FROM THE OLD LAW TO THE NEW: The Brussels Eerste Bliscap van Maria

John Cartwright

For over a century (probably from the 1440s until the 1560s) the Grote Markt or Grande Place in Brussels was the scene of an annual performance of plays depicting the Seven Joys of Mary, taking place in a sequence of seven plays, one each year. From at least 1448, these performances were subsidised and supported by the city authorities. The plays themselves began as in effect an extended companion piece to the annual ommegang or formal procession in honour of the Virgin Mary, which dates from the mid–fourteenth century. Both the ommegang and in due course the cycle of Mary plays owed their existence and their regular continuing performance to the foremost Brussels Schuttersgilde or ‘shooting guild’, known as the Grote Gulde. It was only in the last few years of the cycle’s performing life that this by then ancient guild appealed for assistance in mounting the plays to the more recently formed Chambers of Rhetoric. Of this cycle of seven plays, only two survive, the first and the last in the sequence, De Eerste Bliscap van Maria and Die Sevenste Bliscap van Onser Vrouwen.1 The Epilogue of the Sevenste Bliscap looks back in summary form over the whole cycle, noting that Dierst was: hoe God liet neder dalen Gabriel, mit reynen gedachte, Om ons te lossene uter qualen, Die haer de salige bootschap brachte 1701–4 ‘The first [play] was: how God out of his unblemished sense of purpose sent down Gabriel, to release us from our sufferings — Gabriel who brought her the blessed message’. This summary is of course accurate up to a point, in reminding the audience that the first episode in the cycle, played six years previously and to be repeated in the following year, was that of the Annunciation. On the other hand, in the play of the Eerste Bliscap Mary herself is not mentioned until line 1633 (out of 2081), and the Annunciation proper begins at line 2012. By contrast, the entire action of the Sevenste Bliscap is explicitly

118 THE BRUSSELS EERSTE BLISCAP VAN MARIA concerned with the approaching Death and Assumption of the Virgin; as the Prologue puts it, it deals with Wat vrouden Maria heeft ontfaen Doen hier haer leven wert gedaen. 49–50 ‘What joys Mary received when her life here was over’. So what is happening in the Eerste Bliscap, and why? What kind of play is this? In particular, what kind of narrative or thematic thread, if any, leads us to the culminating episode of the Annunciation, and what connection, if any, is provided to the six following plays in the cycle? To begin with, the Eerste Bliscap is clearly not simply a miracle or saint’s play: the 37–line scene of the Annunciation at the end of the play is the culmination of a sequence of episodes which I intend to show is carefully argued, judiciously selected, and strikingly stageworthy. The two thousand lines of ‘preparation’ that make up the bulk of the play may be understood as an introduction to and contextualisation of the whole cycle of seven. The author and his promoters were not content simply to tell the first episode in the story of Mary — it was desirable that audiences have explained to them why this story was important at all, and to this end this first play of the cycle recapitulates in a particularly focused form the spiritual history of the human race. In this broad structural aspect, the Eerste Bliscap may be thought of, as several scholars have pointed out, as a cycle play; in a broadly similar way, the English cycles centre on episodes from the life of Christ but require that those events be situated in the whole history of the world in order to make clear the necessity of his life and death. From another point of view, the Eerste Bliscap may be seen as an extended morality on guilt, judgment, and mercy, in which for much of the time Adam represents the ‘’ figure, and in which the language and settings of courts of law play a defining and integrating rôle. There is no element in the Eerste Bliscap that cannot be found elsewhere, either separately or in clusters (apart, that is, from the short scene of the gossiping neighbours of Joachim and Anna: 1546–71), but it is the particular choice, arrangement, and emphasis of those elements in a coherent overall structure that gives this piece its special quality. Let us examine this construction more closely. The speaker of the Prologue undertakes that they will Figuerlic speelwijs doen besceet Die eerste bliscap die haer bescye 35–6

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‘show by means of figures, in the form of a play, the first joy that happened to [Mary]’; this is a confident statement of theatrical conventionality, an awareness of which the author expects his audience to share. Elckerlijck and use much the same terms in their prologues fifty years later. The Prologue of the Eerste Bliscap goes on to explain, in effect, why the Annunciation itself takes up so little space in the play: Al es de boetscap tprincipale Ons speels, tes noot datmen verhale Waer omme dat God, te onsen behouwe, Menselicheit aen nemen wouwe. 45–8 ‘Even though the message [of the Annunciation] is the main point, it is necessary that we explain why God, for our salvation, wished to take on human form’. With such a broadly expressed programme, one might expect this play to begin with the Creation, like the English cycle plays, but this is not the case, and the starting point chosen by this playwright is the first pointer to the very particular and deliberate emphasis that gives shape to the whole play. Omitting the Creation scenes and Lucifer’s Fall, the dramatic action begins with the despair and envy of the Fallen Angels, which is the proximate beginning of the train of events that will lead to the Fall of Adam and Eve, the debates surrounding the consequences of that Fall, and the decision that the Son of God will be born to Mary as a human being. This scene is further refined — both theatrically and conceptually — by being limited to two characters, Lucifer himself and Envy, who is thought of both as a devil and as the traditional representation of Invidia, a woman whose teeth are worn out from eating her own hands and who is dwinende / Tot eender scaduwen (‘fading away to a shadow’: 115–16). Envy here represents that aspect of the Devil that most provoked him to his rash ambition, and who at this point, as a dramatic character, urges him to take revenge on mankind, now occupying the place from which the Fallen Angels have been expelled. It is therefore Envy, not Lucifer, who approaches the Serpent, who in turn approaches Eve, who persuades Adam, in a succinctly presented set of domino effects. At this point God intervenes: Ic, die ben ende hebbe ghemaect Alle dinc ende van nieute onstaect

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Ende op rechtverdicheit gescepen, Ben nu bi redenen in dien begrepen, Dat ic justicie sal doen baren Op hen, die overhorich waren Mijns geboots, reyn int behagen. Dies selen sire penitencie om verdragen Soe lange, als recht met redenen brieft. 258–66 ‘I who am, and who have made everything out of nothing, and founded it on righteousness, have quite reasonably decided to carry out justice on those who have disobeyed my entirely pleasing commandment. Therefore they will suffer their punishment as long as right/law reasonably requires’. The collocation of the words rechtverdicheit, justicie, and recht in this passage emphatically establishes that God’s law cannot but be just, both because it is divine and because it is reasonable, and this grouping of concepts also sets the framework of discourse and imagery which forms, as we shall see, the connecting thread of the play. After God’s regretful but consistent sentence of banishment, Adam and Eve are escorted by the ‘angel Cherubin’ with his sword, who, according to the stage directions, remains onstage as a silent presence until the death of Adam, 630 lines later. Adam fully recognises the justice of the judgment, and his own guilt: In weelden haddi u mogen houwen Daer ghi nu ellindich blijft. Die duecht wilt lonen met ontrouwen, Hets redelic hijs druc bedrijft 347–50 ‘You might have stayed in bliss, where now you are in misery; he who repays kindness with betrayal, it’s reasonable that he should suffer sorrow for it’. Lucifer, on the other hand, is about to leap out of his skin van bliscepen (with joy: 406) — ironically, the first use of the word since the Prologue. A large part of the devils’ glee is that they believe that they now have God trapped by His own unshakeable sense of justice, and that therefore the source of their own pain will become the means to their revenge. They proceed to lay a formal charge against Adam and Eve, and Lucifer, like an unctuous prosecutor, addresses God in His judgement seat as alder rechtuerdichste rechter (‘most just Judge of all’: 497) and rechter goet (‘good

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Judge’: 505), and he demands their souls, supported by Envy, who points out that this would be only reasonable (510), as Adam and Eve freely made their choice, just as they themselves had. Adam admits guilt but asks for mercy, especially for his descendants, saying that it seems geen gerechtichede (‘no justice’: 547) that they too should be punished. Envy’s summing–up, however — Bi redenen, ende dies versuechic recht (‘By reason, and therefore I ask for justice’: 569) — leaves God no exit, and he regretfully pronounces that Rechts soe salic mi moeten bewinden. Want na dat redene en recht vermach, En condier geen onscout vinden. 572–4 ‘I shall have to carry out the law, because by reason and right/law you could find no basis for acquitting them’. The conceptual driving force of the play is becoming clear. Just as Milton in his great poetic epic sets out ‘To justify the ways of God to man’ through argument and narration, so the author of the Eerste Bliscap is deliberately and coherently laying out all the arguments of the Old Law, and choosing particular actions, settings, and language in order to express them and their consequences in dramatic terms. These issues are of course not in themselves novel or different, but in this play they are presented with exceptional sharpness, consistency, and dramatic judgment. The triumphant threats of Lucifer, who has now won his case, are followed by the terrifying racket of the devils offstage, and then, after a brief pause, we move on to Adam in extreme old age (930 years old). The dramatic action is punctuated in this way by seventeen explicit indications of pauses, sometimes with music or other noises; these pauses signal significant changes in either time or place, or both. Next, Seth, the son of Adam, goes to find the Angel guarding Paradise (you will remember that this Angel has been on stage since the Expulsion, playing, in effect, the role of a silent court orderly during the arguments before God that have — in theatrical terms — just been concluded; this contrast between stage time and Adam’s time — a few minutes to the audience, 900 years to Adam — reminds us of the coexistence of God’s timelessness and human time through ‘history’). Seth asks whether there is a cure for his father’s sickness, and, in accordance with one common version of the story developing from the Legenda Aurea, the Angel gives him a branch of the Paradise tree, which is to be planted under the head of Adam, who has now died.

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Lucifer and Envy celebrate and gloat, and then we hear the groans and cries of the Fathers, represented here by David, Job, Isaiah, and one other. It is five thousand years later, and they are trapped in what Eve refers to as desen Kerkere (‘this prison’: 794). As the Fathers cry out, Adam appeals for their release to alder rechtuerdichste rechter verheven (‘the most just Judge of all, on high’: 771), thus directly echoing the opening words of Lucifer’s address at the beginning of Adam and Eve’s trial, and thereby emphasising the contrast between Lucifer’s hypocrisy and vindictiveness and Adam’s love and concern for his descendants. The dramatic action moves easily from one figurative level to another: from Lucifer and Envy to Adam and Eve and the Fathers (in explicitly noted historical time) and now to allegorical representation: Bitter Sorrow (Bitter Ellende) appears on stage, on crutches, and in wretched clothes. She is a physical/theatrical embodiment of the spiritual suffering of the Fathers, while her friend Heartfelt Prayer (Innich Gebet), who enters shortly after her, represents through her movement and actions on stage the dynamic force within the Fathers that will lead to their liberation. On hearing the appeal of Bitter Sorrow, Heartfelt Prayer produces a drill and bores a hole in den hemel (‘heaven’: 916–7), moves up through it, and then calls up Mercy (Ontfermicheit), who dwells in God’s heart (964). Mercy needs to be called on as an intercessor because God is still so offended by the actions of fallen humans — after all, five thousand years is meaningless to Him — that their sorrows and prayers, no matter how heartfelt, are not sufficient. The severity of the offence and the just and righteous anger of God are, as we have already seen, constantly noted — this very particular emphasis is leading up to the presentation of Mary’s necessary double role, both as mother of the Saviour and as intercessor in her own right on the basis of the New Law. Mercy, therefore, through the action of Heartfelt Prayer, who in turn represents Adam and Eve and the virtuous Fathers, becomes their advocaet (958), thus leading to the next scene, the debate in Heaven, presented as a vigorous argument about law and the limits of law. The other three Daughters of God are introduced one by one, each at a point in the debate that is appropriate to her individual nature. Justice, who claims also to live in God’s heart, is the first to engage with Mercy, using a distinctively aggressive tone. Their interchange makes explicit the central problem and paradox of the play’s action: on the one hand, if Adam and his descendants do not suffer eternal death, justice will not be eternal and God’s truth will fail; on the other hand, God created Adam to

123 JOHN CARTWRIGHT fill Lucifer’s place and enjoy the sight of God, and if he does not do so, God’s will will fail. The two sisters are deadlocked at this point, with Justice going by the statutes and Mercy suggesting that God can look further than that, when Truth intervenes in an attempt to mediate, suggesting that they find someone sinless who will pay on behalf of humankind. After they have fruitlessly tried the angels, God asks His Son for advice; the Son, not wanting to step outside the framework of law on His own account, responds cautiously that, if God wills it, Justice and Truth’s opinion should be asked, while the Holy Spirit appeals to God to settle the matter as He thinks fit. We appear to be back in the deadlock at this point, but then Peace speaks up for the first time, reminding the Father that Ghi sijt genadich in allen keere (‘You are merciful in every respect’: 1235). This is of course the turning–point in the debate and in the play. After Son and Daughters have asked some clarifying questions, the Son accepts his new rôle, in a speech from which questions of law are now entirely absent. The discourse of law, with its accompanying stage–images of court, accused, judge, advocates, and prison, gives way to the discourse of love, with its utopian images of light, fruitfulness, and motherhood. Time and timelessness (or history and eternity) will be reconciled when Mary receives the message that she will bear the Son of God in human form. We may obtain some illuminating insights into this author’s dramaturgical practice by comparing this version of the debate in Heaven with that in the English Castle of Perseverance. This episode in the Castle is 466 lines long, and the speeches are distributed as follows: in the Castle, there are sixteen speeches, with Mercy and Truth having four speeches each (totalling 122 and 102 lines respectively), Justice and Peace three each (111 and 112 lines), and God one speech (19 lines); in the Eerste Bliscap, there are 440 lines in this scene, distributed among fifty speeches, with Mercy having fifteen speeches (140 lines), Justice thirteen (103 lines), Truth ten (84.5 lines), Peace two (6 lines), God the Father five (58.5 lines), the Son three (27 lines), the Holy Spirit one (8 lines) and an angel one (12 lines). The debate in Heaven in the Eerste Bliscap is therefore twenty–six lines shorter than that in the Castle, but is made up of three times as many individual speeches. The tone of this episode in the Castle is leisurely and dignified, with frequent Latin citations from Scripture; Mercy is somewhat more prominent than her sisters. In the Eerste Bliscap version, the language tends to be more colloquial at times, especially in the exchanges between Mercy and Justice; the speeches are much less evenly distributed,

124 THE BRUSSELS EERSTE BLISCAP VAN MARIA with Mercy and Justice leading the debate, consistently with the central emphasis of the play, while Peace makes two brief but crucial interventions; no speech is longer than twenty lines, which greatly increases the sense of urgency and the dramatic vigour of the debate; God the Father plays a more active role in questioning and commenting, while the plea to the angels (not in the Castle), which is met by an explicitly noted silence, also increases the dramatic tension. This confident assimilation and adaptation of a wellknown episode or topos is a striking but typical example of the dramaturgical skill of the writer of the Bliscap plays. After Mercy, Justice, and Truth have recited a finely constructed triple rondel to conclude the scene in Heaven, Joachim appears, and from this point on we are in recognisably human time and space. After Joachim’s brutal ejection from the temple, God sends an angel to tell him that his wife’s barrenness is at an end. The images now are of trees, flowers, fruit, and fountains. A brief and original scene of two curious but sympathetic neighbours emphasises the familiar human context, after which we move quickly to the birth of Mary. The regular episodes follow, in a brief but coherent form that is stripped of any elements — such as dwelling on Joseph’s age or on his doubts about Mary’s faithfulness — which might detract from the forward movement of the argument. At the age of three, Mary is sent — with her agreement — to live in the Temple. In the following scene she is old enough to marry; three young wooers and Joseph come with dry branches, as instructed by the angel, and Joseph’s produces a flower; they marry, and God prepares Gabriel for his mission. There follow the thirty-seven lines of the Annunciation scene, and then the Epilogue, in which the speaker promises that the plays of the six other Joys will follow, year by year. If we step back and observe the macro–structure of the play, a sequence of three main sections emerges: the first 960 lines set up and explore the nature and implications of a world governed by laws of unshakeable and unquestionable justice — the Old Law — and the problem this poses for a Judge who must be consistent in order to be true. The debate in Heaven — 440 lines in the centre of the play — constitutes the second main section. It begins in deadlock and ends in resolution, which is achieved by simply stepping outside the paradigm — the unbreakable rule of law — that had dominated the first part. The remaining 680 lines constitute the third section, in which the resolution

125 JOHN CARTWRIGHT that was reached in principle in the course of the debate in Heaven is shown being worked out in practice, in terms of recognisable human life. The argument is theatrically expressed in a succession of short scenes running straight from one to the next, in which costume, dialogue, gesture, action, and music give shape and sound to the spiritual drama. Conversely, the sometimes abrupt leaps from scene to scene in terms of place, time, and mode are given unity and forward motion by the coherent and evolving pattern of argument that underlies the stage events. The editors of the English play of Mary Magdalene, from the Digby MS, comment that that work ‘is both a miracle play and a , a composite of saint play and morality technique, together with a number of traditional scenes of the cyclic drama’.3 The Eerste Bliscap, a play, as it happens, of roughly the same length as Mary Magdalene, is ostensibly a miracle play or saint’s play, although the Marian material itself, as we have seen, takes up only a small part of the action; like the English cycle plays, it depicts the meeting of massive — indeed, cosmic — opposing forces, at times directly but more often through human or other surrogates, drawing in a wide range of examples from diverse genres in order to indicate the significance and chart the development of this clash; in morality style, it explores the tension between human fallibility and divine Grace, expressing this tension especially through the language and conventions of the law. The Eerste Bliscap van Maria sets the scene for the whole cycle of seven Joys, placing the story of Mary the merciful in the context of the shift from the Old Law to the New. In its confident combination of stylish dialogue and versification, thematic coherence, and dramatic flair, the Eerste Bliscap is an exceptional achievement of late medieval rhetoric and dramaturgy.

University of South Africa

NOTES 1. De Eerste Bliscap van Maria en Die Sevenste Bliscap van Onser Vrouwen edited by W.H. Beuken(Tjeenk Willink/Noordijn, Culemborg, 1973). 2. See for an earlier discussion of this episode, P. Meredith and L.R. Muir ‘The Trial in Heaven in the Eerste Bliscap and other European Plays’ Dutch Crossing 22 (1984) 84–92. 3. The Late Medieval Religious Plays of Bodleian MSS Digby 133 and e Museo 160 edited Donald C. Baker and others, EETS OS 283 (1982).

126 CUMULATIVE INDEX VOLUMES 1 — 20 Anderson, John: The Newcastle Dragon 3:2 67–68 Anderson, John: The Newcastle Pageant ‘Care’ 1:2 60–61 Axton, Richard: Royal Throne, Royal Bed: John Heywood and Spectacle 16 66–76 Baldwin, Elizabeth: John Seckerston: The Earl of Derby's Bearward 20 96–105 Brown, John: The Devils in the York Doomsday 11 26–41 Butterworth, Philip: The Baptisme of Hir Hienes Darrest Sone in Stirviling 10:1 26–55 Butterworth, Philip: Gunnepowdyr, Fyre, and Thondyr 7:2 68–76 Butterworth, Philip: Hugh Platte’s Collapsible Waggon 15 126–136 Butterworth, Philip: The York Crucifixion: Actor/Audience Relationship 14 67–76 Butterworth, Philip: The York Mercers’ Pageant Vehicle, 1433–67: Wheels, Steering, and Control 1:2 72–81 Carpenter, Sarah: Drama and Politics: Scotland in the 1530s 10:2 81–90 Carpenter, Sarah: Masks and Mirrors: Questions of Identity in Medieval Morality Drama 13 7–17 Carpenter, Sarah: Morality-Play Characters 5:1 29–52 Cartwright, John: From the Old Law to the New: The Brussels Eerste Bliscap 20 120–128 van Maria Cartwright, John: The ‘Morality Play’: Dead End or Main Street? 18 3–14 Carpenter, Sarah: The Sixteenth-Century Court Audience: Performers and 19 3–14 Spectators Carpenter, Sarah: Walter Binning: Decorative and Theatrical Painter (fl. 1540–1594) 10:1 17–25 Castaño, Joan: Documentary Sources for the Study of the Festa of Elche 12:1 2–33

127 INDEX

Chaplan, Rosemary E.: ‘Farewell, jentyll Jaffrey’: Speech-act Theory and Mankind 11 140–149 Charpentier, Hélène: Le mal, sa représentation et sa rétribution dans Le mystère du Viel Testament 11 104–115 Corbett, Anthony G.: God: One Intention of the Author in the York Old Testament Plays from The Fall of the Angels to The Expulsion 14 102–119 Cowling, Jane: The Wood Eaves 17 20–28 Crouch, David: Paying to See the Play: The Stationholders on the Route of the York Corpus Christi Play in the Fifteenth Century 13 64–111 Danchin, Pierre: Le Developpement du spectaculaire sur le théâtre anglais (1600-1800): Le Rôle des prologues et épilogues 16 166–176 Davis, Nicholas: Allusions to Medieval Drama in Britain (1): A Findings List 4:2 75–76 Davis, Nicholas: Allusions to Medieval Drama in Britain (3): A Findings List 5:2 83–86 Davis, Nicholas: Allusions to Medieval Drama in Britain (4): Interludes 6:1 61–91 Davis, Nicholas: Allusions to Medieval Drama in Britain (6): ‘He had a Great Pleasure upon an Ape’: William Horman’s Vulgaria. 7:2 101–106 Davis, Nicholas: Another View of the Tretise of Miraclis Pleyinge 4:1 48–55 Davis, Nicholas: The Meaning of the Word Interlude: A Discussion 6:1 5–15 Davis, Nicholas: Spectacula Christiana: A Roman Christian Template for Medieval Drama 9:2 125–152 Davis, Nicholas: The Tretise of Myraclis Pleyinge: On Milieu and Authorship 12:2 124–151 Dean, William: Some Aspects of the Law of Criminal Procedure in The Trial of Ismael in Nice Wanton 13 27–38 Diller, Hans-Jürgen: The Torturers in the English Mystery Plays 11 57–65 Dillon, Janette: John Rastell’s Stage 18 15–45

128 VOLUMES 1–20

Divett, Anthony W.: An Early Reference to Devil’s Masks in the Nottingham Records 6:1 28–30 Elliott, John: Vestiges of Medieval Drama in Spain: The Passion Play in Baena (Cordóba) 10:1 56–62 Epp, Garrett P.J.: Passion, Pomp, and Parody: Alliteration in the York Plays 11 150–161 Epp, Garrett, P.J.: ‘Into a Womannys Lyckenes’: Bale’s personification of Idolatry. A response to Alan Stewart 18 63–73 Fletcher, Alan J.: ‘Farte Prycke in Cule’: A Late-Elizabethan Analogue from Ireland 8:2 134–139 Forbes, Derek: A Note on Pageant Waggons 6:1 4 Forest–Hill, Lynn: Lucian’s Satire of Philosophers in Heywood’s Play of the Wether 18 142–160 Gomez, Manuel, Geoff Lester, and Rafael Portillo: Easter Processions in Puente Genil, Cordóba, Spain 9:2 93–124 Gras, Henk: The Ludus de Decem Virginibus and the Reception of Represented Evil 11 175–186 Greenfield, Peter: Using Dramatic Records: History, Theory, Southampton’s Musicians 17 76–95 Guinle, Francis: Songs in Tudor Drama: Forms and Meaning 16 91–115 Happé, Peter: Acting the York Mystery Plays: A Consideration of Modes 10:2 112–116 Happé, Peter: Aspects of Dramatic Technique in Thomas Garter’s Susanna 8:1 61–63 Happé, Peter: The Devil in the Interludes, 1550–1577 11 42–56 Happé Peter: Mystery Plays and the Modern Audience 2:2 98–100 Happé, Peter: Properties and Costumes in the Plays of John Bale 2:2 55–65 Happé, Peter: Sedition in King Johan: Bale’s Development of a ‘’ 3:1 3–6 Happé, Peter: Spectacle in Bale and Heywood 16 51–65

129 INDEX

Happé, Peter, Sarah Carpenter, Henrietta Twycross-Martin, Diana Wyatt, and Carl Heap: Thoughts on ‘Transvestism’ by Divers Hands 5:2 110–122 Hindley, Alan: Staging the Old French Moralité: The Case of Les Enfants de Maintenant 16 77–90 Heap, Carl: On Performing Mankind 4:2 93–103 Horner, Olga: Fulgens and Lucres: An Historical Perspective 15 49–86 Horner, Olga: Susanna’s Double Life 8:2 76–102 Horner, Olga: 'Us Must Make Lies': Witness, Evidence, and Proof in the 20 York Resurrection 24–76 Humphrey, Chris: ‘To Make a New King’: Seasonal Drama and Local Politics in Norwich, 1443 17 29–41 Ingram, Reg: The Coventry Pageant Waggon 2:1 3–14 Johnston, Alexandra F.: The Emerging Pattern of the Easter Play in England 20 3–23 Johnston, Alexandra F.: Evil in the Towneley Cycle 11 94–103 Kaplan, Joel: Staging the York Creation and Hortulanus Toronto 1998 19 129–143 King, Pamela M.: Corpus Christi, Valencia 15 103–110 King, Pamela M.: Corpus Christi Plays and the ‘Bolton Hours’ I: Tastes in 18 46–62 Lay Piety and Patronage in Fifteenth–century York King, Pamela M.: Elche again: The Venida and the Semana Santa 12:1 4–20 King, Pamela M. and Asuncion Salvador-Rabaza: The Festa or Misteri of Elx: A Modern Translation of the Sung Text 14 4–21 King, Pamela M. and Asuncion Salvador-Rabaza: La Festa d’Elx: The Festival of the Assumption of the Virgin, Elche (Alicante) 8:1 21–50 King, Pamela M.: Minority Plays: Two Interludes for Edward VI 15 87–102 King Pamela M.: Records of Early English Drama: Reflections of a Hardened User 17 52–57

130 VOLUMES 1–20

King, Pamela M. & Meg Twycross: Beyond REED? The York Doomsday Project 17 132–148 Kipling, Gordon: Fouquet, St Apollonia, and the Motives of the Miniaturist’s 19 101–120 Art: A Reply to Graham Runnalls Kipling, Gordon: The London Pageants for Margaret of Anjou: A Medieval Script Restored 4:1 5–27 Kipling, Gordon: Theatre as Subject and Object in Fouquet’s ‘Martyrdom of 19 26–80 St Apollonia’ Knight, Alan E: The Roman ‘Saint’s Plays’ of Lille 19 15–25 Lalou, Elisabeth: Les Tortures dans les mystères: Théâtre et réalité XIVe–XVe siècle 16 37–50 Lascombes, André: De la fonction théâtrale des personnages du Mal (Le Jeu de la Ville de N. et Le Château de Persévérance) 11 11–25 Lascombes, André: Pour une rhétorique du spectaculaire: Notes sur l’ostension 16 10–24 Lazard, Madeleine: Deux Entrés Royales à Nantes en 1532: Celle d’Eléonore d’Autriche, Reine de France et du Dauphin François II 16 116–125 Lester, Geoffrey: Holy Week Processions in Seville 8:2 103–118 Lester, Geoffrey: Idle words: Stereotyping by Language in the English Mystery Plays 11 129–139 Marshall, John: The Chester Pageant Carriage – How Right was Rogers? 1:2 49–55 Marshall, John: ‘Fortune in Worldys Worschyppe’: The Satirising of the Suffolks in Wisdom 14 37–66 Marshall, John: Marginal Staging Marks in the Macro Manuscript of Wisdom 7:2 77–82 Marshall, John: Nailing the Six-Wheeled Waggon: A Sideview 12:2 96–100 May, Stephen: Good Kings and Tyrants: A Re-Assessment of the Regal Figure on the Medieval Stage 5:2 87–102 May, Stephen: A Medieval Stage Property: The Spade 4:2 77–93

131 INDEX

McDonald, Peter: The Towneley Cycle at Toronto 8:1 51–60 McGavin, John: Long Speeches in Lindsay and Bale 12:2 88–95 McKinnell, John: Drama and Ceremony in the Last Years of Durham Cathedral Priory 10:2 91–111 McKinnell, John: Producing the York Mary Plays 12:2 101–123 McKinnell, John: Staging the Digby Mary Magdalen 6:2 126–152 Mamczarz, Irène: The Representation of Cities in the Baroque Opera and the Development of ‘Italian-Style’ Scenography 16 142–165 Meredith, Peter: Development of the York Mercers’ Pageant Waggon 1:1 5–18 Meredith, Peter: ‘Fart Pryke in Cule’ and Cock-Fighting 6:1 30–39 Meredith, Peter and John Marshall: The Wheeled Dragon in the Luttrell Psalter 2:2 70–73 Meredith, Peter: The York Millers’ Pageant and the Towneley Processus Talentorum 4:2 104–114 Mills, David: The 1951 and 1952 Revivals of the Chester Plays 15 111–123 Mills, David: Anglo–Dutch Theatres: Problems and Possibilities 18 85–98 Mills, David: Characterisation in the English Mystery Cycles: A Critical Prologue 5:1 5–17 Mills, David: ‘Look at me when I’m speaking to you’ The ‘Behold and See’ Convention in Medieval Drama 7:1 4–12 Mills, David: Music and Musicians in Chester: a Summary Account 17 58–75 Mills, David: Netta Syrett and The Old Miracle Plays of England 10:2 117–128 Mills, David: Reviving the Chester Plays 13 39–51 Mills, David: ‘Reviving the Chester Plays’: A Postscript 15 124–125 Mills, David: The Stage Directions in the Manuscripts of the Chester Mystery Cycle 3:1 45–51

132 VOLUMES 1–20

Mills, David: Who are our Customers? Targeting the Chester Audience 20 106–119 Muir, Lynette: Audiences in the French 9:1 8–22 Muir, Lynette: Women on the Medieval Stage: The Evidence from France 7:2 107–119 Mullini, Roberta: Action and discourse in the Harrowing of Hell: The Defeat of Evil 11 116–128 Needles, J.Reed, and Steven Putzel: Toronto, the Pageant Waggons 1:1 32–33 Nelson, Alan: Easter Week Pageants in Valladolid and Medina del Campo 1:2 62–70 Parry, David: The York Mystery Cycle at Toronto, 1977 1:1 19–31 Pettitt, Thomas: Tudor Interludes and the Winter Revels 6:1 16–27 Piccat, Marco: The figure of Antichrist in a 16th-century Italian Mystery Play: Lo Judicio de la Fine del Mondo (Mondovì, 1510) 11 66–84 Pietropoli, Cecilia: The Characterisation of Evil in the Towneley Plays 11 85–93 Portillo Rafael, and Manual Gomez Lara: Vestiges of Dramatic Performances of the Passion in Andalusia’s Holy Week Processions 8:2 119–131 Price, Jocelyn: Allusions to Medieval Drama in Britain (5): Additional Old English References 6:2 159–160 Price, Jocelyn: Theatrical Vocabulary in Old English: A Preliminary Survey (1) 5:1 58–71 Price, Jocelyn: Theatrical Vocabulary in Old English (2) 6:2 101–125 Quirante, Luis: The City in the Church: The Consueta De Santa Agata 14 22–36 Ragusa, Isa: Goethe’s ‘Women’s Parts Played by Men in the Roman Theatre’ 6:2 96–100 Ragusa, Isa: The Princeton Index of Christian Art 4:1 56–60 Rastall, Richard: Female Rôles in All-Male Casts 7:1 25–51

133 INDEX

Rose, Martial: The Magi: The Litter and the Wristed Crown 5:1 72–76 Runnalls, Graham: Jean Fouquet’s ‘Martyrdom of St Apollonia’ and the 19 81–100 Medieval French Stage Runnalls, Graham: Records of Early French Drama: Archival Research on Medieval French Theatre 17 5–19 Runnalls, Graham: Were They Listening or Watching? Text and Spectacle at the 1510 Châteaudun Passion Play 16 25–36 Scattergood, John: Skelton's Magnyfycence and the Tudor Royal Household 15 21–48 Skey, Miriam: Festival Waggons in Japan 2:2 74–79 Somerset, Alan: ‘Beginning in the Middle ...’: Warwickshire Locations and Families, as Audiences for Early Modern Music and Drama 20 77–95 Stewart, Alan: ‘Ydolatricall Sodometrye’: John Bale’s Allegory 15 3–20 Stokes, Jim: The Lesser Patrons of Greater Somerset: Minor Sponsorship and Local Records 13 18–26 Streitberger, W.R.: Court Performances by the King's Players, 1510–1521 14 95–101 Streitberger, W.R.: The Development of Henry VIII’s Revels Establishment 7:2 83–100 Streitberger, W.R.: William Cornish and the Players of the Chapel 8:1 3–20 Strietman, Elsa: Report on the Colloquium on Medieval Drama of the Low Countries ‘Middelnederlands Toneel’ 5:2 81–82 Tailby, John: The Role of Director in the Lucerne Passion Play 9:2 80–92 Taylor, Andrew: ‘To pley a pagyn of şe devyl’: Turpiloquium and the Scurrae in Early Drama 11 162–174 Taylor, David: ‘The Tyres that were Lost’ 6:2 153–158 Twycross, Meg: ‘As the sun with his beams when he is most bright’ 12:1 34–79 Twycross, Meg: Felsted of London: Silk Dyer & Theatrical Entrepreneur 10:1 4–16

134 VOLUMES 1–20

Twycross, Meg: The Flemish Ommegang and its Pageant Cars 2:1 15–41 Twycross, Meg: The Flemish Ommegang and its Pageant Cars: 2 2:2 80–98 Twycross, Meg: Kissing Cousins: The Four Daughters of God and the 18 99–141 Visitation in the N. Town Mary Play Twycross, Meg: The Left-hand-side Theory: A Retraction 14 77–94 Twycross, Meg and Sarah Carpenter: Masks in Medieval English Theatre: The Mystery Plays 3:1 7–44 Twycross, Meg and Sarah Carpenter: Masks in Medieval English Theatre: The Mystery Plays 2 3:2 69–113 Twycross, Meg and Sarah Carpenter: Materials and Methods of Mask-making 4:1 28–47 Twycross, Meg : More Black and White Souls 13 52–63 Twycross, Meg: A Pageant-Litter Drawing by Dürer 1:2 70–72 Twycross, Meg: ‘Transvestism’ in the Mystery Plays 5:2 123–180 Twycross, Meg: Two Maid Marians and a Jewess 9:1 6–7 Twycross, Meg: The York Mercers’ Lewent Brede and the Hanseatic Trade 17 96–119 Tydeman, Bill: Stanislavski in the Garden of Gethsemane: An Interlude 5:1 53–57 Villquin, Jean-Pierre: Attraits et outrances du spectaculaire sur la scène Jacobéenne: The Travailes of The Three English Brothers Sir Thomas, Sir Anthony, Mr Robert Shirley (1607) 16 126–141 Walsh, Martin W.: Demon or Deluded Messiah? The Characterisation of Antichrist in the Chester Cycle 7:1 13–24 Wasson, John: The St George and Robin Hood Plays in Devon 2:2 66–69 White, Eileen: ‘Bryngyng Forth of Saynt George’: The St George Celebrations in York 3:2 114–121 White, Eileen: The Disappearance of the York Play Texts – New Evidence for the Creed Play 5:2 103–109 White, Eileen: Places for Hearing the Corpus Christi Play in York 9:1 64–76

135 INDEX

Wright, Stephen K.: Was There a Twelfth–Century Creed Play at St Emmeram? 18 74–84 Wyatt, Diana: The Pageant Waggon: Beverley 1:2 55–60 Wyatt, Diana: REED and the Oxford English Dictionary 17 120–131

REPORTS ON PRODUCTIONS

Anderson, John: John Skelton’s Magnificence at Edinburgh 6:1 162–163 Boffey, Julia, Janet Cowen and Pamela M. King: Apius and Virginia 13 112–113 Carpenter, Sarah: Ane Satyre of the Thrie Estaits 6:2 163–168 Carpenter, Sarah: The Chester Cycle at Leeds, 30 April–2 May 1983 5:1 29–35 Carpenter, Sarah: Towneley Plays at Wakefield 2:1 49–52 Cook, Philip S.: Crown of Thorns – Compiled from the English Mystery Plays, March–April 1981 3:1 57–58 Cowen, Janet and Richard Proudfoot: Tom Tiler and his Wife at Bedford College, London, 7 May 1981 3:1 61–63 Elliott, John: The Rio Gordo Passion Play 8:1 63–65 Evans, Ruth: The Play of Daniel in Ripon Cathedral 6:2 161–162 Happê, Peter: Damon and Pithias by Richard Edwards at Shakespear’s Globe 18 161–163 Happé, Peter: Marlowe’s Dr Faustus at Cambridge 6:1 42–44 Havely, Nick: The Mysteries (The Navity, The Passion, Doomsday) 7:1 54–57 Henry, Avril: Wisdom at Winchester Cathedral, 21–23 May 1981 3:1 53–55

136 VOLUMES 1–20

King, Pamela M. and Jacqueline Wright: The Poculi Ludique Societas of Toronto in England: Mankind at York, 4 May 1981 3:1 57–58 King, Pamela M. and Jacqueline Wright: Rex Vivus at Southwark Cathedral, 12 December 1981 4:1 61–63 McGavin, John: Wit and Science at Kalamazoo 12:1 80–81 Meredith, Peter: A 14th-Century Easter Matins Service 12:1 81–83 Meredith, Peter: The Conversion of St Paul at Winchester Cathedral, 27–29 May 1982 4:1 71–72 Meredith, Peter: The Coventry Mystery Plays 1:1 44 Meredith, Peter: The Killing of the Children at Winchester Cathedral, 26–28 May 1983 5:1 51–52 Meredith, Peter: Medwall’s Fulgens and Lucres 6:1 44–48 Meredith, Peter: Stray Thoughts on Chester 1983, 26 June 1983 5:1 43–44 Mills, David: The Castle of Perseverance at Manchester, 29 April–2 May 1981 3:1 55–56 Mills David: The Chester Cycle of Mystery Plays at Chester 9:1 69–76 Mills, David: The Chester Cycle of Mystery Plays, PLS Toronto: 21–23 May 1983 5:1 44–51 Mills, David: The Chester Mysteries 14 120–123 Mills, David: The Comedy of Virtuous and Godly Susanna 8:1 67–71 Mills, David: Coventry Plays, 4–22 August 1981 3:2 134–136 Mills, David: The Creation and Fall 6:1 59–60 Mills David: The N. Town Pageants 10:1 63–69 Mills, David: Part Two of Medwall’s Nature 6:1 40–42 Mills, David: The Towneley Cycle of Toronto: The Audience as Actor 7:1 51–54

137 INDEX

Mills, David: The York Mystery Plays at York 10:1 69–72 Muir, Lynette: The PLS in Leeds, 3 May 1981 (The Stolen Shrovetide Cock, Robin Hood and the Friar, Murder of Abel, Tom Tyler) 3:1 60–61 Oakshott, Jane: Man’s Desire and Fleeting Beauty and The Blessed Apple Tree 6:1 49–51 Potter, Robert: ’s Ordo Virtutum Sequentia 8:1 66–67 Potter, Robert: The York Plays: University of Toronto, 20 June 1998 19 121–128 Scolnicov, Hanna: The Marriage of Wit and Wisdom 9:1 64–69 Twycross, Meg: The Chester Plays at Chester, 26 June 1983 5:1 36–42 Twycross, Meg: The Great Theatre of the World adapted from Calderón’s El Gran Teatro del Mundo 6:1 51–58 Twycross, Meg: Mankinde 7:1 57–61 Twycross, Meg: Mary Magdalen at Durham, 27–28 June and 3–4 July 1982 4:1 63–66 Twycross, Meg: Pageant Waggon Meeting, 1979 1:1 3–4 Twycross, Meg: Three Mystery Plays: Mactacio Abel (Wakefield), Noah (Chester), Abraham (Northampton) 1:1 43 Twycross, Meg: The Toronto Passion Play, Toronto 1–3 August 1981 3:2 122–131 Tydeman, Bill: N. Town Plays at Lincoln 7:1 61–64 Tydeman, Bill: N. Town Plays at Lincoln 22 June–4 July 1981 3:2 131–134 Vandevenne, Axel: Hoe Mars En Venus Tsaemen Bueleerden 13 113–114 Wyatt, Diana and Pamela King: Chanticleer and the Fox, The Shepherds’ Play 6:2 168–172

138