Time in Early Modern Islam: Calendar, Ceremony, and Chronology in the Safavid, Mughal, and Ottoman Empires Stephen P

Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-03023-7 - Time in Early Modern Islam: Calendar, Ceremony, and Chronology in the Safavid, Mughal, and Ottoman Empires Stephen P. Blake Index More information

Index

Note to Index: An n after a page numbers denotes a note on that page.

Abbas I (Safavid shah) Abdul Turab, Maulana, 151 ascension of, 24 Abdulcelili Chelebi “Levni,” 99–100 birth/horoscope of, 62 Abu al-Abbas Ahmad ibn Umar al Suﬁ, 5 clockmakers, 51 Abu al-Fazl, 33, 62, 93, 101, 127, 161 death of, 26–7 Abu Mashar al-Balkhi, 12, 141, 142–4, 150, economic reforms of, 25 159, 170, 181 military campaigns of, 26, 42–3 Abu Rayhan al-Biruni, 81, 84 and Nau Ruz ritual, 82 Abu Said Bahadur, 16 and Nuqtavi movement, 35, 152–4, 173 Achaemenid empire religious beliefs of, 25, 77–8, 80 astronomical/astrological system in, 59 reorganization program of, 24–5, 152 calendar in, 49 slave soldiers of, 25 Nau Ruz celebration in, 81 Abbas II (Safavid shah), 27, 51, 172 regnal system in, 109 Abbasid empire Adelard of Bath, 181 and Ashura festival, 79 Afzal Khan, 121, 122, 158 astronomical treatises of, 142 agrarian system defeat by Osman, 37–9 inadequacies of lunar era in, 117 founding of, 144 in Ottoman empire, 40–1 and Kharaji Taxation Era, 137–8 Ahmad, Lutfallah, 61 and Nau Ruz, 82 Ahmad, Ustad, 61 slaves in, 39 Ahmad Sirhindi (Sheikh), 89 Abd al-Haqq Dihlawi (Sheikh), 163 Ahmed I (Ottoman emperor), 43 Abd al-Husayn Khatunabadi, 115 and ofﬁcial historians, 136 Abd al-Malik, 108 and Ramadan Festival, 96 Abd al-Malik Sajanwandi (Sheikh), 156 Ahmed III (Ottoman emperor) Abd al-Qadir Badauni, 124, 128–9, 140, and circumcision ceremony, 99–100 157–8, 160, 161 Ain-i Akbari (zij), 17, 56, 89, 93 Abd al-Rahim Khan-i Khanan, 61, 64, 121 Akbar, Jalal al-Din (Mughal emperor), 31–5 Abd al-Rahman Bistami, 165, 169, 170 astrologers of, 60–1, 62 Abdul Qasim Muhammad Kuhpaya Amri and celebration of Indic festivals, 94–5 Shirazi, 151, 152 and circumcision ceremony, 100–2

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© in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-03023-7 - Time in Early Modern Islam: Calendar, Ceremony, and Chronology in the Safavid, Mughal, and Ottoman Empires Stephen P. Blake Index More information

194 Index

Akbar, Jalal al-in (Mughal emperor) (cont.) al-Kasim, Musa, 23 and Divine Era, 118–19 al-Kindi, 142–3 Divine Monotheism of, 34–5 Allawi Dynasty, Id-i Qurban in, 78–9, 84, 92 and Dussehra and Diwali, 89 The Almagest (Ptolemy), 12, 14, 16, 62, 65 and Id-i Maulid, 86–7 almanac (taqvim), 13, 18 and Id-i Qurban, 85–6 astrological tables, 54–5 and imperial birthday ceremony, 91, astronomical tables, 55 92–3, 94, 95 contents of, 11, 18–19 on injuring/killing animals according to dated, in Ottoman empire, 135 Turkish calendar, 118 historical tables, 55–6 introduces Divine Era calendar, 89, 138 in Mughal empire, 59–60, 63 “lasting reconciliation” policy of, of muneccim, 70–1 85–6, 118 of Safavid astrologers, 54–6 and Mahdawi movement, 156 in Safavid empire, 54–6 millenarianism backlash under, 173 undated, in Ottoman empire, 135 and Nau Ruz, 90 See also astronomical treatise (zij) non-Muslim religions influence on, 33–4 al-Mansur, Ahmad, 92 and Nuqtavi movement, 152, 157, 160–1 al-Mutawakkil, 82 orders compilation of Tarikh-i Alfi al-Rashid, Harun, 5 (Millennium History), 126–7 al-Rizwan, 5–6 and Sharif Amuli, 158–60 Alyas, Maulana, 62 solar era taxation system of, 117 amin (married followers), 150, 152 sulh-i-kull policy of, 33–5 Amuli, Sharif, 157–62 tolerance of, 35–6 animal sacrifice and Vasant, 87 determining time for, 59 and Zoroastrian calendar, 34, 89, 105, during Id al-Qurban, 9 124, 125 during Id-i Qurban, 76–9, 83–4, 85–6, Akbar, Muhammad, 101 92, 95 Akbar Nama (Abu al-Fazl), 34, 56, 62, 124, during Kurban Bayrami, 96 129–30, 140 by Muhammad, 77 fictitious petitions in, 124–5 Aristotle, 143, 181 millenarian characterization of Akbar in, Aryabhata, 60 161–2 Aryabhata II, 60 Akhlaq-i Jalali (Dawani), 120 Aryabhata-Siddhanta (Aryabhata), 60 Akhlaq-i Mansuri (Shiraz), 120 Asaf Khan, 64, 129 Alai (Sheikh), 156 Ashmole, Elias, 181 al-Bukhari, 97 Ashura festival, 9, 28 al-Din, Khwajah Saad, 71 in Abbasid empire, 79 al-Din, Rukn, 16 in Mughal empire, 86 Al-Din Jalal Dawani, 120 in Safavid empire, 76–7, 79–81, 83–4 Alexander (the Great), 170 askeri class (Muslim military), 42 Alfonsine Tables, 177 Astarabadi, Fazallah, 147, 149 algebra, as separate from mathematics, 15 astrolabe, 11, 13, 54, 62 al-Ghazali, 97 astrology Ali (son-in-law of Muhammad), 79 ancient Greek influence on Islamic, 12 Ali, Mustafa, 98, 136, 137, 165, 170 and Aurangzeb, 61, 63 Ali Adil Shah I, 122 Babylonian influence on, 59, 60 al-Islam of Isfahan (Sheikh; Majlisi II), 28 Greek, 13 al-Islam Qadizada (Sheikh), 73 and Humayun, 62 al-Jahiz, 13–14 Indian influence on Islamic, 12 al-Kashi, Jamshid Ghiyas al-Din, 17 Iranian influence on Islamic, 12

Index 195

Islamic, 13–14 Beyazid II (Ottoman sultan), and and Sassanids, 52 circumcision ceremony, 98 See also munajjim (astronomer/ bin Umar, Mahmud, 63 astrologer); muneccim (astronomer/ Bistami. See Abd al-Rahman Bistami astrologer) Blochmann, H., 125 astronomical clock, in Ottoman empire, 68 Bon, Ottaviano, 96, 104 astronomical instruments The Book of Felicity (Muhammad ibn Amir of munajjim, 11–12, 54, 59, 62 Hasan al-Suudi), 169–70 of muneccim, 71 Brahe, Tycho, 17, 72, 177 in Ottoman empire, 66 Brahmagupta, 12, 60 astronomical treatise (zij) Brahma-Sphuta Siddhanta (Brahmagupta), Alfonsine Tables, 177 12, 60 contents of, 4, 5, 18 Busbecq, Ogier Ghiselin de, 67 European vs.Islamic, 177 in Indic system, 59, 60 calendar Islamic, 17–18, 60 defining, 3 Pahlavi, first, 52 See also calendar, in Mughal empire; in pre-Islamic in Iran, 52–3 calendar, in Ottoman empire; calendar, See also individual zij in Safavid empire; calendrical time astronomical/astrological system calendar, in Mughal empire, 56–9 Indic, influences on, 59, 60 Indic system, 56–9 Islamic, influences on, 12 Islamic system, 56 See also almanac (taqvim); astronomical observatories, 74–5 instruments; astronomical treatise (zij); zij (astronomical treatise), 75 observatories calendar, in Ottoman empire, 66–9 Ataturk, 134 astronomical clock, 68 Aurangzeb (Mughal emperor) astronomical instruments, 66 and astrology, 61, 63 day, definition of, 66, 69 criticism of Sharif Amuli under, 162 lunar Hijra calendar, 66 and festivals, 85, 86, 88, 89, 91 month, definition of, 69 and imperial birthday ceremony, 94, 95 muneccim, 66–7, 68–9, 69–75 and official history writing, 131–2, 140 observational clock, 69 religious beliefs of, 163 organization of day, 66 as ruler, 36 Rumi Takvim (Roman Calendar), 69 Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi, 163 solar calendar, 69 Autumnal Equinox, 2 timekeeping devices, 66 and Jewish calendar, 178 timekeeping technology, shift in, 66–9 week, definition of, 69 Babayan, Kathryn, 150n18, 153n31 calendar, in Safavid empire, 48–52 Babur, Muhammad Zahir al-Din (Mughal astronomical observatories, 53 emperor), 31, 47, 56, 57, 62, astronomical treatises, 53 89–90, 117 clock towers, 51 Babylonia, influence on astronomy/ Islamic temporal system, 53 astrology, 59, 60 mechanical clock, 51 Bacon, Roger, 181 migrations as popular way of locating/ Badauni. See Abd al-Qadir Badauni dating events, 51–2 Bahadur Shah, 36–7 munajjim, 50–1, 52–6 Bahmani Sultanate, 117–18 Shiite Muslim prayer times, 48 Bayaz-i Khushbui, 63 sundial, 50–1 Benedict (Saint), 174–5 traditional Islamic lunar calendar, 49 Beyezid I (Ottoman sultan), 39, 69, 132 water clock, 51

196 Index

calendar, in Safavid empire (cont.) See also ceremonial time, in Ottoman Zoroastrian solar calendar, 48–50, 53–4, empire; ceremonial time, in Safavid 109–10, 183 empire calendrical time, 2–8 ceremonial time, in Mughal empire, Christian month, 175 84–95, 105 Christian year, 175 Ashura, 86 earth as natural time keeper, 2 Divine Era (Tarikh-i Ilahi) calendar gnomon, 5, 59, 176 introduced, 89 Gregorian calendar, 176 Diwali, 87, 88–9 Jewish month, 175 Dussehra, 87, 88, 89 Jewish year, 175 Holi, 87, 88 Julian calendar, 175–6 Id al-Fitr, 85 liturgical division of day in Islam, 3–5 Id-i Maulid (Birthday Festival), 86–7, lunar calendar, 7 92, 95 lunisolar calendar, 7–8, 175 Id-i Qurban, 85–6 moon as natural time keeper, 2–3 imperial birthday ceremony, 91–5 Muslim day of worship, choosing, 6 Indic (lunisolar) tradition, 87–9, 94–5 Muslim month, 175 introduced by Akbar, 91 Muslim year, 175 Islamic (lunar) tradition, 85–7, 94, 95 overview of, 19–20 Nau Ruz, 89–91 schematic Islamic calendar with months of redesigning of rituals, 94, 95, 105 definite number of days, 8 and salgirah (year knot), 92, 95 solar calendar, 175 and Tula Dana (Gift of Gold), 92–3 sun as natural time keeper, 3 Vasant (Basant), 87–8 sundial, 5, 176 weighing ceremony, 93–4, 95 water clock (clepsydras), 5–6, 16, 176 Zoroastrian (solar) tradition, 89–91 week, Christian, 175–6 ceremonial time, in Ottoman empire, 95–106 week, Judeo-Christian seven-day, 6, 175 coming-of-age ceremony for boys, 103–4 week, naming of Muslim days of, coming-of-age ceremony for girls, 103 6–7, 175 imperial circumcision ceremony, 95, Cami ul-Meknunat (The Compendium 97–104, 106 of Hidden Things; Mevlana Isa), Kurban Bayrami (Festival of Sacrifice), 96 165–7, 170 Prophet Muhammad’s birthday, 96–7 Cardan, Jerome, 181 Ramadan Bayrami (Ramadan Festival)/ Celal (Shah Ismail), 163 Shukur Bayrami (Sweets Festival), 96 celali (unemployed soldiers), 43 Ramadan Festival, 96, 102 Celebi, Fethulah Afif, 136 ceremonial time, in Safavid empire, Celebi, Suleiman, 96 76–84, 105 ceremonial time, 8–9 Ashura, 76–7, 79–81, 83–4 Ashura festival, 9, 28, 76–7, 79–81, Id-i Fitr (end of Ramadan fast), 76–7, 83 83–4, 86 Id-i Qurban (Festival of Sacrifice), 9, 76–9, birthday of Muhammad, 9, 92 83–4 Christian lunar, 178 lunar Hijra calendar, 76–7 Christian solar, 178–9 Nau Ruz, 77, 81–3, 84 Id al-Fitr festival, 8–9 redesigning of rituals, 83–4, 105–6 Id al-Qurban (Festival of Sacrifice), 9 Chardin, Jean, 54, 77, 78, 80, 82–3, 154 Id i-Qurban (Festival of Sacrifice), 76–9, Charles II (England), 181 83–4, 85–6, 92, 95 Charles IX (France), 182 Jewish lunisolar, 178 Charles V (Holy Roman empire), 166, 167 Muslim lunar and solar, 177 Chinese-Uighur Animal Era, 110–11, 138 overview of, 20 Chintamani, Nilakantha Ananta, 60–1

Index 197

Chishti, Salim (Sheikh), 156 Tabaqat-i Akbari (Nizam al-din Ahmad), Christianity 127–8 daily prayer obligation, 174–5 Tarikh-i Alfi (Millennium History), lunar ceremonial time, 178 126–7, 128–9, 130, 139–40 month, 175 Tarikh-i Ilahi (Divine Era), 130–1, 138, solar ceremonial time, 178–9 139–40 solar era, 132–4, 137–8 writing of official histories forbidden, 131 week, 175–6 dating by historians, in Ottoman empire, year, 175 135–7, 140 chronological time, 10 dated almanacs (takvims), 135 dating by historians, 111–16, 126–32, Essence of History, 136 135–7, 140 Hijra Era, as sole system, 135 epoch (see epoch) Hijra Era, problems with, 137 era (see era) millennium as organizing principle, fiscal time, 109–11, 116–26, 132–4 137, 140 Hijra Era, 10 shehnameci (official historians), 135–6 in Mughal empire, 116–32 shift in historiographical tradition, 135–6 naming of years, 10 solar eras, 137 in Ottoman empire, 132–40 Tarih-i Naima, 136 overview of concerns with, 20 undated almanacs (takvims), 135 in Safavid empire, 109–16 dating by historians, in Safavid empire, clock towers, in Safavid empire, 51 111–16 clocks Iskandar Beg, 111–14 astronomical, in Ottoman empire, 68 Iskandar Munshi, 139, 140 mechanical, in Iran, 74 Jalal al-Din Munajjim Yazdi, 115–16, 139 observational, in Ottoman empire, 69 Mahmud b. Hidayat Allah, Afushtah-i water (clepsydras), 5–6, 16, 51, 57, 59, Natanzi, 114–15, 139 66, 176 and millennium, 140 coming of age ceremony, in Ottoman empire Mirza Beg b. Hasan Husain Junabadi, for boys, 103–4 116, 139 for girls, 103 problems and solutions, 139 conjunction theory, 141, 143–4 De Emendatione Temporum (Reform of transmission by Ismaili authors, Chronology; Scalinger), 182 145–6 De Magnis Coniunctionibus (On the Great See also Grand Conjunction Conjunction; Abu Mashar), 181 Constantine (the Great), 175–6 Deccan, 36, 119, 158 Copernicus, 17, 64 Deccani Shuhur (Solar) Era, 117–18 Dee, John, 181 d’Abano, Pietro, 181 Della Valle, Pietro, 88 D’Ailly, Pierre, 182 devsirme (slave levy), 39, 43 dairas (circles), 155 Divine Era (Tarikh-i Ilahi) Daivajna, Shrikrishna, 61 as chronological standard, 139–40 Daniyal (Sheikh), 155 epoch of, 119 Darius I (Persia), 81 as heretical, 140 dating by historians, in Mughal empire, introduction of, 89, 138 126–32 Nau Ruz in, 130 Akbar Nama (Abu al-Fazl), 34, 56, 62, reason for introduction of, 124–6, 138 124–5, 129–30 revised version of, 130–1 and millennium, 140 and Shirazi, 122–3 Muntakhab al-Tawarikh (Badauni), 129 Diwakar, Vishwanath, 61 problems and solutions, 139–40 Diwali (Hindu festival), 87, 88–9

198 Index

Durkheim, Emile, 1 firman (order), of Akbar, 124–5 Dussehra (Hindu festival), 87, 88, 89 fiscal time, in Mughal empire, 116–26 dust board, 11–12, 13 Ain-i Dah Salah (Ten Year Regulations), 123 Dvapara (Bronze) Yuga, 116–17 Fasli (Harvest Era), 117–18 inadequacies of lunar era in agrarian earth as natural time keeper, 2 state, 117 East India Companies, 25 Mahayuga (Great) Era, 116–17 Easter, calculating date for (computus), 182 problems and solutions, with fiscal time, 138 Efendi, Cezmi, 170 Saka Samvat, 117 Egyptian influence, on Indic astronomical/ and Shirazi, 119–24 astrological tradition, 59 solar era taxation system, 117–18 Einstein, Albert, 1 Tarikh-i Ilahi (Divine Era), 118–19, epoch, 10 122–3, 124–6 of Achaemenids, 109 Turkish Twelve-Year Animal Era, 118 alternative Arab and Persian, 150, 159 Vikramaditya Samvat, 117 in Christian chronology, 179 fiscal time, in Ottoman empire, 132–4 of Divine Era, 119 Christian solar era, 132–4, 137–8 of Hijra Era, 107 Ottoman solar era, 132 of Jalali Era, 53–4, 110 problems and solutions, 132–4, 138–9 of Jewish Era, 179 Roman Era, 134 of Saka Era, 117 fiscal time, in Safavid empire, 109–11 of Sassanid world year, 145 Jalali Era, 110, 138 of Turkish Twelve-Year Animal Era, 53–4 regnal system, 109 of Vikramditya Era, 117 solar chronology, 138 of Yazdegird Era, 53–4 solar Zoroastrian calendar, 109–10 year of prophet’s death as, 127 Turkish Twelve-Year Animal Era, equinox 110–11, 138 Autumnal Equinox, 2, 178 Yazdegird Era, 109, 138 Vernal Equinox (see Vernal Equinox) Fleischer, Cornell, 165, 166, 167, 169 era, 10 Florentinus, Franciscus, 182 in Christian chronology, 179–80 Frederick II (Holy Roman empire), 181 in Jewish lunisolar chronology, 179 in Muslim chronology, 179 Galileo, 64 See also individual eras genethlialogy, 13 Essence of History (Ali), 136, 137 Genghis Khan, 110, 170 ethics, 120 gharis (day division), 56–7 Euclid, 15 Ghazan Khan, 127 Exiguous, Dionysius, 179 Ghaznavi, Hajji Abdul Hamid, 117 Ghilzai Afghans, and Safavid empire, 28 Farangi Mahall, 122 gnomon, 5, 59, 176 Farrukhsiyar, 36–7 Grand Conjunction Fasli (Harvest) Era, 117–18, 137–8 of 1583 and England, 182 Fatawa-i Hindiyya, 97 of Abu Mashar, 159 Fathpur Sikri, 31 correct date, after founding of Islam, 169 Fazil Kahn, 61 explanation of, 144 Feraid ul-Vilade (Unique Pearls on the Birth; length of time between occurrences, 164 Ali), 170 problems in predicting, 167 fertility ritual, 88 relationship to founding of Islam, 144 festival books (surnames), 98, 99–100 significance of, 144 The Festival Book of Murat III (Intizami), 98 of Suleiman, 166 Firdausi (Persian poet), 135 and Vernal Equinox, 141

Index 199

Great Week of Seven Eras (d’Abano), 181 Mughal empire under, 31 Greece, ancient and Nau Ruz, 90 influence on Indic astronomical/ Hurufi Sufi Order, 149 astrological tradition, 59, 60 Husain (grandson of Muhammad), 79, 80 influence on Islamic astronomy/astrology, 12 See also Ashura festival influence on pre-Islamic astronomical/ Husain (Ottoman sultan), 28 astrological tradition, 52 invention of horoscope in, 13 Ibadat Khana, 156 Gregorian calendar, 176 ibn Athari, Mashaallah, 141, 142 Gregorian Era, 134 Ibn Khaldun, 146 Gregory XIII (Pope), 176, 180 ibn Rustam al-Saati, Muhammad ibn Ali (the Gujarati, Mustafa (Sheikh), 156–7 Horologist), 6 Gupta Period, 92–3 Ibrahim (Ottoman sultan), 134 Gurgani. See Zij-i Sultani (Ulugh Beg) Ibrahim Adil Shah II, 122 Id al-Fitr (end of Ramadan fast), 8–9, 85 Habsburgs, 42 Id al-Qurban (Festival of Sacrifice), 9 Haidar (Sheikh), 148–9 Id-i Fitr (end of Ramadan fast), 76–7, 83 Hawking, Stephen, 1 Id-i Maulid (Birthday Festival), 86–7, 92, 95 Haydar Remmal (Geomancer), 167–9, 171 Id-i Qurban (Festival of Sacrifice), 9, 76–9, Hayyan, Jabbir b., 10–11 83–4, 85–6, 92, 95 Herbert, Thomas, 154 Ilkhanids, 15, 16, 53, 126 Hijra calendar, 76–7 ilm-i muwaqqit (science of fixed times), 6 and dating of Nau Ruz, 82 Imam Husain, 9, 25 organization of day, 66 Imami Shiites (Twelvers), 23, 80, 144–5 See also Ashura; Id-i Fitr; Id-i Qurban imperial birthday ceremony, in Mughal Hijra Era (ah), 10, 107 empire, 91–5 dating problems with, 137 Id-i Maulid (Birthday Festival), 92, 95 epoch of, 107 introduced by Akbar, 91 problems using, 108, 137 and salgirah (year knot), 92, 95 as sole system, 135 and Tula Dana (Gift of Gold), 92–3 year in, 166 weighing ceremony, 93–4, 95 Hinduism imperial circumcision ceremony, in Ottoman and Akbar, 33–4 empire, 95, 97–104, 106 Diwali festival, 87, 88–9 Indian influence, on Islamic astronomy/ Dussehra festival, 87, 88, 89 astrology, 12 Holi festival, 87, 88 Indic calendrical system, 56–8 Ramayana festival, 88 monthly division, 58 Vasant festival, 87–8 seasonal division, 58–9 Holi (Hindu festival), 87, 88 water clocks, 57 horoscope weekly division, 58 of Abbas I, 62 Indic system birth charts, 13 astronomical treatise, 60 invention by ancient Greeks, 13 influence on pre-Islamic astronomical/ nativity book, 54 astrological tradition, 52 See also astrology jyotisa in, 59–60 House of Chronology (Muwaqqit Khana), 16 Indic tradition, in Mughal empire, 87–9, Hulaghu, 15–16, 53 94–5 Humayun Diwali, 87, 88–9 and astrology, 62 Dussehra, 87, 88, 89 and circumcision ceremony, 100–2 Holi, 87, 88 and imperial birthday ceremony, 93 Vasant (or Basant), 87–8

200 Index

Intizami, 98 and circumcision ceremony, 101 Iran, mechanical clocks in, 74 and imperial birthday ceremony, 93, Iranian influence 94, 95 on Indic astronomical/astrological and Sharif Amuli, 158–9, 161 tradition, 59 as Second Lord of the (Auspicious) on Islamic astronomy/astrology, 12 Conjunction, 172 Isfahan observatory, 14–15 on Timur as Sahib Qirani, 164 Isfahani, Hafiz-i, 51 on tolerance of Akbar (father), 35–6 Iskandar Beg, 111–14 Jalal al-Din Munajjim Yazdi, Islam 115–16, 139 calendar in Mughal empire, 56 Jalali Era calendar in Safavid empire, 53 beginning of year in, 77, 141 ceremonial time in Mughal empire, 85–7, dating of Nau Raz in, 15, 82 94, 95 dating of tax collection/salary payments daily prayer obligation in, 174 in, 138 day of worship, choosing, 6 epoch of, 53–4, 110 days of week, naming, 6–7, 175 introduction of, 109–10, 125 division of day, 56, 174 year in, 166–7 era in, 179 Jami al-Buhur der Mecalis-i Sur (Gathering liturgical division of day, 3–5 of the Seas on the Scenes of the Festival; lunar and solar calendar, 177 Ali), 98 month, 175 Janissaries, 39, 41, 42, 43 months with definite number of days, 8 revolts over unpaid salaries, 133–4 prayers, 3–5 salary schedule of, 132–3, 139 replacement of Zoroastrian tradition Jewish calendrical time by, 53 month, 175 timekeeping in early, 73–4 year, 175 traditional calendar in Safavid empire, 49 Jewish Era, epoch of, 179 year, 175 Jewish lunisolar ceremonial time, 178 Islam Shah Sur, 156 Jotik Rai, 62 Ismail I (Safavid shah), 23 Judaism, daily prayer obligation in, 174 and Haydar Remmal, 167 Judeo-Christian week, 6, 175 as military leader, 39, 40 Julian calendar, 69, 132, 175–6 and millenarianism, 172 Jumada I (month), 8 and Nuqtavis, 150 Jumada II (month), 8 and Nurbakshiyya Sufi Order, 148 Junabadi, Mirza Beg b. Hasan as religious leader, 23, 47, 80 Husain, 116 as religious-military/political ruler, 149 Junaid (Sheikh), 148 and Shiraz, 120 Ismail II (Safavid shah), 151 Kaba, 9, 77 Ismail Pasha, 99 Kadizadelis, 173 Ismaili Shiites (Seveners), 144–6 Kalendar, 163 izdilaq (sliding), 132, 185 Kali (Black) Yuga, 117 Kalid-i Danish (Key to Knowledge), 123 Jafar Beg Asaf Khan, 127 Karaki, Ali, 120–1 jagirs (land revenue grants), 33 Kashi, Sayyid Safi al-Din Ahmad (Mir), Jahangir (Mughal emperor) 158 152, 157, 160–1 astrologers of, 60–1 Kassel Observatory, 176–7 and celebration of festivals, 85–6, 87, 89, Kayvan, Azar, 121 90–1 Kazim, Muhammad, 131 chronology of, 56, 130 Kemalist movement, 44

Index 201

Kepler, Johannes, 64, 177, 181 Jewish ceremonial time, 178 Khafi Khan, 131–2 Jewish chronology, 179 Khaqani, 161–2 reform of calendar by Muhammad, 7 Kharaji Taxation Era, 82 problems with using, 108, 137–8 Mahadanas (Great Gifts), 92–3 Khatunabadi, Muhammad Baqir (Mir), 28 Maha-Siddhanta (astronomical treatise), 60 Khayyam, Omar, 15, 63, 72, 81–2 Mahayuga (Great) Era, 116–17 Khidrat al-Durar wa Jaridat al-Fikar (zij), 72 Mahdawi movement, 155–7 Khilji, Mahmud Shah, 63 influence of, 156–7 Khudabanda, Muhammad, 151 Sheikh Abdullah Niyazi, 156 Khusrau (Dervish), 151–3 Sheikh Alai, 156 Khusrau, Nasir-i, 145–6 Mahdi (Guided One), 23, 47, 146–7, 149, khutba (address), 4 154, 159 Kitab al-Qiranat (Book of Conjunctions; Maktub Khan, 172 Abu Mashar), 144, 169, 170, 181 Malfuzat-i Timuri (Timur), 164 Koprulu family, 43 Malik Shah (Malik (Jalal al-Din) Shah), Krita (Golden) Yuga, 116 14–15, 53, 109–10, 125 Kubrawi Sufi Order, 148 Maliye (Fiscal) Era, 132–4 Kucheck Qalandar (dervish), 152, 153 Mamluks, 39, 41, 47, 96 Kulu (shah), 163 Mani (prophet), 52 Kurban Bayrami (Festival of Sacrifice), mansabdari (officeholder system), 31–2, 33, 96, 102 35–6 Kushcu, Ali, 70 Mansuriyyah Madrasa, 119–20 Maragha observatory, 15–16 Lahori, Abd al-Hamid, 131 Maulana, Khwajah, 159 land revenue system Mecca, 9, 10, 45–6, 47, 77, 92, 96–7 in Mughal empire, 123–4 mechanical clocks 67 in Ottoman empire, 40–1, 43 in Ottoman empire, 66–9 land survey, in Mughal empire, 32–3 in Safavid empire, 51 Leach, Edmund, 1–2 Medina, 47, 77, 79 LeBruyn, Cornelius, 78, 80–1 Mehmed I (Ottoman sultan), as Mueyed Min Lepanto, battle of, 41 Allah, 170 Les Prophecies (Nostradamus), 182 Mehmed II (Ottoman sultan) Lilius, Aloysius, 176 ascension of, 40 liturgical New Year, 82–3 and circumcision ceremony, 98, 102 lunar tradition fiscal problems under, 133 calendar, 7 muneccim of, 70 Christian ceremonial time, 178 retreat of sultan from public view inadequacies for use in agrarian state, under, 102 20, 117 as Sahib Kiran, 165 Islamic ceremonial time in Mughal Mehmed III (Ottoman sultan) empire, 85–7 and circumcision ceremony, 98–9 month in, 7, 49 and millenarianism, 170 traditional Islamic calendar in Safavid Mehmed IV (Ottoman sultan), and empire, 49 circumcision ceremony, 99 week in, 49 Melanchthon, Philip, 182 year in, 7 Membre, Michele, 51, 80 See also Hijra calendar Mesopotamian influence, on Indic lunisolar tradition astronomical/astrological tradition, 59 calendar, 7–8, 175 Messala/Messahalla. See ibn Athari, Indic tradition, 87–9, 94–5 Mashaallah

202 Index

Mevlana Isa, 165–7, 170 miqati (time specialist), 4–5 Miftah al-Jafr al-Jami (The Key to the Mir Ghiyath al-Din Mansur Dashtaki, Comprehensive Prognosticon; Bistami), 119–21, 171 165, 169, 170 Mirat al-Avalim (Mirrors of the World; millenarian chronology Ali), 170 conjunction theory, 141, 143–4, 145–6 Mirza Beg b. Hasan Husain Junabadi, conservative backlash against, 173 116, 139 in Europe, 180–3 Mirza Muhammad Taqi (Saru Taqi), 26 first one thousand years of Islamic history, Miyan Abdur Rashid (Sheikh), 156 146–7 monastic prayer, 174–5 influence of Mir Ghiyath al-Din Mansur Mongols, calendar of, 110 Dashtaki, 171 Monserrate, Antonio (Father), 86, 88, 159–60 Mahdi (Guided One) concept in, 146–7 monsoons, 29 Mujaddid (Renewer) concept in, 147, 149 month use of epithet Sahib Kiran (Lord of the Christian, 175 [Auspicious] Conjunction), 171–3 of definite number of days in Islam, 8 See also millenarianism, in Mughal in Indic system, 58 empire; millenarianism, in Ottoman Jewish, 175 empire; millenarianism in Safavid in lunar tradition, 7, 49 empire Muslim, 175 millenarianism, in Mughal empire, 154–63 nasi (intercalation of a month), 7–8 Mahdawi movement, 155–7 in Ottoman empire, 69 and Mulla Muhammad and Zikri Sufi moon as natural time keeper, 2–3 Order, 154 Mubarak (Sheikh), 156 and Pir Raushan and Raushaniyya Sufi Muceddid, 166 Order, 154–5 muezzin, 6 and Sayyid Muhammad, 155, 156–7, 161 Mughal empire, 29–37 and Sharif Amuli, 157–62 under Aurangzeb (see Aurangzeb) and Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi and under Bahadur Shah, 36–7 Naqshbandi order, 162–3 calendar in (see calendar, in Mughal empire) millenarianism, in Ottoman empire, 163–73 capital relocation, 31 and Abd al-Rahman Bistami, 165, 169, 170 ceremonial time in (see ceremonial time, in and Haydar Remmal (Geomancer), Mughal empire) 167–9, 171 chronological time in, 116–32 increasing apocalypticism, 163 circumcision ceremony in, 100–2 under Mehmed III, 170 climate of, 29 and Mevlana Isa, 165–7, 170 cultural reform in, 33–5 under Murad III, 169–70 dating by historians in, 126–32 Sahib Kiran (Lord of the Conjunction), demise of, 37 163–5, 170 economic reform in, 32–3 under Suleiman I, 165–9 economic relationship to Ottoman/ millenarianism, in Safavid empire, 147–54 Safavid empires, 46–7 and Fazallah Astarabadi, 147, 149 education in, 122 and Hurufi Sufi Order, 149 under Farrukhsiyar, 36–7 and Kubrawi Sufi Order, 148 fiscal time in, 116–26 and Muhammad b. Abd Allah founding of, 29–31 Nurbaksh, 148 geography of, 29 and Nuqtavi Sufi Order, 149–54 under Humayun, 31, 62, 90, 93, 100–2 and Nurbakshiyya Sufi Order, 148, 149 under Jahangir (see Jahangir) and Safaviyya Sufi Order, 148, 149 under Jalal al-Din Akbar (see Akbar Jalal millet (community) system, 42 al-Din)

Index 203

land revenue administration in, 123–4 astrologers, 12–14 land survey in, 32–3 duties of, 11, 54 legitimacy, source of, 47 instruments of, 11–12, 54, 59, 62 mansabdari (officeholder system), 31–2, training of, 11 33, 35–6 See also munajjim, in Safavid empire; military campaigns, 31 munajjim, in Mughal empire; muneccim military-administrative reform in, 31–2 in Ottoman empire (astronomer/ millenarianism in (see millenarianism, in astrologer) Mughal empire) munajjim, in Mughal empire, 59–65 under Muhammad Shah, 36–7 almanacs of, 59–60, 63 under Muhammad Zahir al-Din Babur, astronomical treatises of, 59, 60, 63–4, 65 31, 47, 56, 57, 62, 89–90, 117 birth date, determination of, 62 munajjim/jyotish in, 59–65 both Islamic and Indic time specialists, 60–1 Persian language, use in, 46 court astrologers, 60–1 political relationship with Ottoman influences on, 59 empire, 45 influences on daily life, 62–3 political relationship with Safavid non-court astrologers, activities of, 61–2 empire, 45 observatories, 65 population distribution according to munajjim, in Safavid empire, 52–6 religion, 87 almanacs of, 54–6 population of, 29 astronomical treatises of, 52–3 Ramadan Festival in, 85 female, 52 religious relationship with Ottoman importance at court, 54 empire, 45–6 influences on, 52 religious role of emperor, 33–5 Islamic temporal system, 53 and Safavid empire, 27 timekeeping devices of, 50–1 under Shahjahan (see Shahjahan) and zij of pre-Islamic Iran, 52 summary of, 183–4 Mundy, Peter, 86 Zoroastrian calendar in, 89–91 muneccim in Ottoman empire, 69–75 Muhammad accuracy of timekeeping, 74 birth of, 76, 144 almanacs (takvims) of, 70–1 celebration of birthday of, 9, 36, 56–7, 92, duties of, 70 96–7 instruments of, 71 reform of lunisolar calendar by, 7 observatories of, 71–3, 74 sacrifice of animals by, 77 Taqi al-Din, 66–7, 68–9, 71 Muhammad Shah, 36–7 training of, 69–70 Muharram, 8, 76 zijs (astronomical treatises) of, 71–2, 74 Ashura festival during, 9 See also munajjim (astronomer/astrologer) Muhyi al-Din ibn-i Badr al-Din Anari, 172 muneccimbashi (head muneccim), 70, 74 Muin al-Din al-Maghribi, 15–16 Muni Sundar, 60–1 Mujaddid (Renewer), 147, 149, 162 Munshi, Iskandar, 100, 139, 140, 152, Mukramat Khan, 61 157, 161 Mulla Aya, 153 Muntakhab al-Tawarikh (Badauni), 129 Mulla Chand, 60–1, 62, 63, 129 Muntakhab-i Tawarikh (Abd al-Qadir Mulla Farid al-Din Ibrahim Dihlavi, 64, 121, Badauni), 127 130–1 Murad I (Ottoman sultan), 97–8, 102 Mulla Muhammad, 154 Murad II (Ottoman sultan), 135 Mullah Kamal, 115 Murad III (Ottoman sultan), 71, 73 munajjim (astronomer/astrologer), 10–12, and circumcision ceremony, 98–9, 104 52–6 millenarianism under, 169–70 almanac, annual production by, 18 Murshid Quli Khan, 24, 82

204 Index

Muslims and Khusrau (Dervish), 151–3 askeri class (military), 42 persecution of, 150–1, 152–4, 158, 173 reaya class (tax-payers), 42 and Tahmasp, 150–1, 158 See also Islam; Shiite Muslims; Sunni unstructured nature of, 150–1 Muslims Nur Jahan (wife of Jahangir), 35 muvakkithane (timekeeper’sofﬁce), 66 Nurbaksh, Muhammad b. Abd Allah, muwaqqit (time keeper), 4, 5, 6 148, 161 Muwaqqit Khana (House of Nurbakshiyya Suﬁ Order, 148, 149 Chronology), 16 nychtemeron (day-and-night), 56, 59

Nadir Shah, 28, 37 observational clock, in Ottoman empire, 69 Nadir Shah Afshar, 172 observatories Naima, Mustafa, 136 European, 176–7 Najat al-Rashid (Badauni), 129, 161 House of Chronology, 16 Naqib Khan, 126, 127 Isfahan, 14–15, 176 Naqshbandi order, 162–3 Maragha, 15–16, 176 nasi (intercalation of a month), 7–8 in Mughal empire, 74–5 Nasir al-Din Mahmud bin Shams al-din of muneccim, 71–3, 74 Iltutmish, 63 in Safavid empire, 53 Natanzi, Mahmud b. Hidayat Allah, Samarqand, 17–20, 176 Afushtah-i, 114–15, 139 Oglan, Tonguz, 163 nativity book (kitab-i viladat), 54 “On Conjunctions, Peoples, and Religions” Nau Ruz (New Year) (ibn Athari, Mashaallah), 142 abolishment of, 131 Opus Major (Major Work) (Bacon), 181 and almanacs, 71 Ottoman empire, 37–47 dating of, 15, 50, 82, 130, 131 administrative reform in, 43 expansion of celebration in mid-17th agrarian system in, 40–1 century, 82–3 agricultural tax collection date, 133 as imperial ritual, 81–3, 84 under Ahmed I, 43, 96, 136 importance under Abbas I, 82 arts and architecture in, 41–2 in Mughal empire, 89–91 askeri class (Muslim military), 42 as religious ritual, 81 under Bayezid I, 39, 69, 132 in Safavid empire, 77, 81–3, 84 calendar in (see calendar, in Ottoman Shiite interpretation of, 83, 84 empire) and Zoroastrian calendar, 81–2, 125 celali (unemployed soldiers) in, 43 Nau Ruz-i Sultani (Imperial New Year), 82–3 ceremonial time in (see ceremonial time, in Nawab Mir Muhammad Jafar Khan, 63 Ottoman empire) Newton, Isaac, 1 change/transition during seventeenth Niyazi, Abdullah (Sheikh), 156 century, 43 Nizam al-Din Ahmad, 127–8, 140, 161 chronological time in, 132–40 Nostradamus, 182 climate of, 37 Numan, Muhammad (Mir), 162 culture in, 46 Nuqawat al-Athar fi Dhikr al-Akhyar (The dating by historians in, 135–7, 140 Choicest of Works in Remembrance of dismemberment/demise of, 44 the Righteous; Natanzi), 114–15 economic relationship to Safavid/Mughal Nuqtavi movement, 25, 35 empires, 46–7 Nuqtavi Sufi Order education in, 41 and Abbas I, 35, 152–4, 173 fiscal time in, 132–4 early persecution of, 150 founding of, 37–9 founding by Mahmud Pasikhani, Inner Treasury in, 134 149–54, 159 Janissaries in, 39, 41, 42, 43, 132–4, 139

Index 205

land revenue system (timar) in, 40–1, 43 pals (day division), 56 law in, 41, 43 pantheism, 154–5 legitimacy, source of, 47 Pasha, Ibrahim, 166 marriage of princesses, elevation of rite of, Pasikhani, Mahmud, 149–50, 159 102–3 Pelsaert, Francisco, 86 under Mehmed I, 170 Persian, as lingua franca, 46 under Mehmed II, 40, 70, 98, Persian poetry, prestige of, 135 102, 133 Philip II (Spain), 41 under Mehmed III, 98–9, 170 Plato, 181 under Mehmed IV, 99 prayers, in Islam, 3–5 military campaigns, 39, 40, 41, 42–3, standard types of, 4 44–5, 133, 134 Proclamation of the Birth of Christ (Gregory millenarianism in (see millenarianism in XIII), 180 Ottoman empire) prognostication, 167 millet system in, 42 Ptolemy, Claudius, 12–13, 14, 143 under Murad I, 97–8, 102 under Murad II, 135 qalandars (wandering ascetics), 150–1 under Murad III, 71, 73, 98–9, 104, 169–70 Qandahar, battles over, 27, 28, 35, 36, as naval power, 41 37, 45 under Osman, 37–9 Qasim (shah), 148 Outer Treasury in, 134 Qazi Ahmad, 154 peoples of, 42 Qazvin, shift of capital to and from, 24, 26 political relationship with Mughal Qazvini, Mirza Amin, 131 empire, 45 qibla (direction of prayer), 14, 18 political relationship with Safavid empire, Qizilbash warriors, 23, 24–5, 27, 44 44–5 Quli Khan (Dargah), 61–2, 86, 87–8 population of, 37 reaya class (tax-paying Muslims), 42 Rabi al-Avval (month), 76 religious relationship with Mughal Rabi I (month), 8, 9, 92 empire, 45–6 Rabi II (month), 8 religious role of emperor, 41, 71 Rajab (month), 8 (see also millenarianism, in Ottoman rakas (bowings), 4 empire) Ramadan (month), 8–9 retreat of sultan from public view in, 102 Ramadan Festival, 8–9 and Safavid empire, 26–7 in Mughal empire, 85 under Selim I, 40, 132, 133, 165, 170 in Ottoman empire, 96, 102 under Selim II, 67 in Safavid empire, 76–7, 83 under Selim III, 44, 134 Ramayana (Hindu epic), 88 size of, 37 Rasad-i Waqt-i Saat, 16 slave system in, 39–40, 43 Rasail Ikhwan al-Safa (Epistles of the slave women in, 39–40 Brethren of Purity), 145 under Suleiman I, 41–2, 98, 165–9, 170 Rashid-i Din, 165 summary of, 184–6 Raushan, Pir, 154–5 sundial in, 66 Raushana-i Nama (The Book of Tanzimat (Reorganization) Period, 44 Enlightenment), 146 Ottoman Laws, 41 Raushaniyya Suﬁ Order, 154–5 Ottoman solar era, 132 Rauza al-Shuhada (Garden of the Martyrs; Husain Vaiz Kashshiﬁ), 81 Padmasundara, 60–1 Rauzat al-Safawiya (The Garden of the Padshahnama (Qazvini), 131 Safavids; Junabadi), 116 pahars (watches), 56, 57 reaya class (tax-paying Muslims), 42

206 Index

Regiomontanus, 176 military under, 23, 24 Riza (Dervish), 153 millenarianism in (see millenarianism, in Romakasiddhanta (Roman Astronomical Safavid empire) Treatise), 59 munajjim in, 52–6 Rudolphine Tables, 177 political relationship with Mughal Rukh (shah), 148 empire, 45 Rumi, Bursali Kadizade-i, 17, 69–70 political relationship with Ottoman Rumi (Roman) Era, 132–4 empire, 44–5 problems with, 137–8 population of, 23 Rumi Takvim (Roman Calendar), 69, 134 Qizilbash warriors, 23, 24–5, 27, 44 Ruznama-i Mulla Jalal (Mulla Jalal’s religious positions under, 23 Almanac), 115–16 religious role of emperor, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 77–8, 80 Saadatnama (Book of Felicity), 146 reorganization program of Abbas I, Saadi Dynasty, 92 24–5, 152 Sabur, 52 under Safi, 26–7, 153 Sadr al-Din Dashtaki, 120 under Safi Mirza, 27–8 Safar (month), 8 silk monopoly, 25, 26 Safarnama (Book of Travels; Nasir-i summary of, 183 Khusrau), 145–6 Sunni orthodoxy and, 24 Safavid empire, 21–8 under Tahmasp I (see Tahmasp I [Safavid under Abbas I (see Abbas I [Safavid shah]) shah]) under Abbas II, 27, 51, 172 See also calendar, in Safavid empire; administrative positions under, 23 ceremonial time, in Safavid empire attempt to replace Imami Shiism with Safaviyya Sufi Order, 23, 26, 44, 47, Sunni confession, 151 148, 149 calendar in (see calendar in Safavid Safi (Safavid shah), 26–7, 47, 153 empire) Safi (Sheikh), 23 capital, relocation of, 26, 82 Safi al-Din (Sheikh), 148–9, 154 ceremonial time in (see ceremonial time in Safi II (Safi Mirza; Suleiman; Safavid shah), Safavid empire) 27–8 chronological time in, 109–16 Sahib Kiran (Lord of the Conjunction), 163–5 circumcision ceremony in, 100 redefinition of, 170 culture in, 46 Sahib-i Zaman (Lord of the Age), 147, 159 dating by historians in, 111–16 Sahillioglu, Halil, 133 demise of, 28 Saka Samvat (Saka Era), 117 economic problems in, 28 epoch of, 117 economic reforms in, 25, 26, 27 salat al-asr (afternoon prayer), 4 economic relationship to Ottoman and salat al-fadjr (morning prayer), 4 Mughal empires, 46–7 salat al-isha (evening prayer), 4 fiscal time in, 109–11 salat al-maghrib (sunset prayer), 4 founding of, 23 salat al-zuhr (noon prayer), 4 geography of, 21–3 salgirah (year knot), 92, 95 ghazi (religious) warriors, 148 Samarqand observatory, 17–20 under Husain, 28 Samrat-Siddhanta (astronomical treatise; imperial household reforms in, 24–5, 26, 28 translation of Almagest), 65 under Ismail I (see Ismail I [Safavid shah]) Sana-i Maaliyya (Financial Era), 134 judicial positions under, 23 Sassanids legitimacy, sources of, 47, 84n23 and astrology, 52 military campaigns, 23–4, 26–7, 28, astronomical treatise of, 141 42, 44–5 calendar of, 109

Index 207

defeat by Ummayads, 53 prayer times of, 48 and Nau Ruz, 81–2, 109–10 and Tahmasp, 24, 80, 120–1 regnal system of, 109 Shiite Safavids, and Nau Ruz, 81–2 world year of, 145 Shiite Sufi Order, 80 Sayyid Muhammad, 155, 156–7, 161 Shirazi, Fathullah (Mir), 60–1, 62, 64, Scalinger, Joseph, 182 119–24, 127, 129–30, 158, 171 science of time keeping (ilm al-miqat), 4 sidereal solar year, 3 Scott, Michael, 181 silk monopoly, in Safavid empire, 25, 26 Selim I (Ottoman sultan) Sindhind (astronomical treatise), 12, 60, 143 as Mueyed Min Allah, 170 Singh, Jai, 64–5 as ruler, 40, 132, 133 Sirhindi, Ahmad (Sheikh), 162–3 as Sahib Kiran/Muceddid, 165 sivis (skipping), 132, 185 Selim II (Ottoman sultan), 67 slave soldiers, 24, 25 Selim III (Ottoman sultan), 44, 134 Sokullu Muhammad Pasha, 71 Seljuqs solar calendar and introduction of Jalali Era, 125 in Ottoman empire, 69 and Nau Ruz, 109–10 See also Christianity; Indic calendrical observatory of, 14–15, 53 system; Jalali Era; Turkish Twelve-Year and slavery, 39 Animal Era; Yazdegird Era; Sene-i Maliye (Fiscal Era), 132 Zoroastrian calendar Sene-i Rumiya (Roman Era), 132 St. Augustine, 1 Sevener Shiites, 144–6 Stephen (England), 181 Shaban (month), 8 Sufism Shahinshahname I (Lokman), 98 Hurufi Sufi Order, 149 Shahjahan (Mughal emperor) Kubrawi Sufi Order, 148 and celebration of festivals, 87, 89 Nuqtavi Sufi Order, 149–54 and circumcision ceremony, 101 Nurbakshiyya Sufi Order, 148 and Id-i Maulid, 87 Raushaniyya Sufi Order, 154–5 and imperial birthday ceremony, Safaviyya Sufi Order, 23, 26, 44, 47, 93–4, 95 148, 149 and official history writing, 130–1, 140 Shiite Sufi Order, 80 as ruler, 36, 56–7, 61, 62–3 Zikri Sufi Order, 154 as Second Lord of the Auspicious Suleiman (shah), 172 Conjunction, 172–3 Suleiman I (the Magnificent; Ottoman support for Sharif Amuli under, 162 sultan) Shahnameh (Book of Kings; Firdausi), 135 and circumcision festival, 98 Shahvand tribe, 24 millenarianism under, 163–4, 165–8, Sharma, Keshava, 61 168–9 Shavval (month), 8, 76 as Mueyed Min Allah, 170 Shawwal (month), 8 as ruler, 41–2 Sheikh al-Islam, 163 sulh-i kull (lasting reconciliation), 33–5 Shiite Muslims Summer Solstice, 81, 109 and Abbas I, 25, 105–6 sun as natural time keeper, 3 and Abbas II, 27 sundial, 5, 176 and Akbar, 34, 35, 122 in Ottoman empire, 66 and Ashura, 9, 79–80, 86 in Safavid empire, 50–1 and Badauni, 161 Sunni Muslims Imami Shiites, 23, 126, 144–5 and Akbar, 34, 35, 122 Ismaili Shiites, 144–6 attempt to replace Imami Shiism and millenarianism, 147 with, 151 and Nau Ruz, 81–2, 83, 84 and Ismail II, 151

208 Index

Sunni Muslims (cont.) Timur, 31, 39, 40, 47 and millenarianism, 147 as Sahib Kiran, 164–5, 170, 172 and Mughal empire, 47 Timurid dynasty, 31 and Ottoman empire, 47, 106 tithi (astronomical term), 58 and Safavid empire, 24 transmigration, 150, 154–5 and Selim I, 40 Treta (Silver) Yuga, 116 sur (feast or celebration), 103 trigonometry, as separate discipline from sur-i cihaz (female celebration), 103 mathematics, 16 sur-i hatan (male celebration), 103 triplicities, 143–4 Surname-i Vehbi, 99–100 tropical solar year, 3 Surya Siddhanta, 60, 65 Tula Dana (Gift of Gold), 92–3 Turkish Twelve-Year Animal Era, 110–11, Tabaqat-i Akbari (Nizam al-din Ahmad), 118, 124, 138 127–8 dating of tax collection/salary payments Tahmasp I (Safavid shah) in, 138 ascension of, 23–4 epoch of, 53–4 and Dashtaki, 120–1 Tusi, Nasir al-Din, 15–16, 17 and Haydar Remmal, 167–8 Tuzuk-i Jahangir (memoir), 56, 130 and Nuqtavi movement, 150–1, 158 Twelver Shiites, 23, 144–5 and Shiite Muslims, 24, 80, 120–1 and Sufism, 148 Ulugh Beg tahvil (changing), 132 astronomical treatise, 17, 53, 54, 62, Taj Mahal, 36 63–4, 69–70, 72, 74, 109, 135 tajdid (religious renewal and reform), 150 astronomical treatise, influence of, 54, 62, Taj-i Haidar (Haidar Cap), 149 63, 65, 70 Tajik (men of the pen), 23 astronomical treatise, update of, 64 Taqi al-Din b. Muhammad b. Maruf, 66–7, observatory of, 17, 53 68–9, 71–3, 74, 170 Umar (second caliph), 10 taqlid (simple adherence to Islamic Umar (Sheikh) (son of Miyan Beyazid), tradition), 150 109, 155 Tarih-i Naima (Naima), 136 Umar Sheikh Mirza, 31 Tarikh-i Abbasi (History of Abbas), 115–16 Umayyads Tarikh-i Alam Ara-i Abbasi (The World and Ashura, 79 Adorning History of Abbas; Beg), defeat of Sassanids by, 53 112–13 izdilaq (sliding) concept of, 132, 185 Tarikh-i Alfi (Millennium History), 126–7, and Kharaji Taxation Era, 82, 108, 137–8 128–9, 130, 139–40 and Nau Ruz, 82 Tarikh-i Ilahi. See Divine Era taxation system and era chronology, Tarikh-i Ilahi-i Shahjahani (Mulla Farid 107–8, 137–8 al-Din Ibrahim Dihlavi), 130–1 Uraniborg Observatory, 177 Tarikh-i Jalali, 15 Ustad Yusufi (the Quiver Maker), 152, 153 Tashil-i Ulugh Beg, 63 Uzbeks, 26, 27, 42–3, 45 Tauhid-i Ilahi (Divine Monotheism), 34–5 Uzun Hasan, 148–9 telescope, 64 Ten-Year Settlement (Ain-i Dahsala), 32–3 Vasant (Basant; Hindu festival), 87–8 The Tetrabiblos (Ptolemy), 12 Vedic astronomy, 59 Thomas (Saint), 181 Venetians, at battle of Lepanto, 41 timar system (land revenue), 40–1, 43 Vernal Equinox time experts. See munajjim (astronomer/ as beginning of Jalali Era year, 141 astrologer); muneccim (astronomer/ and Christian calendar, 178 astrologer) date of, 2

Index 209

and dating of Akbar’s ascension, 124 naming of vs. numbering of, 10 and dating of Natanzi’s ascension, 139 sidereal solar year, 3 definition of, 3 tropical solar year, 3 as first day of year, 13, 15, 18 Vernal Equinox as first day of, 13, 15, 18, as first day of year under Safavids, 110, 110, 139, 183 139, 183 world year, 141 and Grand Conjunction, 141 in Islam, 109 Zaid, Muhammad (Mir), 158 and Jewish calendar, 175, 178 zij. See astronomical treatise (zij) Nau Ruz celebration on, 81, 109–10 Zij al-Arkhand, 52 and Zoroastrian calendar, 105, 138, 183 Zij al-Shah, 12 Versailles Peace Treaty, 44 Zij-i Hazarat (Treatise of the Millennia; Abu Vikramaditya Samvat (Vikramditya Era), 117 Mashar), 143 Vishnu, incarnations of, 88 Zij-i Ilkhani (Tusi), 16, 17, 53, 62, 63, 109, 120 wahid (devoted disciples), 150 Zij-i Jadid-i Muhammad Shahi (The New water clock (clepsydras), 5–6, 16, 59, 176 Astronomical Treatise of Muhammad and Indic calendrical system, 57 Shah), 65 in Ottoman empire, 66 Zij-i Khakhani, 17 in Safavid empire, 51 Zij-i Malik Shahi, 15, 17, 53, 63, 109 week Zij-i Nasiri, 63 Christian, 175–6 Zij-i Shahi, 52, 141, 143 Indic, 58 Zij-i Shahjahani, 64 Judeo-Christian seven-day, 6, 175 Zij-i Shahriyaran al-Shah, 52, 141 lunar, 49 Zij-i Sidrat Muntaha ..., 72 Muslim days of, naming, 6–7, 175 Zij-i Sultani (Ulugh Beg), 17, 54, 62, 63–4, Ottoman, 69 69–70, 72, 74, 109, 135 weighing ceremony, in Mughal empire, Zik-i Shatro-Ayar, 12, 52, 141 93–4, 95 Zikri Sufi Order, 154 Wilhem IV (Hesse), 176–7 Zoroastrian calendar, 124 Winter Solstice, 178 and Akbar, 34, 89, 105, 124, 125 world year, 141 division into months and days, 49 in Mughal empire, 89–91 Yavanajataka (astronomical treatise), 59 and Nau Ruz celebration, 81–2, 125 Yazd observatory, 16, 51 in Safavid empire, 48–50, 53–4, Yazdegird Era, 109 109–10, 183 dating of tax collection/salary payments and Shahjahan, 91 in, 138 See also Jalali Era; Turkish Twelve-Year epoch of, 53–4 Animal Era; Yazdegird Era Yazdegird III, 52 Zoroastrian tradition Yazid (Umayyad ruler), 79 influence on pre-Islamic astronomical/ year astrological tradition, 52–3 Christian, 175 influence on solar eras of early modern in Hijra Era, 166 Islam, 53–4 in Islam, 175 replacement by Islamic temporal in Jalali Era, 77, 141, 166–7 system, 53 Jewish, 175 Zu al-Hijja (month), 8, 9, 76 lunar, 7 Zu al-Qada (month), 8