being a transformative, post- democratic states. Westphalian power, which gains Making Neighbourhood Policy influence through encouraging more relevant for creating a ring the internal transformation of of friends is synonymous not only societies rather than through with the strengthening of existing physical or military coercion, we EU policies but also the develop- have to be serious about our ment of new activities in response neighbourhood policy. We should to external challenges. Energy not do anything to undermine it. security is a good case in point. It We should not jump the gun and constitutes one of the domains take premature decisions concern- which clearly need action on the ing the borders of Europe. The EU level. We were recently made ENP should not be an anti- aware of the fact that the problem chamber of the EU, but we should of energy security does not leave the doors open and hence concern solely the area of industry demonstrate our solidarity. or economics. Energy has been Conclusions used as a weapon and hence The European Union was always should be considered in the based on the principle of solidari- context of foreign and security ty. Solidarity, both in an economic policy of the EU. and political sense, both internally The Union should undertake and externally, allowed the concrete steps aimed at diversifi- tackling of divisions, creating a cation of energy sources and sense of community and strength- supply. All the possible avenues ening the internal equilibrium. If aimed at enhancing the European we do not want to forsake the Union’s energy self-sufficiency very soul of European integration should be explored. we do have to protect and cherish Energy security should constitute the founding principles. If we one of the cornerstones of the want to remain true to ourselves, Neighbourhood Policy. Reality we have to strengthen this very calls for courage - close coopera- basic dimension of integration. tion in the energy field. The Otherwise we will dilute our possibility of sharing the energy aspirations into a simple reserves constitutes one of the free-trade area. I am sure that, most effective and indispensable despite the spirit shared by many confidence-building measures British tabloids, most of us would both within the European Union, not want such a scenario to materialise. 209 Review of the Session 2005-2006

Professor Adrienne Scullion, University of Glasgow, with students of the Department of Theatre, Film and Television Studies, University of Glasgow and of the School of Drama, Royal Scottish Academy of Music and Drama 25 August 2006 Picture it if yous will: the Ambitions of Scottish Political Theatre

Political theatre is theatre that is tally. But, if The Three Estates has marked by a need to engage with struggled to demonstrate contem- politics and to influence opinion. porary relevance, satire remains a This presentation demonstrated repeated and a familiar trope for that, in Scotland, there is a clear example in: Joe Corrie’s And so to tradition of theatre providing an War (1936), Robert McLellan’s The arena for political analysis and Flouers o’ Edinburgh (1948), debate. The lecture, which was Hector MacMillan’s The Sash illustrated by extracts from key (1973), and Iain Heggie’s scabrous plays, described three important King of Scotland (2000). aspects of Scottish political The 1920s and 1930s saw a huge theatre – satire, socialism and increase in the amount of theatre feminism – and made a comment being made in Scotland, in on post-Devolution politics and particular at community level and theatre. with political purpose. One of the Satire that challenges corruption most significant theatre groups of in the high places of society is a the time was the Glasgow feature of Scottish drama across Workers’ Theatre Group with a the centuries with Sir David repertoire that included: the first Lindsay’s Ane Satyre of the Thrie British production of Clifford Estaitis (1540, 1552, 1554), the Odets’s Waiting for Lefty (1937); most innovative and celebrated anti-fascist masques and pageants theatrical text of the Scottish in respect of the Spanish Civil Reformation, a celebrated point of War; mass declamations; living departure. Irreverently satirical in newspapers; and agit-prop pieces its day, the play’s politics and its such as Harry Trott’s UAB Scotland late-Medieval theatrical form (1940). In line with the company’s meant that it fell quickly out of declared goal to ‘reflect the lives ideological and theatrical fashion. of the workers’ UAB Scotland (the Arguably, the hard and urgent acronym stands for the Unem- politics of Lindsay’s political satire ployed Assistance Board) is about are lost to a modern audience for the social and economic depriva- whom politics, political process, tion of the Scottish working political debate and political people. Like all good political culture have changed fundamen- theatre, it demands the active

210 Lectures

involvement of the audience; Scotland – it changed where much of the text is presented in theatre went and what it was direct address – questioning and about. The Cheviot proclaimed challenging the audience. itself as a ‘people’s history’ – and UAB Scotland was GWTG’s last claimed authenticity through its production before it joined with archive research and use of four other leading left-wing primary sources. But, of course, amateur companies in Glasgow to the history on stage was a form one of the most significant mediated one, a history shaped of the Scottish political theatre for political purpose and impact. companies, Glasgow Unity. The Cheviot was a provocative, Glasgow Unity commissioned and counter history that celebrated the produced important new plays by experience and the culture of local writers that explicitly con- ordinary people and, in so doing, cerned the lived experience of challenged the idea of historical ordinary people. Unity’s splendid objectivity in favour of something catalogue of new writing includes much more politicised and active. James Barke’s Major Operation, The Cheviot was the paradigm of Ena Lamont Stewart’s Starched popular political theatre in the Aprons (1945) and Men Should 1970s. It shaped subsequent Weep (1947), and Robert work by 7:84 and Wildcat in the McLeish’s The Gorbals Story 1970s and 1980s but the success (1946). Several of these plays of The Cheviot was never were revived in the 1970s by 7:84 equalled. Theatre Company, along with Another key driver of modern Unity, one of the most important Scottish drama is feminism and a makers of political theatre in recognition that women have Scotland. been marginalised in the repre- The presentation introduced 7:84 sentations and the institutions of Theatre Company (Scotland) by Scottish theatre. way of Tom Buchan’s The Great For most of the Edwardian era, Northern Welly Boot Show and well into the 1920s, JM Barrie (1971), a bold and brash – if was the most important and somewhat neglected – example of successful playwright in Britain. modern agit-prop theatre that But, from that popular high, mixes music, humour and politics, Barrie fell into seemingly hopeless much like John McGrath’s most neglect. Recently however, Barrie’s famous play for 7:84 The Cheviot, work has become the subject of the Stag and the Black, Black Oil renewed interest. Nowhere is this (1973). The Cheviot was a new scrutiny more obvious than in production that changed and the changing attitudes toward his revitalised political theatre within 1908 play about politics and

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politicians, What Every Woman argued that this oppositional Knows. Barrie gives his heroine dynamic played a crucial role in Maggie great insight into the role that decade’s reframing of of women within her domestic Scottish national identity and it Scottish society and again later in has also been seen as a factor the public sphere of London. crucial in the final push towards Barrie was writing at a time when devolution, where the job of there were important and influen- political theatre shifts again. tial women working as actors and How Scotland’s playwrights have directors and producers in British responded to the challenge of theatre, but relatively few women imagining a new world and of playwrights were seeing their bringing it into being is a key work professionally or regularly question in an assessment of produced. Even today – and of contemporary Scottish theatre course with some very notable culture. The politics and the exceptions – women are dispro- identities of post-Devolution have portionately under-represented in been sought for and explored in a leadership roles in the Scottish wide variety of political dramas: theatre industry. Despite, or the vicious satire of Heggie’s King because of, that there is a strong of Scotland; the allusive metaphor raft of modern plays that place of Nicola McCartney’s Home women at their centre and that (2000); the subtle allegories of advocate a politics of feminism. David Greig’s Pyrenees (2005); the For example, Sue Glover’s 1991 black humour of Henry Adam’s play Bondagers recollects the lives The People Next Door (2003) and, of the peasant women who the heightened realism of Davey worked as cheap agricultural Anderson’s Snuff (2005) labourers in the border farms of Scottish playwrights have always the nineteenth century. Like all had a role in the political process, good history plays, Liz Lochhead’s in holding authority to account, in Mary Queen of Scots Got her advance issues of rights, of giving Head Chopped Off (1987) uses voice, of exploring issues of the past to make clear and collective and personal politics, of political comment on the present: inspiring collective action, of Mary Queen of Scots has a job of being an advocate for change. work to do in the politics of the Despite the perceived crisis of 1980s – not least in its dramatisa- political apathy and disengage- tion of oppositions, the ‘us and ment, despite the high-profile them’ tension – of Scotland not diminution of 7:84, Scottish being England – that seems to theatre still believes in politics underpin so much of the theatre and, indeed, still believes in and culture of that time. Some have engages with the political process.

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Professor Michael Lightner President, Institute of Electronic & Electronics Engineers (IEEE) 31 August 2006 Cognitive Assistive Technology: An Emerging Discipline

On 31 August 2006, Professor capacity to think, or conceptualise, Michael Lightner presented a plan, remember, interpret subtle keynote address at the RSE on social cues or manipulate num- ‘Cognitive Assistive Technology’. bers and symbols. Such difficulties Professor Lightner is the 2006 inevitably lead to stigma and President of the IEEE, which is discrimination, social isolation headquartered in New York. The and emotional problems, difficulty IEEE is the world’s largest organi- in communicating, poverty and sation of professional engineers, unemployment, and a growing with some 374,000 members in digital divide. over 150 countries. Assistive technology devices are In addition to being President of used to maintain or improve the the IEEE, Professor Lightner is functional capabilities of individu- Professor and Chair of Electrical als, and associated services assist and Computer Engineering, at the individuals with disabilities in the University of Colorado in Boulder, selection, acquisition or use of and the Co-Director of the devices. According to the demo- Rehabilitation Engineering graphics in 2003, 21.3 million Research Center for the Advance- people in the US have cognitive ment of Cognitive Technologies. disabilities, with 22% suffering In a wide-ranging lecture, Profes- from mental retardation; 27% sor Lightner gave an in-depth from traumatic brain injuries; presentation on the issues facing 27% have mental illness; 4% are individuals with cognitive disabili- stroke victims; and 20% struggle ties and covered the range of with Alzheimer’s disease /demen- tools available to provide assist- tia. On a world-wide basis, in 64 ance. He presented a world of the Developed nations some perspective on current research on 124 million suffer cognitive the subject, and identified the disabilities, and close to 425 unusual challenges and rewards million in 111 developing nations. that accrue from the research. A study by the World Bank in 2000 identified that the total He gave a background to cogni- annual value of GDP lost recently tive difficulties as represented by a due to disability is in the region of substantial limitation in the $1 trillion in high income coun-

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tries, and about $0.5 trillion in the Technologies and Brain Interface rest of the world. Technologies. There have been major Disability The Personal Support Technolo- Rights Initiatives - the Americans gies offer assistance with activities with Disabilities Act (1990), the of daily living, such as handling Australian Disability Discrimina- money/finances, healthcare, and tion Act (1993), and the UK nutritional support, through task Disability Discrimination Act prompting that include auditory (1995). and visual cues and stimuli. An Against this backdrop, there are (electronic) Visual Assistant has critical factors influencing the been developed that provides demand for and the provision of powerful task-prompting support support services. These include by including digital pictures and ageing caregivers, increased custom-recorded audio messages longevity and workforce poverty. A to deliver step-by-step support. study in 2002 identified that over Professor Lightner gave a highly 60% of caregivers in the US were effective demonstration of a over 40 years of age; the longevity Visual Assistant developed at the of people with mental retardation University of Colorado, Boulder had increased from 59.1 years in that assisted with fairly complex the 1970s to 66.2 years in 1993 tasks, based on a PDA and a and is currently on par with the computer screen, and of a ‘Pocket their caregivers. The workforce Coach’ that gave audio prompts, poverty is reflected in the fact that with a simple-to-use interface. whereas all workers in the US Professor Lightner further dis- receive compensation at the rate cussed ‘Assisted Cognition of $15.63 per hour, this compares Systems’ that are proactive with $8.68 for community problem-solving aids that help an workers in support of the people individual with performing day-to- with mental retardardation (US day tasks, by sensing an Bureau of Statistics, 2003). individual’s location and environ- Against the backdrop of such ment, relying on a range of forthright statistics, Professor sensors, such as GPS, motion Lightner made a compelling case detectors, and other computing for the need for innovative infrastructure; learning to inter- solutions and the development of pret patterns of everyday new tools and systems for behaviour, recognising signs of Assistive Technologies. He then distress, disorientation or confu- presented the results of novel sion, using techniques from research on Personal Support machine learning; offering help to Technologies, Assisted Care patients through verbal interven- System Technologies, Virtual tions; and, if required, alerting 214 Lectures

caregivers in the case of danger. instance of the work of Professor He then illustrated a system Sumi Helal at the University of developed at the University of Florida that is devoted to the Washington, called Web-trek that development of technologies in offers an easy-to-use Web the Smart Home. An architecture browser that interfaces with a for supporting smart technologies home computer, and a ‘wearable’ in assisted living settings by system developed at the Georgia researchers at the University of Tech Research Institute, called Colorado was also mentioned. Virtual Voices, both specially Here a Three-Tier Smart Support devised for individuals with Approach is being taken, where cognitive disabilities. the first Tier provides Resident He highlighted ‘Assisted Care Centred support systems that system Technologies’ that work offer Personal Technologies for within assisted care environments, self directed living; the Second encompass Smart Home technolo- Tier System represents Direct care gies, include transportation support systems, where technolo- support, and empower the entire gies track residents’ needs and support network, not just the prompt care-givers to provide individual. These technologies appropriate support; and the become increasingly important Third Tier is based on a Knowl- when set in the context of the edge Management system with change in support systems from the objective of evaluating direct residential care in State institu- care support, improvement of tions to settings that include policies and procedures, and the between one and six patients. This training of direct care staff. trend has led to the development While recognising the efficacy of of highly sophisticated systems, Smart Homes, Professor Lightner under the banner of ‘Digital Home raised the issue of dependency on technologies for Aging in Place’ the accuracy of sensors, the by organisations such as Intel, observation systems and even the using advanced communication power systems providing support systems, smart sensors, software to individuals. infrastructure, and comprehensive The Lecture was followed by a actuators. These systems provide lively question and answer technologies that support session, where questions ranged personal health and wellness from the aspects of specific activities, support informal family technology or sensor design, and friends care networks, and network management, to more telemedicine environments for philosophical considerations of remote diagnosis and virtual the dependency on virtual support physician visits. He gave an and remote monitoring.

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Magnus Magnusson Hon KBE FRSE 20 September 2006 The Vikings and Scotland: The Northern World and its Significance for Scotland Part of the RSE/Norwegian Academy Vikings and Scotland Conference

In a conference that aimed to Dr Magnusson believed that we assess the impact and influence of were getting nearer to answering the Vikings on Scotland, it was some of these questions, mainly fitting that the symposium should through the work of scholars who be opened by a scholar who had would be presenting over the devoted a large part of his life to following days. the topic. Ending his lecture he admitted In his informative and entertain- that he found great solace in ing lecture Dr Magnusson remembering that in a time when outlined the swathe of scholarly Ghengis Khan was trying to approaches and methodologies subjugate the western world by utilised in the pursuit of under- the sword, Snorri Sturluson in his standing the Viking period lonely study in the south of throughout the 19th, 20th and Iceland was trying to subjugate 21st centuries, and the different the northern world by the power interpretations that emerged from of the word. This allusion epito- them. mised the power of the academic In this opening lecture, and the conference, and the studies that discussion that followed, it was followed. fitting that many of the issues The full conference report (ISBN raised would provide the founda- 978 0 902198 20 3) is available tions for the whole conference. on the RSE Website, and a Were the Vikings saints or summary appears in this publica- sinners? Heroes or villains? tion, on page 242. Settlers or invaders? Raiders or traders? Pillagers or poets?

216 CONFERENCES, WORKSHOPS, SYMPOSIA, SEMINARS AND DISCUSSION FORUMS Conference Creation of Wealth 16 November 2005 Supported by Bank of Scotland

“For the last ten years, the rate of growth in the Scottish economy has continued to fall below the rate for the UK as a whole. Manufactured exports are down and the number of new business start-ups remains amongst the lowest of the UK regions. What can be done to remedy the situation and create a vibrant and successful Scottish economy?” Conference Chairman, Gavin downturn in the electronics sector. McCrone, RSE General Secretary, This had wider implications for welcomed delegates by noting the the Scottish economy as a whole, way in which the work of The given the export orientation of the Royal Society of Edinburgh has sector, and Scottish exports had always sought to pursue work on fallen by 20% in recent years. social sciences and public policy Competition from the new EU alongside scientific enquiry. There Member States for foreign were positive signs in the Scottish investment would be intense. It economy: output per head was on was therefore important to seek a par with the average of the 15 to achieve more from internal states in the pre-2004 EU and was efforts. The Scottish business birth well above that of the enlarged rate had been among the lowest EU; the service sector, now 70% of of the UK regions, but the climate the Scottish economy, was very was changing and there were buoyant; employment levels were remarkable success stories. The very high; and for the first time in key was to focus on skills develop- many years there was a net ment and having the right immigration to Scotland. But in environment and infrastructure to the last ten years economic support the development of growth had fallen behind that of entrepreneurship. the UK as a whole - in 1996 The programme for the day Scottish GDP per head was 100% comprised of the UK average, but this had now fallen to 96%. Wendy Alexander MSP. The Role of Government (in Wealth The main cause for concern was Creation) manufacturing, which had grown well until 2000, but had fallen by Dennis Stevenson CBE, Chairman, 13% since then, largely due to the HBOS plc. Scotland’s Finance Sector

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Jim McColl OBE, Chairman and Scottish cities are proving attrac- Chief Executive, Clyde Blowers. tive places to live and work in Industry world terms, although more could Rt Hon Brian Wilson. Energy be done to improve the infrastruc- ture and the skills base. But the Sir Alan Langlands FRSE, Principal implications of possible takeovers and Vice-Chancellor, University of of Scottish-based companies Dundee. Education should be considered. Douglas Anderson, Founder and Current energy policy, or the lack Vice-Chairman, Optos Plc. Indus- of one, is absurd. There is a need try for a proper debate on the future Professor Jane Bower FRSE, Chair of key energy sources such as coal in Enterprise Management, and nuclear. University of Dundee. Education - The Optos story shows that The Innovation Support System persistence is necessary to win Dr John Brown, Chairman, BIA through. The Health Service Scotland. Biotechnology should take more interest in new products and techniques. Conclusions Universities are already playing an Although manufacturing has important role in economic declined in recent years, there are development and a joined-up nevertheless real success stories approach could achieve more by which give grounds for optimism. retaining and attracting back The challenge now is to reproduce more graduates in specialist similar success stories across the disciplines, and leading to more economy. We need more glo- innovation. balised companies such as Clyde Blowers and for people to seize There are too many complicated the real opportunities that lie in Government initiatives and it is new industries such as Bio time for a return to a simpler and industry. more consistent approach. Education policy should be We need to move from being a refined to place more emphasis risk-averse society to one which on basic skills, vocational training actively encourages risk taking. A and subjects such as maths, change in public attitudes to sciences and modern languages. entrepreneurship should be pursued, and the overall approach The business environment for the of the public sector to encourag- financial sector is strong and ing entrepreneurship revised.

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Conference Nanomedicines of the Future 18 November 2005 Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic.

The meeting represented a Distinguished speakers from singular opportunity that enabled Scotland and the Czech Republic leading experts, researchers and addressed strategically important commentators from Scotland and topics and explored emerging the Czech Republic to come areas of mutual scientific and together to: discuss and learn technical interest. The meeting about recent advances in this offered an exceptional platform to rapidly changing area; establish discuss current developments and international ties; and explore to chart future directions. Specific avenues for future exchange and themes covered included advances collaboration. Both The Royal in self-assembly and nanomedi- Society of Edinburgh and The cine fabrication, nanomedicines Academy of Sciences of the Czech and the cell and nanomedicines Republic saw the meeting as a for cancer. welcome occasion for the devel- A full report is available on the opment of long-term ties and an RSE website. important vehicle for generating collaborative initiatives.

219 Review of the Session 2005-2006

Natural Disasters Discussion Forum Earth, Wind, Fire & Water: Tsumani Supported by Heriot-Watt University Thursday 1 December 2005

Tsunami was the first of four that the generation of the Indian meetings in the Society’s Natural Ocean tsunami that occurred on Disaster Series – Earth, Wind, Fire Boxing Day 2004 was the result of and Water. an earthquake that registered Three related presentations were force 9 on the Richter Scale with delivered by Dr Chris Browitt, an epicentre just of the coast of Fellow of the Society; Diane Indonesia. Johnson, Programme Director, Diane Johnston discussed the role Mercy Corps; and Julia Horton, of Mercy Corps in providing aid Feature Writer, the Edinburgh following the 2004 tsunami. In Evening News. early 2005, Diane was based in Chris Browitt explained the Banda Aceh in Sumatra, Indone- seismic origins of tsunami. A sub- sia, one of the worst affected sea earthquake in the deep ocean areas. Shortly after her arrival, it causes vertical displacement of the became apparent that people Earth’s crust and lifts the overlying didn’t need more “stuff” but, water column. The movement can money to help rebuild their lives. be relatively small but the large This prompted Mercy Corps to plan area lifted means the volume implement the Cash for Work of water displaced is considerable. Programme, where those partici- The resulting tsunami is a long, pating were paid $3/day to low amplitude wave that moves undertake clean up tasks, includ- out rapidly (in excess of 500 Km/h) ing removing debris and burying in all directions from the earth- bodies. Paying out cash in this quake’s epicentre. When the wave way represented a major depar- reaches the shore, its energy ture from the type of support becomes concentrated. As this normally provided by aid agencies. high energy, high amplitude wave At the peak of activity Mercy breaks, it causes catastrophic Corps was spending $1 million/ damage: killing people, destroy- month on the Cash for Work ing buildings, grounding boats Programme. A natural develop- and scouring vegetation from the ment of this approach was the land. Chris went on to explain follow on Early Return Pro-

220 Conferences, Workshops, Symposia, Seminars and Discussion Forums gramme, where displaced people than real life: 280,000 people were paid to leave the refugee killed and 2,000,000 made camps and return to their home homeless in 13 countries. Second- area and start the clean up and ly, Christmas time is a quiet news rebuilding process in these period so the event received locations. Once people began to extensive coverage by the UK return to their home areas it was media. Finally, the fact that necessary to change the emphasis popular holiday destinations were of the aid programme through affected meant that most people introduction of the Livelihoods could identify with the event, Programme, the Social Revitalisa- either by having visited the resorts tion Programme and the Financial themselves or through knowing Access Programme. people who had holidayed in the The Livelihoods Programme resorts. As a consequence an included a boat moving project, unprecedented £265 million was where stranded fishing boats raised in public donations to the were returned to the sea. The tsunami relief fund by the end of Social Revitalisation Programme February 2005. Reporting from funded the reconstruction of the disaster area brought its own social infrastructure: mosques, challenges. When on the ground, schools, cultural activities, sport- the scale of the disaster was ing activities and local midwives; impossible to take in, only from whereas the Financial Access the air could one begin to get a Programme involved Mercy Corps sense of the area of land and acting as the financial guarantor number of people involved. for bank loans of around Language translation was particu- $200,000 to re-establish larger larly difficult as many people industries. spoke a local Indonesian dialect. Interviewing often required two Julia Horton travelled to Banda interpreters to translate from Aceh with Edinburgh Evening English to Indonesian to the local News photographer Kate Gillan dialect and back. The level of shortly after the tsunami to intrusive media coverage was also support the paper’s appeal to a concern, although most locals raise £0.5 million to support welcomed this, recognising it as Mercy Corps’ aid effort. Julia the cost of securing outside recounted the reason that the assistance to deal with the disaster had had such a major aftermath of the disaster. impact on the British public. Firstly, the scale of the devastation During her visit Julia witnessed meant that news coverage was the positive impact of Mercy more akin to a Hollywood movie Corps’ cash for work programmes,

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providing not just financial The most active discussion assistance but also raising self surrounded the need to develop a esteem and providing emotional tsunami warning system for the support. Highlights included the Indian Ocean. The 2004 event was sight of scores of fishermen picked up by the Pacific Ocean laughing and singing as they Tsunami Warning System located manhandled large fishing boats on Hawaii; however, the combina- back to the sea. tion of the short time between the Julia will return to Banda Aceh on earthquake occurring and the the anniversary of the tsunami to tsunami reaching shore (15 report on how the recovery is minutes in the case of Sumatra), progressing. and the lack of a suitable warning infrastructure meant little could Discussion be done in most regions. Warn- A lively debate followed the ings reached Kenya and Somalia presentations, including discus- whose distance from the epicentre sion on: the probability of the provided around 7 hours ad- occurrence of natural disasters, vanced notice of the wave’s arrival. difficulties in co-ordinating relief In Kenya, an existing communica- work when multiple NGOs and tion system, used to alert the military organisations are in- population to coastal storm volved, the need for clear and surges, was activated and the loss effective communication with the of life was limited to one person. public, and making aid provision Conversely, in neighbouring conditional on the implementa- Somalia where no such communi- tion of sustainable solutions. cation system exists 300 lives were lost. The meeting concluded that tsunami warning systems are now practical and effective and should be constructed in all tsunami- prone areas.

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Discussion Forum - Science Meets Religion Professor Simon Conway Morris FRS Professor of Evolutionary Palaeobiology, Cambridge University Professor Wentzel van Huysteen James I McCord Professor of Theology and Science, Princeton Theological Seminary, USA Monday 23 January 2006

The history of relations between human evolution, but not in a science and religion is often manner that was conflicting or assumed to be one of conflict. It is adversarial. A large audience not difficult to find recent exam- gathered to listen to two distin- ples that reinforce this impression. guished academics speaking from The ruling of Judge Jones that their different disciplinary per- intelligent design theory cannot spectives. It was the conviction of be taught as science in York both Professor Wentzel van County, Pennsylvania has high- Huyssteen and Simon Conway lighted the considerable Morris that science and religion, opposition to the acceptance of while having their own discourses evolutionary science in large and domains of study, could stretches of America. Similarly, the interact in ways that were mutual- current Channel 4 series fronted ly instructive. by Richard Dawkins has shown a range of religious extremists from For van Huyssteen, the Edinburgh around the planet whose view- Gifford Lecturer in 2004, the points propound the thesis that scientific account of human science is fair and reasonable evolution sheds light on how and while religion is obscurantist, anti- why religion emerged as a central intellectual and disposed towards component of culture long before violence. Yet, in viewing this, many the emergence of the world’s scientists will balk at the meta- major religions. Dating from the physical assumptions that are upper palaeolithic period, the cave attributed to their disciplines, paintings at Lascaux in France while the vast majority of the suggest that the religious imagi- adherents of every major world nation is endemic to human religion disown and condemn societies that have the capacity for those who are selected to repre- symbolic means of communica- sent them. tion. The traditional theological notion that human beings are The ‘Science meets Religion’ created in the image of God Forum at the RSE focused upon resonates with this. Yet what we

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mean by the image of God needs organisation. Convergence to be less abstract than some implies that biological evolution traditional constructions that have was subject to rather tight limited this merely to conscious- ‘constraints’. Conway Morris drew ness or the possession of a a number of implications from rational soul. A more embodied these observations during his talk and social account of human and in subsequent discussions. uniqueness is required to accom- First, the emergence of sentient modate insights from earlier beings like ourselves is an evolu- evolutionary history. Van Huyss- tionary inevitability once the teen’s argument will be further simplest life forms had taken developed in his forthcoming shape. Secondly, wholesale volume Alone in the World: genetic manipulation may be Science and Theology on Human much more dangerous than its Uniqueness. proponents and supporters want Conway Morris, who will be the to admit: convergence implies that Edinburgh Gifford Lecturer in it simply is not the case that 2007, gave a summary of the ‘anything goes’ when it comes to phenomenon of evolutionary putting together viable organ- convergence, whereby broadly isms. Finally, since evolution has similar ‘solutions’ (e.g. ‘sabre repeatedly led to the emergence teeth’) to the same ‘problem’ of ‘solutions’ that reflect the (‘tearing meat’) arose independ- structure of reality (‘constraints’), it ently many times. Instances of is rational to take seriously the convergence range from the level emergence of religious beliefs in of single biomolecules, through humans. metabolic pathways to whole organs, intelligence and social

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Conference Languages in Scotland : what's the problem? 24th March 2006

The Scottish Executive has invest- languages as a life skill for ed substantial sums in language Scotland and its people. teaching in Scottish schools – The conference began with an much more, pro rata, than is spent overview of challenges and best in England. Nevertheless, the practice from representatives of numbers of Scottish secondary the Scottish Executive, HM school students being entered for Inspectorate of Education, the examination in modern languages British Council, the European at Higher level are falling, and of Commission and the Scottish those presented there are 50% Centre for Information on fewer boys than girls. In addition, Language Teaching and Research there is a noticeable decline in the (Scottish CILT). The second session numbers of school students focused on “languages at work”, taking more than one foreign covering the personal experience language. of Scots who have used foreign The RSE found these facts particu- languages in their careers and larly worrying in the context of innovative approaches to lan- ‘globalisation’ in all its forms, and guage teaching using modern decided to organise a one-day technology. The third session conference. looked at what is currently being The title of the conference, done in schools in the state and “Languages in Scotland – What’s private sectors (including Gaelic the Problem?”, was chosen to medium education) and in stimulate a wide-ranging discus- institutions of Further and Higher sion of two questions: first, is Education. there really a problem in language Provisional conclusions teaching and learning in Scotland One day’s discussion was suffi- and, second, if so, what is the cient only to scratch the surface of problem? Specifically, the confer- the topic. Indeed, it became clear ence aimed to examine the current that we were talking, not about a challenges and best practice of single problem, but a range of teaching and learning modern problems, some of which (but not languages in Scotland, and the all) are interrelated. economic and cultural value of

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On the positive side the confer- to communicate in Chinese and ence showed that Scotland is not, other Asian languages is of as some would suggest, a mono- benefit to the European economy lingual culture. We are not, as a as well as the Scottish economy people, irretrievably condemned and in this respect, and many to linguistic incompetence. Those others, Scotland is strengthened of our speakers, predominantly by our ethnic minorities. Scottish-born, who use other On the negative side the confer- languages successfully, both at ence showed that we do not seem work and in their daily life, are not to value knowledge of other all university graduates, far less languages as a life skill that is, modern languages graduates. economically as well as culturally, What they showed was an vital to the success of Scotland enthusiasm for languages as an and its people. Those who see added dimension to their rela- themselves as Scotland’s wealth- tions with and understanding of creators played almost no part in other people, as well as a realisa- our debate and have contributed tion that dealing with other very little to promoting language people in their own language is teaching and learning, Financially commercially and professionally or otherwise. Is it creditable that rewarding and sometimes the Partners in Excellence project essential. The notion that we do (see presentation 11) should come not need to know other languag- to an end for lack of funding es because everyone else can because the Executive feels bound speak English impoverishes our to direct funds elsewhere? young people. It is easy to be enthusiastic about The conference also showed how the resources of modern technol- the resources of audio-visual ogy. But, from the point of view of technology – now increasingly school-teachers, such resources accessible – can be used to are useful only to the extent that stimulate interest in languages funds are available to purchase and skill in using them. We will them and, almost more important, not easily forget the video-clip of that the teachers themselves are students in a Scottish school given time and opportunity to playing Blind Date in Japanese. learn how to use them. And, for Languages can become a ‘fun’ good or ill, the skills acquired at part of the curriculum without school must be capable of being surrendering academic value or examined and graded. rigour. Students’ subject choices depend Nor is the issue purely one of on which subjects offer the best European languages. The ability

226 Conferences, Workshops, Symposia, Seminars and Discussion Forums chance of getting good grades. Is process from nursery onwards. there a tension between teaching This goes well beyond the remit of languages as a practical skill and the Scottish Executive Education preparing students for examina- Department. It is a strategic tions whose content depends, at challenge for the Scottish popula- least in part, on what universities tion as a whole, especially those expect that students should have who have influence in the public learned? Do the ‘literary’ aspects and private sectors. of language examinations The conference did not have time dissuade students who, rightly or to consider a number of other wrongly, find them difficult or questions that suggested them- uncongenial? selves to us at the planning stage. Perhaps the most important For example, how important is an message to come out of the understanding of grammatical conference is that ‘the problem’ is structure to a student’s capacity to not just a technical one concern- absorb other languages? In this ing the place of languages in the respect, it would be interesting to school curriculum and the find out whether children from examination system. For many the ethnic minorities, many of people, the Further Education whom speak a non-Indo-Europe- Colleges will play a more signifi- an language at home and English cant role in promoting language at school, find it easier than their competence as an acquired skill classmates to assimilate French, than will the schools or the German or Spanish. universities. On the other hand, Again, to what extent are Scottish there is no doubt that the earlier a researchers working with col- child becomes accustomed to leagues in other countries hearing and speaking more than hampered by lack of language one language, the more natural it skills? Ideas are exchanged over will be for him or her to regard coffee, lunch and dinner, as well language proficiency as a normal as in meetings or the laboratory. part of life. Equally, lively and Anyone who is accustomed to energetic language departments working with colleagues in other in the universities are essential to countries knows from experience produce the language teachers of how easy it is to be ‘excluded’ tomorrow. from an interesting conversation So there is no one problem and when the hosts, without intend- no one solution. We need to ing to exclude, revert to their own consider how language teaching language. We need to remember and learning can best be integrat- that, even if English be the ed in the life-long learning universal medium of communica-

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tion – a notion that was chal- On behalf of the RSE, we would lenged at the conference – there is like to thank all those who were no inherent reason why others involved in planning and organis- should find it easier to speak our ing the conference and those who language than we do theirs. took time to prepare papers and Properly understood, language to speak at the conference itself. skills are an integral part of the Particular thanks are due to so-called ‘knowledge economy’. Professor Richard Johnstone, who We need to ask more questions was involved in all aspects of the and collect more data in order to event, to the Rapporteurs Hannah understand the full range of the Doughty and Catriona Oates who problems discussed at the prepared this report, and to the conference. As a first step, the RSE members of staff of the RSE, proposes to collect the statistical especially Frances Fowler, Jean data that are currently lacking in Finlayson and Morven Chisholm. order to build an accurate picture RONA MACKIE/ DAVID EDWARD of language teaching, language Convener RSE International learning and language skills Committee / Convener RSE generally in Scotland. We wel- European Policy Forum come information and ideas from all those who are interested. A full report of the conference (ISBN: 0 902198 10 6) can be dowloaded from the RSE website.

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Lloyds TSB Discussion Forum - Ageing Population 26 April 2006

In 1999 the Lloyds TSB Foundation for Scotland decided to fund research into human ageing and entered into a partnership with the Royal Society of Edinburgh (RSE) to identify research proposals that had the potential to improve the quality of life of our ageing population. Since then, the Foundation has invested £2.4 million in projects covering a wide range of activities including the the medical, psychological, sociological and eco- nomic consequences of ageing. Awards are made annually for three-year postgraduate studentships, three- year postdoctoral research fellowships and one-year sabbatical fellowships. This symposium heard details of work carried out by one current and three former recipients of the awards. It demonstrates the important contribution that this partnership between the Lloyds TSB Foundation and the RSE is making in advancing our understanding of the ageing process and its impact on millions of people around the world.

The application of information the imaginative application of and communication technology technology and, crucially, the to alleviate the effects of active involvement of potential dementia. users at every stage of the re- Dr Norman Alm, Support search process. Fellow from April 2000 – March · Improving safety – injuries 2001. Department of Comput- caused by falling in the home ing, University of Dundee. are a significant problem Dr Alm and colleagues have been among older people, particular- investigating how computer- ly those with dementia. They are based technology can help a major cause of older people support and improve the lives of losing their independence and people with dementia. That has having to move into a residen- involved work in four specific tial home. It is important, areas – improving personal safety; therefore, to try to prevent falls memory prompting; aiding and to move in quickly once communication; and providing they occur. Dr Alm’s team has entertainment. He said it involved developed a ceiling-mounted

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camera and computer software ably successful in helping both that can track a person around a people with dementia and their room and raise an alert should carers. they fall. The software learns to · Providing entertainment – work recognise areas where the in this area was prompted by a person may be stationary for dementia expert who urged the long periods (such as sitting in a team to help people with chair) and other areas where dementia have fun. The chal- lack of movement is a cause for lenge has been to develop an concern. entertainment system that can · Memory prompting – a system be used and enjoyed by people that can prompt people with who have no memory. Work on dementia to carry out basic daily this is still in the early stages living tasks has the potential to but, like CIRCA, it is based on a improve their lives. Dr Alm touch screen format. The team explained the work going on in has developed an “explorable Dundee to develop such a garden” using computer system that could be delivered graphics that can be navigated through interactive television. around by using the touch He said there are many ques- screen. Users can visit the tions that still need to be garden pond to see fish addressed to make this techni- swimming around, see the birds cally possible and this work is in the trees, plant seeds in a continuing. greenhouse or do some work in · Aiding communication – a shed. dementia destroys short term Dr Alm said funding from the memory and makes conversa- Lloyds TSB Foundation had helped tion difficult with those to start much of this work. affected. However, their long Discussions are continuing with term memory can be relatively commercial manufacturers about well preserved. The Dundee making some of the products team has developed a system available for sale to public known as CIRCA that can tap organisations and individuals to into these long term memories ensure the greatest possible and promote positive communi- benefit. All this work has relied on cation around what happened the contribution of many different in the past. It is a large touch- professionals including computer screen system that can be used scientists, mathematicians, to view old photographs, listen psychologists, software engineers, to music or watch video. Dr Alm multi-media designers and even said it has proved to be remark- actors who were involved in testing the safety technology. 230 Conferences, Workshops, Symposia, Seminars and Discussion Forums

The molecular and genetic basis oesteocytes. The aim of Dr Mann’s of ageing and disease related research is to find ways of main- changes in the functional taining these cells as we age. adaptation of bone. It involves laboratory experiments Dr Val Mann. Personal Fellow on bone donated by patients after since October 2003. Scottish orthopaedic operations. Frag- Mechanotransduction Unit, ments of bone are subjected to University of Edinburgh stress similar to that induced by Bone strength diminishes as exercise to study how new bones people age and the risk of cells are formed. This has shown fractures increases. One in two that bone that is not exercised women and one in five men over loses oesteocytes at a faster rate the age of 50 can expect to suffer than bone that is exercised. That is a fracture. Spinal and hip fractures a clear message of the benefits of are the most common. It is a regular exercise in maintaining problem that costs the NHS an skeletal strength. However, Dr estimated £1.7 billion a year in Mann said exercise is not an the UK and has a serious impact option for many elderly people on the quality of life of affected due to illness. However, if the individuals. Half of all hip fracture signalling process that determines patients, for example, lose the the new formation of bone can be ability to live independently. identified it could lead to the development of therapeutic drugs Dr Mann’s work is involved in that could have some effect on studying the self repairing bone degeneration. properties of normal, healthy bones to see if this can point to Certain genes are known to be ways to prevent bone degenera- involved in this reaction and Dr tion in the elderly. She said bone Mann and colleagues have is the ultimate smart engineering searched 38,000 genes and been system and is ideally adapted for able to narrow it down to 260. its function, being both light and This is the first time that genes strong. It responds to stress where have been discovered in human it is needed which explains why bone that are responsive to footballers’ legs, tennis players’ exercise, she said. They are the arms and gymnasts’ wrists all have ones that may offer a target for greater concentrations of bone. It new therapies. is this ability to respond to stress The award from the RSE/Lloyds and self repair that is lost as TSB Foundation has been impor- people age and research has tant in progressing this work, she shown that is related to a reduc- added and had provided a tion in specific bone cells, called springboard to obtain additional

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funding for the research. Reduc- member of a reading club. The ing age-related fracture risk is general conclusion from research extremely important and these studies is that people who are developments may offer a new more active show preserved way forward in helping to abilities into older age. However, strengthen bone in old age. most of these studies have looked Predictors of successful ageing: at participation in activities at a findings from the longitudinal fixed point in time rather than follow-up of the Lothian Birth over the course of their lifetime. It Cohort 1921 may be that there is a cumulative effect going back as far as an Dr Alan Gow. Postgraduate individual’s youth. Student from October 2002 – September 2005. Department Dr Gow and colleagues have been of Psychology, University of trying to address some of these Edinburgh issues through the Lothian Birth Cohort 1921. This is a unique Our cognitive powers, such as group of people who sat a mental thinking and memory skills, ability test in 1932, along with decline as we age. This is a major every other 11-year-old in Scot- contributor to loss of independ- land. Their test score from that ence in later life. However, there is time can be compared with today a huge variation between individ- to track levels of decline. Lifestyle uals, with some older people factors can also be studied to maintaining these cognitive identify any potential differences powers well into old age. Dr Gow between members of the group. said this suggest there may be protective factors that promote In 2000, 550 members of the healthy and successful ageing. cohort were recruited, aged 79, These could include genetic and and asked to sit the same mental medical influences; educational ability test they completed in background; and lifestyle and 1932. This exercise was repeated psychosocial factors. He said four years later when they were lifestyle and psychosocial factors aged 83. The average test scores are important as they are poten- at age 79 and 83 showed only a tially modifiable. small change but the research team was interested in what may A recent review has suggested be causing that change. The that people who are more active members of the group were asked may show reduced decline in later about the frequency of participa- life. Activity In this context can tion in 17 different activities and mean any physical, social or assessed in terms of intellectual intellectual pursuit such as engagement, physical activity, golfing, playing bridge or being a

232 Conferences, Workshops, Symposia, Seminars and Discussion Forums walking behaviour and member- The importance of social ship of groups or clubs. They were support networks for people also asked to rate how active they with dementia. had been at age 20-35, 40-55 Dr Heather Wilkinson. Personal and 60-75. Fellow from October 2001 – The results showed that people December 2003. Centre for who scored well on the mental Research on Families and ability test were a bit more active Relationships, University of and more likely to be intellectually Edinburgh engaged. A scoring system was Dr Wilkinson had been working in developed to assess factors that the field of dementia for a may be important in the small number of years before being decline recorded from ages 79-83 awarded the RSE/Lloyds TSB and the only factor that was Fellowship. She described it as a found to be statistically significant tremendous opportunity that was walking behaviour. The allowed her time to build up a people who walked a lot declined broad picture of the important less. social issues facing people with Dr Gow accepted that walking dementia. She was able to follow may not be the cause of this up a group of newly diagnosed reduced decline as it may simply individuals and their carers for indicate that those who walk a lot two years or more to find out lead healthier, more active lives. what life was like for them after The study is continuing to track being diagnosed. members of the 1921 cohort over She said diagnosis is crucial, even time and the longer they are though the illness has a lot of followed up, the more certain stigma surrounding it. Getting a researchers can be about the diagnosis is essential to the social factors that may protect people well being of the person with against decline in later years. dementia, as it allows a real process of engagement to begin to help them deal with it. Despite this, there is a problem both in Scotland and around the world in getting the condition diagnosed. Dr Wilkinson’s work has shown the serious impact dementia can have on relationships. Some of the couples in her study had been together for 30-40 years or longer and had a very long established

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way of life. That was destroyed by where everything happens. She is dementia. She described the now developing a Dementia and period immediately after diagno- Social Relationships research sis as a time of trauma as couples programme to take forward these re-negotiated their roles. This ideas. In addition to people with could also be a period of fear, dementia, it will focus on people resulting in carers and the person with learning disabilities who are with dementia withdrawing from more likely to suffer from demen- each other for a time. Risk also tia-related conditions. Policy and had to be re-assessed and, often, practice responses need to be people were denied tasks they grounded within a more detailed had carried out for years because understanding of the impact of these activities were now consid- dementia on families and relation- ered too risky. Giving up driving, ships, Dr Wilkinson concluded. for example, could be a big issue Summary for men. Professor John Coggins, Vice- She said people with dementia are President of the RSE, thanked all one of the most excluded groups four speakers for an illuminating in society because of the nature of series of presentations. He said the condition itself and the the purpose of the symposium response of other people. This was to showcase the wide range raises important issues for of activities that has been funded research, policy and practice. It by the Lloyds TSB Foundation. also poses questions about how That diversity shone through and, best to meet the financial, social, although the presentations emotional and health issues related to very different areas of created by progressive cognitive work, it was possible to see impairment. The need for answers connections across all four. One of will become ever more pressing as the intentions behind the partner- it is estimated there will be ship between the RSE and the 855,000 people with dementia in Lloyds TSB Foundation was to the UK by 2020. The financial invest in work that may, in the costs associated with dementia past, have struggled to secure are already high and rising as are funding. He said he hoped the the emotional and human costs. audience agreed that the partner- Dr Wilkinson said the best people ship has stimulated some of these to decide on what is needed are areas and produced interesting people with dementia themselves. findings along the way. It also Solutions also need to be set remains clear, however, that there within a framework of families are a huge number of unan- and relationships because that is swered questions and much work remains to be done. 234 Conferences, Workshops, Symposia, Seminars and Discussion Forums

Caledonian Research Foundation International Conference Beyond the Human Genome: Deciphering Biology and Disease Thursday 27 and Friday 28 April 2006

In his book ‘What Mad Pursuit’, emerging as important disease Francis Crick says ‘…for at least mechanisms. several billion years…the double − Repeated sequences, often helix has been there, and active, dismissed as junk DNA, have and yet we are the first creatures important consequences for on Earth to become aware of its genome stability and gene existence.’ function. Fifty years after becoming aware − High throughput screens for of its existence, we have deter- gene and protein function are mined its sequence, thereby identifying new cellular path- opening a completely new chapter ways and new targets for cancer in biomedical research. The goal therapies. now is to understand how the DNA sequence programmes the − Proteins that appear to have a complex functions that are general role in the cell may have needed for the development of additional specificfunctions cells, tissues and organisms. which might be relevant to During this meeting 17 interna- disease. tionally-renowned scientists spoke − Population-based screens are about recent progress and future highly effective in teasing out directions in the post-genomic the genetic factors in complex era. − DNA sequence comparisons Key messages between species and popula- − The way the genome sequence tions can give new insights into is modified and packaged has a the way genes evolve. − Activation of gene expression − Model systems such as yeast involves complex and dynamic and mice have direct relevance interactions between DNA and to the understanding of human proteins. development and disease. − Changes in gene dosage and gene expression levels are

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Conference Islam and Democracy Friday 5 May 2006

− Can Islam be separated from Professor Yasir Suleiman opened Muslims? the conference by explaining why the Society had decided to hold it. − Should we speak of democrati- He noted that ‘Islam’ is often in sation rather than democracy? the news, and usually for bad − Is Islam compatible with reasons. Common Western democracy and does it have to perceptions of Islam are that it is be? backward, violent, and not − compatible with democracy. What is the interest of the West Muslims, meanwhile, argue that in democracy in the Muslim Islam is deliberately misinterpret- world? ed and slandered in the West. − Are those who call for democra- Professor Suleiman stated that the cy in the Muslim world willing conference was not intended to to live with its consequences? rebut such arguments but to · Should Muslims reject democra- bring together prominent, active cy simply because Western speakers to debate this subject, governments want it? This addressing certain fundamental would be shooting the mes- questions: sage, not the messenger. − What is democracy; what forms Khalid Abu al-Fadl has problema- does it take? tised the relationship of Islam and − Does it mean a particular form democracy: noting that, especially of governance, set of values, in the matter of law, popular system? authority is hard to reconcile with divine authority. Professor − Why does democracy matter? Suleiman observed that this was a − Can it be imported into the difficult question to answer. But Muslim world? there are practical political (rather than philosophical) reasons for − Is ‘Islam’ an invariant idea? the lack of democracy in Muslim − Are there different interpreta- societies. These include the tions and are some of them existence of authoritarian, more compatible with powerful states; these societies’ democracy?

236 Conferences, Workshops, Symposia, Seminars and Discussion Forums experience of colonisation; and cynical about attempts by non- democracy’s specific historical Muslim powers to propagate it. background in post-Reformation He cited as an example of this Christian Europe. Despite all of suspicion a newspaper cartoon these, it is quite possible for depicting Condoleezza Rice as a Muslims to see democracy as an shifty-looking ‘saleswoman’ of ethical good that is worth pursu- democracy. ing regardless of its origins. A full report of the conference is However, Professor Suleiman available on the RSE website noted that many Muslims, despite (ISBN: 0 902198 94 7) their interest in democracy, are

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Natural Disasters Discussion Forum Earth, Wind, Fire and Water: Tropical Storms Wednesday 31 May 2006

Tropical Storms was the second of water vapour it contains precipi- four meetings in the Society’s tates forming rain. This change of Natural Disaster Series – Earth, state, from vapour to liquid, Wind, Fire and Water. releases latent heat at 540 calories Two related presentations were per gram, reinforcing the convec- delivered by Professor Brian Lee, tion and strengthening the storm. Department of Civil Engineering, The Coriolis force is critical to the University of Portsmouth; and, Dr creation of tropical storms. It is Julian Heming, Tropical Prediction zero at the equator and strength- Scientist, Met. Office. ens towards the poles. In the Northern hemisphere it induces Brian Lee explained how the same an anti-clockwise rotation and in physical event is given different the Southern hemisphere a names in different parts of the clockwise one. It is necessary to world: hurricane is used in the move at least 10° north or south Caribbean, Central and North of the equator to generate a America, Florida and the North Coriolis force of sufficient magni- East Pacific; typhoon in Japan, tude to induce the circulation South China Sea, Hong Kong and necessary to create a tropical the Philippians: and cyclone in the storm. South Indian Ocean, Bay of Bengal and Australia. The radius of the eye of the storm is typically of 20 km with the A number of conditions need to strongest winds (up to 75 km/h) be met to create a tropical storm. occurring just outside the eye The principal energy source is wall, the lowest central depression convection of warm air from a sea recorded is 882 mbar and rainfall surface with a temperature in intensities of 1750 mm/h are not excess of 26°C. uncommon. here must be no inversion in the It is possible to describe tropical atmosphere up to 10 km and storms mathematically as large above this atmospheric conditions vortices and predict maximum must be divergent. As the air rises wind speeds from their physical in the centre of the storm, the attributes, such as central pressure

238 Conferences, Workshops, Symposia, Seminars and Discussion Forums and eye diameter. However, storms. We are currently experi- damage patterns following encing a period of particularly Hurricane Andrew confirmed what high tropical storm activity. In meteorologists had suspected for 2004, four hurricanes struck sometime – that embedded within Florida and ten tropical cyclones the eye wall are major convection- (not all typhoons) found land fall al instabilities. Occasionally, these in Japan. Additionally, last year drop to ground level producing was a record year in the Atlantic wind speeds far in excess of those with four category five hurricanes predicted by the vortex model. The occurring: Emily, Katrina, Rita and clusters of maximum damage Wilma. arising from Andrew are consist- This has been linked to recent ent with wind speeds of 70 to 92 published work in the scientific m/s far in excess of those charac- literature. Firstly, there is now clear terised by the general wind field. evidence that the average sea Research is currently underway temperature is rising and that this into these effects, plus the role of can be correlated to an increase in flying debris in damage to the cumulative strength of tropical buildings and other critical urban storms over the same period. infrastructure, such as telecommu- Additional evidence shows that nications, transportation and recently a higher proportion of water pipelines and electricity tropical storms are reaching supplies. The need for this category four and five. research is emphasised by the following quote from the Director Interpreting the impact of climate of the USA National Hurricane change is complicated, as the Centre – “ one in every five people occurrence of tropical storms in the USA is at direct risk of exhibits significant natural hurricane impact and the numbers variation. In 2005, five tropical are growing daily, due to the storms made land in the USA, increasing population of Florida whereas, only two made landfall and communities in the Southern in 1995. However, there were USA this has caused the probabili- fourteen tropical storms in 1995, ty of damage to increase, so that if eight of which reached Hurricane Hurricane Andrew were to reoccur force. Additionally, hurricane today the cost would be five times Andrew, a major hurricane strike as great in real terms.” on the USA occurred in 1992 a relatively quiet year overall. It is Julian Heming discussed the important not to allow news evidence that climate change is coverage of hurricane strikes on causing an increase in the fre- the USA skew our perception of quency and intensity of tropical increased frequency of tropical

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storms. Increased coastal develop- Discussion concerned: ment is exacerbating this effect, as 1.the definition of the hurricane when hurricanes do strike the season and whether climate damage is now considerably change was causing this to greater than previously. extend; There is also evidence that other 2.implications for building design climatic phenomena, such as El in the UK, the tornado that Niño introduce large scale recently occurred in Birmingham fluctuations into the system. suggests that wind loading in These are only partially under- building design codes should stood at the present time and be revised upward; and, further research is required. 3.the role that the media play in Julian concluded that: skewing society’s perceptions of 1.Demographic changes in the climate change phenomena. coastal regions of the USA have significantly influenced our perceptions of increased severity of tropical storms. 2.The Atlantic has been active for the last ten years but there has no significant increase in other parts of the world. 3.Natural variations in activity mask any climate change impact. This is likely to be the case for the foreseeable future.

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Cormack Bequest Meeting 12 June 2006

The Cormack Bequest Meeting, Vacation scholarships were supported by SUPA and the announced as follows. Cormack Bequest fund, took place Cormack Vacation Scholarships on 12 June 2006. Ms Sharon Baillie The following awards were made Mr Calum K Brown Cormack Postgraduate Prize Mr Duncan H Forgan Mr Brian Hamilton. Ms Jennifer A Noble Cormack Undergraduate Prize Mr Colin C Simpson Ms Katharine G Johnston. The meeting was followed by an evening lecture, by Athena Coustenis of the Paris-Meudon Observatory, entitled, Titan and the Cassini-Huygens mission (see full report page 141)

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Conference The Vikings and Scotland: Impact and Influence A joint conference with The Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters Thursday 21-Friday 22 September 2006 The Royal Museum, Lothian Street.

At the end of the 8th century AD, first and foremost, but also longships arrived off the coasts of farmers, skilled craftspeople, Britain and Ireland carrying Viking storytellers, historians and traders. warriors from the North. Historical At first pagan, they later suc- texts suggest that their primary cumbed to Christianity. purpose was to raid and plunder - At the beginning of the Viking writers document raids on, for Age c.800 A.D., Scotland was example, Lindisfarne in 793, ‘all divided into four ethnic groups the islands in Britain’ (probably (Britons, English, Gaels and Picts) the Hebrides) in 794 and both or three major political units Rathlin Island and the Isle of Skye (Northumbria, Pictland and in 795. This association between Strathclyde), comprising an untold Vikings and terror is the canvas on number of kingdoms and lord- to which many pictures of the ships. In the ebb and flow of Viking period are painted, a almost five centuries Scandinavi- perception perpetuated by the an, British, Gaelic and Anglian modern media. But these Scandi- cultures mingled and clashed. But navian peoples had a what was the real impact and longer-lasting and far-wider influence on these pre-existing impact on Britain and Ireland. societies and what effects did they Ambitious for power, looking for have on what was to become land to settle and trade routes to Scotland? dominate, they took certain areas of Britain and Ireland, drawing Scholars have been pondering these regions into the Viking such questions for centuries but world, a domain which stretched many remain unanswered. Almost from Newfoundland to the every aspect has proven conten- Middle East and beyond. Certain tious: when exactly did it happen, areas of Britain and Ireland, where did it happen, and how particularly the Atlantic regions – many people did it involve? Was so often regarded as remote and there contact between the two peripheral in today’s society – regions prior to the 8th century? were at the centre of this maritime Did the indigenous and migrant world. The Vikings were warriors groups integrate or did the

242 Conferences, Workshops, Symposia, Seminars and Discussion Forums invaders overwhelm and annihi- post-Viking Age. The scope and late the natives? What was the theme of the Conference was impact on the Christian Church? monumental and encompassed a Did the Vikings really play a wide and diverse range of disci- pivotal role in the creation of plines relative to the topic, Scotland? The Viking story relative including history, place-names, to Scotland is not a simple one. literature, linguistics, and archae- The evidence – be it historical, ology. This varied, and often linguistic or archaeological – is problematic, body of evidence has scant and varied. Further, any been the foundation for interpre- student of Viking history really has tations of Viking Scotland for to be aware of all the sources centuries. But the evidential and which can contribute to our interpretative pool is now en- understanding. Many approaches hanced by genetics, a key to some of these fundamental contribution to the field of early questions have been broad-brush, population history and one which resulting in generalist statements may play an important role in and conclusions. Recent work future consideration of the impact suggests that if we are ever to of the Scandinavian invaders on reach a fuller understanding of Scotland. this critical period in Scotland’s The two-day conference was history we require far closer divided into four sections: Raids analysis of the data. and Impacts; Settlement, Trade But of one thing there is no and Maritime Impact; Language doubt. The Vikings are a popular and Literary Culture; and Political topic, in schools, on television, in and Religious Development. Each tourism; and as a subject for section comprised four lectures, conferences such as the present the speakers asked to speak on one for which The Royal Society of specific topics by the conference Edinburgh and the Norwegian committee. Historical texts played Academy of Science and Letters an important part, particularly the brought together the foremost Irish annals and Gaelic literature academic scholars and researchers and nomenclature which have from Scotland, Ireland, England, hidden within them evidence for Norway and Denmark to present the Scandinavian impact on Celtic their own assessments of the areas. The later Latin and Icelandic nature of the Viking impact and sources, which comprise further its consequences on the political, ‘historical’ evidence for the cultural, economic, linguistic and subject, also played a key role. genetic make-up of the country of The place-names which have Scotland which emerged in the become imprinted on the land-

243 Review of the Session 2005-2006

scape of the Northern and and studied by archaeologists Western Isles, the north mainland supplemented the sources. A new of Scotland and scattered player in the Viking discipline – throughout the Lowlands and genetics – also received considera- Borders, formed another crucial ble attention. evidential field of Scandinavian A full conference report is availa- influence. Artefacts, runic inscrip- ble on the RSE website (ISBN: 978 tions, environmental evidence, 0 902198 20 3) graves and settlements uncovered

244 Conferences, Workshops, Symposia, Seminars and Discussion Forums

Natural Disasters Discussion Forum Earth, Wind, Fire and Water: Earthquakes Wednesday 27 September 2006

Earthquakes was the third of four steep hill slopes. These sediments meetings in the Society’s Natural are prone to mass movement Disaster Series – Earth, Wind, Fire during earthquakes. A post-event and Water. investigation confirmed that Two related presentations were traditional construction methods delivered by Professor Robin had performed well during the Spence, Professor of Architecture earthquake. This technique uses Engineering, University of Cam- stone masonry combined with bridge and Mr Pete Sweetnam, timber lacing and frames. The Programmes Director, Mercy timber lacing binds the masonry Corps. and the frame holds up the roof independent of the walls. Unfor- Robin Spence began by explaining tunately, more recent masonry the cause of 8th October 2005 structures, built without timber Kashmir earthquake in Pakistan. binding, were prone to collapse, The epicentre lies on the as were buildings consisting of boundary between the Indian and reinforced concrete frames with in Eurasian tectonic plates at the fill walls. Hazara syntax; a location where th the plate boundaries change During the 20 century, 1.5 direction. This location is among million people lost their lives due the most active earthquake to earthquakes, with the vast regions in the Himalaya. majority being due to the collapse of masonry buildings. As a result, The majority of deaths were due there is a significant international to building failure arising from research effort to improve the the shaking of the structure and construction of such structures in foundation failure due to ground earthquake prone areas. Different displacement. Ground movement methods of masonry binding are is a particular problem in the currently being developed in Kashmir area. The steep terrain different countries; in Pakistan means that level ground is at a timber is preferred; whereas in premium for farming, resulting in Peru, fencing mesh is under buildings being constructed on investigation, and polypropylene unstable old river terraces on straps are being studied in Japan.

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A case study demonstrating the million and working in 38 benefits of such methods already countries. Mercy Corps’ mission is exists. Following the 1931 to support the poorest and most Balochistan earthquake, Quetta vulnerable people in society, bond was developed, where steel particularly women during a crisis. strapping is used to bind the A crisis is defined as the point masonry. This technique was used where people’s coping mecha- to reconstruct a number of nisms come to an end. housing estates. Unlike the rest of Pete discussed the failure of Quetta, these withstood the dwellings during the 2004 Boxing subsequent 1935 earthquake. Day earthquake in Iran. This This construction method is still occurred at 5 AM when most used in this region. people were asleep, when the Key messages that need to be mud roofs of buildings collapsed understood by those living and and the occupants literally building in earthquake prone drowned in dust. areas are: Following the Pakistan earth- Avoid quake, the terrain caused • Rebuilding as before significant logistic problems in providing aid. Helicopter support • Imported or high tech systems from the Pakistan, and other, or materials military was essential to the Mercy • Infilled reinforced concrete Corps’ operation. As with their frames response to other natural disas- ters Mercy Corps employed a Encourage “Cash for Work Programme” in • Location which takes account of Pakistan, where those in need of ground conditions assistance are paid to undertake • Connected foundations clean up tasks. • Improved (tied or confined) Discussion masonry A lively discussion followed the • Change in adjacent unaffected presentations. Topics discussed areas included: design measures to make buildings resistant to Pete Sweetnam explained that earthquake loading, the difficul- Mercy Corps is an international ties of coordinating relief activities relief and development agency with multiple relief agencies and with an annual budget of $200 military organisations involved.

246 PUBLICATIONS Proceedings A: Mathematics Science Scotland – Issue 5 (Spring Six issues were published: Parts 2006) - Energy Special. 135.5 and 135.6 (2005) and Human Nature – a book edited by 136.1, 136.2, 136.3 & 136.4 Malcolm Jeeves, developed from (2006). the proceedings of a week-long Transactions: Earth Sciences international meeting on Human Nature held in September 2000. Three issues were published: 96.2, Published July 2006. 96.3 and 96.4 (2005). ISBN: 0 902198 69 ReSourcE : the RSE’s Newsletter: Inquiry into Energy Issues for Issues 13 and 14. Scotland - Final Report – the Royal Society of Edinburgh findings of an RSE Inquiry. Directory 2006 (Session 2005- Published June 2006. 2006) ISBN: 0 902198 79 3 Royal Society of Edinburgh Review Inquiry into Energy Issues for of Session 2006 (Session 2004- Scotland - Summary Report June 2005) 2006 ISBN: 0 902198 74 2 RSE Annual Review 2005-2006. Stem Cell Research – Report of Other Publications Young People’s Discussion Forum RSE Annual Review 2006 (April (held June 2006) 2005–March 2006) ISBN: 0 902198 99 8 The Creation of Wealth – Report Languages in Scotland - What’s of an RSE Conference (held the Problem? – Report of an RSE November 2005) Conference (held March 2006) ISBN: 0 902198 64 5 ISBN: 0 902198 10 6 Islam and Democracy – Report of Biographical Index of Former an RSE Conference (held May Fellows of the Society, 1783-2002 2006) – C D Waterston and A M Shearer ISBN: 0 902198 94 7 – published July 2006. Beyond the Human Genome: ISBN: 0 902198 84 X Deciphering Biology and Disease – Report of CRF/RSE Conference (held May 2006) ISBN: 0 902198 89 0

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THE SCOTTISH SCIENCE ADVISORY COMMITTEE The Scottish Science Advisory energy science and technology Committee (SSAC) was estab- base. lished in May 2002 to provide To ensure that this opportunity is independent advice to Scottish not lost the following represent Executive Ministers on strategic the key recommendations from scientific issues. the SSAC: Since this time, the SSAC has been 1.Energy is a sector where uniquely placed to take a broad Scotland has the potential to overview of the diverse scientific become a world leader both in landscape in Scotland within an the science and technology. The international perspective. Its SSAC believes that a Scientific medium to long term, horizon- Network of Excellence in Energy scanning, and strategic views have should be established in helped in formulating its advice Scotland and this should play a on science strategy, science major role in the UK DTI policies and science priorities – programme, and that Scotland with an overall aim of improving should bid to lead this pro- the social, environmental and gramme. economic prosperity of Scotland. 2.Energy research in Scotland To help develop Scotland’s science should build on existing priorities, over the past year the research excellence, in tradition- SSAC has produced a number of al and emerging energy sectors, key reports: but also embark on novel lines Scientific Network of Excel- of research in its quest to be a lence in Energy world-class Institute. This will be achieved by engagement with The SSAC believes that Scotland academia and industry across has an outstanding opportunity the generation, supply, develop- to build on its existing strengths ment and research spectrum. in energy research and to estab- lish itself as a world leader in 3.Energy as a topic should be science and enterprise in the used as a cross-disciplinary energy sector. The creation of a exemplar to enthuse young Scientific Network of Excellence in people in science and engineer- Energy in Scotland could act as a ing in schools, colleges and strong base from which to universities. Continuing organise and coordinate participa- professional development for tion in the DTI’s recently science teachers should incor- announced UK Energy Technolo- porate energy topics to gies Institute, driving investment influence and inspire the and expansion of the Scottish curriculum for excellence.

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4.Building on the success of the Institute initiative as well as Scottish Space School, a similar funding and economic develop- initiative in energy should be ment opportunities in other UK, developed to enable Scottish EU and global contexts. pupils an opportunity to visit 8.Mechanisms should be devel- and participate in energy oped within a Scientific Network activities at leading internation- of Excellence in Energy to al institutes such as MIT where enable better exchanges of energy would be the highlight. ideas between the Scottish 5.More should be done to academic sector and the encourage multi/interdiscipli- Scottish energy industry sector. nary research in sustainable This would provide a driver for energy supply, both with respect energy research in Scotland and to its generation and its use. It facilitate more efficiently the should also stimulate social, translation of the research environmental and ethical towards commercial applica- considerations of energy issues tions. and research into methodolo- 9.A Scientific Network of Excel- gies of reducing the carbon lence in Energy should be footprint in energy production established and charged with a and distribution. The Network responsibility to coordinate should play a role in promoting demonstration and testing and championing these aspects. facilities through optimised 6.The SSAC believes Scotland’s collaboration with Government, energy research networks academic and industrial should be developed to partners. encourage increased collabora- Research Excellence in E-health tion within the UK, and world wide, though a high-profile The SSAC believes that Scotland is Scientific Network of Excellence in an excellent position to take in Energy. advantage of its expertise to initiate advances in a number of 7.The SSAC believes that im- areas of e-health research. These proved collaboration of these relate to improvements in health- energy groupings within care delivery, with concomitant Scotland, through participation prospects for commercial develop- in a Scientific Network of ment of technology and services. Excellence in Energy would further strengthen Scotland’s The recommendations below research. This could have identify key challenges and immediate impact with regard opportunities for Scotland where to the DTI’s Energy Technologies its capabilities in specific areas of

250 SSAC

e-health-related research could be advanced imaging technology taken forward: facilities afford new research 1.Innovative, new activities are opportunities, especially in needed to improve interaction elucidating disease mechanisms across the disciplines and and pre-clinical drug discovery, as organisations involved in e- well as in the development of health research. These could novel pharmaceutical imaging include targeted research tracers. programmes, new blood In order to capitalise on Scotland’s academic appointments, strength in this area: targeted industrial fellowships, 1.There is a need for a Scottish summer schools, research imaging strategy focused on networks, workshops and improved connectivity between visiting fellowships. They should academia and the NHS. Devel- be part of a national e-health opmental research should be programme and developed as a better linked from the funda- matter urgency. mentals through to clinical 2.A formal dialogue should be application. NHS-based clinical established between e-health and academic research-based researchers and procurers of imaging would mutually benefit generic clinical information from interactions and some systems. sharing of planning, data 3.The Scottish Executive should processing systems, hardware support test facilities for and human resources to bridge advanced information systems, strategic gaps in equipment and in collaboration with NHS personnel to catalyse more Scotland. effective research but also with improved clinical care. Research Excellence in Medical Imaging 2.The SSAC strongly supports the Scottish Brain Imaging Pooling Medical imaging technology is Initiative (SINAPSE) and strongly becoming increasingly important endorses better coordination of in the diagnosis and management resources relating to current of patients, in understanding and future medical imaging disease mechanisms and more technology recently in improving routes towards drug development. 3.More needs to be done to Scotland’s internationally competi- develop human resources for tive clinical researchers, life medical imaging, including scientists, chemists, physicists and radiologists and scientists at the computer scientists, together with level of chair/group leader, mid- level scientist, junior/trainee

251 Review of the Session 2005-2006

scientist and technician level. the relationship of a Scottish Consideration should be given network with existing and to supporting exchange planned centres and initiatives programmes between Scottish 2.Mission and vision statements imaging groups and their should be drawn up to distin- leading international peers, guish clearly the role of the with a view to rapidly increasing Network in promoting excel- imaging expertise at all levels. lence in Scottish establishments 4.Medical imaging is an area 3.Themes should be identified where research foci should be that cover the breadth of animal provided across the chemistry, bioscience research among the pharmacy, computing, physics Scottish establishments, and the and engineering disciplines, contribution of the different particularly in terms of the partners to all or some of these development of novel pharma- themes should be mapped ceutical imaging tracers. 4.Thematic working groups Animal Bioscience Research in should meet quarterly to draw Scotland. up plans of activities and for Scotland has world-leading promotion of the Network research strengths in animal 5.Targets for future funding bioscience. The technologies now opportunities should be being applied in this area and the disease treatments now being 6.Bids should be made to attract developed for animals have the Visiting Fellows to the Scottish potential to be translated into Network for either short-term human health, bringing benefits visits or longer-term collabora- to animals, humans and the tions Scottish economy. There are, Chief Scientific Advisor however, opportunities for better linkages and better coordination The work of the SSAC has helped across Scotland’s animal bio- lay a secure foundation in build- science communities, and ing the profile of science within between the different funding the Scottish Executive. Reflecting bodies in this area, particularly this increased profile, a new post across discipline boundaries. of Chief Scientific Advisor for Scotland was created within the The next steps in this area should Permanent Secretary’s Office of be: the Scottish Executive in August 1.Representatives from the 2006. This post, and its office principal research establish- took over the functions of the ments should meet to discuss SSAC from 2007, after which the

252 SSAC

Society ceased to have any formal SSAC - Staff responsibility relating to it. Dr Avril Davidson, Head of Further information on the SSAC Secretariat (maternity leave from and copies of the reports can be May - December 06) found at: Dr Marc Rands, Acting Head of www.scottishscience.org.uk Secretariat (May 06 to February 07). Marc supported the transition SSAC - Members to the Scottish Executive. Professor Wilson Sibbett CBE, FRSE (Chair) Ms Tracy Rickard, PA/Administrator Professor Steven Beaumont OBE, (to June 06) CEng, MIEE, FRSE Ms Ekua Hayford, PA/Administra- Professor Geoffrey Boulton, OBE, tor (June to December 06) FGS, FRS, FRSE Professor Muffy Calder FRSE, FIEEE Professor Sir Kenneth Calman KCB, FRCS, FRCP, FMedSci, FRSE Professor John Coggins FRSE Professor Julie Fitzpatrick MRCVS Professor Peter Grant FREng, FRSE, FIEE, FIEEE Dr Stuart Monro, CGeol., FGS, ILTM, FRSSA Professor Peter Morgan FRSE Professor Richard Morris FMedSci, FRS, FRSE Dr John Nicholls Professor Stuart Reid MRCVS, FRSE Professor Jonathan Seckl FRCPE, FMedSci, FRSE Dr Barbara Spruce MRCP Professor Joyce Tait CBE Professor Chris van der Kuyl FRSE Eur Ing Graham Wren

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EVIDENCE, ADVICE AND COMMENT The Society submitted evidence, advice and comment on the following reports during the Session:

November 2005 February 2006 A European Institute of Aquaculture and Fisheries Bill. Technology? European Scottish Executive Commission April 2006 The UK Honours Degree: Provision Crofting Reform etc. Bill. Scottish of Information. Universities UK Parliament Environment and Rural Scottish Commissioner for Human Development Committee Rights Bill. Scottish Parliament Enhancing our Care of Scotland’s Justice 1 Committee Landscapes. Scottish Natural Consultation On The Animal Heritage Health And Welfare (Scotland) Bill. May 2006 Scottish Parliament Environment and Rural Development Commit- Policy for the Long Term Manage- tee ment of Solid Low Level Radioactive Waste in the UK. December 2005 Department for Environment, Developing Proposals for Coastal Food and Rural Affairs and Marine National Parks. Developing a New Strategy. Scottish Natural Heritage Scottish Funding Council Towards a Transport Strategy for Strengthening Judicial Independ- Scotland: Consultation on Rail ence in a Modern Scotland. Priorities. Scottish Executive Scottish Executive Best Value in Public Service. July 2006 Scottish Executive A Policy on Architecture for January 2006 Scotland: Review of Policy. Scottish Review of Funding for Postgradu- Executive ate Research Students. Scottish Funding Council

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Avian Influenza Working Group Scottish Parliament Science During the Session, the Society Information Scheme established a small group of The Society continued its partici- Fellows to examine the implica- pation in the Scottish Parliament tions of the avian influenza threat Science Information Scheme in for Scotland. Chair of the group collaboration with the Royal was Professor John Coggins, Vice Society of Chemistry, the Scottish Principal for Life Sciences and Parliament Information Centre Medicine and Professor of and other affiliated organisations. Molecular Enzymology, University The aim of the Scheme was to of Glasgow. The emphasis of the provide Members of the Scottish exercise was very much on Parliament with access to reliable, Scotland, in particular the likely rapid and impartial information impact of an avian influenza on science, engineering and outbreak on agriculture and on technology related issues; to help countryside activities important inform Parliamentary debates; and for tourism. to raise the profile of science in the Parliament.

256 INQUIRIES Energy Issues for Scotland energy issues; has an opportunity During the Session the Commit- to make important decisions on tee, chaired by Professor Maxwell energy infrastructure; is in a Irvine, Professor of Physics, position to influence decisions on University of Manchester and electricity; can and should improve former Principal & Vice-Chancellor performance on waste manage- of the Universities of Aberdeen ment; must improve on energy and Birmingham, completed the loss in building; should reject the evidence-gathering process and, false polarisation of a nuclear v. in June 2006 launched its final wind debate and stimulate public Report on Energy Issues for engagement; has much potential Scotland. in renewable technologies which should be explored. At the ASM on 10 October, Professor Maxwell Irvine gave a The strategic aim should be for a brief overview of the Energy secure, competitive, socially Report and Professor Roger Crofts equitable and low carbon emis- CBE, Inquiry Secretary, outlined sions supply of energy for the key issues. A lively discussion Scotland. ensued to which many of those Following the publication of the present contributed. This meeting Report, Members of the Commit- was web-cast live and Fellows who tee of Inquiry into Energy have were unable to attend were able also met with Mr Nicol Stephen to comment or raise questions MSP, Minister for Enterprise and during the meeting by e-mail. Lifelong Learning, Executive The Report states that there is a officials and MSPs from the critical need for action and relevant cross-party committees highlights opportunities and and groups. challenges for Scotland. In October 2006, with the aim of The wide-ranging Report, which facilitating public engagement on makes 37 recommendations, the issues, the RSE embarked emphasises that diversity of upon a series of public and school energy sources will be crucial to discussion forums under the security of supply, and suggests banner of Debating Scotland’s that Scotland: must develop a Energy Choices, which is conclud- coherent, overarching approach to ed with a conference for decision-makers at the RSE in April 2007.

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EVENTS FOR YOUNG PEOPLE RSE@Schools 20 & 21 December 2005 Who Are You? Professor Sue Black FRSE. 23 September 2006 Tour of the James Watt College, Ayrshire Universe, Islay High School (Kilwinning and Greenock 14 September 2006 Who are you? Campuses) by Sue Black, FRSE. The Inverness 6 December 2005 Who are You? Royal Academy followed by a Professor Sue Black. Brechin High public lecture, The Bare Bones School, Angus Science, in the evening. 28 November 2005 Mirrors 12-14 September 2006 Mathe- Medicines and Metals, Dr Susan matics really matters by Bruce Armstrong, St Saviour’s School, Davies as part of Techfest 2006. Dundee Glenalmond College, Turriff Academy, Lossiemouth High 27 October 2005 Throwing Light School and TCS of Auchterader on the Human Genome, Professor Wendy Bickmore FRSE. Firrhill 9 September 2006 Soap Bubbles High School and Membranes. Professor P Carris. Whitburn Academy 27 October 2005 Drugs from Bugs, Dr Andrew Mearns Spragg. 19 June 2006 Throwing Light on Drummond Community High the Human Genome, Professor School, Edinburgh Wendy Bickmore. Glen Urquhart High School, Highlands 15 & 16 October 2005 Serpents and Synthesisers by Professor 8 June 2006 Soap Bubbles and Murray Campbell at various Membranes, Dr Ciaran Ewins. schools in Aberdeen and Aber- Arran High School, Isle of Arran deenshire as part of Techfest 3 May 2006 A Guided Tour of the 2005. Universe, Professor Henry Elling- Christmas Lectures ton. St Ninians Primary School, Livingston 13 December 2005. Professor Sue Black. Who Are You? Elgin 22 March 2006 Chemistry is Academy, followed by a public Magic, Dr Christine Davidson. lecture, The Bare Bones Science, in Wallace Hall Academy, Dumfries the evening. 20 & 21 December 2005 DNA RSE Roadshows Profiling: its use in famous cases. Dr Adrian Linacre. James Watt Workshops and talks for primary College, Ayrshire (Kilwinning and and secondary students, as well as Greenock Campuses) the public. On the 6th and 7th March 2006 the RSE Roadshow visited Lochab-

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er High School in Fort William Stem cells have the potential to where a variety of activities took help us treat many serious place, including Computer Science diseases, but their use raises many interactive workshops, in which contentious issues. The forum Primary and Secondary students addressed the question ‘What learnt about Computer Science must society consider before this and how the subject underpins potential is harnessed?’ the technologies all around us. In the morning experts introduced Primary students also got the the topic through a variety of chance to tackle Codes and Circles talks. Dr Neville Cobbe, University and Funny Money in mathematics of Edinburgh, introduced the workshops, whilst senior students field, asking “What is a Stem Cell? learnt about the complex science What is a Human Being? When behind DNA fingerprinting in a does life begin? What is OK?” Dr talk by Dr Adrian Linacre from The Matt Dalby, University of Edin- University of Strathclyde. burgh then discussed the Dr Linacre also gave an evening potential applications of Stem Cell public talk on 6th March entitled, therapies. Finally, Professor DNA Fingerprinting: Its use in Graeme Laurie, University of famous cases. Using a variety of Edinburgh, discussed some of the famous cases to illustrate the talk legal aspects of Stem Cell Re- he explained what DNA Profiling search, illustrated with responses is and how it has been used to from around the world. identify people in previously After the talks, students split into unsolved mysteries. An important workshops to consider the issues modern development in forensic and formulate their own opinions science, DNA profiling has on topics as diverse as the media’s received much interest and role in the Stem Cell debate, attention in recent years as it has clinical trials, the use of embryos proved to be a powerful means by in stem cell research, the funding which criminals and innocent of research and public trust of people have been identified. scientists. The day concluded with Discussion Forum students presenting their views to The Discussion Forum took place the conference and an open-floor on Thursday 15 June 2006 at debate. Inverness College and S5 and S6 The event was run in partnership students from throughout the with the Scottish Initiative for Highlands spent a day discussing Biotechnology Education (SIBE). and debating the issues surround- A full report is available on the ing Stem Cell Research. RSE website.

260 Young People

e-Discussion Forum Summer School In tandem with the 2006 Stem The SET summer school includes Cell Research Discussion Forum, workshops and talks on science, this project was expanded to technology and maths subjects, enable students from throughout but also on transferable skills and Scotland to access the resources advice for those not sure about associated with the event. A CD- continuing into higher education. Rom, including video material of The summer school is run in all the presentations, resources for partnership with Heriot-Watt teachers and a student debate University, supported by Edin- pack has been produced and sent burgh City, East Lothian, West to all schools in Scotland. Schools Lothian and Midlothian Councils. have been invited to feedback to The 2006 Summer School took the RSE, the results of their future place at Heriot-Watt University debates, and these, once received from 31 July to 4 August for S5/S6 will be compiled in a report. students from East and West This resource is also available on Lothian regions and 7 to 12 the RSE Website. August for those from Midlothian Maths Masterclasses and the City of Edinburgh. Maths Masterclasses involve Startup Science Masterclasses Saturday morning games and The Startup Science Masterclasses puzzles for P6/7 students to take place on Saturday mornings encourage an interest in mathe- in the form of workshops for S1/ matics. Run in partnership with S2 students and emphasise the Aberdeen City Council and the role of science, engineering and University of Dundee and Profes- technology in society. These sor Jack Carr and Mrs Teresa Carr workshops are run in partnership (Dalmeny and Glasgow). with organisations throughout Aberdeen City Council Scotland. 14 January - 4 February 2006 University of Dundee 13 May - 10 June 2006 6 May - 3 June 2006 University of Dundee 5 November - 10 December 2005 6 May - 27 May 2006 University of Glasgow The High School, Glasgow 22 April - 13 May 2006 14 January - 4 February 2006 5 November - 26 November 2005 Dalmeny Primary School Heriot-Watt University 5 November - 26 November 2005 22 April - 6 May 2006 29 October- 19 November 2005

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St Andrews University voluntary contribution to the 22 April - 20 May 2006 Young People’s Programme of 22 October - 12 November 2005 activities. At the ceremony University of Aberdeen Professor Miles Padgett provided 11 March - 8 April 2006 a ‘review of the year’ and Profes- sor Mary Bowes gave a report on Annual Inspiration Awards the ‘Stem Cell Research Discussion Contributors to RSE Young Forum’, before the awards were People’s activities are inspirational presented. role models for young scientists in The 2006 Inspiration Awardees schools from the Borders to the were Professor Sue Black FRSE, Dr. Highlands. At a reception hosted Quintin Cutts, Ms Lorna Sibbett, by RSE Vice-President, Professor Professor Wendy Bickmore FRSE, John Coggins in September 2006, Professor Mark Chaplain FRSE, Dr. awards were presented to those Adrian Linacre and Dr. David who have made an exceptional Miller.

262 RESEARCH AND ENTERPRISE AWARDS The following awards were made in Session 2005/2006

RESEARCH FELLOWSHIPS Lloyds TSB Support BP Personal Professor J R Speakman FRSE. Dr Cristina Persano. Magnitude Experimental induction of uncou- and tempo of landscape changes: pling as a mechanism for reducing reading the music. University of free-radical production: an Glasgow experimental test in the mouse. University of Aberdeen CRF European Visiting Scottish Executive Personal Dr Frank L Muller. University of St Andrews Dr Jan-Willem Bos. New Multifer- roic Materials. University of Professor Brian Girvin. University Edinburgh of Glasgow Dr Huabing Yin. Click-Chemistries Dr Guido Alfani. Universitat for 2D and 3D Programmable commerciale “L. Bocconi” Surfaces: Applications in Biomedi- Dr Javier Calle Martin. University cal Engineering. University of of Malaga. Glasgow Dr Alexander Pavlenko. Tagenrog, Dr Nancy Sabatier. The role of Russia. hypothalamic peptides in the regulation of appetite.University Maria Fletcher. University of of Edinburgh Glasgow Scottish Executive Support Dr Jane H Stuart-Smith. University of Glasgow Dr Stuart Macgregor. Towards Ever-More Realistic Modelling of Dr Barbara Schaff, Starnberg, the Chemical Reactivity of Transi- Germany. tion Metal Systems. Heriot-Watt CRF Personal University Dr Francois-Michel Boisvert. Dr Tom G Mackay. Chiral Sculp- University of Dundee tured Thin Film as Biosensors. Dr Anne E King. University of University of Edinburgh Edinburgh Dr Kevin Hammond. Guaranteed Lloyds TSB Personal Resource Bounds for Real-Time Embedded Systems. University of Dr Irina Erchova. Learning to St Andrews Forget: Aberrant Plasticity in the Aged Hippocampus.University of Edinburgh

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RESEARCH SCHOLARSHIPS Lessells Travel Scholarship AND PRIZES Mr Alastair S Kilgour. How the Cormack Postgraduate Prize structure of orthopaedic polyeth- Mr Brian Hamilton. Electron ylene changes as a result of wear Acceleration at Reconnecting X- in total joint replacements; an Points in Solar Flares. University of electron micorscopy study. Glasgow University of Edinburgh Cormack Undergraduate Prize Mr Guy K German. Drop impact studies of complex fluids and Ms Katharine G Johnston. A visualisation of polymer dynamics. search for starlight reflected from University of Edinburgh tau Bootis b. University of St Andrews Lloyds TSB Studentships Cormack Vacation Scholarship Miss Katie L Blackett. The role of bacteria in the pathogenesis of Ms Sharon Baillie. The building Barrett’s Oesophagus and adeno- blocks of life. Combining SPITZER carcinoma of the oesophagus. Observations and Laboratory University of Dundee Studies to unlock the first stage of Nitrogen-chemistry in protostellar ENTERPRISE FELLOWSHIPS objects. University of Strathclyde BBSRC Mr Calum K Brown. The Fate of Dr Suzanne Dilly. The “Magic Tag” the Baryons. University of Edin- Kit: A tool for simple, rapid burgh (ROE) immobilisation of Bioactive Mr Duncan H Forgan. Investigat- Molecules for Chemical Genomics ing the Effects of Orbital approaches to drug discovery. Migration on Protoplanetary University of Warwick Growth. University of Edinburgh Mr Gareth Richards. Novel cancer (ROE) therapies. University of Sheffield Ms Jennifer A Noble. An alcohol Scottish Enterprise problem! Understanding the role Electronics and formation of CH3OH in star- forming regions. University of Miss Frances Flood. e-place Strathclyde University of Strathclyde Mr Colin C Simpson. Gravitational Mr Amar Seeam. Completely Microlensing. University of St Reconfigurable Display Keyboard. Andrews University of Strathclyde Life Sciences

264 Research and Enterprise Awards

Dr Alison Reith. Section of Dr Jochen Leidner. Mobile Search Squamous Cell Biology & Derma- in Natural Language. University of tology. University of Glasgow Edinburgh Dr Alexis Enright. Detection of TEACHING FELLOWSHIPS sexually transmitted infections Ms Rebecca Sutherland-Shiell. using surface enhanced resonance Placement with Royal Botanic Raman scattering (SERRS). Univer- Gardens Edinburgh. sity of Strathclyde Ms Jennie Hargreaves. Placement Dr Romain Viguier. Harvesting with British Nuclear Fuels Ltd. Natural Products from Plants. University of Edinburgh Ms Keeley Hathway. Placement with Glasgow Science Centre. Microelectronics

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MEDALS, PRIZES AND PRIZE LECTURESHIPS Keith Medal Makdougall Brisbane Prize 80th Award 2006 71st Award 2005 Professor Stefan Muller. Max- Professor C R McInnes FREng Planck Institute for Mathematics FRSE. in the Sciences BP Prize Lecture Professor Felix Otto. Institut fur 8th Award 2005 Angewandte Mathematik Professor G T Laurie FRSE Professor Antonio DeSimone CRF Prize Lecture Professor Robert Kohn 17th Award 2005-2006 Royal Medal Baroness O'Neill of Bengarve 7th Award 2006 Henry Duncan Prize Lecture Sir John Ball FRS FRSE. 6th Award 2005 Sir David Jack CBE FRS FRSE. Professor J Hunter CBE FRSE Gannochy Trust Innovation Award James Scott Prize Lecture 4th Award 2006 21st Award 2005 Dr Marie Claire Parker Professor Stephen Barnett, FRSE

267

GRANTS COMMITTEE The Grants Committee considered 38 applications and a sum of £18910 was awarded to 30 applicants. Approximately 47% of this sum was awarded as travel assistance.

Travel Assistance Support for Meetings Professor M R Blatt, for travel to Professor J C Eilbeck, for Algebraic Australia. £950 Theory of Differential Equations. Professor J Cooper, for travel to £700 Korea and Japan. £700 Professor R Cogdell, for The Professor G Duxbury, for travel to Structure, Function and Regula- USA. £900 tion of Photosynthesis in Light-harvesting. £700. Professor A Hook, for travel to USA. £500 Professor A W Hood, for a UK MHD meeting. £750 Professor D Jasper, for travel to USA. £400 Professor K Horne, to enable three-day International Workshop Professor M R W Johnson, for on Dark Matter vs Alternative travel within the UK. £300 Gravities. £500 Professor B Loftus for travel from Professor J Howie, for 3-Manifolds USA to Scotland. £850 after Perelman. £750 Professor J McGeough, for travel Professor J J Lambert, for his to Japan and Malaysia. £950 annual Scottish Neuroscience Professor G Milligan, for travel to Group meeting. £750 China. £620 Professor J Reese, for Micro and Professor P A Racey, for travel to Nanoscale Flows: Advancing the Madagascar. £950 Engineering Science and Design. £750 Professor T C Smout, for travel to China. £400 Professor C Withers, for Geogra- phies of Nineteenth-Century Professor M F Thomas, for travel Science. £300 to Brazil. £720 Visiting Lecturer Professor R Watt, for travel to Canada. £500 Professor J Simmons, to enable Professor Albert Sacco, Director of Professor J R L Webb, for travel to the Center for Advanced Micro- France. £220 gravity Materials Processing at Northeastern University, Boston, to deliver a lecture entitled Science

269 Review of the Session 2004-2005

in Space – from Chemical Engi- Professor I McLean, to enable Dr neering to the Space Shuttle Toshifumi Nomura to visit the Columbia. £350 Division of Pathology and Neuro- Research Visitor to Scotland science at the University of Dundee from Japan. £500 Professor E N K Clarkson, to enable Dr Matilde Beresi, Depart- Professor Sir Alan Peacock, to ment of Geology & Palaeontology, enable Professor Romilda Rizzo, of Regional Centre for Scientific and the University of Catania to visit Technical Research, Mendoza, the Universities of Edinburgh and Argentina, to visit Edinburgh in Heriot-Watt and the Italian October 2006 to carry out Cultural Institute in Edinburgh. collaborative field work with the £300 National Museums of Scotland Professor J Stringer, to enable and the University of Edinburgh. Professor Keith Crews, University £900 of Technology, Sydney, to visit Professor W J Firth, to enable Napier University in Edinburgh in Professor Salvador Balle, from the June 2006, in his capacity as IKEDEA in Spain, to visit the Visiting Professor to contribute to Department of Physics at the the strategic direction for the University of Strathclyde in Centre for Timber Engineering at October 2006. £300 Napier University. £900 Professor G Hall, to enable University/Industry Liaison Professor Victor Varela of the Professor G Donaldson, to enable School of Physics, Central Univer- Dr Carol Trager-Cowan to visit the sity of Venezuela, to visit the USA to work with Philips Lumileds Department of Mathematical Lighting Company in San Jose, Sciences at the University of California. £600 Aberdeen. £900

270 INTERNATIONAL PROGRAMME Exchanges Awarded during the Session

China - Incoming Czech Republic - Incoming. Professor Robin Williams. Univer- Professor D W H Rankin FRSE, sity of Edinburgh University of Edinburgh - Dr Xiaomin Zhu. Institute of - Dr Drahomir Hnyk. Institute of Policy and Management, CAS Inorganic Chemistry, ASCR China - Outgoing Professor A Tate FRSE, University of Edinburgh Dr Slobodan Mickovski. University - Dr Michal Pechoucek. Czech of Dundee. Technical University - Dr Thierry Fourcaud, Professor Baogang Hu, Dr Alexia Stokes. Czech Republic - Outgoing Sino-French Laboratory for Dr Andreas Schatzlein. University Computer Science, Automation of Glasgow. and Applied Mathematics. - Professor Karel Ulbrich. Institute - Professor Tianxiang Luo. Inst of of Macromolecular Chemistry, Tibetan Plateau Research, CAS. ASCR Dr Kaliyaperumal Nakkeeran. Professor Howard Stevens, University of Aberdeen. Professor Ijeoma Uchegbu, Dr - Dr Lixin Xu. University of Science Christopher Van Der Walle, and Technology of China University of Strathclyde. Dr Shanwen Tao. University of St - Professor Karel Ulbrich. Institute Andrews. of Macromolecular Chemistry, - Professor Meng. University of ASCR Science and Technology of Dr Christopher Van Der Walle. China University of Strathclyde. - Professor Cheng. Dilian Institute - Professor Vladimir Subr. Institute of Chemical Physics of Macromolecular Chemistry, Dr Simon Thirgood. Macaulay ASCR Land Use Research Institute. Hungary - Incoming - Professor Ruijun Long. North- west Institute of Plateau Biology Dr Christophe Lacomme. Scottish Crop Research Institute. Dr Paul Williams. Unversity of - Dr Giczey Gabor. Agricultural Aberdeen. Biotechnology Centre - Professor Yongguan Zhu. Research Center for eco- Dr Phillip Lightfoot. University of environmental studies. St Andrews. - Dr Attila Benyei. University of Debrecen, HAS

271 Poland - Incoming Taiwan - Incoming Dr Bernard Cohen. University of Dr Lynne Jack. Heriot-Watt Glasgow. University. - Dr Maria Aleksandra Bitner. - ProfessorCheng-Li Cheng. Institute of Paleobiology National Taiwan University of Dr Gernot Riedel. University of Science and Technology Aberdeen. Dr Michael Moeller. Royal Botanic - Dr Grazyna Niewiadomska, Dr Garden Edinburgh. Wiktor Niewiadomski. Medical - Professor Chun-Neng Wang. Research Centre, PAS National Taiwan University Poland - Outgoing Professor Margaret Stack. Univer- sity of Strathclyde. Dr Anthony Dore. Centre for - Professor Wang-Long Li. Ecology & Hydrology, Natural National Kaohsiung University Environment Research Council. of Applied Sciences - Dr Mieczyslaw Sobik, Dr Marek Blas, Mr Maciej Kryza. University Dr Changhai Wang. Heriot-Watt of Wroclaw University. - Professor Kuen Ming Shu, Prof David Goulson. University of Professor Chien Hung Liu, Stirling. Professor Wen Yuh Jywe, - Dr Andrezj Kosior, Dr Maciek Professor Wen-Hsiang Hsieh. Konopinski, Dr Wojciech Solarz. National Formosa University Institute of Natural Conserva- tion, PAS Taiwan - Outgoing Dr Agnieszka Klemm. Glasgow Dr Richard Meehan. MRC Human Caledonian University. Genetics Unit, Western General - Professor P Klemm, Dr M Hospital. Jablonski. Technical University of - Professor John Yu. Institute of Lodz Cellular& Organismic Biology, - Professor W Marks. Institute of Academia Sinica Fundamental Technological Professor Eric Wilkinson. Universi- Research ty of Glasgow. Dr Stephen Wallis. Heriot Watt - Dr J C Chen. Taipei Municipal University. Teachers College - Professor Wlodzimierz Cz- ernuszenko, Prof Pawel Rowinski, Prof Jaroslaw Napi- orkowski. Inst of Geophysics, PAS International

Open - Incoming Dr Murray Roberts. Scottish Dr Andrew Flavell. University of Association for Marine Science. Dundee at SCRI. - Steve Ross. University of North - Michael Gbadegesin. University Carolina at Wilmington of Ibadan Professor Avril Taylor. University of Professor D T Haydon FRSE. Paisley. University of Glasgow. - Dr Gail Gilchrist. University of - Dr Juan Morales. Universidad Melbourne Nacional de Comahue Dr Kay Tisdall. University of Radha Kessar. University of Edinburgh. Aberdeen. - Prof Anita Rampal. Delhi - Mary Schaps. Bar-Ilan University University Dr Peter McCaffery. University of Professor Kenneth Turner. Univer- Aberdeen. sity of Stirling. - Prof James Crandall. University - Prof Luigi Logrippo. Universite of Massachusetts du Quebec en Outaouais Professor Daphne McCulloch. Dr John Wallace. Rowett Research Glasgow Caledomian University. Institute. - Dr Christina Pieh. University of - Dr Kevin Shingfield. MTT Freiburg Agrifood Research Finland Dr David McGloin. University of St Dr Keith Williamson. University of Andrews. Edinburgh. - Dr Suman Anand. National - Maria Garrido-Anes. University Physical Laboratory of Huelva Dr Julian Malins. Gray’s School of Dr Cheng-Xiang Wang. Heriot Art, Robert Gordon University. Watt University. - Professor Deana McDonagh. - Professor Heung-Gyoon Ryu. University of Illinois at Urbana- Chungbuk National University Champaign Open - Outgoing Dr Tara Marshall. University of Dr Mark Aspinwall. University of Aberdeen. Edinburgh. - Nathalia Yaragina. Polar - Professor Evelio Diaz, Professor Research Institute of Marine, Sergio Guerra. University of Fisheries and Oceanography Havana Dr Trevor Ridley. University of Dr Guy Bewick. University of Edinburgh. Aberdeen. - Dr Vadim Alekseev. St Peters- - Dr Marilyn Duxon, Professor Ian burg State University McLennan, Dr Phil Sheard. University of Otago

273 Review of the Session 2005-2006

Dr Stefan Erhardt. Heriot Watt NNSFC Joint Project. University. Professor C J Secombes FRSE. - Prof Walter Thiel. Max-Planck- University of Aberdeen. Institut fur Kohlenforschung - Professor Pin Nie. Institute of Dr Mark A Freeman. University of Hydrobiology, CAS Stirling. Dr Xiaozhong Zheng. University of - Associate Professor Yoshinaga, Stirling. Assistant Professor Yokoyama, - Professor Zhaokun Ding. Professor Ogawa. University of Guangxi University Tokyo Events Dr Laurence Lasselle. University of St Andrews. 10 – 12 October 2005: The RSE - Professor Clem Tisdell. Universi- held a joint Scotland-Taiwan Hi ty of Queensland Tech Forum with the National Professor Godfrey Smith. Universi- Science Council of Taiwan (NSC). ty of Glasgow. The purpose of the event was to - Professor N Kaneko. Dokkyo encourage further collaboration University School of Medicine between researchers in life sciences and micro nanotechnolo- Dr Hongyue Sun. University of gy in Scotland and Taiwan, and to Aberdeen. raise awareness of the Memoran- - Professor Jinping Zhao. Ocean dum of Understanding between University of China the RSE and the NSC. Dr Michael Taliansky. Scottish 17 - 18 November 2005: The RSE Crop Research Institute. and the Academy of Sciences of - Dr V Gaba, Dr S Manulis, Dr M the Czech Republic held a Drug Lapidot., Dr A Gal-on. Agricul- Delivery Workshop entitled tural Research Organisation, Nanomedicines of the Future. The Israel. meeting enabled leading experts, Professor John Watson. University researchers and commentators of Aberdeen. from Scotland and the Czech - Professor Jinping Zhao. Ocean Republic to come together to; University of China discuss and learn about recent advances in this rapidly changing area; establish international ties; and explore avenues for future exchange and collaboration. The meeting was a welcome occasion for the development of long-term ties and an important vehicle for

274 International

generating collaborative initia- his theme into internal solidarity tives. and support between and to 14 February 2006: The RSE member states, and external hosted and organised a reception solidarity of EU member states in to raise awareness of the Interna- relationships with neighbours in tional Exchange Programme, and adjacent countries. The lecture specifically the Bilateral Pro- gave rise to a large number of gramme with the Chinese topical and thought provoking Academy of Sciences, amongst the questions to which Mr Saryusz- postdoctoral research community Wolski responded with careful of Scotland interested in working consideration and insight. with their counterparts in China. Visits Amongst those who attended 23 March 2006: Representative were delegates to a British from the National Natural Science Council-funded International Foundation of China visited the Networking for Young Scientists RSE to discuss the signing of a meeting on molecular mecha- Memorandum of Understanding nisms underlying plant biology. and possible future collabora- 24 March 2006: This one-day tions. event Languages in Scotland - 28 March 2006: Chinese science What’s the Problem? organised by and technology journalists visited the RSE European Policy Forum, Scotland on a Scottish Executive explored the current situation organised visit, and met with with regard to language teaching representatives of the RSE to and learning in Scotland. Speakers discuss our ongoing links with included policy makers and China. influencers, working linguists in the business community, academ- 13 June 2006: A delegation of ics, and teachers. The meeting top political representatives and offered an exceptional platform to representatives of the technologi- discuss current developments and cal R&D Centers in the Province of to chart future directions. Gipuzkoa, the Basque Country, visited the RSE as part of a SDI 26 June 2006: Mr Jacek Saryusz- organised visit. The main objec- Wolski, Vice-President of the tive for the visit was to gain an European Parliament gave the RSE overview both of the British R&D Annual European Lecture, on the and innovation system and of the topic of Solidarity in the Enlarged strategic research and develop- European Union. Mr Saryusz- ment that it is taking place in Wolski gave an excellent and Britain. thought-provoking address to a distinguished audience, dividing

275 Review of the Session 2005-2006

23 June 2006: A delegation of 16 June 2006: Professor Rona Chinese environmental engineers MacKie (then International from Wuhan visited Edinburgh to Convener) visited the Royal meet with representatives of SEPA Swedish Academy of Sciences. An and the RSE. The group were informal Memorandum of interested in developing stronger Understanding between the RSE links between Scotland and China and the Swedish Academy was and sharing knowledge and signed, setting out the intention expertise. to communicate and liaise 31 July 2006: Marina Sokolova, regularly and work jointly where British Council, Moscow visited possible. the RSE to discuss possible 11 August 2006: Dr William collaboration with the RSE. The Duncan, RSE Chief Executive visit resulted in Professor Geoffrey visited the Slovenian Academy of Boulton FRSE giving a public Sciences and Arts to sign a formal lecture during the Moscow Memorandum of Understanding. Science Festival. The Memorandum sets out the Relations with Sister Academies agreement to facilitate encourage and support research collabora- 2 - 3 November 2005: Frances tion in all areas between research Fowler (then International Rela- groups in Scotland and Slovenia tions Manager) and Prof Anna Dominiczak FRSE (International 20 - 22 September 2006: The Committee member) visited the Royal Society of Edinburgh Polish Academy of Sciences to organised a joint conference with meet with staff of the Academy, the Norwegian Academy of discuss the progress of the Science and Letters entitled The International Exchange Pro- Vikings and Scotland: Impact and gramme and consider future Influence. collaborations.

276 FELLOWS’ SOCIAL EVENTS Fellows’ Reception 2006 7 February 2006. Parasitic Wasps: The 2006 Summer Reception for Does Taxonomy Matter and Where Fellows was held on Monday July Should it be Done? Dr Mark Shaw 3 in the Society’s rooms, when the 7 March 2006. The Royal Society President presented Royal Medals of Edinburgh - Past and Present to Sir John Ball FRS, FRSE and Sir International Connections. David Jack CBE, FRS, FRSE. Professor Rona MacKie New Fellows’ Induction Day 8 May 2006 The Royal Society Dining Club This Club was established on 3rd Fellows met Council for lunch, January 1820, with the view of followed by a tour of the Society’s promoting the objectives of the rooms and an opportunity to Royal Society of Edinburgh. In meet RSE staff and view an Session 2005/2006 meetings exhibition of the Society’s activi- were held as follows : ties. Lord Kerr (Honorary Fellow), three Corresponding Fellows, 835th dinner - 5 December 2005 Walter Paul Baier, Ian David Praeses: Sir Laurence Hunter Duncan and Daniel Szechi, and 49 Croupier: Professor Gavin Ordinary Fellows signed the Roll McCrone at an admission ceremony held in 836th dinner - 3 April 2006 the Wolfson Lecture Theatre. Praeses: Professor Thomas J Fellows’ Coffee Meetings Anderson Weekly Coffee Meetings were Croupier: Dr Ian Sword held throughout the winter and 837th dinner - 12 June 2006 spring months. Speakers at the Praeses: Professor Malcolm monthly lecture meetings were : Fluendy 11 October 2005. A Mathemati- Croupier: Reverend Richard cian Looks at Music. Professor Holloway John M Howie. 838th dinner - 2 October 2006 1 November 2005. The Delicate Praeses: Professor Ian Rolfe Interface between Scientists and Croupier: Professor John Dale Politicians. Dr Tam Dalyell Fellows’ Golf Challenge 6 December 2005. Visual Art The 2006 Fellows' Golf Challenge Provision Scotland; How Best can was held at Auchterarder Golf we Provide the Visual Arts in Club on Thursday 24 August. The Scotland? Sir Timothy Clifford winner of the Stewart Cup 2006 10 January 2006. Reflections on was Professor Sean McKee. Royal Society of Edinburgh Fellowship 1783-2003. Dr Charles D Waterston

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GRANTS, SPONSORSHIP AND DONATIONS The society is grateful to the following organisations for their continuing support during the Session:

BBSRC GM Morrison Charitable Trust BP Research Fellowship Trust Gannochy Trust Caledonian Research Foundation PPARC Lord Fleck Will Trust Scottish Enterprise Lessells Trust Scottish Executive Lloyds TSB Foundation for Scotland

and also to the following for their support for specific events and activities:

Anglo-Irish Encounter Glasgow Maths Journal Trust Airborne Initiative Ltd Mrs S M W Heggie (legacy) HRH Prince Alsaleed Bin Talal Bin Heriot-Watt University Abdulaziz Alsaud London Mathematical Society British Academy The Robertson Trust Aberdeenshire Council Royal Norwegian Consul General The Darwin Trust of Edinburgh Strathmartine Trust Esme Fairbairn Foundation James Weir Foundation Foreign and Commonwealth Office

279

CHANGES IN FELLOWSHIP DURING THE SESSION DEATHS REPORTED TO THE SOCIETY Fellows Terence George Baker Daniel Martin Harold Burnell Carter William Ronald Aylett Muntz Robert Alexander Chalmers John Ross Raeburn John Barklie Clements Bernard Raistrick Ian MacPhail Dawson Lovat Victor Charles Rees Victor Colin Farmer Hamish Alexander Robertson William Ewart John Farvis William Devigne Russell-Hunter Allan Douglas Galloway David Cumming Simpson Ronald Haxton Girdwood John Bedford Stenlake Keith Edward Halnan Ian Hosie Stevenson Neil Hood Thomas Russell Tannahill Stephen Angus Hutchinson Samuel James Thomson Arthur Percival Jenkins Patrick Tollin John William Beaufoy King Peter Martin Brabazon Walker Charles William McCombie Frank Willett Angus McIntosh John Hunter Williamson John McIntyre Corresponding Fellows Peter Ladefoged

Honorary Fellows Sir James Menter Dame Muriel Spark

ELECTIONS Fellows Paul Addison (Anthony) Michael Burton Donald Robertson Anderson Harry Campbell (John) Paul Attfield (Maria) Saveria Campo (Alan) Graeme Auld David Lancelot Carey Miller Shomi S Bhattacharya Janet Carsten Robert William Black Paul Richard Crocker Paul Joseph Boyle Iain Spencer Duff

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Michael Christopher Forde Frank Christopher Odds Gavin Jarvis Gibson John Andrew Peacock Adrian Maxwell Grant Andrew Justin Radcliffe Porter Stuart Gulliver Ian Beith Mclaren Ralston Paul Hagan Jason Meredith Reese Desmond John Higham Olivia Fiona Robinson Andrew Warwick Illius Guenther Rosner David Jasper Mandy Elaine Ryan Walter Kolch David James Sibbald Brian Lang Thomas James Simpson Stephen Leslie Lee Jeremy John Smith Andrew James Leigh Brown Fiona Jane Stafford Angus Smith MacDonald Tom Strachan Donald James Renwick MacRae Joseph Sherman Sventek Paul Anthony Madden Elizabeth Joyce Tait Neil Benedict Metcalfe Andrew Dawson Taylor Ronald Milne Adrian C Todd Andrew David Morris Sarah Wanless John James Mullins Charles Picton Warlow Richard John Murphy Charles William John Withers Raffaella Ocone

Honorary Fellows

Bernard Bailyn John Olav Kerr (Lord Kerr) Peter Charles Doherty Robert McCredie May (Lord May)

Corresponding Fellows

(Paul) Walter Baier Daniel Szechi Ian David Duncan Romila Thapar

282 STAFF CHANGES DURING THE SESSION Arrivals Departures Ms Lia Brennan, Events Officer Ms Zoë Eccles, Receptionist/ Ms Morven Chisholm, Interna- Telephonist tional Relations Officer Ms Emma Faragher, Education Mr Andy Curran, Property Services Officer Officer Ms Jean Finlayson, International Mrs Isabel Hastie, Receptionist/ Relations Officer Telephonist Ms Frances Fowler, International Ms Lyndsey Hume, Conference Relations Manager Centre Co-ordinator Ms Kirsteen Francis, Conference Mr Ian Melville, Policy Officer Centre Co-ordinator Ms Tracy Rickard, Research Awards Mr Frank Pullen, Central Services Co-ordinator Manager Ms Claire Swatton, Events/ Dr Harinee Selvadurai, Education Education Assistant Officer

Other Staff in post throughout the Session Ms Christel Baudere, HR Assistant Mr Robert Hunter, Evening Mr Stuart Brown, PR and Commu- Caretaker nications Manager Mr Robert Lachlan, Accounts Mrs Roísín Calvert-Elliott, Events Officer Manager Mrs Jenny Liddell, Communica- Ms Jennifer Cameron, Office tions Officer Services and IT Support Manager Mr George Pendleton, Facilities Dr Lesley Campbell, Fellowship, Assistant Policy, and Education Manager Dr Marc Rands, Policy Officer (also Dr William Duncan, Chief Execu- see page 274) tive Mr Brian Scott, Technical Support Miss Kate Ellis, Director of Finance Assistant Mrs Anne Fraser, Research Awards Mrs Sheila Stuart, Administration and International Manager Assistant Mrs Vicki Hammond, Journals and Mrs Margaret Tait, Receptionist/ Archive Officer Telephonist Mr William Hardie, Energy Enquiry Ms Susan Walker, Events Officer Administrative Assistant (Maternity leave Nov 05-Oct 06) Mr Graeme Herbert, Director of Mrs Doreen Waterland, PA to Corporate Services and Deputy Chief Executive and Officers Chief Executive Mr Duncan Welsh, Events Officer

283

OBITUARY NOTICES Sir John (Dutton) Clerk Of Penicuik ...... 286 William Cochran ...... 290 Morrell Henry Draper ...... 293 Victor Colin Farmer ...... 297 Charles Arthur Fewson ...... 301 James Kerr Grant ...... 305 Ian Simpson Hughes ...... 307 Violet Rosemary Strachan Hutton ...... 311 George Scott Johnstone...... 316 John William Beaufoy King ...... 320 Sir Ian (Alexander) McGregor ...... 324 Magnus Magnusson ...... 328 William Barr Martin ...... 333 John Drake Matthews ...... 338 Basil Richardson Stanley Megaw ...... 341 Hans Anton Meidner ...... 344 Sir James (Woodham) Menter ...... 347 Henry Gemmell Morgan...... 350 John Ross Raeburn ...... 353 William Devigne Russell-Hunter ...... 355 David Cumming Simpson ...... 358 Harold James Thomas ...... 363 Samuel James Thomson ...... 365 Patrick Tollin ...... 368 Peter Martin Brabazon Walker ...... 371 Donald Elmslie Robertson Watt ...... 375

285 Review of the Session 2005-2006

Commodore Sir John Dutton Clerk Of Penicuik, 10th Baronet 30 January 1917 - 25 October 2002

Sir John Clerk, who died on 25 cocktail sausages) which are October 2002, was not himself a alleged to have been those with scholar. A modest, kindly and which the land-lubber Clerk of humorous man, he would have Eldin worked out his theories on been the first to admit this. He did paper and with which he experi- not shine at school (he was sent mented on the High Pond of to Stowe under its remarkable Penicuik and the canal at Mavis- headmaster, the Edinburgh-born bank. J. F. Roxburgh, where he was a In 1938, and in the shadow of contemporary of the young war, Clerk was saved from office second Earl Haig), and he never tedium by the Royal Naval Volun- attended university. Instead he teer Reserve. On being went to work, effectively as an commissioned he specialised in office-boy, for a Leith grain gunnery, and it was as a gunnery merchant, commuting by train to officer that he served in the battle his daily grind (figuratively if not cruiser HMS Repulse. He had the quite literally) from the family’s good fortune to be seconded as a house in North Berwick. Sea-side gunnery instructor to the South living and Leith working must African Navy and thus escaped (as have instilled in him that ancestral so many of his comrades did not) love of the sea which had directed the sinking of that ship along the lives of forebears who had with the Prince of Wales off served in the Royal Navy and of his Malaya in 1941. He served great kinsman, John Clerk of subsequently in the Far East and Eldin, who had devised the naval North Atlantic, and was due to go tactics of the Navy of Rodney and again to the Far East theatre when Nelson and whose famous the Japanese surrender brought theoretical manoeuvre of ‘break- to an end his active naval career. ing the line’ had contributed in no After the war he was an enthusi- small degree to the winning of astic RNR officer, and was battles from Dominica to Trafalgar. successively Captain of the Forth John Clerk took great pride in his Division and Commodore of the family’s naval connections, and naval reserve forces of the UK. For loved to show visitors to Penicuk his services he was awarded the House the small cork and wax Volunteer Reserve Decoration and models of ships (they resemble was appointed CBE in 1966. He nothing so much as desiccated was a member of the Queen’s

286 Obituary Notices

Bodyguard for Scotland, the Royal scientific enterprise, of taste and Company of Archers, and rose talent which extended in an through the somewhat topsy- unbroken line through the main turvy ranks of that body as and cadet branches of the family Brigadier, Ensign and finally as from the 1630s to the mid- Lieutenant. For twenty years he Victorian period. Few Scottish or was Lord-Lieutenant of Midlothi- indeed British families can match an, and represented the Crown in this tradition of inherited cultural his county not only with distinc- and scientific eminence, not tion and diligence but with a simply as patrons (the recognisers remarkable ability to appeal to all of talent in others) but also as sections of the community in practitioners themselves. Anti- towns and mining villages where quarianism, art-collecting, gentlemen and landowners might architecture, landscape gardening, not always be welcomed. His music and poetry were the Clerks’ popularity was matched by the cultural preserves; geology, charm of his wife Elizabeth. Clerk mechanics, mining technology, took his many and varied duties medicine, theoretical physics and seriously and revelled in the high astronomy, were the parallel moments such as his receiving the scientific fields in which they Pope on the Scottish visit of 1982. achieved competence, eminence A few days after that meeting the or supreme distinction. Sir John present writer (a frequent visitor) was hugely and rightly proud to happened to be at Penicuik on be a kinsman of Clerk of Eldin, some occasion or other. The Lord- who had worked with James Lieutanant offered his hand, with Hutton on the illustrations for the the invitation to ‘shake it and get fundamental Theory of the Earth, the goodness’: he claimed not to and to hold, revered within the have washed since His Holiness wider family circle of learning and had pressed the flesh earlier in the achievement, the towering genius week! of James Clerk Maxwell. He was John Clerk may not have been a likewise proud of the Napier of scholar in his own right, but he Merchiston and Drummond of was a great friend to all the Hawthornden blood in his veins, countless students and scholars and could show the ivory ‘Napier’s who came to Penicuik in pursuit Bones’ of the one and the Ben of their research, or the much Johnson correspondence of the greater numbers who used the other. If his circumstances had family papers for many different been different he himself might ends. He was heir to a great well have been an engineer. As tradition of scholarship and things were, he took great

287 Review of the Session 2005-2006

pleasure in his fine ancestral had by luck survived the fire of clocks, and in the trips to North 1899 which had destroyed America and to Hawaii that the Penicuik House. Professor Stuart Clerk Maxwell connection and his Piggott, pursuing his own own astronomical and navigation- antiquarian research, came to al interests offered him. Country inspect the charter room, and life and country pursuits, natural realised that there was a vast history, gardening and the treasure-trove ripe for exploita- maintenance of his estate (to tion. The muniments were which he had succeeded in 1943) deposited in General Register with all its historic landscape House, where they still remain features were among his relaxa- among the most heavily used of tions. the Gifts and Deposits series. Of No-one who has worked in any of all the countless discoveries made the fields, artistic or scientific, in in the archive, that of the hun- which the Clerks were protago- dreds of letters of Robert Adam nists can ever forget the kindness written to his family from Italy in and ‘hospitality to the mind’ (the the 1750s stands out as perhaps phrase of that of the antiquary the most significant. The lost Alexander Gordon, applied to the drawings for Hutton’s seminal second baronet in the 1720s) work on geology are another extended by Sir John and Lady discovery of world importance. Clerk. Scholars all over the world Access to all this was freely given owe these kindest and most by Sir John, who took great generous of owners of historic delight in the findings of those to collections the most profound whom he gave so much generous gratitude. The Clerk Collection of encouragement. In several cases paintings, drawings and works of the initial enquiry by young art is remarkable and of great student or by established scholar interest; but the family muni- was to lead to years of happy ments are of even greater personal friendship and close significance, and it is this archive, involvement with a delightful astonishing in its range and family circle. Walter Scott, remi- completeness, that has been for niscing of his own youth, spoke some sixty years a source of prime for many in subsequent genera- importance to scholars in many tions when he praised the disciplines. After the war Clerk topographical and artistic pleas- (now living in the quaint elegance ures of Penicuik and, and captivating charm of the ‘overwhelmed with kindness’, of Palladian stable block) began to the ‘flattering hospitality of the look into his family papers that owners’.

288 Obituary Notices

John Clerk’s generosity to scholars published in The World of was legendary, and the many Learning as ‘Antiquary’, a con- acknowledgements in the pub- scious echo of the virtuoso lished works of others stand as outlook of the second baronet testimony to this most valuable if who was among the founders of indirect contribution to the the Philosophical Society of cultural and scholarly life of Edinburgh, predecessor of the Scotland in the second half of the Royal Society. twentieth century. The papers, and Sir John Clerk made possible their kind and patient owner, have much of the research and writing certainly underpinned a very large of others. But he was also, and amount of scholarly work under- much more important, quite taken in Scotland and furth of the simply a good man. As the Provost realm. The present writer knows of St Mary’s, paraphrasing more than most what this support Chaucer, said at the memorial and friendship meant. One has to service (a characteristic Clerk think only of the Robert Adam occasion combining the Navy exhibitions of 1978 and 1992 hymn with an ancestor’s music when the entire enterprise on played by young members of the both occasions was founded very family, and with moving contem- largely upon the remarkable plative moments followed by a resources of the Clerk muniments. gigantic drinks party filling the Fellowship of the Royal Society of Cathedral with gossip and Edinburgh was a wholly appropri- laughter) the tenth baronet of ate accolade for Clerk to have Penicuik was truly ‘a very perfect received from the scientific and gentle knight’. academic communities. He used to appear in the list of Fellows Iain Gordon Brown

Commodore Sir John Dutton Clerk of Penicuik, 10th Baronet. CBE, VRD, JP. Born 30 January 1917; Elected FRSE 7 March 1977; Died 25 October 2002.

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William Cochran 30 July 1922 - 28 August 2003

William Cochran, who died on sucrose and its derivatives, 28th August 2003 at the age of combining this with his war-time 81, was a distinguished physicist obligations as an air-raid warden. of international renown. During He was awarded his PhD in the 1950s and 1960s he did Chemistry in 1946 and left pioneering work on many of the Edinburgh in 1948 for the problems that underpinned Nobel Cavendish Laboratory in Cam- prizes won by others, including bridge where he held a succession the structure of DNA, so-called of posts as Demonstrator, Lecturer ‘direct methods’ for determining and Reader until 1964. the arrangement of atoms in In this period he performed much crystal structures, and the inter- of the research work for which he pretation of the way atoms vibrate is well known. His interest and in solids from the then new skills in the determination of technique of inelastic neutron complex crystal structures of scattering. He was also responsi- organic molecules led Francis ble for major advances in the Crick to seek his assistance with theoretical understanding of the the problem of understanding the way crystalline solids transform diffraction patterns of DNA, and from one structure to another, together they worked out a often accompanied by important solution for the scattering from a changes in physical properties. helical structure that enabled Bill Cochran was born on 30th Crick and Watson to obtain their July 1922 and was educated at Nobel prize winning structure of Boroughmuir High School in DNA. Around the same time, he Edinburgh before going to became interested in systematic Edinburgh University to read relationships between the physics. After the award of a First intensities of the x-ray reflections Class degree, he became an from crystals and made the crucial Assistant in the Department of breakthrough in showing how to Natural Philosophy in Edinburgh, exploit these relationships in a but soon realised that his research general way for solving structures. would be better pursued in the These ‘direct methods’ of struc- Chemistry Department. Here he ture solving required considerable worked with Arnold Beevers on x- computational power to be ray crystallography, and effective, and he was one of the determined the crystal structure of first to exploit computers for this

290 Obituary Notices

purpose, working with the EDSAC halides, like potassium bromide, I and EDSAC II computers in and to the well-known semicon- Cambridge. Hauptman and Karle ductors, germanium, silicon and received the chemistry Nobel Prize gallium arsenide. Further develop- in 1985 for the full development ments of this model led to the of direct methods which are now so-called ‘soft mode’ picture of used routinely worldwide for the onset of ferroelectricity in a crystal structure determination. crystal – a property now of high Amongst other important work, interest in a wide range of device he wrote key papers on x-ray applications – in which the scattering from defected crystals, ferroelectric transition occurs as made one of the very first really an instability of the crystal precise measurements of electron structure against a particular density in a crystal, and co- mode of vibration of the atoms. authored with Henry Lipson ‘The This mode was correctly predicted Determination of Crystal Struc- to decrease to zero frequency as tures’ which was the definitive text the temperature of the transition for a whole generation of crystal- was approached. The theory was lographers. later generalised by Bill and has His research took a very different been shown to provide a broadly turn when he spent a sabbatical correct picture of most structural year at the laboratories of Atomic phase transitions. Energy of Canada Ltd. in 1958- In 1964 Bill was appointed 1959 to work with Bert Professor of Physics and estab- Brockhouse. At that time Brock- lished a new research group at house, another subsequent Nobel The University of Edinburgh in prize-winner, had just successfully condensed matter physics. His completed his novel triple-axis great success in this continues to spectrometer for the study of the bear fruit today in the high crystal dynamics of solids using reputation of Edinburgh in this slow neutron scattering, and was field. Bill played a leading role in obtaining the first data from a creating the modern Department single crystal of sodium iodide. (now School) of Physics, and in Bill’s analysis revealed that the 1975 he succeeded Norman model developed by Max Born Feather as Professor of Natural and co-workers in Edinburgh 15 Philosophy and Head of Depart- years before was inadequate. The ment. This led to a growing role in success of his new model immedi- University administration as first ately attracted considerable and Dean of the Faculty of Science wide attention, especially when it from 1979 to 1982 and then Vice- was applied to other alkali Principal from 1984 to 1987.

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Bill was a Fellow of the Royal level for the clarity of his explana- Societies of London and Edin- tion of even the most difficult burgh, and a Fellow and then topics, leavened by humour and Honorary Fellow of Trinity Hall, an annual limerick competition. Cambridge. He was elected as a Bill was a keen Scotsman with Fellow of the Royal Society of interests in Scottish literature and Edinburgh in March 1965, serving heritage, and an enduring on the Society’s Council from affection for the Scottish land- 1980 to 1985, the last three years scape. He wrote about the as Vice-President. He was awarded Edinburgh Natural Philosophers, the Guthrie Medal by the Institute David Brewster and James Clerk of Physics, The Hughes Medal of Maxwell, and his interest in Scots the Royal Society and the Potts verse led him to twice address Medal of the Franklin Institute retiring Principals, to their surprise among others. in his own verse, at Senatus. He He will be remembered warmly by will be sorely missed by his son his colleagues as a kindly and and two daughters, and by his perceptive man with a dry sense of wife, Ingegerd, whom he married humour. As a teacher he was in 1953. revered by students at both R J Nelmes, P N Pusey undergraduate and postgraduate

William Cochran BSc, PhD (Edinburgh), MA (Cantab), HonDSc (Edinburgh, Heriot-Watt). Born 30 July 1922; Elected FRSE 1 March 1965 (Vice-Presi- dent 1982-85); Died 28 August 2003.

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Morrell Henry Draper 10 July 1921 - 1 October 2005

Morrell Draper was born in of microelectrodes to open a new Adelaide, Australia, on the 10th chapter in heart electrophysiology July 1921. He was educated at St by intracellular recording of ionic Peter’s College in Adelaide. Here fluxes. At Cambridge he he discovered science and one of continued with his running and the loves of his life, running. He was awarded a Blue in athletics. ran for South Australia and I In the 1951 Oxford/Cambridge believe became the South Austral- Match all the events were equal - ia Champion at 440 yards. In this meant that everything hinged 1944, he graduated MB, BS from on the relay. Morrell was the last the University of Adelaide, where Cambridge man to take the he married Mary who survives him baton. There was an extremely and where his eldest daughter, good Oxford man as his opposite Genevieve, was born. He spent number but Morrell overtook him his residency as house surgeon at and thereby won the Trophy that the Royal Adelaide Hospital. He year for Cambridge. In 1955, he was called up in 1945 and graduated PhD. gazetted as Captain RAAMC, From Cambridge, he moved as a serving until 1946 when he was Lecturer to the Department of transferred to the reserve of Physiology at the University of officers. From 1946 to 1949, Edinburgh where he continued Morrell was a Research Fellow of his work on electrophysiology the National Health and Medical combined with electron microsco- Research Council of Australia. py, and was promoted to Senior In 1949, he won an Australian Lecturer. He left the University to National University Scholarship to take up the post of Senior study for a PhD in neuro- Principal Scientific Officer, and physiology at Cambridge. There subsequently Deputy Director, at he joined the laboratory of Drs. the Agricultural Research Council Alan Hodgkin, Andrew Huxley, Poultry Research Centre on the Richard Keynes, and Peter Lewis King’s Buildings Campus of the who were developing new University of Edinburgh. While techniques in their pioneering there, he carried out innovative studies of the physiology of single research on the function of the axons. While in Cambridge, hen oviduct. During this period, Morrell worked with Silvio Morrell served on the Farm Weidmann in exploiting the use Animal Welfare Committee with

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concerns about the maltreatment bacterial test, an in vitro test to of the animals being bred for the determine chromosome breakage food industry. He was awarded in mammalian cells, a test to the OBE. in 1971 and elected as a demonstrate gene damage in vitro Fellow of the Royal Society of in mammalian cells, and finally a Edinburgh in 1973. mammalian in vivo test to demon- In 1976 he moved to the British strate chromosomal damage in Council in London where, as proliferating tissue (bone mar- Assistant Director of the Medical row). The guidelines were Department, he was responsible published in 1980 and still set the for postgraduate medical educa- pattern for mutagenicity testing. tion of students from overseas. From the UK Division of Toxi- From here, he transferred as cology and Environmental Medical Officer/Senior Medical Protection at the DHSS, it was a Officer to the Division of Toxicolo- logical progression for Morrell to gy and Environmental Protection go to the World Health Organiza- at the Department of Health and tion (WHO) to work with the Social Security (DHSS) where, International Programme on among other things, he was Chemical Safety (IPCS) of the ILO/ largely responsible for compiling UNEP/WHO, first in Copenhagen the draft guidelines on muta- and then in Geneva. In Copenha- genicity testing of new drugs gen, he started the IPCS issued by the Committee on manpower development pro- Proprietory Medicinal Products gramme to introduce more (CPMP) of which he was the education in the science of scientific secretary. This involve- toxicology which underlies all ment was paralleled by activities in chemical safety. In Geneva, he the development of guidelines for worked closely with Michel the testing of therapeutic sub- Mercier, the Director of IPCS, stances for mutagenicity for the especially in the production of a Commission of the European number of Environmental Health Community, and in the develop- Criteria Documents, regarded as ment of guidelines for toxicity among the most reliable sources testing by the Organization for of toxicological information and Economic Cooperation and now freely available on the IPCS Development (OECD). The website (INCHEM). He was an guidelines for mutagenicity organizer or participant in a testing outlined a philosophy variety of international symposia which led to the CPMP working and expert committees, and was party’s recommendation of a responsible for the organization “four-test screen” comprising a of the International Programme

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on the Evaluation of Short-Term section of the scientific committee Tests for Carcinogens. In collabo- to examine the toxicity and ration with the Health and Safety ecotoxicology of chemicals. For Directorate (DGV/E/1) of the CEC, Volume 1, Morrell acted as he was responsible for the scientific and press editor. For organization of the International Volume 2, he undertook, under Seminar on Immunotoxicology: contract, the responsibility of the Immune System as a Target for organizing the entire production Toxic Damage - Present Status, of the volume, from the subcon- Open Problems and Future tracting of the expert authors for prospects. This was one of the the various specialized sections of first meetings to focus on what is the reviews, through the compila- now recognised as a key area in tion of these into chapters for the toxicology. The subsequent book consideration of the Ad Hoc of the proceedings of this semi- Committee, to the processing of nar, for which he did the final their agreed text for publication in editing, is still an important part 1990. For Volumes 3, 4 and 5, he of the relevant scientific literature. acted as chief consultant to the After leaving IPCS on formal Edinburgh Centre for Toxicology retirement in 1984, Morrell was which organized the entire asked to act as a consultant in production of these volumes toxicology to the Health and along the lines Morrell had Safety Directorate (DGV/E/1) of the established for Volume 2. European Commission. This Following attendance at meetings brought him in contact with the at the International Association problems associated with the for Research on Cancer (IARC), he carcinogenicity of industrial became convinced that the chemicals, and especially of metals scientific data being used for and their compounds. His major classification of metals and their commitment became his involve- compounds were inadequate, and ment with the general scientific even wrong, and that the IARC editing of monographs in the classifications for many such CEC’s Industrial Health and Safety substances lacked adequate series on the Toxicology of justification. He was particularly Chemicals, series 1: Carcinogenici- concerned about the classification ty, summary reviews of the of nickel compounds on the basis scientific evidence. These were of the cancer epidemic at the prepared by the DGV/E/1 Ad Hoc Clydach nickel refinery, because Group on Dangerous Chemicals - the relevant epidemiology was Carcinogens - with the participa- based on guesses about the tion of members of the toxicology extent and nature of the expo-

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sures, in the complete absence of grandchildren (two adopted). He measured data. Obtaining sound is also mourned by many friends data and identifying the real cause around the world. There can be of the Clydach epidemic became few people who have contributed the main objective of his latter continuously throughout their years. In spite of many setbacks lives so much, at such a high because of his health, he complet- scientific and personal level, to the ed most of this final study and progress of science and medicine. even invented a new approach to His scientific work is recorded in epidemiology which he called his publications. His personal ‘metademography’. The manu- support and help for other people scripts which he has left are being is not, but it will always be prepared for publication in book remembered by those of us who form. have been fortunate enough to Morrell leaves behind him his know him. devoted wife Mary, who gave him John Duffus boundless support in sickness and health, four children, and seven

Morrell Henry Draper, MB, BS (Adelaide), PhD (Cantab), OBE. Born 10 July 1921; Elected FRSE 5 March 1973; Died 1 October 2005.

296 Obituary Notices

Victor Colin Farmer 31 December 1920 - 18 August 2006

Colin Farmer was a brilliant Element Content of Plants and innovative scientist who, in Soils. research spanning 60 years, Following his appointment to the pioneered the use of infrared staff of the Macaulay Institute, spectroscopy in mineralogy, Colin’s early papers were mainly particularly its application to clay devoted to the application of mineralogy, and additionally made spectroscopic techniques to the many outstanding contributions chemistry of plant components, to soil science in the field of both the way in which they are utilized inorganic and organic geochemis- by soil microbes and the nature of try. With the exception of a short the metabolites so formed. Then period immediately after his in 1955 a landmark event oc- retirement in 1983, his entire curred when the Institute research career was spent at the purchased an Infrared Spectrome- Macaulay Institute in Aberdeen ter. At the time no-one had a clear where, unencumbered by admin- idea of just how useful this istrative duties, he produced a instrument would be in the steady stream of high-quality Institute’s research programme original papers throughout his and, in an inspired moment, Colin working life. was asked to lead investigations Victor Colin Farmer was born in into the possible application of Woodlawn, County Galway, infrared spectroscopy to soil Ireland on the last day of 1920. science. It is difficult to believe Shortly thereafter the family that such an open-ended, flexible moved to Scotland and he was arrangement would ever be brought up in Ayrshire. He supported in today’s atmosphere entered the University of Glasgow of strictly accountable and in 1939 and gained a first class “relevant” science. However, Honours degree in Chemistry in following an initial period when 1943. Following this he was sample preparation techniques accepted for a PhD in the Universi- were developed and mastered, the ty of Aberdeen, although his next 25 years saw a quite extraor- research was conducted largely at dinary burgeoning of papers on the Macaulay Institute for Soil the application of infrared Research, gaining his PhD in 1947 spectroscopy as an investigative for a thesis entitled Spectroscopic tool in the chemistry of soil Investigations on the Minor minerals, particularly the clay

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minerals. Not only could the across the globe. Above all, technique be used to identify and however, he appreciated the characterize these minerals and collaboration of colleagues their reactions, complementing throughout the Institute and the and on many occasions surpass- atmosphere of mutual support ing the ability of X-ray diffraction and open consultation. In his own in this respect, but it could also be words, “our willingness to look at used for the study of mineral any sample that anyone cared to surfaces and the way in which bring along certainly opened our they interact with adsorbed eyes to the many applications of molecules. Colin’s individual infrared spectroscopy that we contributions to this area of would otherwise have dismissed research and his growing interna- as impractical or improbable”. tional reputation culminated in Regrettably, this free and easy way 1974 in the publication by the of working in science now seems Mineralogical Society of a monu- to belong to a bygone era. mental monograph on the One of the strengths of infrared Infrared Spectra of Minerals. He spectroscopy is that, unlike X-ray not only conceived, planned and diffraction, it can characterize edited this monograph but also amorphous materials and struc- authored many of its individual tures that lack long range order. In chapters. Thirty years later this the latter part of his formal monograph is still in demand and employment at the Macaulay is widely regarded as one of the Institute, Colin became very much most authoritative texts on the interested in the inorganic subject. It firmly established Colin amorphous constituents of soils, Farmer as the leading world expert in particular a tubular polymer-like on the infrared spectroscopy of mineral called imogolite. In a soil minerals and did much to series of papers he showed how cement the Macaulay Institute’s this mineral, and related materials, international reputation for could be identified, characterized analytical excellence, a feature and synthesized. Up until this time from which it continues to benefit imogolite was only known to up to the present day. He himself occur in soils derived from attributed much of this success to volcanic material, principally in the teamwork in the infrared lab, Japan, but its occurrence in particularly the efforts of his podzolic soils in Scotland, later to immediate colleagues Jim Russell be found in similar soils across the and Tony Fraser, as well as the world, led him to put forward a stimulation provided by visiting novel theory for the formation of research workers from countries podzols, a widely occurring soil

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type. This theory proposed that their implications for the genesis podzols form principally through of various soil types. He later the transport of alumium and iron resumed his research at the down the soil profile as inorganic Macaulay Institute in an honorary complexes rather than through capacity and this he continued to the medium of organic complexa- do until the time of his death, tion, which was the traditional focusing mainly on the chemistry view of soil science. Although it of aluminium and silicon in soils. would be true to say that Colin’s Colin authored or co-authored a podzolization theory was not total of 164 papers in the refereed universally accepted by the soil journals, 39 of which were science community, it nevertheless published in the period after his aroused such widespread interest retirement. He remained produc- that the papers in which it was tive until the last year of his life, described were amongst the most his last full paper published in heavily cited papers of the entire 2005 describing the way in which Agricultural Research Service in plant phytoliths control silica the UK. In fact, Colin’s papers have concentrations in soil and stream always been heavily cited and even waters. in 2004 the number of papers Throughout his life Colin Farmer citing the work of V C Farmer retained a genuine passion for exceeded 200. Between 1975 and science and not only in his own 2004 the ISI Web of Science field of research. For many years recorded 3635 citations of his he represented the British Associ- papers. ation for the Advancement of Colin Farmer’s formal employment Science in Aberdeen, helping to at the Macaulay Institute ended in organize public meetings on a 1983 but he was able to continue wide variety of topics and entering his scientific research in the publicly into debates on topics as capacity of Visiting Professor or far apart as acid rain and the role Research Fellow in several differ- of prions in Mad Cow disease. In ent countries, including Australia fact, he was a formidable advocate (University of Adelaide and CSIRO in any kind of scientific debate. Division of Soils), Italy (Istituto di Referees who sought to change Chimica Agraria, Portici), Canada his manuscripts in any way did so (University of Saskatchewan) and at their peril and he was always France (INRA, Versailles). During prepared to enter the lists to this time his research was con- defend his hypotheses and views cerned mainly with the conditions in public or indeed to criticize of synthesis of amorphous or those he thought were wrong. poorly ordered clay materials and But this was always done in the

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spirit of scientific enquiry in Great Britain and Ireland, for his pursuit of the truth, so that there lifetime research into clay mineral- was rarely any breach of friendly ogy and infrared spectroscopy. relations.

During his career Colin Farmer Colin Farmer combined his received many honours from the dedication to science with a happy scientific community but probably family life and enthusiastic those that meant most to him participation in gardening and in were the Pioneer in Clay Science hill walking both in Scotland and, Award of the Clay Minerals during earlier years, in the many Society of America, granted him in countries that he was invited to recognition of his research visit. He died suddenly on August contributions that led to impor- 18, 2006 and is survived by his tant new directions in Clay wife Jane, whom he married in Mineral Science, and the confer- 1947, along with their two sons ment of Distinguished Member and a daughter. status by the Clay Minerals Group of the Mineralogical Society of M J Wilson

Victor Colin Farmer BSc (Glasgow), PhD (Aberdeen), FRSC. Born 31 Decem- ber 1920; Elected FRSE 5 March 1979; Died 18 August 2006. Reprinted by kind permission of Clay Minerals (Volume 41, Number 3, September 2006).

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Charles Arthur Fewson 8 September 1937 - 28 August 2005

Charles Fewson was born on Despite the hard work, Charles September 8 1937 in the West seems to have had a happy Riding of Yorkshire. He was proud childhood, enjoying the outdoor of his Yorkshire heritage and life and the farm animals. As a could trace his ancestry back to teenager he created a laboratory the 17th century. His family had in an outside shed, with a spirit been tenant farmers for genera- burner and later a Calor gas tions and he was brought up on Bunsen burner. He spent all his Stud Farm near Aldbrough, East pocket money on equipment and Yorkshire, where his father was chemicals, experimenting on tenant farmer. Life was not easy inorganic chemistry and colloids. on the farm. Mains water was He also performed dissections on installed a few months after the dead farm and wild animals. Fewson family moved there but Because of wartime exigencies, bathing was in a tin tub in the Charles did not start at Aldbrough kitchen until a bathroom with a School until he was six years old. gas geyser was installed around At that time, the school catered 1947. Light was provided by for ages 5-15, with four classes paraffin lamps or candles until covering the entire age range. about 1950, when a petrol Since his father had read to him a generator was installed, followed great deal, he learned to read and by mains electricity around 1954. write with enthusiasm, and later One of Charles’ tasks throughout developed a love of reading. He his childhood was to scour hedge started to write with his left hand rows for firewood for the house. but was made to change to his During school holidays from the right hand, as was the usual age of 12 until 17 he worked on practice in those days. the farm more or less full-time, feeding poultry, cattle and pigs After three years Charles moved to and working in the fields. Never- Hymers College, a day school in theless, he was greatly protected Hull. He travelled the 12 or so compared to many of his country- miles each way by bus and trolley raised contemporaries. In those bus, leaving home at 7.30 am and days, many boys left school at the returning at 6.00 pm. There were earliest opportunity, often at the classes on Saturday mornings and age of 12, and were hired out to compulsory games on Saturday farmers, living with the employer. afternoons. Charles played cricket

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and rugby. Hymers was fiercely Chemistry and his parents’ wish competitive and demanding: until for him to return to farming and the age of 14 there were exams he studied a wide range of every three weeks. In Charles’ first chemistry and biology. He ob- few years, there were three female tained an Upper Second in Finals, teachers who had been taken on narrowly missing a First, perhaps to replace men in World War Two; because he was also studying they were referred to as “Sir”! extra biochemistry in preparation Charles passed the eleven-plus for his PhD. exam at age ten, won a scholar- Charles spent the summer of ship from the local council, and 1957 at Weihenstephan, about received ten shillings from his 20 miles from Munich, where he father. From the age of fifteen he milked cows from 4.30 am to 8.30 excelled in science subjects. He am and then spent the rest of the took up squash and tennis and day in the Agricultural Chemistry was an enthusiastic member of laboratory, analysing soil and the Combined Cadet Force, foodstuffs. Weihenstephan also reaching the rank of sergeant, and contains the world’s oldest became a first class shot. (He brewery, and while there he deferred the compulsory two years discovered wheat beer, for which of National Service until after he retained a liking. This was also University, during which time the first of many science-related National Service was abolished; so travels abroad. he was never called up.) In 1958 he went to Bristol In common with all sons of University’s Long Ashton Research farmers, it was assumed that Station as a PhD student in Don Charles would follow his father in Nicholas’ laboratory. He studied farming. He was a member of a microbial chemistry, completing Young Farmers Club in his early- his thesis in less than three years. mid teens and represented his club Yorkshire-wide at cattle and From 1961 until 1963 he was a sheep judging competitions. postdoc with Martin Gibbs at However, he became more drawn Cornell University, on a Fulbright to science, although he did not Scholarship. These were his most totally abandon thought of carefree years and he took the farming as a career until in his opportunity to travel. He spent mid-20s. In 1955 he decided to several periods at the Argonne go to Nottingham University to do National Laboratory, Chicago, and Agricultural Chemistry, funded by visited many places in the mid- a County Scholarship. This was a west. He also worked for three compromise between his love of months in the Carnegie Institute

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of Plant Biology, Stanford Univer- also co-authored a number of sity, driving there via the Grand research papers on the regulation Canyon and Death Valley, visited of metabolic pathways in plants. many parts of California, and He was a committed and popular returned to Ithaca via Oregon and teacher and inspired many Dakota. In the summer of 1962 he undergraduate biochemistry drove his parents around Wash- students, myself included. I was ington, Gettysberg, Blue Ridge one of the 22 PhD students he Mountains, Georgia and Florida. supervised and in whom he He returned to the UK in the instilled rigorous standards. I well summer of 1963, travelling via remember how fastidious he was Canada, Hawaii, Japan, Hong about everything. The details of Kong, the Philippines, India, every step of preparing reagents Aden, Cairo and Italy! had to be noted, including the In the Department of Biochemis- batch numbers of all chemicals try, University of Glasgow, Charles used. On the occasion of Charles’ was successively Assistant Lecturer retirement in 2001, I was invited (1963), Lecturer (1964), Senior to give a research lecture as part Lecturer (1968) and Reader of the celebrations. As a prelude (1979). He was awarded a Person- to my lecture I related some of my al Chair in 1982 and became experiences as a graduate student Head of Department in 1993. with Charles, including the fact From 1994 to 2000 he was the that I was required to write first Director of Glasgow Universi- experimental notes in carbon copy ty’s Institute of Biomedical and books, filing the duplicate copies Life Sciences (IBLS). In 2000-2001 at home for safety. Soon after, he took study leave prior to his there was a major fire in the retirement on September 30th building in which I had spoken, 2001. He was elected FRSE (1979), which, in addition to laboratories, FIBiol (1995), FRSA (1995), housed a library and the Under- appointed OBE for services to graduate Offices of the IBLS. Many biological sciences (2001), and rare botanical texts and important awarded an Honorary Fellowship archives were destroyed and of the University of Glasgow Charles promptly sent me an e- (2004). mail pointing out the wisdom of keeping duplicate copies! Charles’ main research interest during his time in Glasgow was Undoubtedly, Charles’ greatest studying the metabolic pathways challenge at Glasgow University of micro-organisms, especially the was establishing the IBLS, formed metabolism of aromatic com- by the merger of eleven depart- pounds by soil bacteria, and he ments of preclinical and biological

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sciences into one unit. There was international scientific community not uniform support for this and to have acquired so many and merger and Charles worked such good friends and colleagues tirelessly to integrate, motivate around the world. Secondly, to be and raise the research and part of the general academic life teaching profiles of the Institute. of this University, first in the The success of this endeavour is former Department of Biochemis- indicated by the very substantial try and then in the Division of improvements in the grades Biochemistry and Molecular awarded in subsequent Research Biology, participating in research Assessment Exercises and Teach- & teaching, having the pleasure ing Quality Assessments. and stimulus of working with He was on the Editorial Board of many generations of students, the Journal of General Microbiol- sharing in administrative duties, ogy (1973-1978) and a Senior and benefiting from the comrade- Editor (1979-1984). He was ship; that is really why yesterday’s Publications Manager for the ceremony meant so much to me.” Federation of European Microbio- At Glasgow University Charles met logical Societies (FEMS), a member Margaret (Bunty) in 1963 and they of the FEMS Executive Committee were married in 1965. He said and Chief Editor of FEMS Micro- later that marrying Bunty was “the biological Letters (1991-1999). In best thing I ever did in life” and addition, he was a Vice-President that she and their two daughters, of the St Andrews Clinics for Claire and Katie, were “my three Children, a charity for establishing chief joys”. On Charles’ retirement and funding children’s clinics in he and Bunty moved from their Sierra Leone, Nigeria, Tanzania flat in Hyndland, Glasgow, to and other countries in Africa. Innellan in Argyle & Bute where After he received the Honorary they were very content. Charles Fellowship of Glasgow University died suddenly and unexpectedly at a ceremony to celebrate the on 28th August 2005 and is sadly 10th Anniversary of IBLS in 2004, missed. Charles wrote to me saying that (Charles left detailed autobio- “the greatest professional graphical notes from which I have satisfaction in my career has been quoted extensively.) two-fold. First, to be part of the Jean Beggs

Charles Arthur Fewson OBE, BSc (Nottingham), PhD (Bristol), FRSA, FIBiol. Born 8 September 1937; Elected FRSE 5 March 1979; Died 28 August 2005.

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James Kerr Grant 21 March 1916 - 6 January 2004

Dr James Kerr Grant - Jim or years Jim’s department was one of simply ‘JKG’ as he was known to five specialist steroid units in the his staff – died on 6 January 2004 UK, which together developed at the age of 87 after a short clinical steroid biochemistry. His illness. expertise led him to be appointed Jim Grant was born in Dundee, from 1970 to 1974 as a WHO educated in Edinburgh and spent consultant to the Iranian Ministry most of his working life in of Health. Glasgow. He graduated as a Jim’s department had an impres- chemist, and after service in the sive research output, and attracted Second World War he started research students and fellows work in the Biochemistry Depart- from throughout the world. He ment at the University of continued his interest in adrenal Edinburgh with Professor Guy steroids and also developed an Marrian, who introduced him to internationally renowned team steroid biochemistry. It was the working on androgen metabolism 1950s and Jim played a significant and action in the prostate. At the role in working out the pathways time of his retirement, Jim had of adrenal steroidogenesis and published more than 120 original the enzymes that control the papers and supervised or assisted process. In 1956 he spent a year 19 students to gain a PhD in in Professor F Lynen’s Laboratory steroid biochemistry. Several of in the Max Planck Institute for Cell Jim’s team went on to have Chemistry in Munich honing his successful careers in research, steroid expertise. clinical biochemistry or industry. In 1960 Jim was recruited by the Jim’s academic life was broad and University of Glasgow as a senior included long periods on the lecturer to establish and run the Editorial Boards of the Journals Department of Steroid Biochemis- Endocrinology and Steroid try. This was based in Glasgow Biochemistry. He was elected as a Royal Infirmary and it had the dual Fellow of the Royal Society of roles of research/teaching and Edinburgh in 1980 and an NHS service provision. He re- Honorary Member of the Society mained in this post until he for Endocrinology in 1981. Jim’s retired as Reader in Steroid NHS department developed a Biochemistry in 1981. For twenty range of more than 20 steroid assays using the emerging

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techniques of chromatography, of the word, and a perfect host. fluorimetry and immunoassay. He was also a tireless campaigner These were validated in both for a range of causes including analytical and clinical terms and Amnesty International and the subject to rigorous quality control Civic Trust for Milngavie, the town and update. in which he made his home. Jim Jim was a man of tremendous and his wife Ella have two daugh- energy and vision. His enthusiasm ters, four grandchildren and one and attention to detail encour- great grandchild. aged all to the highest standards With the death of Jim Grant the of professionalism, but he could Society has lost a great character, be a hard task-master. He was a who will be remembered with great communicator and a genius affection by his former colleagues. at teaching with no more than a His legacy, however, lives on in piece of chalk and a blackboard. modern clinical and steroid Outside work Jim displayed the biochemistry. same energy and enthusiasm. He Mike Wallace, Graham Beastall was a gentleman in the true sense

James Kerr Grant BSc, PhD (Edinburgh), FRSC. Born 21 March 1916; Elected FRSE 3 March 1980; Died 6 January 2004.

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Ian Simpson Hughes 1 November 1930 - 21 June 2003

Ian Simpson Hughes was Profes- Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, sor of Physics in the University of Berkeley, in the USA. Here he Glasgow until his retirement in worked with a helium bubble 1989, and was a figure of nation- chamber, a new type of detector al importance in the development which had begun to open up new of Elementary Particle Physics. horizons for the study of the He gained a B Sc in Natural fundamental particles of nature. Philosophy in Glasgow in 1952, In the bubble chamber technique, studying under Dee, Gunn, large numbers of sets of three MacFarlane and Touschek, and stereoscopic photographs are proceeded to post-graduate produced of the trails of bubbles studies in the same place. In so left by the passage of charged doing, he embarked on a research particles as they pass through the career in particle physics – argua- liquid within the chamber – not bly the most fundamental area of dissimilar to vapour trails in the all physics which explores the sky which mark the passage of basic building blocks of nature high flying aircraft. deep within the atom. His re- He returned to the University of search employed the nuclear Glasgow in 1958 to take charge emulsion technique to study the of the recently formed Bubble properties of some of these Chamber Group. He determined fundamental particles and the on two actions. As frontier particle polarisation of gamma rays from physics was progressively becom- nuclear sources. Although a ing the domain of international precise technique, the use of laboratories, he would take the nuclear emulsions involved the group into CERN, the recently painstaking scanning and meas- established European accelerator urement of photographic plates laboratory in Geneva. In addition, using microscopes over periods of he would have to ensure that the many months and so the data Glasgow group had the very best collection rate was very slow. of analysis equipment to scan and Having successfully completed his measure the vast numbers of thesis in April 1956 he, shortly photographs produced by the afterwards, took up a research bubble chamber technique. position at Duke University and Having successfully established collaboration with a number of

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European groups working at awarded a titular professorship. In CERN, he set about the task of 1974 he was elected a Fellow of equipping the group in Glasgow. The Royal Society of Edinburgh. By the mid 1960s, and by dint of The work of the Bubble Chamber considerable perseverance, he had Group was to continue until the obtained for Glasgow three early 1980s but it had already scanning and measuring projec- become apparent in the early tors controlled by the very latest in 1970s that this technique had its mainframe computer technology limitations. He encouraged part (an IBM 7044 computer, fully of his group to explore other transistorised and occupying a techniques both at CERN and at large air conditioned room) as the Deutsches Elektronen- well as several scanning machines. Synchrotron (DESY) in Hamburg. Early experiments were to involve With colleagues, he began to the analysis of tens or hundreds work on the OMEGA spectrome- of thousands of such photo- ter, a large and powerful magnet graphs; by the mid 1970s this surrounded by a variety of number had risen to several detectors and electronic instru- million. Shifts of scanning and mentation, which removed the measuring staff were employed to necessity for film. OMEGA was to enable this work to proceed by provide a wealth of exciting day and by night. physics well into the 1980s. It was during these years that Ian In the 1980s it also became Hughes’ vision as well as sense of apparent that CERN’s future lay in adventure came to the fore. It was the construction of a new, large evident that he had a great gift of accelerator in which beams of leadership. He would identify the electrons and positrons would particular skills and abilities of collide at very high energy. each person in his group and Designing equipment to observe encourage and enable each to these collisions required several contribute to the full. In this way hundred engineers and physicists he built up the strength of the and once again he brought to group enabling it to compete and Glasgow a leading role in the contribute at the highest interna- design, construction, commission- tional level. The group expanded ing and operation of major to seventy people. detector systems for the ALEPH His contribution to the depart- detector, which became opera- ment was recognised in 1968 tional in 1989. when he was appointed Reader He served on various national and and again in 1971 when he was international bodies. He was

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chairman of the SERC Film until his retirement in 1989, he Analysis grants committee (1968- was Head of Department and 71), of the Particle Physics Grants while this made it more difficult Committee (1980-83), of the for him to spend as much time in Rutherford Laboratory Users his research as he would have Advisory Committee (1973-76), of liked, he nevertheless continued the Rutherford Laboratory to take a keen interest in what Computer Liaison Committee was going on, supporting and (1983-86), of the Governing encouraging at every opportunity. Committee of the Scottish On retirement, he continued his Universities Summer Schools in love for education, teaching Physics (1976-81), and of the particle physics to undergraduates Committee of Scottish Professors in the University of Aberdeen and of Physics (1985-88). He was travelling to China to give a series member of the SERC Nuclear of lectures to the University of Physics Board (1968-72 and Dalian under the auspices of the 1980-83) and of the Particle World Bank. He was also an active Physics Committee (1980-83), of member of the Perth branch of the Central Computer Committee the University of the Third Age, of SERC (1983-86), of the Compu- being responsible for its science ter Consultative Council of the programme for seven years. In all UGC Computer Board (1983-86), his teaching he was anxious to of the CERN track chamber show that, in physics at least, it is committee (1970-73), and of the more important to understand the UK Particle Physics Experiment basic principles and build one’s Selection Panel (1977-80), and UK understanding on these, rather delegate to the European Com- than learn and remember numer- mittee on Future Accelerators ous facts and figures. (restricted ECFA) (1980-83). During his retirement years in With his research he combined an Perthshire, he had more time to active role in the teaching and follow his wider interests includ- administration of the department ing woodturning, sailing and his in which he worked. To these he lifelong passion for the hills. He, gave the same attention to detail with his wife, Isobel, completed as he gave to his research. In 1972 the Munros in 1985. his undergraduate textbook Elementary Particles was pub- To his colleagues it was a privilege lished in the Penguin Library of to have known and worked along Physical Sciences, appearing in its side him. In all aspects of his life, third edition in 1991. From 1986 his family, his love of mountains, walking and climbing, and his

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career in the University of Glas- He is survived by his wife, Isobel, gow, he gave of himself daughter, Anne, and son, Colin. unsparingly and with the greatest David Saxon of enthusiasm. He will be sadly missed by all who knew him.

Ian Simpson Hughes, B.Sc., Ph.D (Glasgow, 1956), F Inst P and Fellow of the European and American Physical Societies. Born Liverpool, 1 November 1930; Elected FRSE 4 March 1974; Died 21 June 2003 , Perthshire.

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Violet Rosemary Strachan Hutton 22 October 1925 - 1 April 2004

Dr Violet Rosemary Strachan Variations in the Equatorial Hutton passed away peacefully Region was accepted for the after a short illness at St Andrews award of a Ph.D. degree by Memorial Hospital on April 1st, London University in 1961. Thus 2004. began an impressive research Rosemary, as she preferred to be career largely devoted to the known, was born on October investigation of how geophysical 22nd 1925 in Dundee where she methods, and in particular attended Harris Academy for her electrical methods, could be primary and secondary education. applied to investigate the struc- In 1943 she entered St Andrews ture of the Earth’s continental University in the Faculty of Science, crust and upper mantle, with graduating in 1948 with an many of the studies being focused Honours MA degree in Mathe- on Scotland. matics and Physics. In 1949 she In 1963 she moved from Ghana took up an appointment with the to Nigeria to take up an appoint- British Jute Association in Dun- ment as Senior Lecturer in Physics dee, but she resigned after a few at Ahmadu Bello University in years finding that the physics of Zaria, and she was promoted to a textiles was not sufficiently Readership in 1965. She then challenging. moved on to the University of Feeling an urge to travel, she Ibadan as Associate Professor in moved to Africa in 1954 to take the Department of Physics. up a lectureship in Physics at the During the period of fifteen years University of Ghana (then con- spent on the academic staff of nected with The University of African Universities, she presented London). A lifelong attachment to undergraduate Physics courses at the people of Africa, in particular all levels, and also optional furthering higher education in courses in geomagnetism to final science, grew out of her auxiliary year B.Sc. degree students. Also, duties as Deputy Warden of Volta some 13 of her research papers Hall. In addition to her main were accepted for publication in duties of delivering lecture scientific journals of world courses to undergraduate stu- renown, demonstrating a remark- dents, she registered for a higher able combination of degree. Her thesis, Earth Current resourcefulness and self-reliance in the energetic pursuit of the

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research programme that she had and source fields of geomagnetic set for herself. Consequently her time variations. name became widely recognised Consistent with her continued and respected among her peers in attraction to Africa, the first the international geomagnetic geophysical research study she community (IAGA, the Interna- undertook, together with her first tional Association of Ph.D. student Dennis Rooney, was Geomagnetism and Aeronomy) of the interaction of a solar eclipse and more widely across the with the Kenyan Rift. It is impor- broader field of geophysics tant also to record that they used (International Union of Geodesy state-of-the-art (1972) magneto- and Geophysics). Most important- telluric equipment built at ly, her research came to the Edinburgh, because this illustrat- attention of Professor Alan Cook ed another aspect of Rosemary’s FRS, Head of the newly estab- diverse research programme, lished Department of Geophysics namely the design and construc- at the University of Edinburgh, tion of instruments. The and in 1969 he invited Rosemary microprocessor-based magneto- to join the Department as Lecturer. telluric instrumentation developed She remained in Edinburgh for by Research Associate G.J.K. the rest of her career in academia, Dawes (1983-85) for the NERC becoming Senior Lecturer in 1973 Geomagnetic Equipment Pool and and then Reader in 1982, retiring the University of Alberta, Canada, as Honorary Fellow of the Univer- of which several versions were sity of Edinburgh in 1991. sold internationally, is particularly Over the two decades that worthy of note. followed she made a profound Next began her twenty year impact on the growth and fascination with the enigmatic development of the Department ‘Eskdalemuir anomaly’ which is of Geophysics at Edinburgh, both now known to be a consequence on the quality and direction of of the closure of the Palaeozoic undergraduate teaching and Lapetus ocean and continent- particularly on the research side, continent suturing of Laurentia where she established a thriving (ancestral North America) with and world-renowned group Gondwana. The geographical area working principally on three of the investigation was then general topics: the electrical extended with the implementa- conductivity structure of the Earth tion of a number of field projects and planets; continental rift on Palaeozoic rock successions in systems and geothermal regions; the Southern Uplands of Scotland, Northern England, Ireland and

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neighbouring regions of conti- schweig and other Institutes nental Europe. located in EEC countries. Rosemary’s growing scientific Rosemary also succeeded in reputation and the manifest gaining substantial financial enthusiasm she displayed in support for her research pro- collaborative projects undertaken gramme from several different outside the British Isles, attracted industrial sources. In 1985 her several generations of young group carried out a mineral post-doctoral research workers exploration survey in Portugal, hailing from institutes from across and in 1989 a project entitled the EU and from other continents, Broadband electromagnetic to join her in Edinburgh. Through induction studies in the Olkaria the years, about a score of geothermal field in Kenya. A graduate students not only from geothermal project supported by the UK, but also from West Africa, the Camboume School of Mines Kenya, India and Brazil, gained comprising a magnetotelluric their Ph.D. degrees under her traverse across the Cammellis supervision. granite was undertaken in 1987 Rosemary soon became aware of to search for fluid filled fractures. the need to boost the rather To commemorate and honour her limited amounts of funding overall research contribution, her available from the UK research peers of many nationalities councils. In 1985 the Royal Society organized the ‘V R S Hutton funded her project entitled Lateral Symposium’ entitled Electromag- variations in lithospheric electrical netic Studies of the Continents conductivity structure in Italy. during the 1992 Assembly of the Importantly, she was one of the European Geophysical Society earliest staff members of Edin- held in Edinburgh. Its central burgh University to be awarded a theme epitomised the diversity of research contract from the EEC (in Rosemary’s interests and the 1985) to carry out a feasibility regard in which she was held by study of magnetotelluric measure- the community. It provided a ments on Milos, Greece. Having fitting tribute to Rosemary yielded successful results this Hutton. The papers were pub- exploratory project was followed lished as a special volume of up in 1986 by a two year EEC Physics of the Earth and Planetary contract to support geothermal Interiors, edited by Alan Jones exploration in an active volcano- (then at the Geological Survey of tectonic environment. This work Canada) and Volker Haak (of the involved collaboration with the Geoscience Centre, Potsdam, Universities of Berlin and Braun- Germany).

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Her achievements have been University of Padua, Italy; and also recognized by election to Fellow- in 1987 to the University of ship of The Institute of Physics Uppsala, Sweden; in 1988 to the (1965 - 80), The Royal Society of Institute of Planetary Physics at the Edinburgh (1983) and The Royal University of Alberta, Canada as a Astronomical Society (1970); by Distinguished Visitor; also in 1988 membership of the American returning to the Academy Institute Geophysical Union (1963 - 89) at Troitsk, and to Sochi to partici- and by membership of the Society pate in the International of Exploration Geophysicists Electromagnetic Induction (1982 - 93). She was also a Workshop; and in 1989 to the member of several influential National Geophysical Research committees relevant to her Institute, Hyderabad, and to the research. These included the Institute of Geomagnetism, International IASPEI/IAGA Com- Bombay, sponsored by the British mittee for the Electrical Council. Conductivity of the Astheno- Beyond these tangibles, Rosemary sphere Project (1983 - 88); the UK was a pioneer, both in her science National Committee for Geomag- and in her personal life. Rosemary netism and Aeronomy (1985 - 87); began research in her chosen and, as a representative of The discipline of magnetotellurics in Royal Society of Edinburgh, the the very early days of the 1970s British National Committee for when data were transcribed onto Geodesy and Geophysics (1984 - paper charts then digitized from 87). paper. For over twenty years She was invited on many overseas Rosemary and her group stayed at visits, notably in 1984 by the USSR the cutting edge of development Academy of Sciences for a three- of many aspects of the method, week visit to the Academy from instrumentation develop- Institute at Troitsk, Moscow and ment to processing and analysis the University of Leningrad; in methods, to modelling and 1985 to the University of Calabar, interpretation, and finally to Nigeria; and also in 1985 to the multidisciplinary integration. In University of Tasmania, the terms of advancing the method Australian National University at through organizational activities, Canberra, La Trobe University, Rosemary was the principal Melbourne, and the Victoria organizer of the first-ever work- University of Wellington, New shop on electromagnetic Zealand. In 1986 and 1987 she induction in the earth, held in went as a NATO Visiting Professor Edinburgh in 1972 and since held to the Istituto di Fisica Terrestre, biennially. This workshop attracts

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typically between 200–250 Those of us fortunate to have participants, and is one of the known Rosemary will recall many most successful activities of the happy memories from our IAGA. association, in particular the social As for her personal life, the early gatherings she hosted, especially 1970s was a time when there when she had guests from were very few women in geophys- overseas, at her home at Peebles. ics. Through her example and her She is greatly missed by all staff of dedication to education, many the Department of Geophysics - young women were encouraged academic, secretarial and techni- to consider geophysics as a career cal. option. Kenneth M Creer

Violet Rosemary Strachan Hutton, MA (St Andrews), PhD (London). Born 22 October 1925; Elected FRSE 7 March 1983; Died 1 April 2004.

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George Scott Johnstone 30 October 1922 - 9 May 2005

George Scott Johnstone (Scott) graduated with 1st class Honours was born on 30 October 1922 in in 1946. His degree was biased Glasgow and died on 9 May 2005 towards palaeontology due to the in Edinburgh. He was a field influence of Truman but he had geologist whose knowledge of been encouraged on the hard the Scottish Highlands, their rock side by McCallien. landscape and the geology that Throughout this period he underpinned them was probably maintained his interest in climb- second to none. He always ing whether it was on the considered himself very fortunate sandstone cliffs of Kent, in the that his professional interests Peak District or in Scotland. He were so closely complemented by was a founder member and his love of mountaineering, skiing subsequently President of the and photography. He supervised, Glasgow Mountaineering Society, and was an integral part of, the through which he met his future great wealth of Highland Survey wife Molly whom he married in work in the decades after the war. March 1945. Together they spent It was this work that formed or their weekends ranging across the underpinned many of the major Scottish hills, climbing and laying advances in Highland geology we the foundations of Scott’s wide see today. knowledge of Highland geology. Scott was the youngest of a family He joined the Geological Survey at of three. He was educated at Edinburgh in November 1946: a Glasgow High School where he time when many of the pre-war showed a bias for science, but it staff, such as VA Eyles, JE Richey was probably his involvement with and WQ Kennedy had retired or the scouting movement and trips left for university chairs. Scott to Arran that first instilled in him started work on the coalfields, an interest in climbing and concentrating on the volcanic geology. He left school and went rocks of East Fife and Renfrew to Glasgow University with the aid (Geological Sheet 30). He mapped of a Carnegie grant at the age of Misty Law in the Clyde Plateau 16. After three years however, he lavas, continuing the work that was obliged to take up wartime had been abandoned at the work as an electronics engineer in beginning of the war. Scott was Kent. In 1945 he returned to able to demonstrate that the Glasgow to finish his course and

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proposed model of a caldera only was the area among the could not be substantiated and physically most demanding and that the edge of the lavas was remote in the Highlands but, of faulted. During his involvement the geology, Kennedy had said with the Renfrew sheet, Scott “nobody will make sense of the mapped alongside JGC Anderson ground east of Morar”. It is to the and was to follow him into the credit of Scott’s enthusiasm and Highlands as work on the hydro leadership that over the next 20 schemes came on stream. This was years the unit was able to unravel a defining move for Scott. He the stratigraphy and structure of started a line of work on which he these complex successions. Scott was to prosper and it allowed him was the lead author of a paper to gain directly from Anderson’s published at a comparatively early experience. Anderson like Scott stage (1969) of the survey, which was a climber and the two had a set out the overall tectonostrati- fruitful relationship covering many graphic framework and which has aspects of Highland geology. become one of the seminal works Anderson left to take up the chair of Moinian geology. in Cardiff in 1949 and the While this work was in progress, following year primary six-inch Scott with JE Wright and DI Smith mapping restarted on the Moine also led the substantial contribu- rocks of the West Highlands. tion to the development of many Scott, newly promoted to Senior of the Highland hydro-electric Geologist, was a natural choice schemes (HE) – including those at for this work despite his limited Morar, Loch Tay, Cruachan and experience. Again he was picking Foyers. The work involved both up the suspended work of the prospecting potential sites and pre-war mappers. This must have logging tunnels after excavation. been a daunting task particularly Studies ranged across the High- as he started on his own with only lands and provided a wealth of the part-time supervision of his data and experience. Scott found District Geologist, AG Macgregor. the HE work particularly satisfying Scott became a Principal Geologist because it linked the work of the in 1957 and, as the unit increased Survey with a direct application in size and the work in the West and benefit to the wider commu- Highlands progressed, he was the nity. senior figure and a natural Scott promoted this policy when successor as District Geologist to he became District Geologist by TRM Lawrie whom he succeeded widening the unit’s activities and in1963. The size of the challenge experience so that they would be facing the unit was immense, not better placed to provide a consult-

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ing service. He deliberately Scott developed collaborative links fostered the applied side of Survey with the Swedish and Irish work and encouraged participa- Surveys, which in part led to his tion in civil engineering projects strong support for, and input into, and in the burgeoning minerals the Mineral Reconnaissance industry especially through the Programme work on stratabound ‘70s. He accepted the customer- sulphides in the Southern High- consumer principles introduced in lands during the ‘70s. 1976, although he retired before He retired in 1982 but was joint these began to bite, producing editor of a new edition of the the difficult balance between Northern Highlands regional strategic research and short term guide that was published in 1987, funding. and a major contributor to the He embraced and fostered co- fourth edition of the Grampian operation with the universities Highlands regional guide pub- before it became commonplace. lished in 1989. In addition, after He supervised collaborative his retirement he served as a projects with Liverpool University member of the National Trust’s in Perthshire and the Great Glen, Countryside and Nature Conserva- and he encouraged the work with tion committee until 1997. Aberdeen University that resulted Scott became a FGS in 1942, a in a long and fertile period FRSE in 1963 and MIMM (CEng) culminating in the publication of in 1973 (resigned 1985). He was a several maps and memoirs for NE member and held various offices Scotland. He also oversaw the in the Glasgow and Edinburgh major collaborative project with Geological Societies and became Janet Watson and her students at President of the latter in 1979-81. Imperial College that produced the first comprehensive coverage He had many interests mainly and understanding of the Outer associated with the outdoors. He Hebrides. was elected to the Scottish Mountaineering Club (SMC) in Scott’s extensive Survey activities 1953, he was author of a SMC gave him a wide understanding regional guide to the West for Highland rocks. Highlands and was a compiling This base, along with the detail of editor of the SMC guide to the his HE work, made him a natural ‘Corbetts and other hills’. He author for the third edition of The lectured widely on geology and Grampian Highlands regional mountain photography. guide which was published in During nearly forty years of 1966. Following this publication working in the Highlands he

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mapped or supervised work in the wider politics of the throughout the stratigraphic organization. spectrum and across the mainland As a colleague and friend he will and in the Western and Northern be remembered for many things, Isles. He described himself as pithy and sometimes earthy having an extensive if superficial sayings to describe most situa- knowledge of Highland geology; tions, a man who wore his heart this self-judgement undervalues on his sleeve and who was not his worth as a field geologist driven by personal ambition or whose knowledge of the rocks gain but by a genuine love of and the landscape they formed Scottish mountains and their was unique. His focus was very geology. much oriented to geology in all its aspects and he had little interest He is survived by his wife, Molly, and by three sons. Douglas Fettes, Tony Harris

George Scott Johnstone BSc (Glasgow), FGS. Born 30 October 1922; Elected FRSE 4 March 1963; Died 9 May 2005.

319 Review of the Session 2005-2006

John William Beaufoy King 28 June 1927 - 12 January 2006

John King had a passion to see research and development. It is research in animal genetics useful to remember, as an aside, translated into breeding practice. how such an environment arose. His work helped to transform the During and following World War pig breeding industry in the UK, II, the Government decreed that but his influence stretched world- science be put to work in the wide. interests of food production. John was born on 28 June 1927 This resulted in the establishment in Nailsworth in Gloucestershire or expansion of many research to a family of farmers and corn institutes. Edinburgh was a major millers. recipient of the largesse in the He had an outstanding record at field of animal breeding and Stroud School from where he won animal genetics research and an open scholarship to Cam- teaching. A very large number of bridge to take a natural science geneticists, scientists from related tripos followed by a diploma in disciplines and animal breeders agricultural science in 1948. His were concentrated in and around post-graduate studies were Edinburgh. This arose from the undertaken at the Institute of decision of the Agricultural Animal Genetics of Edinburgh Research Council (ARC) to University, using mice as an animal establish the headquarters of the breeding model. He worked Animal Breeding Research under the guidance of Douglas Organisation (ABRO) alongside Falconer who trained and influ- the already well-known Institute enced many animal geneticists of of Animal Genetics of the Univer- John’s and subsequent genera- sity. ABRO with its own staff of tions. After obtaining his PhD he scientists and technicians had the was appointed to the scientific facilities of six research farms and staff of the then recently estab- a field laboratory, whilst the lished ARC Animal Breeding Institute was greatly strengthened Research Organisation under the by an ARC-funded group (later directorship of Hugh Donald. named the “ARC Unit of Animal Genetics”) under the direction of John, like many of his contempo- CH Waddington. The marriage of raries, thrived in an environment the ARC group to the University that was unique for promoting was sealed by the University’s offer animal breeding and genetics to Waddington of the Buchanan

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chair of Animal Genetics. In animal genetic theory applied to addition, the ARC Poultry Re- practice, and part of a brilliant search Centre (PRC) was set up in generation of animal geneticists. the Edinburgh area around the Hazel himself was pre-eminent in same period, providing another pig-breeding. multi-disciplinary centre of In 1959, whilst still working in excellence, including genetics. ABRO, John was appointed an Some time later, an applied animal advisor to the (then) Pig Industry breeding group from the Edin- Development Authority (PIDA). burgh School of Agriculture That was take-off point for him. It added further expertise and gave him the opportunity to research facilities. For several develop testing and selection decades the campus became a programmes at a time when magnet for animal geneticists and quantitative genetics was at last animal breeders from across the ready to provide the methodology world as well as a training for the improvement of farm ground. livestock. He was greatly helped The Roslin Institute of today was in this by the more theoretical formed from a merger of a scaled- work of Charles Smith in ABRO down ABRO and PRC, but the and Alister Pease in PIDA. Pedi- “Institute” is no more. The rise, gree breeders, however, needed and the later relative fall in the convincing that genetic improve- fortunes of research profoundly ment had to go beyond affected John King’s career. established practices if the John King quickly established benefits were to be on a national himself in the field of pig- scale. breeding, with experiments John King was in the forefront of involving inbreeding and, later, this crusade in relation to pigs, selection techniques. His interests and his influence on the industry were fostered by Hugh Donald, to adopt new schemes was who himself had worked on pigs immensely successful. He was at the then Shothead farm of the also a major catalyst for achieving University, and they were further similar changes in other countries. strengthened by the award of a Dr Maurice Bichard, one of King’s Kellogg Foundation Fellowship at protégés and himself a renowned Ames, Iowa. leader in animal breeding, writes There John was under the direc- to say that “King was godfather tion of Professors Jay L Lush and to almost all UK pig breeding Lanoy N Hazel, two of the pio- companies. He also helped the neers in the development of successful ones to take over most of the US pig breeding industry.

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The fact that animal geneticists in ship of ABRO, John was appoint- the US were less effective in ed to that post. One of his first influencing their own local pig successes was to release latent breeders to adopt change had to energy and bring new direction do more with politics than know- into ABRO by creating disciplinary how. Local breeders in the US Departments in place of the earlier had influence with the State “individualistic” and highly legislators who in turn controlled hierarchical style of management. the purse strings for the Land As fate would have it, attitudes Grant Universities which em- among the funding bodies, and ployed most of the academics”. the Agricultural and Food Re- John King was not constrained in search Council (AFRC) in that way in the UK. particular, started to change John also influenced significantly around the time of John’s ap- the work of technical officers in pointment. A science-led advisory services and other public expansion in food production had bodies to facilitate the transfer of been, if anything, too successful new breeding strategies to the and the AFRC decided to reduce industry. He started the Pig or stop the more applied breeding Breeders’ Round Table in 1965 work. John would not accept this and it has continued with annual change in the emphasis of meetings to this day. It quickly research and resigned from ABRO. established itself as a most He was given a role in 1982, until successful (and inexpensive) forum his retiral, as Head of a newly for the joint exchange of ideas created AFRC Animal Breeding and information among practical Liaison Group, which was meant breeders, academics, researchers to provide an interface between and commercial companies. research and its application. His research interests also includ- However, lack of support never ed sheep and cattle and he allowed him to fully exploit its became increasingly interested in potential. large gene effects such as double John retired in 1987 to his farm in muscling, as well as maintaining West Linton. He continued an an interest in his earlier collabora- active interest in livestock im- tive studies involving blood provement and, with his sons, polymorphisms. His publications established the “Advanced cover a range of such topics in Breeders Company” to provide addition to his key work on pigs. advice and selected semen to Following the retirement of Hugh cattle breeders. He also practised Donald in 1974 from the director- what he had always preached by collecting an assortment of sheep

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breeds with novel genotypes to pig industry (1966), a visiting see what they might have to offer lecturership to Göttingen Univer- the farmer. He was a keen sity (1973), an Honorary naturalist, and enthusiastic Professorship from Edinburgh conservationist, and loved country University and Fellowship of the pursuits. Institute of Biology (1974). He was elected a Fellow of the John was a devoted family man. Royal Society of Edinburgh in He was married to Pauline for 1975. Among his other awards more than 50 years and is survived and honours was the David Black by her and their four sons and ten Award for services to the British grandchildren. Gerald Wiener

John William Beaufoy King MA, DipAgricSci (Cantab), PhD (Edinburgh). Born 28 June 1927; Elected FRSE 3 March 1975; Died 12 January 2006.

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Sir Ian Alexander McGregor 26 August 1922 - 1 February 2007

Ian Alexander McGregor, was to apply for one of the extra-mural born in Cambuslang, Lanarkshire colleges and so Ian attended his on 26th August 1922 into a first classes at the St Mungo family of modest means. His College and the Glasgow Royal father was a respected tailor, his Infirmary in October 1940. mother a thrifty housewife who Determined to be as good and ensured that, despite their modest knowledgeable a doctor as he means, the years of economic could, Ian secured the class depression in the late 1920s and medals in Anatomy, Physiology, 1930s impacted little on the Surgery, Obstetrics and Gynaecol- family who were always well fed ogy and Public Health with and well dressed. His parents had Certificates of Merit in seven other a deep respect for education and subjects. it was no surprise that following a Final examinations in 1945 were happy but undistinguished followed by house jobs in surgery schooling at Rutherglen Academy, and obstetrics, at £1 per week, Ian aspired to follow his older less eightpence for laundry stepbrothers into University. His charges. In September 1946, Ian schooldays had engendered a was conscripted into the Army dislike of mathematics that, and posted to the RAMC base in surprisingly for such an able Surrey for training as a Lieutenant scientist, remained with him on Probation. Before the end of throughout his career. He entered the year he was posted to a Field his final year at grammar school at Ambulance at Suez, by the side of the outbreak of the Second World the Canal, relocating after only a War in 1939 and, while conscrip- few weeks to Sarafand in Pales- tion seemed likely at the end of tine. his schooling, he was persuaded Ordered to report to the Deputy, by his family to consider further then Acting Director of Medical education. For a time he was Services in Jerusalem, Ian discov- unsure whether he should pursue ered that Lieutenant Colonel a career in human or veterinary Alistair Young, who had issued medicine, and by the time he had the summons, was from Cam- made up his mind in the summer buslang, and that their families of 1940 it was too late to secure a knew each other. Ian’s own place at the University of Glasgow. account of that meeting records One of his stepbrothers, a that he laughed when he was told specialist surgeon, persuaded him

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that he was to be trained as a about the vectors of malaria or malariologist, and then was filariasis, or their susceptibility to severely reprimanded. Following control by residual insecticides. training he was to assume the So, Ian set about the task and, post of Command Malariologist, based on the incidence of splenic with responsibility for malaria enlargement and anaemia in control in Palestine and Transjor- children under 10 years of age, dan. coupled with its remoteness and a Ian was trained in malariology at lack of medical services of any the Middle East School of Hygiene kind, he selected Keneba in West at Dimra, near Gaza and then Kiang with the nearby villages of spent his time travelling through Jali and Manduar as the potential Palestine and Transjordan inspect- control villages. Armed with a ing the seven malaria control units medical phrase book prepared by that were under his control, and David Gamble, a social anthropol- organising training courses for ogist in the Government Service, other regimental medical officers. Ian was conveyed by lorry from These experiences would shape Fajara and deposited in Keneba in his future, and when he complet- May 1950, to be collected some ed his military service towards the five months later, as the roads in end of 1948, he enrolled to study, West Kiang were impassable in at his own expense, for the two-wheel drive vehicles during Diploma in Tropical Medicine and the rains. His isolation encour- Hygiene at the London School of aged him to focus all his energies Hygiene and Tropical Medicine. on the diagnosis and treatment of On 6th October 1949, Ian left diseases, and on efforts to control London on his way to the Medical malaria through house-spraying Research Council’s Fajara Station using a residual insecticide, in The Gambia, having been benzene hexachloride. His persuaded by Professor BS Platt to dedication left little time for join the Nutrition Research Cadre. anything else. His task was to investigate the An early distraction was having to possible contributory role of descend 15ft in a modified parasitic infections on protein breeches buoy he had rigged malnutrition. This proved to be himself in order to deepen the more difficult than he had Keneba well. On one occasion, Ian imagined. When he arrived in The was discovered down the well by Gambia there were no available Sir Eric Pridie, the Senior Medical data on the prevalence of diseases Officer of the Colonial Office, who like malaria, filariasis, intestinal was visiting The Gambia at the helminth infections or trypano- time, and who had expressed an somiasis. And nothing was known

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interest in Ian’s work. I suspect essential support to Ian on that Ian was quizzed on his well- research administration and digging expertise when he was logistics, Joan shares in the credit interviewed at MRC Headquarters. for helping to establish the MRC While working in Keneba, his Laboratories in The Gambia as lifelong interest in acquired one of the leading research malarial immunity, the centres in tropical medicine. mechanism(s) responsible for it As Director, Ian embarked on the and the effects of pregnancy on seminal field studies on malaria that immunity, was stimulated. immunity that demonstrated the The use of insecticide and periodic association of malaria with drug treatment reduced the enhanced levels of serum gamma incidence of malaria in Keneba globulin. Initially though, he had but did not eliminate it. Many no proof that the raised levels children, severely ill from malaria, reflected a specific antibody were brought to Ian from sur- response, or that the response rounding villages, reinforcing his was protective and responsible for awareness of the serious impact the acquisition of an effective of malaria in the children of West immunity. Kiang. However, he was intrigued The definitive experiments by the relatively infrequent emerged from collaboration with episodes of clinical illness in the Sydney Cohen at the National adults. His observations were at Institute for Medical Research at odds with the view that acquired Mill Hill. Ian collected a pool of immunity to malaria was ineffec- serum from healthy Gambian tive and tenuous, as he noted that volunteers. Sydney fractionated adults maintained their resistance the serum, providing Ian with the to clinical malaria even through 7S gamma globulin fraction from the wet season when food was adult Gambian serum and adult short and physical exertion on Gambian serum minus the 7S agricultural work was at a peak. gamma globulin. In addition, 7S Following a visit of an MRC fraction of gamma globulin from delegation, Ian was invited to the serum of UK blood donors develop a research programme, was prepared as a control. The building on his early work and therapeutic effects of these focusing on the diseases that fractions was assessed in young appeared to be important in The Gambian children suffering acute Gambia. In 1954 he was appoint- clinical P. falciparum or P. malariae ed Director of the Gambian Unit, malaria, and compared with the now termed the MRC Laborato- progress of malaria in similarly ries, and in January of that year infected untreated children. married Joan (Small). By providing Unlike the other two fractions, the

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7S gamma globulin fraction vaccine, essentially triggered by reduced both the levels of Ian’s passive transfers of gamma parasitaemia (the asexual but not globulin, continues today. the sexual stages), and clinical Ian served as chair or rapporteur illness in the recipients. This was on several important World Health the first reliable experimental data Organisation Committees on to support the view that humans malaria. He contributed generous- repeatedly exposed to malaria ly of his time, and his infection could develop an encyclopaedic knowledge of immunity that was capable of malaria, gleaned from his many restricting clinical illness and years of practical experience in the parasite blood density, and that field, ensured that the epidemio- this acquired immunity could be logical features of malaria transferred to non-immunes in immunity were paramount when the 7S gamma globulin fraction of decisions on policy and planning immune serum. Thus, vaccination of malaria research and control against malaria was at least activities were being made in theoretically possible. Geneva. Ian had also demonstrated that The McGregors finally left The the 7S gamma globulin fraction Gambia in 1980, with Ian becom- from adult Gambian serum had ing a Professorial Fellow at the the same therapeutic effect in Liverpool School of Tropical Tanzanian children with P. falci- Medicine. He continued to write parum malaria suggesting that about malaria and was particularly West and East African strains had supportive of younger researchers antigenic similarities, and that a at the school until he retired in vaccine against parasites from one 1994. region of Africa may be effective We owe much to Lieutenant against parasites from other Colonel Alistair Young who regions. decided in 1947 to have the Many other important contribu- young Dr McGregor trained as a tions followed and Ian’s work at malariologist. We owe an even the MRC Laboratories, The greater debt to Ian himself. Gambia, on malaria immunology Paul Hagan and epidemiology, still serves as (Ian left detailed autobiographical the foundation for much of the notes that I have quoted from current global research effort on extensively.) malaria. The quest for an effective Ian Alexander McGregor LRCP, LRCS (Edinburgh), LRFPS (Glasgow), DTH&H (London), FRCP, FFCM (London), HonLLD(Aberdeen), HonDSc(Glasgow), OBE, CBE, Kt, FRS. Born 26 August 1922; Elected FRSE 9 March 1987; Died 1 February 2007. 327 Review of the Session 2005-2006

Magnus Magnusson 12 October 1929 - Died 7 January 2007

To the majority of people Magnus Mastermind. He was a hard task Magnusson was a TV personality master, especially on himself. best known for his role over a Many are the times that fax and quarter of century as the interro- latterly emails would be received gator on Mastermind. But to from him in the early hours of the those of us who had the privilege morning demanding a speedy to work with him, as I did for the response. I can certainly testify to best part of a decade – I as Chief this, as can many colleagues. And Executive, and he as Chairman of it worked. You could not say no Scottish Natural Heritage – he was to him because the work meant a much more ken-speckled man: if everything. You were inspired by that can be said of an Icelander. his drive and tenacity and also by He was erudite, personable, and his no nonsense approach. an achiever; as well as being a Nothing would get in the way of writer, broadcaster, speaker, achieving the job in hand, not translator, and historian; he was a even what others would regard as leader and innovator. It is no insurmountable obstacles. understatement to say that he was Anyone who met him warmed to a highly gifted, charismatic man of him. His opening line was often: many parts who graced public life ‘Just call me Magnus’. It showed and the media in Scotland, in that he had no airs and graces Britain as a whole, and also in his and immediately put one at ease. native Iceland. He made many friends as he Many know his catch phrase - ‘I’ve visited all parts of Scotland on his started so I’ll finish’, but few various roles. Schools openings, realise the extent to which this tree plantings, public lectures, represented the man himself. He seminars, informal talks were all always completed the task he had part of his ‘get down to the set for himself, irrespective of how people’ approach. The schedule many different roles he was necessary to allow him to under- playing at any one time: and they take all of these engagements, were often many and varied. In which he so much enjoyed, would the early days of his Chairmanship have broken a lesser man, such of Scottish Natural Heritage he was his stamina and his care for was at the same time chairman of people. And he was always the Cairngorms Working Party meticulously prepared: research- and writing books and presenting ing the information himself and

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relying on those whom he trusted, raised the financial support made writing and rewriting what he was available to it. to say: he was a veritable word- He was a good judge of whom he smith and also a tyrant for could trust and work with. A ensuring that the grammar was common phrase was ‘I like the cut correct, as I know to my cost. And of his jib’; this was a high compli- he made sure that he met and ment. To others about whose talked to everyone: not for him views he was at best sceptical he just speaking to those in highest would say ‘you may well be right’, positions. and so disarmed them without In debate he was no pushover. He agreeing or disagreeing. consulted thoroughly, he assidu- I had the privilege of being ously absorbed the background introduced to Iceland by Magnus. material provided, he made up his It was then that I appreciated mind, and he held by the conclu- many new facets of this many- sions he reached. No one could faceted friend. He was a scholar in accuse Magnus of ducking issues. his own country. Many years after He held many and various public completing his first translation of appointments and in none was he the Icelandic Sagas, he reflected ever the cipher of politicians, or that a better job could be done for that matter of bureaucrats. and so he set out on a re-transla- That was certainly the case as tion: a very substantial task Chairman of SNH, and that which, of course, he finished. But approach did so much to benefit it was not just in the written word the natural heritage and Scot- of the sagas that he excelled; he land’s communities. He did force related this to the landscape of politicians to stand up and listen the place right down to the even when he was critical of their detailed knowledge of the names line or arguing against their of features in the landscape (of decision. As a result he was widely which there are many in Iceland) regarded, held somewhat in awe and how they related to a particu- and often won the day. He lar saga, Njals Saga set in frequently had government southern Iceland being his ministers agreeing absolutely with particular favourite. His knowl- him, much to the chagrin of their edge of the history of his country civil servants, because he had was legendary. I recall on my first mastered his brief and argued it visit with him being overwhelmed cogently and fairly, and obviously by his oration at the Löberg rock convincingly. He raised the profile (the site of the annual gathering of the environment, and through of the nation’s leaders at the his influence and tireless work Althingi - the Icelandic parlia-

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ment). We were on that occasion toured the country, meeting each accompanied by the wonderful one of the staff of the new body President of Iceland Vigdis and asking about their aspiration Finnbogadóttir: it was like being for themselves and the new at one of the original ceremonies organisation. He took real trouble one millennium before, such was to listen, he cared about the the power of his rendition, the discussions we had, and he rightly magic of the location and the expected action when it was stature of my companions. The needed. His achievements in that recent work, written by daughter period on the environmental front Sally, Dreaming of Iceland, were many. For example, he describing a tour to the family oversaw the completion of an sites around the country with her inspiring and visionary report on father, captured his knowledge of the Cairngorms agreed by all of and passion for his native country. the participants, which given their In the environment field he disparate views was a major step opened up new approaches and forward. He brokered the early challenged outmoded ideas. agreements on access with Sometimes this was to the grave farmers and landowners which led discomfort of those who held to the Access Concordat and them, but he always wished to eventually to the right to roam move ideas forward and ensure legislation. And, practical man that people were accepted as part that he was, he guided the Paths of nature and not separate from for All concept into practice. it. He was the exemplary Chairman He received many Honorary of Scottish Natural Heritage. He Degrees and was elected a Fellow was appointed to oversee the of the Royal Society of Edinburgh restructuring of government in 1980. In 1989 he was awarded agencies and in so doing to bring an honorary Knighthood. together the dissident voices of I hope we have the great good the conservation movement. He fortune in the future to hear his had previously been President of eloquent speeches from his tapes, the Royal Society for the Protec- read his erudite translations, leaf tion of Birds and his appointment through the reports of commit- to SNH was a shock to many who tees and bodies he chaired, walk did not immediately identify with the paths he helped to create, visit him. But his appointment was an the sites where he opened new astute one by the Ministers of the facilities, as well as relive the day and, while he did not always ‘black chair’ moments of Master- agree with them, they respected mind. his determination, his creativity and his commitment. He and I Roger Crofts

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I first met Magnus in 1974. he the same name, presented by was already so famous that BBC Magnus. Scotland had given him six Running the Ancient Monuments television programmes to do with Board tour also shone a different as he pleased. He chose to devote light on Magnus. When we met one to the Antonine Wall - as, he the public in our perambulations, said, because he crossed it every they parted in awe in front of the day and wanted to know more great man: it was like travelling about it. He invited me to be his with royalty. Furthermore, his guide on the programme. We met name would gain us access to for lunch and Magnus asked for a places that were difficult even for reading list. When we next met, the officials of Historic Scotland. the reading list was digested and His votes of thanks at the end of he had already planned the half- the tours were a joy to listen to. I hour programme. I was mightily remember one very clearly, to the impressed by his professionalism, south-west of Scotland where we both as a TV presenter and had seen a lot of mottes: his final academic. speech was sprinkled with The next time our paths crossed references to bon mots and many was in a different forum. Magnus other plays upon the word. was invited to become chairman When he retired from the Board of the Ancient Monuments Board he moved on to chair the newly for Scotland. He brought his established Scottish Natural intellectual rigour into play here Heritage. I met him at a lecture and decided that each year the shortly after and he explained his Board should consider a particular approach. The Board had been theme. This worked very well, the asked to state who its clients were discussions at the meetings as part of the preamble to their having a focus in the annual tour first Corporate Plan. This was and a more directed report at the straightforward, said Magnus, we end of the year. decided that we only have one Magnus used his name to help client, Scotland’s natural heritage. the Board in a variety of ways. He His support for archaeology proposed the publication of a continued of course. He twice booklet to celebrate the anniver- presented the awards at the sary of the passing of the first British Archaeology Awards Ancient Monuments Act in 1882: ceremony. On the second occa- the result was not only Echoes in sion, he was not at all fazed when Stone, edited by Magnus of I, as chairman, forgot to ask him course, but a TV programme of to speak at the end of the ceremo- ny in spite of the fact that I knew

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that he had a polished speech pompous, always enquiring about prepared! people - and listening to their Indeed, his fame never seemed to answers. He will be missed by impress Magnus: he was always many. the same cheerful self, never David Breeze

Magnus Magnusson, MA (Oxon), Drhc (Edinburgh), DUniv(York, Paisley), Hon DLitt (Strathclyde, Napier, Glasgow, Glasgow Caledonian), Hon KBE, FSAScot, FRSA, Hon FRIAS, FSA, FRSGS. Born 12 October 1929; Elected FRSE 3 March 1980; Died 7 January 2007.

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William Barr Martin 11 August 1924 - 6 October 2004

Bill Martin, who died peacefully at new Glasgow University Veterinary home in the early hours of 6th School. There, he was responsible October 2004, was born in 1924 for running the clinics owned by in Glasgow where he attended the West of Scotland Dog and Cat Hutchesons’ Grammar School. On Home but operated by the leaving school he volunteered for Veterinary School, and the lecture pilot service in the RAF but was courses on infectious diseases of turned down because of colour pigs and poultry. These dual blindness (he used to ask why the commitments were carried out sand was blue). Instead, because with a care and thoroughness that his family had farming links he earned him the respect of the entered the old Glasgow Veteri- students whom he tutored. So nary College, gaining his MRCVS comprehensive and focused were in 1947. Those were difficult years his works on poultry disease due to the prevailing wartime (never the most popular subjects conditions and the very basic and in the veterinary curriculum!) that underfunded facilities of the some 40 years later one of those College. But if academic condi- students, who later became a tions were Spartan they fostered recognised specialist in the field, enduring attributes of initiative acknowledged that Bill’s notes and self-reliance coupled with had been a continuing and humour, comradeship and lasting reliable source of reference during friendship. Bill always spoke his career. fondly of those crucial years which However, experience in the laid the foundation of what was Glasgow clinics of the then to be a productive and distin- rampant canine distemper kindled guished professional career an interest in virology, at that time during which he was always a very young science but one proud to identify himself as a which Bill recognised would have veterinary surgeon. major implications for veterinary He consolidated his earlier medicine. In pursuit of that training by taking the one-year interest he moved in 1957 to the DVSM course in the Royal Dick in Animal Virus Research Institute at Edinburgh before entering Pirbright and later, in 1961, to the general practice in Kent. However, newly established Institute of in 1950, he was head hunted as Virology in Glasgow. one of the foundation staff of the

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At Pirbright, he set up the Insti- Something of a career shift tute’s centralised cell culture unit, occurred in 1963 when Bill initially for cell monolayers and became a key member of the task latterly for the then innovative force marshalled by Glasgow development of continuous University Veterinary School to cultures for growing viruses. He help set up the new Veterinary also developed an attenuated School of the University of East Foot and Mouth disease vaccine Africa in Kenya. Seconded as Head that underwent an extensive field of Pathology, Bill was responsible trial in South Africa to very good for courses in basic virology and effect. It demonstrated convinc- infectious diseases but was able ingly, for the first time, that a to continue his work on BHV and barrier of immunised susceptible to study other cattle diseases cattle could prevent the spread of endemic in East Africa. With the infection from the adjacent FMD- new School established and endemic areas – a practice producing its first graduates, Bill subsequently adopted in several returned to Glasgow Vet School, parts of the world. where he responded to an In Glasgow, Bill collaborated with invitation from the United Professor Bill Jarrett, carrying out Nation’s FAO to work at the Sheep seminal work on bovine and feline Disease Laboratory in Turkey on leukaemia, contributing to the control of sheep pox. This he was studies that established the viral able to do by devising and testing aetiology of feline leukaemia. This attenuated vaccines, one of which was a significant milestone in the was adopted for use in Turkey. understanding of mammalian In 1971, Bill became Head of leukaemia, and the potential role Microbiology at the Moredun of viruses in cancer, and an early Research Institute in Edinburgh example of how veterinary and six years later was appointed medicine impinged on human Director, a post he held until his medicine. Together with other retirement in 1985. During his 14 colleagues in Glasgow, Bill also years at Moredun, Bill stimulated initiated work that led to the new areas of interdisciplinary isolation of a herpesvirus (Bovine research, fostered external Herpesvirus 2) from a severe collaborative links and attracted outbreak of bovine ulcerative young veterinary and science mammillitis in the West of graduates to Moredun to engage Scotland – the first record of this in new research areas. Particularly virus outside Africa but which notable were projects of pas- subsequent work showed was teurellosis and pulmonary widespread in the UK. adenomatosis (jaagsiekte), the former leading ultimately to a

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vaccine now used internationally, ment in 1988 to review what was and the latter demonstrating the then known about BSE. With his transmissibility of infection and abiding interest in FMD, and first involvement of a retrovirus. His hand knowledge of the disease, time at Moredun was a period of his expertise was called upon renewed activity for the Institute during the 2001 epidemic when and provided a sound and he served in the control centre in integrated research structure that the Scottish Borders, an experi- continued well beyond his ence which, apart from the food, retirement at the early but gratified his desire to help. In the mandatory age of 60. It saw also aftermath of the epidemic he was the first edition in 1983 of set to chair one of the Royal Diseases in Sheep. Society of Edinburgh’s subcom- In retirement, Bill immediately mittees in the outbreak in took up the role of co-ordinator Scotland but had to resign due to of veterinary CPD in Scotland, health problems. laying the foundations of what In his working career and beyond grew into the VET Trust that it, Bill Martin was the recipient of supports continuing professional many accolades from his peers development, principally in and from others who recognised Scotland. He also continued to the innovative and enduring work on viral diseases of animals qualities of his research and through his collaboration with an achievements. These included Italian colleague in the University elections to Fellowships of the of Perugia. This entailed regular Royal Society of Edinburgh, the visits to Italy for laboratory and Institute of Biology and the Royal field work, for participation in College of Veterinary Surgeons, research seminars and for lectures honorary doctorates from the to veterinary practitioners. University of Perugia, Edinburgh During and beyond his working and Glasgow, awards from the career Bill served or represented Royal Agricultural Society of his profession in a number of England and from the Royal ways, through his Presidency of Highland and Agricultural Society and other services to the Sheep of Scotland for his work on animal Veterinary Society, membership of disease, together with honorary a range of scientific and profes- membership of a number of sional advisory bodies, Council of professional bodies. These formal the Royal College of Veterinary tributes have been complemented Surgeons, UK Medicines Commis- by the universally high regard in sion and of the Southwood which he was held by colleagues Working Party set up by govern- in all branches of the veterinary profession and beyond it as a

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thoroughly decent man leaving, as he competed successfully in Hill an associate put it, ‘a trail of Climbs for some years. East goodwill behind him.’ African Veterans will never forget Bill wore his distinctions lightly, the adventures of Bill and Profes- ever unassuming about his sor McIntyre in the famous accomplishments, of which many gruelling East African Safaris of of his social friends and neigh- 1964, ’65 and ’66. In 1965, they bours were quite unaware. entered the first ever Mini-Cooper Inherently caring and courteous S to be imported into East Africa; he was ever ready to respond although they didn’t complete the when his assistance was sought safari, they were more successful but was never presumptuous. He than Stirling Moss and Erik gave his service willingly to his Carlsson, who started immediately local community which soon behind them, achieving considera- recognised his worth, electing him ble media coverage for Scotland chairman of their Council, a and Nairobi University. In later position he held for some years years, Bill favoured and lavished before his health began to attention on less sporty vintage deteriorate. An intractable cars that became well-known in respiratory problem compounded his neighbourhood and car clubs. by the onset of Guillain Barré He also enjoyed curling and fly- Syndrome made the latter years fishing. difficult for Bill and his immediate The condolences of many, of more family and greatly concerned than perhaps they realise, are friends. Ever mindful of others, it extended to Mamie, Bill’s wife of was typical of him that, with 52 years, their children, grandchil- personal experience of debilitat- dren and extended family. He was ing disease, he should join with a one of the fathers of Veterinary fellow member of the profession Virology. He was one of the similarly affected to offer support world’s true gentlemen. Bill to other veterinary surgeons who Martin’s was a life well lived, for might be trying to come to terms his family, his profession and his with protracted illness. many friends, a sentiment much A talented sprinter in his youth expressed at his funeral service in Bill competed against top athletes Edinburgh on 14th October. As a of the day, including an Olympic lover of his poetry, Bill would have medallist. He also had a passion appreciated the epitaph by Robert for racing cars. This led him to Burns on the order of Service. acquire and rebuild an old classic Max Murray, Grand Prix Bugatti, installing a in collaboration with hotted-up Riley engine, in which Professor Ian Aitken

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On a Friend An honest man here lies at rest, As e’er God with his image blest; The friend of man, the friend of truth; The friend of age, and guide of youth. Few hearts like his with virtue warm’d’ Few heads with knowledge so inform’d; If there’s another world, he lives in bliss; If there is none, he made the best of this.

William Barr Martin MRCVS (Glasgow), DVSM (Edinburgh), PhD(Glasgow), DVMhc(Perugia), DVM&Shc (Edinburgh), DVMShc (Glasgow), FIBiol., FRCVS. Born 11 August 1924; Elected FRSE 7 March 1983; Died 6 October 2004.

Bill Martin with his son and the MG he drove with Ian McIntyre in the 1964 East African Safari Rally.

337 Review of the Session 2005-2006

John Drake Matthews 13 September 1923 - 26 May 2005

John Matthews died of pneumo- invalided out at age 18 with nia in Wallasey on 26th May 2005 impaired hearing. In 1942 he aged 81 after a most distin- chose to become a Forest Worker guished and action-packed career with the Forestry Commission at in the Merchant Navy, as the Delamere Forest in Cheshire. pioneer of tree breeding in entering the Commission’s Britain, and later as Professor of Forester Training School at Forestry at the University of Benmore in 1943. He qualified as Aberdeen. their best student in 1945. Later John was an achiever and an the same year he was accepted at irrepressible ideas man. He was the University of Aberdeen to able and imaginative and every- study for a Forestry degree under thing he did was tackled with the late Professor H.M Steven. He seemingly boundless energy and graduated with the Gold Medal total conviction. His huge enthusi- Award and in 1948 was appoint- asm was catching and a very ed by the Forestry Commission to striking feature of his life was the start up a forest tree improvement way in which those who knew and breeding programme based him, and especially those who at their new Research Centre at worked with him, were inspired Alice Holt, at Farnham, in Surrey. and motivated by his personality. This was a golden opportunity for He was charismatic and slightly him and he quickly forged close eccentric and possessed a keen links and friendships with some of sense of humour and a very world’s leading tree breeders, infectious laugh. He was one of notably Syrach Larsen in Denmark the most distinguished foresters and Bruce Zobel in the United of his generation and achieved States. He built up a forest tree great things and won many improvement programme for friends and admirers. Britain based on selection and propagation of “Plus” trees Bom in Wallasey in 1923, he was throughout the country. He educated at Wallasey Grammar pioneered these developments School before joining the Mer- with great energy and flair. Under chant Navy and going to sea as an his direction the process of tree Apprentice Deck Officer at the selection, propagation, and outbreak of war in 1939. His ship progeny testing moved at a fast hit a mine in 1941 and he was pace, with the result that Britain’s

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first Seed Orchard was planted in change of status from Learned 1953. In the late 1950s he started Society to Professional Institute, a scheme for the certification of and no one contributed more tree seed collected from Regis- than John to bring this about in tered Seed Sources in Britain, a an acceptable manner. The range process which evolved by 1971 of his involvements about this into an international scheme. time is a totally amazing reflection At this time, he also contributed of his phenomenal energy and much to Forest Services abroad by capacity. He became actively means of lecture tours and involved in the International advisory visits to several countries, Union of Forest Research Organi- notably to India. sations, (IUFRO), the Nature Conservancy Council, the Red In 1963 John was appointed Deer Commission, and not least Professor of Forestry at Aberdeen, the Natural Environment Research where he remained for 20 years Council (NERC). With NERC, he until he retired in 1983. In a sense was influential in the establish- this was his second and perhaps ment of their Unit of Tree Biology, even more distinguished career. In later to become the Institute of the Aberdeen Chair he gained Tree Biology (ITE), at the Bush great prestige and personal Estate, Edinburgh. fulfillment in building up a Department effective and lively in He was a gifted speaker and much both teaching and research. He in demand overseas and he took received many honours and part in many Missions and distinctions at this time. He was consultancies during the 70s and elected Fellow of the Royal Society 80s to places including Turkey. of Edinburgh in 1964 (where he Pakistan, India, China, Burma, the later served on Council from USA and Canada. He was the 1975-1977); Fellow of the author of more than 60 forestry Institute of Foresters of Great and scientific papers, and in 1989, Britain in 1968; as well as becom- when well into retirement, he ing Chairman of the newly formed wrote a major textbook in the Forestry Training Council in 1971- form of an update of R.S.Troup’s 83. He became Dean of the Faculty classic Silvicultural Systems. He of Science at Aberdeen 1975-78, was awarded the CBE in 1982. a rare honour. What a remarkable man he was - He was Vice-President and the like of whom one seldom President of the Institute of meets in a lifetime. His enthusi- Foresters 1969-73, a period that asm was highly contagious. His was marked by the organization’s ideas flowed fast and furious and often the main job of his col-

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leagues was to hang on to his after a long illness. They have two coat tails and help identify the sons, George and Peter, with best of his good ideas! He was a families to whom we extend natural leader and his personality deepest sympathy. One of John’s bloomed when he took charge of proudest legacies resides in the an event - and he liked to be in many forestry graduates now at charge! work all over the world who were He was a proud and devoted once his students. They will be family man. He married Marjorie proud too - and grateful to him in 1951 and she died in 1987 for his inspiration. George Holmes

[With permission from the Institute of Chartered Foresters.] John Drake Matthews, BSc (Aberdeen,) CBE, FICF, FIBiol. Born 13 September 1923; Elected FRSE 2 March 1964 (Council Member 1975-1977); Died 26 May 2005.

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Basil Richardson Stanley Megaw 22 June 1913 - 22 August 2002

Basil Richardson Stanley Megaw experience by working in Scotland was born in Belfast on 22nd June, with Gordon Childe, in England 1913, and died in Stevenage on with Grahame Clark and in 22nd August, 2002. He received Northern Ireland with Estyn Evans, his schooling in Belfast at Camp- wisely judging that this wider bell College, and proceeded involvement offered the best thence to Peterhouse College, preparation for a balanced Cambridge, in 1932. There he interpretation of the Manx chose to study for the Archaeolo- material, and the best way of gy and Anthropology Tripos, in allowing the richly concentrated the curriculum which had been Manx evidence to make its devised by Hector Monro Chad- contribution to the wider picture. wick to realise his vision of the A study visit to Scandinavia in cross-disciplinary study of cul- 1938 helped to shape his sense of tures, including especially those the direction in which the Manx European cultures which had long Museum could be moving, and he traditions of literacy to set beside soon received the opportunity to their material remains. This put these ideas into effect, being combination of the study of appointed Director and Librarian material culture with that of of the Museum in 1940, when he history, language and literature also became Inspector of Ancient both attracted Megaw and helped Monuments for the Isle of Man. to mould the ethnological War service, as a Scientific Officer interests which dominated his with the RAF, intervened in 1941; research and thinking for the rest but he resumed his chosen career of his life. in 1945, and for the next twelve After graduating BA in 1935, and years brought his widely based, following the award of a Leaf cross-disciplinary approach to Fellowship to undertake research bear on the material culture of the in Spain, he took up a post in the island. During this period he was Isle of Man, becoming Secretary associated with the setting up of and Assistant Director of the the Nautical Museum at Castle- Manx Museum in 1936. He town and the Manx Open Air quickly established himself as an Museum at Cregneash, and with active archaeologist in the Isle of the implementation of the Manx Man, and at the same time began Folk-life Survey (1948). to extend his field excavation

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The theoretical and procedural Scottish Society (1959-62) and as developments which he intro- its Vice-President (1974-77). He duced in the Isle of Man mirrored became a Fellow of the Royal similar advances in the fields of Society of Edinburgh in 1966. He ethnology and museum curation was actively involved with many in post-war Britain and Europe. bodies and organisations whose More particularly, the foundation work coincided with aspects of his in 1951 of the School of Scottish personal interests and profession- Studies at Edinburgh University, al expertise. These included the with its ambitious programme of Scottish Regional Group of the folklore collection and associated Council for British Archaeology, of linguistic and place-name surveys, which he was Vice-President in provided a close parallel on a 1966 and President in 1967. He larger scale. In 1957 the School also served on the Council of the was in a position to appoint its Highland Folk Museum and was a first full-time Director, and Megaw Trustee of the Auchindrain Folk filled this position till 1969 — a Museum. He published many period which saw the high tide of articles, notes and reports, often the School’s primary fieldwork homing in on questions where a activities. His wide-ranging timely intervention could resolve interests in geography, language, an unnecessary controversy, re- history, folklore and archaeology open a blocked road or suggest helped in a powerful and benign an unnoticed area deserving of way to establish the School of scholarly attention. As Editor of Scottish Studies as an internation- Scottish Studies, the School’s ally acclaimed research institute academic journal (1964-68), and and paved the way for the modern as a member of the journal’s University subject of Scottish Advisory Board both before and Ethnology. From 1969 onwards after that period, he enabled he was able to devote more of his Scottish Studies to play an time to personal research, as a important role in establishing the Senior Lecturer within the School, credentials of the School, and of until his retirement in 1980, and Scottish Ethnology, in the interna- as a Research Fellow from then tional context. until his death. Basil Megaw was courtly and He was elected a Fellow of the softly spoken in manner, and Society of Antiquaries shortly there was usually a twinkle in his before, and of the Society of eye. He was assiduous and Antiquaries of Scotland shortly genuine in his interest in the work after his arrival in Scotland. He of others, especially younger served on the Council of the scholars. The death of his beloved

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wife Eleanor in 1977 was a severe Studies, including seminars and blow, for she had shared in his conferences, until the end of his scholarly interests since their long life. He left a generous Cambridge days. However, the legacy to the School, which is now activities and achievements of being used to fund a series of their children and wider family Fellowships bearing his name — a provided an abiding focus for his fitting commemoration of a long concern and attention. He and fruitful association with continued to live in the family Edinburgh University and Scot- home in Merchiston Gardens and land. to frequent the School of Scottish William Gillies

Basil Richardson Stanley Megaw, BA (Cantab), FSA FMA. Born 22 June 1913; Elected FRSE 1966; Died 22 August 2002.

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Hans Anton Meidner 14 January 1914 - 11 September 2001

Hans Meidner enjoyed two Following the Sharpeville massa- reputations. He was a distin- cre in 1960, his longstanding and guished plant physiologist outspoken opposition to apart- making important contributions heid led to his arrest again, this to our knowledge of stomatal time ‘for being a communist’. He behaviour. But he was also widely was jailed without charge for known for his active and whole- three months. Given these first hearted commitment to world hand experiences of human peace and support of human stupidity and brutality, his vigor- rights. Indeed, it was probably ous support for Amnesty and this life-long commitment that he other human rights organisations regarded as a major contribution was to be expected. With his wife of his life. No starry-eyed idealist, Olga, he was an active member of Hans brought a tough-minded the Campaign for Nuclear Disar- grasp of political facts and mament, setting out a CND realities to his campaigning zeal, bookstall in the middle of Stirling and it is for his public-spirited each month, whatever the activities as well as for his scientif- weather. As well as combining ic reputation that many of his these activities with a busy friends in Scotland will remember academic career, he also found him. time to become a member and Born in Berlin 14 January 1914, officer of the Friends of the Smith Hans received his schooling in Gallery in Stirling, something that, Breslau and originally trained as as a talented amateur artist, gave an industrial chemist. However, him special pleasure. the turmoil in Germany in the Hans enrolled as a student in the mid-1930s and his abhorrence of University of Natal in 1945, the Nazi regime led him to leave graduating MSc in 1950. Joining Germany, and to move eventually the staff of the Botany Depart- to South Africa. He saw war ment at Natal he gained a PhD service in the South African and became Senior Lecturer. On a Engineering Corps and at one sabbatical leave spent at Imperial stage, when based in Greece, was College, London, (1956-7) he arrested by partisans ‘because he worked on aspects of gas ex- was not a communist’. After the change in leaves with O V S Heath, war he returned to South Africa a leading authority on stomatal where he joined the Liberal Party. physiology. This work led to the

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award of a second PhD and the His time with Heath, both at Diploma of Imperial College (DIC). Imperial College and at Reading, More importantly, it confirmed was highly productive. The and deepened his interest in increasing availability of reliable stomata. It was therefore almost techniques for infrared gas inevitable that in 1964, when he analysis in the 1950’s meant that finally left South Africa, he would more sophisticated analysis of gas join Heath again, this time at the exchange by leaves had become University of Reading. Here he possible. Using these techniques spent six productive years, Hans was able to show that the becoming Reader in the Depart- minimum carbon dioxide concen- ment of Horticulture. Hans moved tration in illuminated maize to Stirling in 1970 to become leaves, the CO2 compensation Professor and Head of the Biology point, fell to zero, whereas in Department. He was elected to most temperate grasses the value the Fellowship of the Royal Society was significantly above zero. This of Edinburgh in 1978. important observation was quickly Hans published more than 100 related to the major discovery, in scientific papers and was the joint other laboratories, that the path author of three books (The of carbon in photosynthesis in Physiology of Stomata, with T A maize and a number of other Mansfield, Methods in Stomatal tropical species, so-called C4 Research, with J D Weyers, and plants, is different from that of Plants and Water, with D W most plants from temperate Sheriff); he also wrote Class regions where the first product of Experiments in Plant Physiology, a photosynthesis is a three-carbon formulary of experiments which compound. actually worked when put into the The move to Stirling did little to hands of students. He was first reduce the flow of papers on and foremost an experimentalist stomata and plant water relations. and much of his work was Particularly noteworthy were the conducted with apparatus that he papers, many with Mary Edwards, had built or designed himself. In involving micromanipulation of the 1950s he designed a very the stomatal guard cell complex. simple apparatus to measure the Because of the presence of a resistance of leaf mesophyll tissue strong cell wall, plant cells are to viscous flow of air through it, much less amenable to manipula- the first time that direct estimates tion and injection than animal had been made. He went on to cells. In the case of guard cells, build a variety of porometers to the characteristic wall thickening, measure stomatal aperture and essential for the change in shape resistance to gas flow. as the pore opens and closes,

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compounds the difficulty. Using prodding forefinger, he was a apparatus designed and built by source of stimulation to research himself, Hans was able to pierce students and colleagues alike; the guard cell wall with a micro- possessing the invaluable gift of probe that, when attached to a helping to broaden their enjoy- pump, enabled him to alter the ment in what they were doing. He turgor of the cell directly and was regularly seen riding a high- reversibly. He found that increas- powered Sunbeam motorbike, ing the internal pressure caused raising his credibility with the the pore to open, while decreas- student population while impress- ing it caused closure. A film made ing those of his colleagues who to show these effects was some- often saw him arrive for meetings thing of a crowd puller amongst wearing his black leathers. Even his colleagues. The direct proof of professional bikers were at ease the dependence of aperture on with him, discussing the engineer- turgor was followed by investiga- ing and maintenance of high tions of the role of the adjacent performance machines. cells of the stomatal complex; it After his official retirement in was shown that changing the 1981, Hans continued his re- turgor of these cells could also search into stomata as Emeritus affect stomatal aperture. These Professor. With support from the studies demonstrated directly that Auber Bequest of the Royal gradients of water potential Society of Edinburgh, he pro- across the leaf epidermis could duced a prototype Pressure affect stomatal aperture through Difference Porometer for measur- so-called hydropassive effects, ing stomatal aperture in the field without the intervention of other and demonstrated the apparatus signals from the environment. to the Society in 1995. Hans and Research was a keen source of Olga moved to Northampton in pleasure for Hans and he was 1996. Here he remained active, always ready to discuss his ideas giving talks to the University of with anyone. He was an enter- the Third Age and cultivating his taining lecturer capable of stirring garden. He died in Northampton the most dilatory students into on 11 September 2001. thought and of disconcerting his I am grateful to Professor T A peers by challenging current Mansfield FRS, Dr C M Willmer dogmas or reminding them of and Mrs Olga Meidner for fundamental unsolved problems. comments on an earlier draft of With a gleam in his eye and a this account. John E Dale Hans Anton Meidner BSc, MSc, PhD (Natal), PhD, DIC (Imperial College, London). Born 14 January 1914; Elected FRSE 6 March 1978; Died 11 September 2001. 346 Obituary Notices

Sir James (Woodham) Menter 22 August 1921 - 18 July 2006

Sir James Menter came to live an important part in the war at permanently in Scotland on sea. Jim spent much of his time retirement twenty years ago after there, virtually as a sailor, assisting a full and highly successful in sea trials on destroyers; no working life in scholarship, doubt a first experience of the real scientific research, industry and world! He returned to Cambridge university management. He could in 1945 to complete his degree have been simply an academic, and then embarked on a PhD. albeit one of great distinction, but Also at this time he married Jean, he was one of those all too rare whose support played such an individuals who combine intellec- important part in the whole of his tual integrity, professionalism and subsequent career. a sound sense of judgement Working in the Laboratory for the which made him successful also in Physics and Chemistry of Rubbing the wider world of industry and Solids, as it was known then, business. under the direction of Philip Jim Menter started out in life from Bowden, Menter developed a a modest family background of novel use of the newly arrived working parents with ambitions electron microscope to examine for their children’s future. With the micro-topography of surfaces their support he gained a scholar- by glancing incidence of the ship to Dover County School for electron beam. Electron microsco- Boys, the local grammar school, py was still in its infancy in those where he had the good fortune to days and the technique employed be taught by a physics master who required a close collaboration inspired him to embark on what with the manufacturers, Metro- was subsequently a lifelong politan Vickers, which gave him a interest in science. From there he valuable insight into industrial won an Open Scholarship in research. Natural Sciences at Peterhouse, The post-war years saw an Cambridge. His undergraduate unprecedented emergence of studies were disrupted by the industrial science laboratories, as Second World War when he was the importance of introducing recruited to work at the Admiralty new scientific ideas into modern Research Station at Fairlie in industry was increasingly recog- Ayrshire on Under Water Sound nised. Among these was the Tube Detection systems, which played Investments Research Laboratory

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being set up in the 1950s by the areas of electron optical instru- TI Group of metal manufacturers ment development, most notably at Hinxton Hall near Cambridge. X-ray microanalysis. This was later Jim Menter was attracted to work to be developed into a major tool there with the prospect of an for the study of complex alloys open remit to undertake good and other materials of industrial science, and a generous budget. importance. His own major He was thus able to procure the scientific contribution was most powerful electron micro- recognised when he was elected scope then available, the newly to Fellowship of the Royal Society developed Siemens Elmiscop 1. He of London in 1961. demonstrated for the first time Menter’s technical ability and the possibility of using the organisational skills were further electron microscope as a tool for recognised by Tube Investments the direct study of the atomic when, in 1965, he was appointed structure of crystalline solids. His to the Company’s Board as paper on the resolution of the Director of Research and Develop- atomic lattice of platinum ment and a member of their phthalocyanine, published in Executive Committee. Here he was 1956 in the Proceedings of the much involved in all the major Royal Society, was a major break- issues, political as well as techni- through in this newly emerging cal, facing many British companies field. Fifty years later, in the year of at that time, such as the nationali- his death, the importance of this sation of the steel industry, the paper has now been recognised downturn of manufacturing and by reproduction in full in the subsequent amalgamations and Philosophical Magazine as a closures. His ability as a scientist landmark publication. Under his to weigh up the facts and to leadership the group of young analyse a problem critically before scientists attracted to work with reaching a solution stood him in him at Hinxton quickly established good stead. Just as his scientific an international reputation for colleagues at Hinxton had found research, not only of great him to be a good listener and fundamental importance in the wise counsellor, his advice was theory of solid structures but also much valued by fellow directors. highly relevant to the metallurgi- At this time his services were also cal industry. Having by then widely sought by Research assumed the Directorship of the Councils and other government Hinxton Hall Laboratory, Menter agencies concerned with research set about building up a wider and technology. He became framework of research in other Honorary Treasurer of the Royal Society and President of the

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Institute of Physics. He was On retirement, he and his wife knighted in 1973. Jean moved to live permanently at Jim Menter’s move to become Rannoch in highland Perthshire Principal of Queen Mary College where they had already estab- in 1976 was in many ways a lished a much loved holiday natural return to the academic home. However, this was by no world. He took with him all the means a retreat into isolation. experience and wisdom gained in They were warmly welcomed by his earlier career. This was of the community around them and immediate importance at a time they participated fully in their new when universities were in a period life. As an Honorary Fellow of the of turbulence and change. Over Royal Society of Edinburgh, Jim the ten years of his Principalship, retained contact with science, the college not only weathered which he much valued. He was a the storm but also gained in member of Court of the University stature. The merger of the London of Stirling and Chairman of the Hospital and St. Bartholomew’s, Audit Committee where his with QMC providing the science experience and wise counselling teaching for 900 medical students were invaluable. required enormous patience and Jim Menter retained many deep negotiation to bring about the and lasting friendships over the necessary changes in ethos and years. Between them, he and his purpose. Jim Menter was the man wife Jean, ever at his side, offered to do this. He could listen, he a hand of friendship that always could use an air of gravitas, which made one feel welcome. Their came naturally to him, to good home at Carie on the shore of effect, and he always seemed able Loch Rannoch and their generous to bring out the best solution at hospitality was always there for the appropriate time. He had to frequent visitors and friends, fight hard both within the college many from past times at Hinxton and outside to gather support for and QMC. Jim Menter was a great necessary changes and to secure man. He will be long remembered, the funds for bringing them not only as a distinguished about. The merger of Westfield scientist and industrialist, but, College with Queen Mary to form above all, a good friend of so what is now QMWC ensured the many people. He leaves behind a institutional robustness that was much loved family, Jean, their vital for their future viability. His three children, nine grandchildren legacy is what is now a successful and five great-grandchildren. and confident institution. A J Forty Sir James Woodham Menter MA, PhD, ScD(Cantab), HonDTech, FInstP, FRS. Born 22 August 1921; Elected HonFRSE 2 March 1992; Died 18 July 2006. 349 Review of the Session 2005-2006

Henry Gemmell Morgan 25 December 1922 - 31 October 2006

Professor Gemmell Morgan lived he immediately went about in an era of unprecedented designing an extensive final year technological change in the undergraduate teaching course of provision of healthcare in Scot- lectures and practical classes land and his drive and enthusiasm which was implemented from put him at the forefront of that 1953 onwards. From two small process. The science of clinical rooms and an office at its incep- biochemistry in the country owes tion, his department expanded more to him than to anyone else ten-fold and included the newly of his generation. introduced flame photometer, Born into a well-known east coast blood gas analyser and, ultimately, medical family, (his father, Dr J M a multichannel autoanalyser prior Morgan, was Senior Physician to to his departure for Glasgow in the Royal Infirmary in Dundee), he 1965. was educated at Dundee High During this flurry of activity he School, Merchison Castle School took time out from 1956-57, with and the University of St Andrews the aid of a Fullbright Research where he graduated BSc in 1943 Fellowship to work in Baltimore, and MB ChB (with commenda- USA, under the tutelage of John tion) in 1946. After house jobs in Eager Howard on calcium metabo- Dundee and short spells of lism and bone disease. This paediatrics in Kent and general episode brought him to the practice in the Carse of Gowrie, he realisation that good clinical was drawn to the challenges of practice comes from research- pathology in Dundee Royal based fundamental knowledge. It Infirmary where, contrary to the also led him to discover what, in trend to settle on morbid anatomy the immediate post-war period (histopathology) as a career, his may have been a major public enquiring mind turned to the health blunder. Following development of clinical biochem- preliminary experiments on istry almost as a hobby. His chickens a decision was taken by obvious enthusiasm for his central government to fortify cod subject led him to be appointed in liver oil, cereals and dried milk independent charge of Clinical with vitamin D2, using doses Biochemistry at Dundee Royal appropriate for the chickens. from 1952 onwards, and to Unfortunately, infants are sub- encourage interest in his subject stantially more sensitive to vitamin

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D2 and as a consequence of this patients at Glasgow Royal vitamin overdosage, cases of Infirmary, he also created the infantile hypercalcaemia began to physical environment which appear out of the blue. This encouraged the development of dawned on Gemmell when he his staff to their full potential. did full metabolic studies on two Over his 23 years in Glasgow his hypercalcaemic infants. He rushed primary objective was to attract his findings into the Lancet and, staff of the highest quality and to very quietly, the vitamin D2 give them the freedom to develop fortification program was their own interests within the dropped. framework of a department which When he arrived in Glasgow in promoted collaborative team work 1965 to take up the newly both within and beyond its walls. established Chair of Pathological He took great pride in recounting Biochemistry, the appointments that in his day his Institute had committee, behind closed doors, trained 24 medical consultants recognised in him a firebrand (five of whom became full profes- whose selection was “risky, but sors in and beyond the UK) and well worth making”. He immedi- large numbers of senior clinical ately set about expanding the scientists and medical technolo- horizons of his subject by encour- gists. aging his staff to develop Throughout his career he held individual research projects and to many influential positions, most contribute to a clinical biochemis- memorable of which was his try teaching program in Glasgow election to Chairmanship of the University. This formed the basis Association of Clinical Biochem- of an undergraduate textbook ists in the UK from 1982-85, used worldwide and translated followed by appointment to its into Spanish, Portuguese, Greek Presidency between 1985-87. and Japanese. His vision ultimate- While in that post he developed ly led to the opening of a new the UK Manpower Board for Institute of Biochemistry on the Clinical Biochemistry and helped Royal Infirmary site in 1977, promote the establishment of an followed a few years later by annual national meeting for his expansion into the new University subject, the second of which, Tower on the fourth floor of the dedicated to his unparalleled Queen Elizabeth Building. contribution to the development While Gemmell was justifiably of his subject, was held in Glas- proud of his achievements in gow just before he retired in terms of the first class biochemis- 1988. try service to the clinicians and

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three occasions. Major mutilating surgery was recommended but Gemmell opted for intensive courses of radiotherapy which caused the tumour to regress. In 2005 he confided that “the lump is still there and worries me occasionally.” The story did not end there. As a result of his intensive radiotherapy Gemmell developed a blockage of his left femoral artery and a swelling of his lower aorta which almost cost him his leg during a business trip to Mexico. Skilful reparative surgery in his own hospital replaced the defective artery with a Dacron graft which served him well for almost thirty years. All of the above achievements Ultimate failure of the graft made Gemmell Morgan a remark- deprived us of a clinical biochem- able man, but one little known ist of tremendous vision. The fact adds a new dimension to his Institute which he left behind is a distinction. At the age of 18, monument to his enthusiasm, while a first year medical student persistence and drive. He is he was discovered to have a fist- survived by his wife, Margaret, sized malignant tumour of his left daughter Imogen, son-in-law thigh which, remarkably, did not David and grandchildren Iona and spread widely throughout his Alasdair. body, but did recur locally on Professor Jim Shepherd and Professor Alan Shenkin

Henry Gemmell Morgan, BSc, MB ChB (St Andrews), FRCPE, FRCPG, FRCPath. Born 25 December 1922; Elected FRSE 1st March 1971; Died 31 October 2006.

352 Obituary Notices

John Ross Raeburn 20 November 1912 - 9 July 2006

John Ross Raeburn (affectionately advisory work were closely linked, known to his colleagues as JR) with staff often having a tripartite was born in 1912 in Kirkcaldy, and function. Raeburn liked the idea educated at Manchester Grammar of staff working closely with School and Edinburgh and progressive farmers in the field Cornell Universities. His first post and returning to give students the was as Professor of Agricultural benefit of the knowledge gained. Economics at Nanking University, This system worked splendidly in but he had to leave quickly the School of Agriculture in spite because of the Sino-Japanese War. of opposition from some senior He joined the Ministry of Food in University academics who openly 1941 as an economist in the Dig stated that agriculture was not a For Victory campaign, for which he fit subject for a University and felt must take much of the credit. that the sole function of a After the war he worked at Oxford University farm was to maximise University on plans to develop profit. He also faced opposition food production from Britain’s for some of his ideas from the farms, before being appointed in Department of Agriculture and 1959 as Strathcona Fordyce Fisheries (DAFS) in Edinburgh as Professor of Agriculture at well as from the East and West Aberdeen University, and Principal Colleges of Agriculture who, of the North of Scotland College Raeburn felt, were intent on of Agriculture in 1963. amalgamating the Scottish The amalgamation and develop- Agricultural Colleges. ment of these two Institutions to His system proved robust right form the School of Agriculture, through his retirement in 1978 Aberdeen, was to be Raeburn’s until the Government-sponsored major achievement. His was the Williams Report in 1989 led to the impetus for the move away from setting up of a single College, The the dingy premises at 41½ Union Scottish Agricultural College Street and Marischal College to (SAC). This inevitably meant the the magnificent nine storey break-up of the School of Agricul- School of Agriculture Building ture, with the College leaving SAB (SAB) at Old Aberdeen. Here he and going out to a new building created an organisation based on on the outskirts of Aberdeen at the USA land-grant system Craibstone. Raeburn had always whereby teaching, research and felt that the University Department

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by itself was not viable and so it Dinner for visiting Chinese proved. The Department moved Professors, when at the end of the out of SAB into lesser accommo- meal Raeburn got up and apolo- dation and then in recent years gised to the visitors for the poor was disbanded. quality of the meal, much to the Raeburn felt these changes horror of the University Principal bitterly and fought battles with and the Catering Officer. They did SAC and the Scottish Executive not know that this was the normal right through his remaining years, protocol in China. I am sure that but to no avail. He had to see his Raeburn knew well what he was noble ideals demolished. Ironically doing. there is now a current of opinion For all his somewhat gruff manner sympathetic to his system but it is he was a kindly soul, especially now too late. with his overseas students, whom Apart from these problems which he befriended. Indeed he often were a major part of his life, cooked meals for them, for he was Raeburn had a full and satisfying an excellent cook. His other career. He travelled widely on accomplishments were photogra- Government, World Bank and UN phy, painting, fishing, especially in missions to Europe, Africa and his beloved Orkney, and garden- China. He published regularly in ing. In his garden he grew a wide Journals and his 1984 book range of excellent vegetables and Agriculture: Foundations, Princi- fruits. ples and Development was highly John is survived by his wife Mair regarded in economic circles. He whom he married in 1943, and a was appointed CBE in 1972. son and three daughters. He had a pawky sense of humour Alistair McKelvie well illustrated once at a University

John Ross Raeburn CBE, BScAgric(Edinburgh), MS, PhD(Cornell), MA(Oxon). Born 20 November 1912; Elected FRSE 6 March 1961; Died 9 July 2006.

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William Devigne Russell-Hunter 3 May 1926 - 21 May 2005

Professor W D Russell-Hunter, last cloth and wood biplane to see known to his friends as ‘Gus’, significant combat in the war). His was an outstanding Scottish first published papers in 1948 aquatic scientist and a well- and 1949 were derived from this loved university teacher. He was work. born in Rutherglen on 3 May, In 1948 he was appointed 1926 and died at home in Assistant Lecturer in the Zoology Easton, Maryland in the United Department of the University of States on 21 May, 2005. With Glasgow, then under the direction his passing, the world has lost of Professor C.M. Yonge FRSE. His one of the most influential promotion to Lecturer in 1951 aquatic ecologists of the 20th enabled him to achieve a start to Century. the three most important facets of Gus attended the University of his future life and career. Firstly, he Glasgow and graduated with an married Myra Porter Rankin Honours BSc in 1946. This Chapman, a talented artist, in the degree was followed with a PhD Glasgow University Chapel on in 1953 and a DSc in 1961, both March 22, 1951. Secondly, he degrees from the University of initiated a series of outstanding Glasgow. courses in invertebrate biology, His initial research was in marine which the writer was privileged to biology when, as a result of the attend in the late 1950s. Thirdly, Second World War, he served he was able to develop a research with the British Admiralty as a programme on the physiological Scientific Officer on a marine ecology of freshwater molluscs in anti-fouling team. This research Loch Lomond and other waters in had been made urgent by the the west of Scotland, which were sinking of the fouled – and to prove the basis for his now- therefore slower – HMS Hood by classic studies of marine and the Bismark earlier in the war. freshwater organisms and their His placement on the Scientific behaviour, physiological ecology and Technical Register, due to and functional morphology. His his academic achievement, field base for these studies was moved him to this duty from his the University Field Station at training as a Pilot and Observer Rossdhu, which he helped Dr flying in Swordfish aircraft (the Harry Slack FRSE to establish in 1946.

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In 1953 and 1954, Gus spent Woods Hole, Massachusetts, as an some time in Jamaica as a Carne- independent summer investigator gie Brown Fellow at the University and lecturer in the influential of the West Indies. His interest in invertebrate zoology course. island faunas had been stimulated Scotland’s loss was the United by his participation in an expedi- States’ gain when he moved to a tion of young scientists to the permanent appointment there as Garvellachs – a group of small director of that course from 1964 uninhabited islands off the west to 1968. His experience with The coast of Scotland. Useful publica- Glasgow Naturalist proved of tions resulted from this trip and, value when he served as Editor of at the time of his death, he was the laboratory’s Biological Bulletin attempting to publish a resulting (1968-80). During those years this book, The Isles of the Sea. journal rose to prominence as a Dr Russell-Hunter was elected as a leading biological journal. Gus Fellow of the Royal Society of was also appointed to the Board Edinburgh in 1965. He was a of Trustees of the Marine Biologi- member of many learned societies cal Laboratory, on which he served during his lifetime, but his oldest for four terms and in emeritus membership was with the Natural status thereafter. History Society of Glasgow, which As well as his appointment at he joined when it was still the Woods Hole, Gus was appointed Andersonian Naturalists of to the staff of the Biology Depart- Glasgow. He became an influen- ment at Syracuse University, where tial member of the Andersonians he taught from 1963-90. His when he was elected to its career there, in both teaching and Council and also became Editor of research, was distinguished and The Glasgow Naturalist. During he and his many graduate his time as Editor he maintained a students not only produced high standard of editing, helped significant research but also several budding authors (includ- created an environment for ing the writer) and attracted many learning about biology for which important papers to the journal. the university became well known. At the time of his death, he was He received research grants from the member of longest standing many bodies and was recognised in the Society, having joined in by the University in 1988, who November 1948. honoured his teaching career with From 1961 to 1963, though still the William Wasserstrom Award. based at the University of Glas- In spite of being very busy with gow, Gus spent time at the teaching and research, Gus Marine Biological Laboratory at managed to write four major texts

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– A Biology of Lower Invertebrates His long career was honoured in (1968), A Biology of Higher 1984 at the ‘International Sympo- Invertebrates (1969), Aquatic sium on the Physiological Ecology Productivity (1970) and A Life of of Freshwater Molluscs Honoring Invertebrates (1979). All of these Dr. W.D. Russell-Hunter’ - the 50th were foundational for decades of Annual Meeting of the American students of invertebrate zoology Malacological Union. At this throughout the world in their symposium, a full account of his various translations. extensive scientific achievements Over his long research career of was presented in a paper by nearly six decades, Gus authored McMahon & Burky (1985: Ameri- and published over 120 research can Malacological Bulletin, 3, papers. He was involved in very 135-142). He was again honoured many more than this through his in 1999, when the Freshwater research students, but chose not Mollusc Conservation Society to follow the common practice of presented him with their first-ever adding his name so as to allow Lifetime Achievement Award. them a better chance to launch In later years, after the death of their own careers. This facet of his his wife in 1989, for whom he life – that of mentor and teacher – cared during her decade-long was perhaps his greatest hallmark battle with cancer, Gus turned to as his generous and gracious oil and acrylic painting (for which work, advising his graduate and he won awards), boating, reading undergraduate students, created a and the Religious Society of diaspora of researchers and Friends. teachers through whom he has He is survived by his son Peregrine had a global impact in the fields and three grandchildren. of physiological ecology, malacol- ogy and invertebrate zoology. Peter S Maitland

William Devigne Russell-Hunter BSc, PhD, DSc (Glasgow). Born 3 May 1926; Elected FRSE 1 March 1965; Died 21 May 2005.

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David Cumming Simpson 24 July 1920 - 15th May 2006

David Cumming Simpson MBE, seeds of his Christian faith were Emeritus Professor of Orthopaedic sown which matured with the Bio-Engineering and former experience of life and from which Executive Dean in the Faculty of his finest qualities derived. Medicine, University of Edinburgh, On leaving school, Simpson spent died 0n 15th May 2006 in a summer holiday in the Bavarian Edinburgh. Alps returning by way of Munich David was born on 24 July, 1920 and the Party Stadium in Nurem- at The Retreat, Dovecot Road, the berg and, mistakenly, found Simpson family home in Corstor- himself in the Jewish Quarter phine, then a village outwith the when in Frankfurt. He was so City of Edinburgh. His father appalled by what he saw the Nazis James Cumming Simpson (1873- doing in Germany that he joined 1936) was Financial Director of the Territorial Army (Royal Scots) The Simpson Label Company, a as soon as he returned to Edin- respected Edinburgh firm of burgh. In October 1938 he specialist printers founded in became an apprentice chartered 1858 by his grandfather David accountant with Messrs Graham Cumming Simpson, of which he Smart & Annan of Edinburgh. was himself an active non- Before he sat his first professional executive director until the examinations, however, he was company was bought by a Dutch called up for military service in printing firm in the 1990s. His August 1939 and served with the mother was Jeanie Hucheon Sim 5th Battalion Highland Light (1884-1960), a Glasgow lady and Infantry as a commissioned soldier a silversmith. David had only one until invalided out of the Army in sibling, his elder sister. October 1945. It was with the HLI David attended The Edinburgh that, having endured the water- Academy from 1927 until 1938 logged trenches in the Walcheren during which time the family campaign, he was wounded on moved to 178 Mayfield Road. The 26th March 1945 near the Rhine. Simpsons were members of the Shrapnel from an 88mm shell Catholic Apostolic Church of damaged his brachial plexus which his grandfather was an leaving him a legacy of chronic Elder, his father a Deacon and pain and, for some time, loss of David himself an Acolyte. Here the use of his right arm. It was characteristic of David Simpson

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that, as an act of reconciliation, he tions from 1947 restored consid- sent Easter flowers each year to erable function to Simpson’s right the Evangelische Kirke in Hammin- arm. Simpson completed his keln, the church in the little town undergraduate course in 1949 where he was wounded. and, despite the fact that his first Simpson had not liked accountan- child Allen was born on the day of cy and in October 1945 started an his third year Heat and Thermody- honours physics course at Edin- namics examination, he graduated burgh University. Disablement and B.Sc (Hons). His daughters Joan poor health made difficult his and Mary completed the family. undergraduate years. The progno- Several jobs offered to him on sis was discouraging and he graduation were in armaments learned to write with his left hand. and not acceptable to Simpson. Perhaps he was encouraged by He was fortunate, therefore, to the recollection that his successful get a Medical Research Council Simpson grandfather had lost a grant to do a PhD. In 1951 he was leg when run over by a cart as a asked by the Department of boy. He found release in mad-hat, Surgery to design and construct a one-handed drives down the A1 multi-channel recording machine to London. It was on one of these for use in the operating theatre in June 1946 that he had what he similar to one seen in the Mayo called “his road to Damascus clinic by Professor Learmonth. experience” when he realized that Through the good offices of Dr J he really wanted to marry the M M Johnstone, the Scottish sister of an old school friend. Hospital Endowment Research Isobel Jean Ross-Smith (1923- Trust gave Simpson £1000 to buy 1996) had trained in domestic materials for the project and the science at Athol Crescent and was MRC paid for a technician. He teaching the subject in Darling- submitted his thesis The develop- ton, so to Darlington he drove, ment of a method of following proposed, was accepted and they changes in the radio-opacity of were married later the same year. the small bones of the hand and He was fond of saying that it was graduated PhD in 1952. Because “Isobel who put me on my feet of Learmonth, he joined the again” and he remained devoted Department of Surgery at Edin- to her. Simpson was fortunate burgh University as a member of that J R Learmonth (later Sir the external staff of the MRC to James), a world authority on work on problems of instrumenta- peripheral nerve injuries, was then tion in the operating theatre. His Professor of Clinical Surgery at monitoring equipment supported Edinburgh and in three opera- pioneering work in transplant

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surgery at the Royal Infirmary of politics, and intense media Edinburgh and Western General interest. He visited Ernst Mar- Hospital. He also developed one quardt in Heidelberg who, since of the first successful foetal heart the 1950s, had been building and monitors for clinical work at the fitting pneumatic carbon dioxide- Simpson Memorial Maternity powered limbs to adults; a visit Hospital. His career as a medical which resulted in the setting up of physicist was now opening to him the Edinburgh Powered Prosthetic and his theoretical knowledge Unit on 4th May 1963 and his and natural dexterity made it a appointment as its Technical very suitable job for him. Director and Senior Lecturer in In 1953 he was diagnosed with 1964. In 1967 he became Director tuberculosis which was successful- of the Orthopaedic Bio-Engineer- ly treated by Sir John Crofton with ing Unit at the Princess Margaret streptomycin. Simpson often said Rose Orthopaedic Hospital and how fortunate he was that Honorary Director MRC Unit for penicillin had been introduced Physical Aids for the Disabled at just in time to save his life after his the same hospital. war-wound and streptomycin just The stage was set for Simpson’s in time to save him from tubercu- master work. He recognized that losis. however cleverly designed and In 1955 the Medical Physics Unit miniaturised new powered arms was formed in Edinburgh and for children might be, they were Simpson was involved in the of little use if the arms could not design and implementation of a be controlled. If the prostheses wide variety of instruments for were to be used in a controlled departments of the University and and coordinated way, they needed the NHS. In 1956 he was appoint- feedback. By a clever analysis of ed lecturer in Medical Physics. He arm movement, Simpson chose an was asked by Dr Sandy Wilson of appropriate polar co-ordinate the Scottish Home and Health scheme which effectively treated Department if he would take the arm as a lever which radiated responsibility for the design and from the child’s shoulder joint. He supply of upper limb prostheses provided feedback to the children for thalidomide children. He by linking their intact shoulder welcomed the opportunity to movements to the prosthetic joint concentrate on one project of movements by simple cables. Thus research, design, development their residual shoulder joints and clinical trial on an immediate received feedback about position, basis but this had to be done in force and acceleration. As David an atmosphere of emotions, Gow has written “children could

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learn to control up to five move- Biological Engineering of which ments on the Edinburgh arms and he was a Council Member and become proficient in half a day. awarded Honorary Life Member- No other system in the world to ship in 1988, and he was an this day has managed to achieve Honorary Member of Arbeitskreis this.” Thus Simpson propound- fur biophysikalische Prothetik. ed the idea of Extended Simpson changed his career in Physiological Proprioception (The 1976 when he was appointed Choice of Control System for the Executive Dean in the Faculty of Multi Movement Prosthesis: Medicine in Edinburgh University; Extended Physiological Proprio- a post which suited him well and ception (EPP) Chapter 15, in which he proved himself a wise pp.146-150 in The Control of and capable administrator until Upper Extremity Prostheses and his retirement in 1980 when the Orthoses Ed. P. Herberts et al University honoured him by 1974). He was made Reader in making him Professor Emeritus. Medical Physics in 1968 and After his retirement he was made appointed to a Personal Chair of an Honorary Fellow of the Royal Orthopaedic Bio-Engineering in College of Physicians of Edin- 1972. burgh (1997) which kept him in Simpson visited clinical centres touch with his many medical around the world telling of the friends and gave him much work done by his Edinburgh unit happiness. and learning of bio-engineering He listed as his outside interests advances made elsewhere. As the old maps, topographical prints, value of his work became recog- antiquarian books on Edinburgh, nized honours came his way. He publishing, typography and book was appointed MBE in 1966 and illustrations. To this should be received the S G Brown Medal and added horticulture in which he Award from the Royal Society of shared his wife’s keen interest. His London in 1970. He was elected expert knowledge of Edinburgh Fellow of the Royal Society of and its topography found expres- Edinburgh in 1967 and among sion in the magisterial folio of the many other learned bodies of facsimiles of plans of the City which he was a member may be published as Edinburgh Displayed mentioned The Biological Engi- in 1962. He was also well quali- neering Society (President fied to assist as a member of the 1973-5), now subsumed in The Committee of the Royal Scottish Institute of Physics and Engineer- Geographical Society responsible ing in Medicine, The International for compiling and producing the Federation for Medical and two volume work Early Maps of

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Scotland published in 1973 and quiet generosity are known only 1983. He served on the Council of to the recipients. On seeing the that Society on a number of bare walls of the enlarged occasions between 1967 and premises of the Royal Society of 1992 and was a member of its Edinburgh in 2000 he clothed Library Committee from 1967 to them with the outright gift of 1992 (Convener 1974-1980). forty framed botanical prints and Isobel’s death in 1996 was a bitter the loan of thirty-three pictures blow to Simpson. Together they and prints. To these were added had raised a closely knit family the loan of twenty framed Slezer and his three children and their prints which give character to the families gave him the support he Fellows’ Room. For this the Society needed. His war memories remains deeply grateful. remained with him “restless and David gave me a copy of his poem unquiet” and, in his eighties, he Ecce Homo, The bravest man found catharsis by committing which has the lines “Slowly, them to paper as poetry. Some of quietly, day by day, step by step, these were published in 2001 as he went to death” and when it Interesting Times and their came to his own time to die of vividness and simplicity touched cancer he did so with a bravery people of all ages. A larger and dignity which his friends will collection Private World was never forget. He was interred at published in 2005 by the ex- Mortonhall Cemetery. service welfare charity Combat I am grateful to Dr Allen Simpson Stress. for his help and for access to his David Simpson respected people father’s autobiographical writings. of whatever class or culture and, Dr Tam Dalyell, Dr David C Gow, Dr although a man of strong convic- J S Milne, Lieutenant Colonel Ian tions - he was a thorn in the flesh Shepherd and Canon Norman of authorities who indulged in Wickham have made this notice practices of which he disapproved possible by kindly allowing me to - he was tolerant and gracious to quote from their own published all. When he saw a need his and unpublished obituaries of instinct was to provide the means Professor Simpson. to put it right and his many acts of Charles D Waterston

David Cumming Simpson MBE, B.Sc, Ph.D(Edinburgh), FRCPE, FIDSPO,FRSG. Born 24 July 1920; Elected FRSE 6 March 1967; Died 15th May 2006.

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Harold James Thomas 26 October 1913 - 14 February 2007

Dr Harold J Thomas, who died on tional regulations and on man- 14th February 2007, was a Senior agement. His best remembered Principal Scientific Officer at the contributions to fisheries science Marine Laboratory in Aberdeen were his study of the oxygen where he was Head of the requirements of lobsters in Shellfish Team on his retirement in relation to the operation of 1976. His early education was at lobster holding tanks, and his use the Crypt School, Gloucestershire, of catch-per-unit effort (CPUE) and from where he went to the length composition data as stock University of Bristol, graduating indices in assessing the status of BSc in 1936 with Honours in crustacean resources that cannot Zoology, and gaining a PhD there be aged. Collecting this informa- in 1939. He volunteered for tion involved both regular military service in the Royal Corps on-board measuring trips and of Signals in 1939, being later visits to ports and holding transferred to the Royal Electrical facilities. The vital CPUE were and Mechanical Engineers. On derived from the logbooks of demobilization in 1945, he trusted fishermen who were each returned to the staff of the paid a small honorarium. All this University of Bristol, and was, was entirely dependent upon among other things, sub-warden good working relationships in the University Hostel of Bur- between scientists, buyers and walls. fishermen and was pioneered by He married Armine Marriott Thomas. He published in national (Mimi) in 1948, and in that year and international journals, as well joined the staff of the Marine as producing pamphlets for the Laboratory. He was knowledgea- fishing industry. ble in the field of molluscs and of His work was recognised by the seabed fauna in general, but he International Council for the specialised principally on crusta- Exploration of the Sea when he ceans. His research activities were was elected Chairman of its focused on shellfish, particularly Shellfish Committee, and in 1975 lobsters, Norway lobsters (scampi) he chaired the Special Shellfish and crabs. In this area he made a Meeting of that body. He was significant input to the develop- appointed Buckland Professor for ment of Scottish fisheries, the year 1965 in tandem with A C advising on national and interna- Simpson from the Burham

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Laboratory in England. During great lover of dogs. Indeed he that year they lectured jointly on supported Mimi in regular entries The Lobster – Its Biology and of their pets at Crufts, where they Fishery. In 1965 he was elected to qualified most years and came the Fellowship of the Royal Society home with numerous rosettes. of Edinburgh, an appointment of During Mimi‘s illness in the early which he was particularly proud 1990s, he turned his attention to and which he acknowledged domestic duties, and latterly through a generous bequest. became an accomplished cook, Tommy, as he was known to his bringing to this all the meticulous friends and colleagues, was an attention to detail that character- enthusiastic bridge player, ised his previous scientific work. partnered by his wife at both the He had no children, and was social and competitive level. He widowed in 1994. was also a keen gardener and a Alasdair D McIntyre

Harold James Thomas BSc, PhD(Bristol). Born 26 October 1913, elected FRSE 1 March 1965, died 14 February 2007.

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Samuel James Thomson 27 September 1922 - 4 March 2006

Sam Thomson first developed his inorganic and organic single interest in science, and chemistry crystals. in particular, when as a pupil at After six years at Durham, Sam Hamilton Academy, he was returned to Glasgow as lecturer in stimulated by his science master, chemistry. Here, in addition to whom he has described as the maintaining his research interests best and most profound teacher in solid state and hot atom under whom he studied. This chemistry, he successfully devel- interest was further developed as oped his interests in the use of an undergraduate at Glasgow radioactive tracers for the direct University where he pursued a observation of adsorption and B.Sc.(Honours) degree in chemis- catalysis at solid surfaces, a try. His studies at Glasgow were subject which was to attract much interrupted for three years when, of his time and interest for the in 1943, he volunteered for rest of his academic career. The service in the army; he was main thrust of his researches was commissioned in 1944 and served aimed at identifying the nature of as a lieutenant in the Royal the surface sites of a heterogene- Signals in India and Malaya. On ous catalyst, which participated in his return from the army in 1946 the actual catalysis. The breadth of he completed his BSc degree and Sam’s interests is clearly demon- then proceeded to study for a strated when one considers the PhD. Here he developed his early work he carried out with col- interest in heterogeneous cataly- leagues on such areas as direct sis. monitoring of adsorption, Following the successful comple- catalysis and poisoning of metal tion of his studies, he was surfaces; the formation and appointed to a lectureship in activity of carbonaceous overlayers radiochemistry at Durham and during adsorption and catalysis of worked with the late Professor F.A. hydrocarbons on metal surfaces; Paneth on radiometric age the development of a molecular determinations of meteorites to beam system to carry out one of gain knowledge about their the first beam studies of catalysis; cosmic origins. At the same time, application of the Occupancy he developed an active interest in Principle, developed by others for the use of radioactive tracers to use in medical studies, to measure study self- diffusional processes in the size of the active pool on a

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catalyst surface; electrical conduc- During the latter part of his career, tivity of supported metal catalysts more of his attention was turned and exo-electron emission from to administration in the University, metal surfaces during hydrocar- an area where he had gained bon adsorption. valuable experience during his The real significance of these army service. In 1970 he was studies is seen in the conclusions appointed as the Assistant he wrote in his specialist periodi- Director of the Chemical Laborato- cal report on the Characterisation ries and then, in 1978, as Director of Catalyst Surfaces; Adsorption and Head of Department, a studies in static systems may not position he held for 11 years until bear any relationship to catalysis, his retirement. In addition to except in so far as adsorption successfully running the depart- creates the working surface of the ment, he maintained an active catalyst; characterisation requires research school in heterogeneous a detailed examination of the catalysis. He also served on a wide changes which occur in the variety of University committees, surface during catalysis.” including the convenorship, over the period 1964-72, of the He was awarded a DSc in 1966 for committee for the design and his research contributions and building of the Boyd Orr Basic was elected to a Fellowship of the Science building. With a col- Royal Society of Edinburgh in league, he wrote a History of the 1974. His standing and contribu- Faculty of Science in Glasgow”. He tions to research in the use of was, for three years, the Chairman radiotracer techniques were also of the SCEB Chemistry Panel and recognised the strong links he served the university representa- developed in the early 1960s and, tive on the Board of Governors of for many years, maintained with Dollar Academy for over 20 years. the Institute of Isotopes of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Sam was very proud of his alma and by his appointment to the mater, which he served with great editorial boards of Advances in dedication and distinction for over Catalysis and the Journals of 30 years. He was meticulous in Catalysis and Applied Chemistry. everything he did, always paying He was, in 1971, a founding careful attention to the minutest member of, and subsequently a detail. He was a fine and enthusi- Trustee of, the Rideal Trust, now astic teacher whose lectures, administered by the SCI. covering subjects as widely apart as descriptive inorganic chemistry Throughout his academic career and statistical mechanics, were Sam was progressively promoted always well received by his to Senior Lecturer, Reader and, in audience. He was extremely kind, 1973, a Titular Professorship. 366 Obituary Notices

courteous and well-respected by to become a member of the both his colleagues and friends. British Railways (Scottish) Board, As a research leader and Head of subsequently known as the British Department he was extremely Railways Board – Scottish Com- supportive of his staff and mittee, where he contributed students. He was always ready to reports on statistics, avoidance of discuss, often over many hours, buffer-stop collisions and compo- the interpretation of results and nent analysis of accidents. During new ideas both in research and this time he was invited to teaching. Many of his colleagues, become an Associate of the the writer included, in whom his Institution of Railway Signal interest extended well beyond his Engineers and from 1994 to 2002 retirement, undoubtedly owe their he was appointed as an adviser, in success to the unstinting encour- turn, to Railfreight Distribution, agement and support he gave. We English Welsh and Scottish will always owe him a great debt Railways and finally Freightliner of gratitude. Scotland, where he was made a Outwith the University, Sam was Director for his final year. appointed as a University Scientific There is no doubt that Sam Training Officer for the Scottish Thomson made a major contribu- Home and Health Department on tion, not only to his field of defence against Nuclear Warfare research where he was a world and served as a Zone Scientific authority, but also to the careers Adviser from 1959 until the of those who worked with and for service was disbanded in 1993. He him, many of whom were present also served as a Consultant on at the RSC Surface and Reactivity Catalysis to various UK companies Group meeting held in Glasgow and a Consultant to UKAEA. He in 1988 to mark his retirement. also developed considerable The warmth of Sam’s personality interest in Visual Perception, and his delightful sense of collecting and perfecting a large humour will long be remembered number of demonstrations, as the by all who knew him and who basis for a lecture which proved now sadly mourn his passing. He extremely popular in both Univer- is survived by his wife Ina, his two sities and Industries. children Fiona and Hamish and his Following his retirement from the three grandchildren. We extend University, Sam commenced a new our deepest sympathy to each of career. He had held a lifelong them in their sad loss. interest in the railways in the UK Geoffrey Webb and this led to him being invited Samuel James Thomson BSc, PhD, DSc (Glasgow). Born 27 September 1922; Elected FRSE 4 March 1974; Died 4 March 2006. 367 Review of the Session 2005-2006

Patrick Tollin 22 April 1938 - 21 March 2006

Patrick Tollin, an internationally He revived his rowing skills, recognised physicist and crystallo- dormant since rowing on the River grapher, died in Monifieth on 21 Clyde with his school, by joining March 2006. one of the Cambridge City Patrick was born in Glasgow on Rowing Clubs and participated in 22 April 1938. He was educated Head of the River races on the at St Aloysius’ College, Glasgow, Cam. Glasgow University and Cam- With Cochran, he developed a bridge University (Fitzwilliam method of solving the crystal House). At St Aloysius’ College he structures of molecules containing took the University of Glasgow planar groups, and he used this to Bursary Competition and was determine the structure of awarded a bursary to go to the deoxyadenosine with David university in 1955. Watson and June Sutor. Patrick Patrick participated fully in chose academic life in preference university life as a prominent to joining the developing Atomic member of The Cecilian Society as Energy Authority at Dounreay, and stage manager for the Society’s in 1962 was appointed Assistant annual Gilbert and Sullivan Lecturer in Physics at Queen’s productions – a skill and interest College, Dundee. This was then he had first developed at St part of St Andrews University but Aloysius’. became the University of Dundee in 1967. He became Lecturer in Patrick was proud of the fact that 1963, Senior Lecturer in 1973 and his degree at Glasgow University Reader in 1976. was in Natural Philosophy, rather than in Physics! After graduating At Dundee he became a vital with Honours in 1959 he moved member in a research group that to the Cavendish Laboratory, included Douglas Young, John Cambridge University, to carry out Low and Herbert Wilson. He doctoral studies in crystallography developed a method for determin- under the supervision of William ing the molecular location within Cochran. His thesis was entitled the crystal cell, which, when The use of a high-speed digital combined with the method of computer for the direct determi- determining the orientation of nation of crystal structures. planar groups, became a very powerful technique for structure

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analysis. This was applied to the and digital analysis of electron structure determination of many micrographs. These studies were nucleic acid components and their carried out in collaboration with analogues, including anti-viral the Virology Group at the Scottish drugs. Crop Research Institute, Invergow- In 1965, Patrick was Visiting rie, and as a Visiting Scientist at Associate Professor at Purdue the University of Western Ontario University in Michael Rossmann’s in John Bancroft’s group. He was research group. Here he collabo- the author and co-author of two rated with Rossmann on various authoritative reviews on the aspects of the rotation function structure of filamentous plant developed by Rossman and David viruses. Blow for crystal structure analysis. His optical image processing of Combining the rotation function electron micrographs led to a and his method of determining general interest in image process- molecular location, Patrick was ing and he lectured on this in an able to determine the position MSc course on Remote Sensing and orientation of the myglobin and in a NATO Summer School on molecule in the crystal of seal Remote Sensing Applications in myoglobin. Civil Engineering. At Purdue, he was also involved in Patrick was an inspiring teacher, showing the relation between but rarely made use of modern holography and its crystallograph- methods, preferring, as he said, ic equivalent, and he the “chalk and talk” method. He demonstrated the relation was involved in physics teaching between image ‘deblurring’ and a at all levels, including MSc courses certain crystallographic function. in Amorphous Solids and Remote Patrick’s expertise was recognised Sensing. He supervised many by a number of invitations to Honours projects, including two lecture at international crystallo- on character recognition which graphic schools, and he wrote a resulted in publications with chapter in Direct Methods of Honours students. He supervised Solving Crystal Structures. several doctoral students and also Carnegie Undergraduate Vacation At Dundee, Patrick was also students. For four years he was involved, with others, in pioneer- External Examiner at Edinburgh ing studies on the structure of University. flexuous plant viruses, mainly of the Potex group. This involved Patrick played an active role in combining X-ray diffraction many aspects of university life, studies with optical diffraction including membership of the

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Science Faculty Board, as a Patrick was elected to Fellowship member of the University Compu- of the Royal Society of Edinburgh ter Committee and as Convener of in 1977. the Computer Users’ Committee. On the personal front, it was a He had many interests in educa- pleasure to have collaborated with tional matters outside the Patrick on many occasions for university and served his local nearly 40 years when I experi- community well. He was, at enced at first hand his sharp and various times, Chairman of incisive mind. He was rather Monifieth High School Board, reserved in manner, but had a member and then Chairman of droll sense of humour. the Monifieth Schools’ Councils Patrick’s wife Marie, whom he Constitution, member of the married in 1962, died in 2002. Tayside Regional Council Working He is survived by his sons Patrick Party on Schools’ Council Consti- and Andrew, daughters Anne and tution, and member of the Tayside Ruth, and grandchildren Rebecca Regional Council Panel for and Andrew, of whom he was very Education appeals. He was also a proud. lifelong member of Monifieth Golf Club. I am indebted to Brian Tollin and Professor A G Fitzgerald for their help with some of the details of Patrick’s life. Herbert R Wilson

Patrick Tollin, BSc (Glasgow), PhD (Cambridge). Born 22 April 1938; Elected FRSE 7 March 1977; Died 21 March 2006.

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Peter Martin Brabazon Walker 1 May 1922 - 16 January 2006.

Peter Walker had a distinguished biology. At King’s, Maurice career within the University of Wilkins and Rosie Franklin were Edinburgh and also with the using X-ray crystallography to Medical Research Council, elucidate the structure of DNA becoming the founding Director whilst back in Cambridge, eagerly of a MRC unit in Edinburgh which watching their results, were developed pioneering work in Francis Crick and Jim Watson. It molecular biology. He was born seems certain that this atmos- in Kenya in 1922, where his phere of new discoveries in the parents were coffee farmers. Sent making influenced Peter’s own to Britain for education, he was scientific development and he effectively brought up by his moved easily into the newly born grandparents, leaving school just field of molecular biology. At at the outbreak of WW2. Univer- King’s he had already begun to sity had to be postponed and he build a refined piece of scientific joined Smith’s Aircraft Instruments machinery - a recording microden- as an apprentice. This was a sitometer. Even though the reserved occupation during the elucidation of DNA’s structure still war and Walker became a highly lay ahead, it was known to be the skilled craftsman toolmaker; these genetic material. Walker’s skills and a love of fine machinery machine measured accurately the remained throughout his life. amount of DNA in single cells They were put to great effect both and, by frequency analysis at in his scientific career and for different stages of the cell cycle, it another life-long enthusiasm, was possible to identify at what railways and their reconstruction stage in cell division the genetic in model form. information itself doubled. This His family moved to Cambridge work he subsequently published after the war and Peter went up to with J.M.Mitchison. He later Trinity College to take a natural moved to Edinburgh in 1958 as science tripos in botany and an MRC Research Fellow, where zoology. On graduating he got Michael Swann and Murdoch an MRC research studentship to Mitchison were building up a work in Sir John Randall’s Bio- cellular/molecular group in the physics Unit at King’s College, University’s Zoology department. London. This was both a key time He arrived with his wife Violet and and a key place in the history of three children to occupy a Geor-

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gian house in Lasswade near range of teaching and research. Edinburgh, where the family Still supported by the MRC, he inherited a most beautiful garden, built up a group working on a source of great pleasure and an nucleic acids and himself em- opportunity for some creative barked on designing and redesigning. They were wonder- constructing a large and more ful hosts there, the family was sophisticated densitometer for young - it was here that their quantitative measurements on fourth child was born - and many single cells, but never completed of us will particularly remember it. At this time Peter was most huge bonfires and fireworks on often to be found in the Depart- November 5th. ment’s new and very Peter moved from his Fellowship well-equipped workshop where a to join the academic staff as a highly-skilled technician ruled Reader and was promoted to the with a rod of iron. Nobody except Chair of Natural History in 1966 Peter was allowed to use the when Michael Swann resigned to machinery in its inner sanctum – become University Principal. He one craftsman recognising the shared with Murdoch Mitchison calibre of another! the duties of running a growing In the decade following determi- department covering a very wide nation of DNA’s structure,

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molecular biology began expo- related species. This revealed that nential growth. (Edinburgh’s own a large amount of the DNA could Department of that name, headed not have a protein coding func- by Martin Pollock, was one of the tion. Peter retired in 1980, but for first in the world.) At this time, a number of years was very active Peter began some pioneering on MRC committees and those of collaborative work with Anne the Imperial Cancer Research McClaren (at that time working in Fund. Edinburgh’s Genetics Department) By this time the family had moved using new techniques which to Perthshire, first to a large house stabilised denatured DNA in inherited from Peter’s aunt with single-stranded fragments in agar huge grounds in which he built plates. Having set up a plate with an amazing 7 ¼” railway track on DNA from one species of rodent, which to run his beautiful ¼ scale they then measured the degree to Talyllyn steam locomotive, lovingly which these bound to form built over years in various work- duplex structures with DNA from shops and helped to completion another species when this was by the persistent urging of his first added. Such duplexes would grandson! This railway has been reveal base sequences in common taken over and extended by a between the species, and thus neighbour who bought the house yielded some of the first evidence which had become out of scale for relating genetic structure to Peter and Violet once the children phylogeny. In fact it might be had left home. Typically, Peter seen as an early form of DNA turned to house construction and fingerprinting, albeit at a far less was much involved with the detailed level. That came later building of a smaller house in the when the MRC invited Peter to grounds, incorporating an already head up a new mammalian existing cottage and, needless to genome unit which was built say, including a large workshop close to the main zoology labora- overflowing with machine tools. tories. Here he attracted some Sadly, Violet died in 1985 soon brilliant staff members, several of after this was finished and Peter whom have gone on to become subsequently remarried, ‘inherit- leaders in the field. One of these, ing’ two of his new wife Joan’s Ed Southern, points out that an children, with later their own important contribution was then daughter. Soon their house made to the ‘junk’ DNA debate by incorporated a second workshop showing that the amount and for Joan’s own work. sequence of satellite DNAs Peter usually had some big differed sharply between closely practical project on the go, often

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involving family members who railways - making models, railway were pressed, more or less history, with the Highland Line in willingly, into service in diverse the 1870s a speciality, and semi-skilled capacities! Latterly travelling on the more exotic lines he undertook major editing work when he had the chance. He which led to new, and much loved Australia, where one of his praised editions of Chamber’s daughters now lives, and it was Dictionary of Science & Technolo- only ill health which prevented a gy. This task was particularly recent project to enjoy the last link well-suited to his very broad on the Ghan line which opened knowledge of science and for passengers in 2004, finally engineering. He took to the completing the Adelaide to advanced use of computers for Darwin railway. He was a stimulat- writing, illustrating and editing ing colleague in the University, a with the same facility which he great friend and equally splendid had developed for mechanical company on a hill walk in the engineering. Highlands or around the dinner Overall, Peter seemed effortlessly table at his different homes. to combine biology with engineer- We are grateful to Anne Mc- ing, horticulture, photography Claren, Ed Southern and Maurice and knowledge of a very wide Shepherd (Peter’s son-in-law) for range of literature. Then, of help with this obituary. course, there were always the Aubrey Manning and Murdoch Mitchison

Peter Martin Brabazon Walker CBE, BA(Cantab), PhD(London). Born 1 May 1922; Elected FRSE 6 March 1967; Died 16 January 2006.

374 Obituary Notices

Donald Elmslie Robertson Watt 15 August 1926 - 18 April 2004

To know medieval Scotland, fitting His home was a warm place in together the tessera which have which his wife, Helen, and their survived and sketching the two daughters balanced his outlines of what is missing to absences in the study with his show them in a possible whole concern for family life. They picture, engaged the energies of a shared a love of hill-walking, and generation of scholars in our of highland dancing, while he post-1945 universities; they could turn a mean spadeful in the benefited from expansion in the vegetable garden. older universities, and saw the The youngest son in the prosper- history of Scotland find a respect- ous family which owned ed place in teaching. Their day is Aberdeen University Press – a past, but their work speaks for printing business, as the word them, and for no-one more firmly Press properly implies – he and lastingly than for Donald attended Aberdeen Grammar Watt. His career from 1953, apart School and then Aberdeen from one year at Columbia University. Interrupted by a spell in University, New York, was spent in the RAF for national service, he the new Medieval History depart- took first class honours in history ment of St Andrews University, there in 1950; his teachers where he was a lively teacher with included the distinguished an appreciative student following, medievalist Kathleen Edwards, though discourse on medieval responsible, as he acknowledged, Europe and a specialist treatment for directing his interest to the of Edward I gave little scope for medieval church. Afterwards he discussing his research interests. came up to Oriel College (1950- He was active in university affairs 53) as a Carnegie scholar to after the 1966 act made more research and take his DPhil (1957) room for lecturers on Senate and on Scotsmen at Universities Court; in no way a radical, but between 1340 and 1410, super- constructively firm in a way which vised by A B Emden, who did not always fit the aims of published major prosopographi- Principal Watson. In 1977 his cal works on medieval Oxford and scholarship was recognised there Cambridge graduates. by the conferment of a personal chair in Scottish Church History.

375 Review of the Session 2005-2006

From this work in 1977 came his There is far more of value to the Biographical Dictionary of Scottish scholar in his twenty-page Graduates to A.D. 1410 , the fruit introduction than its brevity might of thirty years dedicated research suggest, but it is of a technical into archives in Britain and character, indispensable to the continental western Europe, and neophyte in ecclesiastical history. the work by which his name will The text identifies ‘those in persist in bibliographies for Scottish society who had the new generations to come. I have a copy type of higher education’ includ- of his first proposal (in 1958) to ing some who were non-Scots in publish such a dictionary, describ- origin and career but picked up a ing how for 1340-1410 he had Scottish post as they advanced. found 450 biographies, only a But there is no treatment of the ‘handful’ of the subjects having place in Scottish society of the been ‘noticed by historians’ graduate clergy, no fulfilment of despite the importance of the the suggestion he made in 1958 whole scholarly cadre to contem- that he would shorten his thesis porary Scottish society. He to provide an introduction to the proposed to extend the period of dictionary. I am unsure whether study backwards and to produce we should regret his revised in four years work ‘a reference decision, but the fact that his book of permanent value to thesis, with (as I recall) much to historians of the period’ 1200- say on the social background and 1410. In fact the book took motivation of the clergy, remains another eighteen (or so) years, effectively unpublished, suggests appearing in 1977 and never off that he did not find extending his our desks since then, with the analysis back before 1340 a careers of eleven hundred Scots or congenial prospect. I think he servants of Scotland who attend- would agree that his Dictionary ed university from the first will have a much longer life than appearance of such institutions in would another treatment of the the twelfth century to the founda- medieval Scottish church, even tion of St Andrews University. It from his own pen. has been acknowledged in works To the influence of his teacher and of the past thirty years as a supervisor add that of the annual masterly, indeed flawless, record, meetings of historians interested with full references drawn from in medieval Scotland, the first in published work and archives from 1957, where he urged the Aberdeen to southern Italy. Upon decisions taken to list, with this, its pages say, you can rely. source-references, the bishops and senior clergy of the Scottish

376 Obituary Notices

dioceses, to investigate the The Atlas project, with maps from manuscript authorities for Walter many scholars including Watt, Bower’s Scotichronicon, written in published in 1975, did sterling the 1440s and published in 1759, service as a teaching aid and in and to produce an atlas of showing the holes where cartog- Medieval Scottish History by raphy ought to have been collaborative effort. The first of possible but work on the sources these gave us a first draft Fasti, had not been done. A second almost entirely his own research, edition was planned and ap- published in cyclostyled form peared in 1996. “Professor (1959), and ten years later a Donald Watt continued as a tower printed second draft incorporat- of strength throughout, mixing ing additions from many sources. cajolery, encouragement and From 1994 he took up a new participation in the task in hand in conference-sponsored project: to equal and generous measures” establish the succession of abbots wrote the editors. and priors who headed Scottish For several years he was the Scot religious houses. There was little active on international bodies in the bank when he began but planning studies of aspects of the fortunately he found another joint medieval western church. One editor who could share in the such intends to describe the work library and archive research. By the of local councils in each province; time of publication of Heads of Donald’s contribution, Medieval Religious Houses (2001) his Church Councils in Scotland, health was deteriorating, but he appeared in English (2000) and had already turned to complete German, and shows how much work on the Fasti. In 2003 the more can be added to a subject ‘revised’ edition of this was well travelled by Victorian scholars published, expanding 385 pages by greater attention to papal of the second draft to 503 pages, decrees and decisions of councils with new information from several of the whole church. He had scholars – but mainly from Watt already won recognition for and (an innovation) a fellow- participation in such efforts by a editor. Heads of Houses and Fasti detailed account of the Scottish are indispensable reference tools, sees and bishops before 1198 saving each scholar of the period (when the series of papal registers hours of labour in establishing begins) published as Series the context from which comes the Episcoporum Ecclesiae Catholicae document he studies. Occidentalis, Series VI Britannia etc. Tomus I Ecclesia Scoticana.The full title reveals that Britannia etc

377 Review of the Session 2005-2006

are England and Wales; Scotland apparatus, a facing translation and Scandinavia were also in and detailed historical notes Series VI, but the first completed identifying sources used, all and published volume was his subject to rigorous scrutiny by his Scotland (1991), to which another eagle eye even where his had Fellow, Dr Barbara Crawford, been the productive hand. For this contributed Caithness, while daunting task he retired early to Donald published ‘the Isles’, make time for co-ordinating technically a Norwegian diocese, editorial work, standardising the in a periodical. The plan was to contributions and raising the present title and text in the Latin finance for publication. With language, thus ensuring a ancillary material it stands com- privileged readership. In the pleted as ten volumes on our British volumes at least the text shelves, a tribute to what team- will be in English, not the least of work and the PC can achieve Donald Watt’s determined stands when driven by the determination for common sense. of a dedicated scholar. As early as the 1950s he had His honorary doctorate from urged a new edition of Bower’s Glasgow University (2000) was a Scotichronicon based on the late acknowledgment of this standard histories of Christian scholarly production, but silently Europe available in the 1440s, also of his outstanding capacity to interwoven with, even dominated organise a team, to cooperate and by, a parallel narrative of Scotland. to secure cooperation among We all used the 1759 edition, others, to maintain impetus until though it lacked a translation and completion. He fell out with no- a modern index; a year’s work by one in any of these collaborative Watt revealed that it also ignored efforts, and we all shared in the a manuscript preserved in a warm welcome given to the Cambridge college belonging to volume of essays presented to him the author and preserving his to mark the completed Scoti- emendations. These lacunae he chronicon. set out to remedy in a new edition He was for eight years joint editor published in nine volumes of the Scottish Historical Review, between 1987 and 1997. Volume for four president of the Scottish 8 (1987) was wholly his work, but History Society, served on the it was the maquette for the series, councils of learned societies and produced by Watt with seven on a committee of the RSE. He contributory editors. Each volume was an elder and treasurer of his has a Latin text with critical Kirk and headed the successful

378 Obituary Notices

effort to establish in St Andrews seeing Helen whom he was to the Cosmos Centre for its young marry. He told us all about her, people. One night in the fifties he and I reckoned he was the luckiest arrived at our door in Edinburgh, man in Scotland. He was, and he stranded by fog on his way from deserved to be. A A M Duncan

Donald Elmslie Robertson Watt, MA(Aberdeen), DPhil (Oxon), HonDLitt (Glasgow). Born 15 August 1926; Elected FRSE 7 March 1988 ; Died 18 April 2004.

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INDEX A C Aberdeenshire Council, 279. Caledonian Research Foundation Alm, Norman, 229. (CRF), 279. European Visiting Research Fellowships, 263; Animal Bioscience Research in International Conference, 235; Scotland (SSAC Report), 252. Personal Research Fellowships, Annual Inspiration Awards 2006, 263; Prize Lectureship in Arts & 262. Humanities, 14; Prize Lecture Annual Statutory Meeting, 5. 2005, 77; Prize Lecture 2006, 122. Antarctic Ice Sheets and Climate Change, 203. Changes in Fellowship, 281. Auditor’s Report and Accounts, Chief Scientific Adviser, 252. 47. Christmas Lecture, 11, 259. Avian Influenza Working Group, Clerk of Penicuik, Sir John (Dut- 7, 256. ton) (Obituary), 286. B Climate Change, Young People’s Discussion Forum, 11. Bakewell, Joan, 77. Cochran, William (Obituary), 290. Ball, Sir John, 13, 267. Cognitive Assistive Technology: BBSRC, 279. Enterprise Fellow- An Emerging Discipline, 213. ships, 9, 264. Composite Individuality: A Gaian Bentley, Mike, 203. View, 177. Beyond the Human Genome: Conferences: Beyond the Human Deciphering Biology and Disease, Genome: Deciphering Biology and 235, 247. Disease, 235; The Creation of Binks Trust, 31. Wealth, 217; Islam and Democra- Biodiversity, Poverty and Sustaina- cy, 236; Languages in Scotland : bility for the 21st Century, 201. what’s the problem?, 225; Black, Sue, 11, 185. Nanomedicines of the Future, 219; The Vikings and Scotland: BP Research Fellowships Trust, 39, Impact and Influence, 242. 279. Personal Research Fellow- ship, 263; Prize Lectureship in the Conway Morris, Simon, 10, 223. Humanities, 14, 267; Cormack Bequest: Lecture, 141; British Academy Shakespeare Meeting, 241; Postgraduate Prize, Lecture 2006, 107. 241, 264; Undergraduate Prize, 241, 264; Vacation Schlarships, Browitt, Chris, 10, 220. 241, 264. Bruce-Preller Prize Lecture, 159.

381 Review of the Session 2005-2006

Council, 24. Statement of respon- Environmental Choices Lecture, sibilities of, 28. 199, 201. Coustenis, Athena, 141. EU Lecture, 204. The Creation of Wealth, 10, 217, Evidence, Advice and Comment: A 247. European Institute of Technolo- Cuschieri, Sir Alfred, 186 gy?, 255; The UK Honours Degree: Provision of Information, 255; D Scottish Commissioner for Human The Darwin Trust of Edinburgh, Rights Bill, 255; Consultation on 279. The Animal Health and Welfare Dining Club, 277. (Scotland) Bill, 255; Developing Proposals for Coastal and Marine Discover Antarctica Lecture, 203. National Parks, 255; Towards a Discussion Forums: Lloyds TSB, Transport Strategy for Scotland: 229; Natural Disasters, Earth Consultation on Rail Provision, Wind, Fire and Water Series: 255; Best Value in Public Service, Earthquakes, 10, 245, Tropical 255; Review of Funding for Storms, 10, 238, Tsunami, 10, Postgraduate Research Students, 220; Science Meets Religion, 223; 255; Aquaculture and Fisheries Young People’s Discussion Forum, Bill, 255; Crofting Reform etc. Bill, 260; Young People’s e-Discussion 255; Enhancing our Care of Forum, 261. Scotland’s Landscapes, 255; Policy DNA Profiling: Its Use in Famous for the Long Term Management of Cases, 195. Solid Low Level Radioactive Waste Donaldson, Ian, 107. in the UK, 255; Developing a New Strategy, 255; Strengthening Draper, Morrell Henry (Obituary), Judicial Independence in a 293. Modern Scotland, 255; A Policy E on Architecture forScotland: Review of Policy, 255. ECRR/Peter Wilson Lecture, 193. Extreme Fluid Dynamics and the Edinburgh Drug Absorption Search for a New Engineering Foundation, 30. Science, 159. Edinburgh Lecture, 186. F Election of Fellows, 281. Farmer, Victor Colin (Obituary), Election of Officers & Council, 24. 297. Enderby, Sir John, 30, 33. Fellows: Deaths of, 281; Election Energy Issues for Scotland, 6, 30, of, 281; Former, Biographical 31, 257. Index of, 247; New, Induction Day Enterprise Fellowships, 9,34, 264. 2006, 20,277.

382 Index

Fellows’ Coffee Meetings, 277. I Fellows’ Golf Challenge, 277. IEEE, 14. Fellows’ Summer Reception, 277. Implementing the Promise of Fellowship, 13, 20. Deaths Stem Cells in Science and Medi- reported during Session, 281; cine, 122. Election of Fellows, 281. Inside Surgery from Without: Fellowship Secretary’s Report, 20. Therapeutic Interventions from Fewson, Charles Arthur (Obituary), Images, 186. 301. International Programme, 12, 37. Fleck, Lord, Will Trust, 279. Bilateral Exchanges, 271; Events, 274; Open Programme Exchanges, Forensic Anthropology - the Bare 273; NNFC Joint Project, 274; Bones Science, 185. Relations with Sister Academies, G 276; Visits, 275. Gannochy Trust, 267, 279. Investments, 73. Gannochy Trust Innovation Islam and Democracy, 10, 236, Award, 34. 2006 Award, 9, 30, 247. 34; 2005 Lecture, 3, 95. J General Secretary’s Report, 6. Jack, Sir David, 13, 267. GM Morrison Charitable Trust, James Scott Prize Lecture, 267. 279. Johnson, Diane, 10, 220. Gow, Alan, 232. Johnstone, George Scott (Obitu- Grant, James Kerr (Obituary), 305. ary), 316. Grants Committee, 269. K Grants, Sponsorship and Dona- tions, 279. Keith Medal, 267. King, John William Beaufoy H (Obituary), 320. Hall, Wendy, 3, 10, 197. L Harrison, John, 3, 34, 95. Languages in Scotland : What’s Heming, Julian, 238. the problem?, 225, 247. Henry Duncan Prize Lecture, 14, Laurie, Graeme, 14, 267. 267. Lectures: Antarctic Ice Sheets and Horton, Julia, 10, 220. Climate Change, 10, 203; Biodi- Hughes , Ian Simpson (Obituary), versity, Poverty and Sustainability 307. for the 21st Century, 201; Cogni- Hutton , Violet Rosemary Strachan tive Assistive Technology: An (Obituary), 311. 383 Review of the Session 2005-2006

Emerging Discipline, 213; Com- Makdougall Brisbane Prize, 14, posite Individuality: A Gaian View, 267. 10, 177; DNA Profiling: Its Use in Mann, Val, 231. Famous Cases, 195; Forensic Manning, Richard, 199. Anthropology - the Bare Bones Science, 185; Inside Surgery from Margulis, Lynn, 177. Without: Therapeutic Interven- Martin, William Barr (Obituary), tions from Images, 10, 186; 333. Picture it if yous will: the Ambi- Maths Masterclasses, 11, 261. tions of Scottish Political Theatre, Matthews, John Drake (Obituary), 210; Prairie Prospect. A Bold Act 338. of Restoration in the Heart of North America, 10, 199; Sign Megaw, Basil Richardson Stanley Language Teaching in the Age of (Obituary), 341. Cochlear Implants, 190; Social Menter, Sir James (Woodham) Justice in Rural Areas, 193; (Obituary), 347. Solidarity in the Enlarged Europe- Morgan, Henry Gemmell (Obitu- an Union, 10, 204; Towards the ary), 350 Semantic Web: the Return of the Link, 3, 10, 197; The Vikings and N Scotland: The Northern World and Nanomedicines of the Future, its Significance for Scotland, 216. 219. Lee, Brian, 238. Natural Disasters Discussion Lessells Trust, 279. Travel Scholar- Forums, Earth, Wind, Fire and ship, 264. Water: Earthquakes, 10, 245, Lightner, Michael, 213. Tropical Storms, 10, 238, Tsunami, 10, 220. Linacre, Adrian, 195. New Fellows’ Induction Day 2005, Lloyds TSB Foundation for 277. Scotland, 9, 30, 279. Discussion Forum, 229; Personal Research O Fellowships, 263; Research Obituaries: Sir John (Dutton) Clerk Studentship, 264; Support of Penicuik, 286; William Cochran, Research Fellowships, 263. 290; Morrell Henry Draper, 293; M Victor Colin Farmer, 297; Charles Arthur Fewson, 301; James Kerr McGregor, Sir Ian (Alexander) Grant, 305; Ian Simpson Hughes , (Obituary), 324. 307; Violet Rosemary Strachan McKay, Roland, 122. Hutton , 311; George Scott Magnusson, Magnus, 3, 216; Johnstone, 316; John William Obituary, 328. Beaufoy King, 320; Sir Ian (Alexan-

384 Index

der) McGregor, 324; Magnus and Medicine, 122; Optical Magnusson, 328; William Barr Science in the Fast Lane, 93; Martin, 333; John Drake Mat- Shakespeare, Jonson, and the thews, 338; Basil Richardson Invention of the Author, 10, 107; Stanley Megaw, 341; Hans Anton Television and Culture. Was there Meidner, 344; Sir James (Wood- ever a Golden Age?, 77; Titan and ham) Menter, 347; Henry Gemmell the Cassini-Huygens Mission, Morgan, 350; John Ross Raeburn, 141. 353; William Devigne Russell- Proceedings A: Mathematics, 35, Hunter, 355; David Cumming 247. Simpson, 358; Harold James Publications: Annual Review, 247; Thomas, 363; Samuel James Beyond the Human Genome: Thomson, 365; Patrick Tollin, 368; Deciphering Biology and Disease, Peter Martin Brabazon Walker, 247;Biographical Index of Former 371; Donald Elmslie Robertson Fellows of the Society, 1783-2002, Watt, 375. 247; Directory & Review of Objectives and activities, 29. Session, 247;Energy Inquiry O’Neill of Bengarve, Baroness Report, 247; Human Nature, 247; Onora, 14. Islam and Democracy, 247; Optical Science in the Fast Lane, Languages in Scotland – What’s 93. the Problem?, 247; Proceedings A: Mathematics, 35, 247; ReSourcE, Ordinary Meetings, 3. 247; Science Scotland, 35, 247; P Stem Cell Research, 247; Transac- Padden, Carol, 190. tions: Earth Sciences, 35, 247. Parker, Marie Claire, 9, 267. R Picture it if yous will: the Ambi- Raeburn, John Ross (Obituary), tions of Scottish Political Theatre, 353 210. Raven, Peter, 201. PPARC, 9, 279. Reese, Jason M, 159. Prairie Prospect. A Bold Act of Research Excellence in E-health Restoration in the Heart of North (SSAC Report), 250. America, 199. Research Excellence in Medical Prize Lectures: Extreme Fluid Imaging (SSAC Report), 251. Dynamics and the Search for a Research Fellowships Award New Engineering Science, 159; Ceremony, 32. Gannochy Trust Innovation Award Lecture, 95; Implementing the ReSourcE, 35, 247. Promise of Stem Cells in Science Risk mangement, 28.

385 Review of the Session 2005-2006

Royal Medals, 13, 267. Sign Language Teaching in the Royal Society Clifford Paterson Age of Cochlear Implants, 190. Lecture, 93. Simpson, David Cumming RSE@Schools (Talk Science Schools (Obituary), 358. Lectures), 11, 259. Social Justice in Rural Areas, 193. RSE Roadshows, 11, 259. Solidarity in the Enlarged Europe- RSE Staff, 283. an Union, 204. Russell-Hunter, William Devigne Spence, Robin, 245. (Obituary), 355 Startup Science Masterclasses, 11, S 261. Stem Cell Research, 247, 260. Saryusz-Wolski, Jacek, 204.. Structure, governance and Science and Society, Steering management, 27. Group, 6, 30. Summer Schools, 11, 261. Science in Parliament, 32. Sweetnam, Pete, 245. Science Meets Religion, 10, 223. Science Scotland, 35, 247. T Scientific Network of Excellence in Talk Science Schools Lectures Energy (SSAC Report), 249. (RSE@Schools), 11, 259. Scottish Science Advisory Commit- Teaching Fellowships, 265. tee, 8, 249. Television and Culture. Was there Scottish Enterprise, 279. Enter- ever a Golden Age?, 77. prise Fellowships, 9, 264. Thomas, Harold James (Obituary), Scottish Executive, 279. Personal 363. Research Fellowships, 263; Thomson, Samuel James (Obitu- Research Fellowships, Enderby ary), 365. Report on, 33; Support Research Titan and the Cassini-Huygens Fellowships, 263. Mission, 141. Scottish Funding Council, 7. Tollin, Patrick (Obituary), 368 Scottish Parliament Science Towards the Semantic Web: the Information Scheme, 32, 256. Return of the Link, 3, 10, 197. Scullion, Adrienne, 210. Transactions: Earth Sciences, 35, Shakespeare, Jonson, and the 247. Invention of the Author, 107. Treasurers Report, 15. Shucksmith, Mark, 193. Trustees’ Report to 31 March Sibbett, Wilson, 93, 253. 2006, 27.

386 Index

V Wilkinson, Heather, 233. van Huysteen, Wentzel, 223. Wolfson Microelectronics, 14. The Vikings and Scotland: Impact Y and Influence, 242, 247. Young People’s Programme, 11, The Vikings and Scotland: The 37. Annual Inspiration Awards, Northern World and its Signifi- 262; Christmas Lecture, 259; cance for Scotland, 3, 216. Discussion Forum, 11, 260; e- W Discusion Forum, 261; Maths Masterclasses, 261; Roadshow, Walker, Peter Martin Brabazon 259; Startup science Masterclass- (Obituary), 371. es, 261; Summer School, 261. Watt, Donald Elmslie Robertson (Obituary), 375.

387