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Psychomachia Sarmackiego Fausta. Mistrz Twardowski J.I. Kraszewskiego W Kontekście Średniowiecznych I Wczesnonowożytnych Moralitetów Oraz Ich Literackich Przetworzeń

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Psychomachia Sarmackiego Fausta. Mistrz Twardowski J.I. Kraszewskiego W Kontekście Średniowiecznych I Wczesnonowożytnych Moralitetów Oraz Ich Literackich Przetworzeń Maciej Gaździcki Uniwersytet Jagielloński PSYCHOMACHIA SARMACKIEGO FAUSTA. MISTRZ TWARDOWSKI J.I. KRASZEWSKIEGO W KONTEKŚCIE ŚREDNIOWIECZNYCH I WCZESNONOWOŻYTNYCH MORALITETÓW ORAZ ICH LITERACKICH PRZETWORZEŃ [... ] Bóg i szatan, a w pośrodku nich człowiek1. Źródła psychomachii. Psychomachia w moralitecie dea bene vivendi znajdowała swoje miejsce m.in. w twórczości moraliteto­ wej, która rozwijając się w wiekach średnich, stała się jedną z istotnych gałęzi I dramatu wczesnonowożytnego, a - jak dowodził choćby Przemysław Mrocz­ kowski - nie utraciła swej popularności nawet w XX stuleciu2. Moralitet idealnie nadawał się do przekazywania wzorców właściwego postępowania, gdyż jak pisa­ ła o nim Janina Kułtuniakowa: Świat przedstawiony zbudowany jest w porządku „zstępującym”, służy zilustrowaniu tezy. Obraz świata jest uproszczony, statyczny i płaski, ujęty w aspekcie „esencjalnym”, oparty na ostrym przeciwstawieniu czerni i bieli, bez półtonów. Nie ma tu miejsca 1 J.I. Kraszewski, Faust, „Gazeta Polska” 1862, nr 72, s. 1. 2 Zob. P. Mroczkowski, Historia literatury angielskiej. Zarys, Wrocław 1999, s. 94. Janina Kułtu­ niakowa uznała moralitet za najważniejszy w dobie odrodzenia gatunek popularny; zob. J. Kułtunia­ kowa, Od mitu do moralitetu, [w:] Wrocławskie spotkanie teatralne, red. W. Roszkowska-Sykałowa, Wrocław 1967, s. 15 (zob. teżprzyp. 15 na tej stronie). 356 Maciej Gaździcki na budzenie pytań i wątpliwości, konflikt zarysowany jest między wartościami o wyraź­ nym znaku dodatnim lub ujemnym i rozstrzygnięty na korzyść pierwszych. Nosicielami tych wartości są bądź ich alegoryczne personifikacje, bądź postacie realne, poddane da­ leko idącej typizacji, które można traktować jako znaki pojęć zbiorowych3. Alegoria była obecna już w utworach niedramatycznych, które określano morali­ tetami, jak na przykład pochodząca z przełomu XIII i XIV wieku przeróbka Me­ tamorfoz Owidiusza (Ovide moralisé). Jako figura retoryczna konkretyzowała i intensyfikowała ludzkie siły dobre i złe przez ich ujednostkowienie i upersoni- fikowanie, większe zaś możliwości dawała jej scena oraz wprowadzenie dialo­ gu, służącego ukazaniu sporu4. Jedną z charakterystycznych cech moralitetu była bowiem psychomachia, w której w duszy człowieka zmagały się cnoty (virtutes) i przywary (vitia)5. Sama idea wywodziła się z koncepcji walki duchowej zaprezen­ towanej przez św. Pawła w Liście do Efezjan (Ef 6, 11-17) i zobrazowana została w piśmiennictwie wczesnochrześcijańskim, na przykład w żywocie św. Antonie­ go pióra św. Atanazego6. W formie epickiej spopularyzowana została w słynnym wczesnochrześcijańskim dziele Prudencjusza właśnie pod tytułem Psychomachia, niezwykle popularnym w średniowieczu7. Zdaniem Mortona W. Bloomfielda więk­ szość, o ile nie wszystkie ówczesne wyobrażenia wad i cnót pochodzą z ilustracji umieszczonych we wczesnych manuskryptach Psychomachii, skąd przedostawały się do innych dzieł sztuki, samo zaś dzieło stanowiło główne źródło inspiracji dla moralizatorskiej literatury epoki8. Jak stwierdzał Bruce W. Hozeski, Prudencjusz, czerpiąc z historii Starego Testamentu i teologii nowotestamentalnej (zwłaszcza tej zawartej w listach Pawiowych), zaprezentował nową ideę szlachetnego życia jako walki, inną od filozoficznych pomysłów Arystotelesa i Platona9. Oddziałała ona na jeden z najwcześniejszych utworów moralitetowych o proweniencji liturgicz­ nej10, czyli Ordo Virtutum św. Hildegardy z Bingen, będący - podobnie jak poemat 3 J. Kułtuniakowa, op. cit., s. 14. 4 Zob. P. Kotlarz, Historia dramaturgii. Kierunki i determinanty rozwoju dramaturgii na świę­ cie, Gdańsk 2007, s. 87. Por. A. Kruczyński, Wstęp, [w:] O dramacie. Wybór źródeł do dziejów teorii dramatycznych, t. 1 : Od Arystotelesa do Goethego. Poetyki, manifesty, komentarze, red. E. Udalska, Katowice 2001, s. 167. 5 Zob. T. Michałowska, Średniowiecze, Warszawa 1997, s. 241. 6 Zob. M. Włodarski, Ars moriendi w literaturze polskiej XV i XVI w., Kraków 1987, s. 99. 7 Zob. B.W. Hozeski, Parallel Patterns in Prudentius’s Psychomachia and Hildegard of Bingen’s Ordo Virtutum, ,,14th Century English Mystics Newsletter” 8 (1982), nr 1, s. 10-13. 8 Zob. M.W. Bloomfield, The Seven Deadly Sins, [cyt. za:] B.W. Hozeski, op. cit., s. 11. 9 Zob. B.W. Hozeski, op. cit., s. 13. Odnośnie do źródeł poematu Prudencjusza zob. M.W. Bloomfield, A Source of Prudentius’Psychomachia, „Speculum” 18 (1943), nr 1, s. 87-90. 10 Nie należy jednak zbyt pochopnie stawiać dzieła niemieckiej mistyczki w jednej linii z póź­ niejszymi utworami moralitetowymi; por. R. Potter, The Ordo Virtutum; Ancestor of the English Moralities?, „Comparative Drama” 20 (1986), nr 3, s. 203. Psychomachia sarmackiego Fausta. Mistrz Twardowski J.I. Kraszewskiego w kontekście.. 357 Prudencjusza - psychomachiąpar excellence. Utwór ten ukazuje bowiem zmagania nie Człowieka (Homo), Ludzkości (Mankind) lub Każdego (holenderski Elckerlyc, późniejszy Everyman)11, ale udręczonej, grzesznej Duszy (Anima), która z pomocą bojowo ukazanych cnót, „dowodzonych” przez królującą im Pokorę, odnosi zwy­ cięstwo nad przebiegłym szatanem-zwodzicielem, uosabiającym grzechy, przeciw­ ko którym u Prudencjusza stawały cnoty12. Szatan może walczyć nie tylko z cnota­ mi, ale i z niebiańskimi posłańcami. Tradycja walki o duszę ukazanej jako starcie nadprzyrodzonych sił dobra i zła sięga apokryfów hebrajskich - konkretnie wspo­ mnianego w Nowym Testamencie (Jud 1, 9) Wniebowzięcia Mojżesza, w którym o ciało proroka wiodą spór zły duch i Archanioł Michał13. Psychomachie tego rodzaju znane są nam także z moralitetów przedstawiają­ cych ostatnie chwile umierającego, w których aniołowie starają się uspokoić jego duszę i przygotować na spotkanie z Bogiem, podczas gdy szatani usiłują zasiać w niej zwątpienie i rozpacz. Tak jest na przykład u Marcina Bielskiego w Kome- dyi Justyna i Konstancyjej, w której diabeł Farel wypomina konającemu Ojcu jego grzechy, anioł „egzorcysta” broni zaś człowieka, przepędzając siłę nieczystą. Wprawdzie, żeby tego dokonać, sięgnie ostatecznie po kij z wizerunkiem krzy­ ża, jednak w literaturze psychomachia przedstawiana jest bardziej subtelnie; bez­ pośrednie zmagania fizyczne obrazuje ikonografia, natomiast w piśmiennictwie przeciwne siły starają się raczej pozyskać zdobycz (duszę) dla siebie za pomocą różnych innych środków14. Moralitetowa psychomachia a literackie opracowania historii Fausta Oddziaływanie psychomachijnego elementu moralitetu odnajdujemy także w in­ nych tekstach nowożytnej dramaturgii15. Jednym z nich jest Tragiczna historia Doktora Fausta Christophera Marlowe a. Warto podkreślić, że już sam zasadniczy 11 Zob. T. Michałowska, op. cit., s. 240-241; P. Kotlarz, op. cit., s. 88. 12 Zob. B.W. Hozeski, op. cit., s. 15-17. 13 Zob. M. Rudwin, Diabeł w legendzie i literaturze, przeł. J. Ulg, Kraków 1999, s. 165. Walka ta mogła przybierać różne postaci, np. gry w szachy, jak w trzynastowiecznym miraklu maryjnym Gau- tiera de Coincy (zamiast anioła o los śmiertelnika walczy sam Bóg; partia zostaje wygrana, a grzesznik zbawiony dzięki interwencji Matki Bożej); zob. P. Oczko, Szachy, [w:] Jan Kochanowski, red. A. Gorz- kowski, Kraków 2001, s. 228. Por. także: M. Rudwin, op. cit., s. 165-166 (z przyp. 21-23). 14 Zob. M. Włodarski, op. cit., s. 99-100. 15 Chętnie sięgali po niego np. jezuici; zob. J. Abramowska, Moralitet, [w:] Słownik literatury staropolskiej. Średniowiecze - renesans - barok, red. T. Michałowska, przy udziale B. Otwinowskiej, E. Sarnowskiej-Temeriusz, Wrocław 1998, s. 561-562. 358 Maciej Gaździcki kościec opowieści o szesnastowiecznym niemieckim uczonym (dotyczący kon­ szachtów z diabłem w zamian za czerpanie wymiernych korzyści) przekazywa­ ny był przez średniowieczne i wczesnonowożytne utwory dramatyczne, w tym wypadku mirakle - Cud Teofilowy (Miracle de Theopile) i Mariken z Nimejgen16. Wcześniej - przed dziełem twórcy Tamerlana - powstała uznawana za nieudol­ ny lub niedokładny przekład pierwotnej literackiej legendy uczonego (Faustbuch Johanna Spiessa) anonimowa Historia godnego potępienia życia i marnej śmierci Doktora Fausta, utrzymana właśnie w konwencji moralitetu17. W samym drama­ cie Marlowea uczony nawiedzany jest przez dwa anioły - dobrego i złego - któ­ re udzielają mu odmiennych porad co do jego postępowania („O Fauście, odłóż tę przeklętą księgę [...]. To są bluźnierstwa. Czytaj Pismo Święte”, „Postępuj na­ przód, Fauście [...]. Bądź tym na ziemi, czym Jowisz jest w niebie [ ]**18). Mo­ tyw dwóch duchów towarzyszących nieustannie człowiekowi, wyprowadzony z apokryficznego Pasterza Hermasa oraz z koncepcji Orygenesa zawartej w ho­ milii o Ewangelii według św. Łukasza (Łk 2, 8-12)19, stanowiący przykład inwen­ cji Marlowea i jego wkład do legendy Fausta20, odpowiada starciu dobra ze złem w moralitecie21. Ponadto Mefistofeles prezentuje Faustowi personifikacje siedmiu grzechów głównych22. Wprawdzie Marlowe nie wprowadza przeciwnych im cnót, ale jednak pochodzenie owych personifikacji jest wyraźnie moralitetowe i odsyła 16 Zob. P. Kotlarz, op. cit., s. 83-84. 17 Zob. B.M. Puchalska, Faust elżbietański i tragiczny Christophera Marlowea, [w:] Postacie i motywy faustyczne w literaturze polskiej. Materiały Ogólnopolskiej Konferencji Naukowej, Białystok 23 -2 6 października 1997,1.1, red. H. Krukowska, J. Ławski, Białystok 1999, s. 121; W. Szturc, Faust Goethego. Ku antropologii romantycznej, Kraków 1995, s. 13. 18 Ch. Marlowe, Tragiczna Historia Doktora Fausta, przeł. J. Kydryński, Kraków 1982, s. 11. 19 Zob. Hermas 42: 2-27; Orygenes, Homilia 12. Na temat tekstu mówiącego o tym, że anioł przybył z nieba i ogłosił
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