e u ro p e a n information c e n tre No. 49 - 1985 for n atu re Editorial H.R.H. Princess Marie Aglae of Liechtenstein 3 conservation European insects m .c.d. Speight 4

Projects of the Council of Europe m. c. d. Speight 7

European Invertebrate Survey m. M eyer 8

Protection of invertebrates in Switzerland: legislation and reality w. G e ig e ra n dc. D ufour 10 fter a cold winter we look forward were counted, 60 years later (1972) are found; in marshy land 30 and in dry Ecological living conditions to the spring, to early morning only 30; over two-thirds of the colour­ thinly grassed areas up to 40 or more. ful butterflies have disappeared. An of insect communities L. Bigot 12 A birdsong, to the first blossoms at Environmental awareness, appreciation the edge of the woods and the first initial Red List of Endangered Butter­ of nature and environmental issues have Symbol for the Council of Europe s nature butterflies fluttering in the meadows. fly Species (Macrolepidotera) in Baden- increased greatly since European Con­ conservation activities. The current situation of dragonflies J. van Toi 15 Alas, the number of butterflies we are Württemberg lists 400 species, meaning servation Year in 1970. That is gratifying able to see on our walks is dwindling that nearly 40 % of the species that and credit is due to the Council of fast. Many of those we saw regularly once occurred there are endangered. Europe. But at the same time, the pres­ 20 Orthoptera S. Ingrisch in our childhood settling on flowers Yet nobody hunts the harmless and sure on habitats has increased and in the garden or in the fields are un­beautiful butterfly. No-one hunts the nature’s equilibrium has to a large Naturopa is published in English, French, known to our children. And when didApollo, for example, and yet it is amongst German and Italian by the European Why this decline? N.M.CollinsandJ.A. Thomas 23 extent been lost sight of in industrial you last find Peacock or Painted Lady the rarest species. Its caterpillar feeds development, the growth of technology Information Centre for Nature Conserva­ only on the thick leaves of the stone- tion of the Council of Europe, BP 431 R6, caterpillars on stinging nettles? in agriculture and forestry and “prog­ crop, a plant resembling the houseleek. F-67006 Strasbourg Cedex. An amazing diversity A .D em irsoy 28 This issue of Naturopa is devoted to ress” in biological and biochemical Like other endangered butterflies, the Editor responsible: Hayo H. Hoekstra the familiar and yet strange invertebrate research. More and more alarmed scien­ Apollo is a specialised feeder that Conception and editing: animals. Familiar because we come tists and thinkers are calling for an ethic can only live where its food plant Annick Pachod International laws: into contact with them almost daily, that embraces our relationship with grows, in dry, often stony, grass-tufted a worrying insufficiency h. e. Back 29 yet strange because we know so little plants and animals, with the whole of Adviser for this issue: places. The number of such unwooded Marc Meyer, European Invertebrate about these so varied species. Even nature. places not intensively cultivated is Survey (EIS) for entomologists, they hold untold steadily decreasing. Land is either farm­ Co-operation through the Council of mysteries and unanswered questions. Printed by: Georges Thone, ed intensively or built on. The result Europe in the field of nature conserva­ Liège (Belgium) Whilst there are “only” some 45,000 spe­ is increasing pressure on the com­ tion and the environment is of great cies of vertebrate animals, the inverte­ Repros: Gam Grafic, paratively few remaining natural spaces. importance for the preservation of our Herstal (Belgium) brates num ber some 1.5 m illion species. Wild plants and animals are left with natural heritage. The various projects 97 % of all wild animals are inverte­ Articles may be freely reprinted but it fewer and fewer habitats. The variety of the European Committee tor the would be appreciated if reference is brates. The interested layman thinks of species dwindles, nature is the poorer. Conservation of Nature and Natural made to the source and a copy sent to the primarily of individual types of insect In the case of butterflies this is amply Resources provide valuable basic in­ Centre. The copyright of all photographs (beetles, butterflies, bees, wasps and is reserved. documented: on fertilised or heavily formation about the occurrence of dragonflies), crabs and spiders and European plant and animal species The opinions expressed in this publica­ grazed land, only about five species various kinds of molluscs (snails, mus­ and about Europe’s typical habitats tion are those of the authors and do not sels and octopodi). We may also be necessarily reflect the views of the and ecosystems. Better known to the familiar with the many “worms”, jelly­ Council of Europe. general public are the Council’s cam­ fish and sponges, none of which have paigns for the protection and conserva­ What a a jointed skeleton. Of great importance tion of endangered biotopes and the in nature, too, is the largely unknown Convention on the Conservation of world of animal microorganisms. This European Wildlife and of Natural Habi­ Cover: Aeschna cyanea variety of life, the miracle of nature, is (Photo Anne and Jacques Six) tats. For Liechtenstein, the Council of now endangered. The purpose of our Back: Photo G. Lacoumette our understanding of invertebrates, their Europe’s smallest member state, co­ hat a crowd! efforts to preserve biotopes intact, to Captions to illustrations p. 16-17: habits and their way of life. If only operation in nature and environment And)( imperator It is difficult to evaluate the keep water, air and soil healthy is to as indicators of the “health” of our protection is particularly important. We 1. Very young larva number of invertebrates in the pass on the variety of living com­ natural environment, they are indis­ are accordingly prepared, as far as we (Photo Anne and Jacques Six) world, for every day new ones are munities to posterity. We are responsible 2. Larva eating a mud-worm pensable and deserve our bending over are able, to participate actively in the discovered, and every day there are for this legacy. The extinction of indi­ (Photo Anne and Jacques Six) backwards to guarantee their survival. work of the European Committee for 3. The adult insect releases itself from some which disappear for ever. Although vidual plant and animal species and the Conservation of Nature and Natural the exuviae most of these species are little known The next edition of Naturopa (No. 50) the sickness of whole communities Resources and to make our contribu­ (Photo Anne and Jacques Six) should be a clear signal to those in 4. Newly emerging dragonfly and therefore often not much loved, will be devoted to the theme “Young tion through the National Agency of (Photo Anne and Jacques Six) they are nevertheless of major import­ people and volunteers for the protec­ authority that life itself is in danger. the Council of Europe’s Information 5. Freshly emerged, the young imago ance. Centre for Nature Conservation. has as yet no colouring tion of nature”, and will be published Scientific research has confirmed and (Photo Anne and Jacques Six) This edition of Naturopa deals with in the context of International Youth documented, for example, the disquiet­ HRH Princess 6. The male with his final colours the work already done in Europe or Year. ing decline of butterflies. In one Swiss (Photo Anne and Jacques Six) planned for the near future to improve H.H.H. locality in 1913, 95 species of butterfly Marie Aglae of Liechtenstein of pollen as food, showy flowers would poses. But no more than perhaps 1 % years of trial and error experimentation not exist at all and the world’s plants of the available species has as yet been into how to perform the functions they would carry only wind-pollinated flowers recognised as worthy of exploitation. each perform today, conducted through the process of evolution. Each insect like the diminutive and unspectacular In Europe man rarely uses insects as species thus represents a remarkable inflorescences of grasses and pine trees. food, but in the tropics a wider range store of encapsulated information, far Plant/insect co-evolution has produced of species is exploited, with beetle superior to anything man can achieve on the one hand gloriously coloured, larvae, termites, and even locust-oil as a result of a few years of “research deliciously scented and attractively figuring in the diet of different cultures. shaped flowers to act as sign-posts and development” work and which will and attractants for insect flower-pol- Recognition of the potential utility of remain available to us for tapping for linators and, on the other, a host of predatory and parasitic insect species only as long as each of these species insects specialising in the use of flower as controls of pests has led to the set­ endures. pollens and nectar as food. Fully 80% ting up of biological control agencies of flowering plants (i.e. plants other throughout the world. Insects are also than ferns, mosses, lichens, fungi, etc.) being used progressively as experi­ The plight of the insects are pollinated by insects. The fruit, mental animals, both in the laboratory vegetables and other crops pollinated and in the wild. Significant recent ad­ A recent Council of Europe study by insects include: pears, apples, vances in genetics, population dynamics, demonstrated that in Europe approxi­ peaches, apricots, cherries, almonds, understanding of energy-flow in the mately 20 % of the European butterfly strawberries, raspberries, dates, figs, biosphere, etc., have in this way come species are threatened with extinction oranges, lemons, tomatoes, aubergines, from studies of insects. Further, both over much of Europe. Preliminary results cucumbers, melons, grapes, olives, in schools and in universities, insects also suggest that upwards of 35 % of cocoa, coffee, cotton, peppers, flax, are being used ever more widely as Europe’s dragonfly species are under Plant-insect "co-operation": fertilisation (Photo Anne and Jacques Six) beans, peas, chick-peas, oil palm and teaching aids, being cheaper and easier threat in much of their European range. mustard. The bee Megachile pacifica to maintain than vertebrates, but very The IUCN invertebrate Red Data Book is now cultured extensively for release versatile in the principles they may be already numbers various European in­ in alfalfa as a means of ensuring used to illustrate. In the pharmaceutical sects among those endangered. The pollination of this crop. industry, there is today evermore ex­ British Red Data Book for invertebrates ploration of the use of insects as sources covers some 14,000 insect species and In cool temperate climates bees and of drugs for the combat of human lists 10% of them as either extinct their allies may only be of paramount or threatened with extinction in Great importance in relation to the pollina­ diseases and ailments. They are also Britain. Of 1,700 insect species surveyed Martin C. D. Speight tion of certain plants, like peas, beans, used as a source of other chemicals, European insects such as dyes—scale insects are exploit­ in Belgium, it has been concluded that clovers and their allies, with flies, butterflies and moths playing an equally ed in this way. important role in the pollination of other An awakening recognition of the utility flowers. of insects is manifest today in phe­ Europe’s lizard and amphibian fauna nomena like revision of crop husbandry here are perhaps 100,000 species of insect species is of itself no safe­ The efficiency with which insects make would virtually disappear without the regimes to ensure that crops are not of invertebrates animals in Europe. guard of their survival. The view that, use of “small parcels” of different food supply represented by insects. sprayed or dusted with pesticides while Most of these are insects. Indeed, when not just a nuisance, insects are resources has led to their being of T Similarly, most of the species in Europe’s pollinating insects are active among more than 50 % of all the wildlife pests is erroneous. Less than 5 % of the paramount importance in decomposi­ bird fauna, bats, shrews and many fish their flowers; the employment of surveys species, both plant and animal, occur­ European species can be classed as tion processes. Without efficient decom­ would be unable to survive without their of aquatic insects in monitoring the ring in Europe, are insects. Dragon-flies pests and a great majority of the others position much of the sun’s energy own particular insect food supply. Many levels of water pollution found in rivers and house-flies, lady-birds and weevils, carry out their activities unnoticed by trapped by plants could not be re­ of the insects preyed upon by vertebrate and lakes and the incorporation of mealy-bugs, honey bees, ants, dung- humanity. cycled through the ecosystem when animals are themselves dependent upon mandatory tests upon selected insect beetles, may-flies, fleas and butterflies: plants and animals die. In decomposition yet other insects as their own food species into the assessment procedures these and many more, all are insects. processes the particular role of insects supply. Indeed, most of the potentially used for gauging the likely environ­ is the reduction of dead organic matter If the conservation of insects is more What do insects do? harmful insects are prevented from be­ mental impact of newly-developed to small fragments. The consequences or less ignored this represents a failure coming problems by other insects that chemical products which might in future of environmental conditions occurring to consider the fate of the majority of Insects specialise in the use of resources are either predatory or parasitic upon become environmental contaminants. in which decomposer insects cannot Europe’s wildlife heritage. which are available only in “small them. This potential has been recog­ maintain adequate populations can be parcels”. Thus they frequently live in nised in the development of pro­ Insects have impinged upon man’s Many of us find the great variety of seen in bogs and fens, where dead spaces which most vertebrate animals grammes of “biological control” of cultural development in a variety of sub­ insects bewildering and the large num­ plant materials accumulate to great could not squeeze into and survive liminal ways, the most obvious of which ber of species offputting. Others feel pests. For instance, in southern and successfully on foodstuffs available in depths as deposits of peat. is through their provision of sources that because insects are small and central Europe, ants of the Formica quantities so minute that frequently of inspiration for the visual and aural not much is known about them, they In natural woodland, certain insects are rufa group are employed on a large they would be impossible for larger scale for control of forest pests. arts. The sublety of the living colours cannot be important. Their small size largely responsible for the breakdown animals even to locate. In this way of butterflies and moths, structure certainly renders them inconspicuous, into fragments of the wood of dead The ability of insects to utilise the insects characteristically utilise re­ bizarre and beautiful in beetles, stick so that they are noticed only if they trees through the biting and chewing oddest and most inaccessible source sources which would otherwise be un­ insects, etc., the industry of the ant, the are causing problems. This can under­ action of their larvae. In this way, of potential food has led to their used and so be lost to the life system ruthlessness of the mantis, the song of standably lead to the conclusion that contained nutrients are again made of the planet. Many insects make use presence wherever life is feasible on the the cicada and even the light of the insects, apart from those that are good available for re-cycling to growing plants, planet, other than in salt water. There of food remains discarded as un use- glow-worm—these and many other Primordial role of insects in to eat, are generally good for nothing, via the activities of micro-organisms. is even one fly species whose larvae decomposition (Photo G. Lacoum ette) able by larger animals. For instance, facets of the lives of insects have held if not actually a nuisance, or pests, or live in pools of crude oil. many insects are dung-feeders, ekeing Flowers with brightly-coloured petals the attention of painter, sculptor, musi­ transmitters of disease! out their existence on the energy-rich are such a feature of the European cian and poet. At the every-day level 10% were either already extinct or In fact, although little is yet known about waste products of the inefficient digestive countryside in spring and of suburban Insects and people the opportunity to wonder at the small endangered with extinction there and many individual insect species, enough systems of vertebrate animals and in gardens almost throughout the year animals of pond and hedgerow was a further 25% could be expected to is known to demonstrate that man would the process removing what would other­ that their ecological meaning is hardly Active exploitation of insects by man once part of every child’s heritage. disappear by the year 2000. In the be unlikely to survive without them. It wise represent for humanity a consider­ ever given a thought. But were it not tends to take the form of use of partic­ All extant insect species represent the Netherlands, more than half of the is also evident that the sheer number able health hazard. for the ability of insects to make use ular species to serve particular pur­ successful outcome of some 200 billion stone-fly species (Plecoptera) recorded from the country are believed to have Rhopalocera (butterflies) in Europe, become extinct during the present Nature and Environment Species, No. 23, century, and 15 % of the ground beetle Council of Europe], species are now known from 1 % or less of the country’s area. Some insects Following the successful outcome of the are almost certainly extinct throughout Butterfly Project, further projects con­ Europe, the members of the fly family cerned with invertebrates have now been Thyreophoridae being examples—no embarked upon, based upon the poten­ living specimens have been recorded tial of selected invertebrates to function during the present century. as bio-indicators. One of these projects, which makes use of the sensitivity of Extrapolating from these figures it can dragonflies to water pollution and aims be concluded that, at a minimum, some at identifying freshwater sites of interna­ 10% of Europe’s insects species are tional significance for conservation of threatened with extinction almost aquatic organisms, especially dragon­ throughout their European range and flies, is reported on elsewhere in this that many of these threatened species issue of Naturopa. The other project are already extinct over wide areas. relates to the key role played by This suggests that 6,000 species of invertebrates in the decomposition of insects are currently in danger of wood in natural forests, seeking to iden­ extinction in Europe. There is every tify remaining ancient forest sites of reason to believe that the slide toward international importance by using as extinction is progressing ever faster—it bio-indicators selected “saproxylic” in­ is likely that by the year 2000 a further sects: insect species dependent upon 12,000 insect species will be threatened Insect larva are responsible for the breakdown of dead wood into fragments over-mature, moribund and dead trees. with extinction in Europe. (Photo G. Lacoum ette) So far, the only European forests The vast majority of endangered insect identified as possessing a significant species are under threat due to destruc­ fauna of these organisms are sites tion or deterioration of habitat, caused Papilio machaon where forest has been continuously by man’s activity. To take an example, (Drawing NCC) present for 500 or even 1,000 years hundreds of insect species are depend­ and “super-annuated” trees are present ent upon habitats which occur in today; forests containing living oaks adequate quantity only in ancient wood­ 500-750 years old, for example. One land containing over-mature, dead and facet of these faunas highlighted by dying trees with fallen and rotten trunks this study is that many of the most lying in situ. Such woodland sites have localised saproxylics are insects asso­ all but disappeared throughout Western ciated with moribund rather than dead Europe. Even where stands of over­ trees. Forest “hygiene” practice may being declared primarily because of do so. Equally, it has resulted in a well be responsible for the rarity of this mature trees remain the woodland floor the interest of their insect fauna. Indeed, shortage of professional insect taxono­ is “cleaned” of fallen timber and both particular contingent of insect species. it is more normal for the insect fauna mists. There is thus no cadre of dead and dying trees are removed. The beautiful, ancient-forest buprestid, to be entirely ignored in processes of naturalists in Europe which can be aced with the massive scale of the In consequence, a large section of Buprestis splendens, reached as far assessment of sites for their conserva­ called upon to conduct insect survey undertaking, and the small number Europe’s woodland insect fauna is today north in Europe as southern Sweden tion value and national conservation work on the scale that this can be of available specialists, the Council facing extinction en bloc, and exists Projects F within the last 200 years. Today, this agencies rarely include personnel train­ achieved for flowering plants and ver­ of Europe has moved cautiously in its now only as scattered remnants that, beetle is found only in Jugoslavia. The ed in the study of invertebrate animals tebrate animals, and potentially great attempts to deal with invertebrate possibly, nowhere comprise reasonably magnificent oak-forest longhorn, Ceram- and with specific responsibilities relat­ improvements in taxonomic literature animals and their conservation. An ap­ complete communities. byx cerdo, occurred in Great Britain ing to conservation of insects. But cannot be made due to a lack of spe­ proach based on a step-wise treatment of the during the prehistoric period, but had Habitat deterioration caused by pol­ there is little data to support the naïve cialists to carry out this up-dating of taxonomic groups was early recog­ disappeared there even before man lutants, fertilisers, drainage, change in but generally applied dictum “if you process. Equally, ecological studies of nised as impractical: to deal in this began to give scientific names to farming practices away from traditional look after the plants the animals will insects are inhibited by the reluctance way with all the invertebrate species species, though it is still known from methods, etc. is as serious a threat look after themselves”, especially in of student and researcher alike to em­ and at the rate achieved for mammals Council localities scattered from Scandinavia to European i nsects as to other European the context of conservation of insects. bark upon work requiring a taxonomic or birds could occupy the total resources to the Mediterranean. “Relict” distribu­ organisms. The widespread use in In schools, insects still represent such expertise they almost inevitably do not of the relevant committee for more than tion patterns are characteristic of sapro­ Europe of broad-spectrum pesticides a peripheral topic that it is little short possess. The result is that sites of 50 years. But invertebrates cannot xylic insects in Europe now and few —selective pesticides hardly exist and of miraculous for a student to recognise international importance for the con­ with equanimity be ignored. They do, of Europe indeed would appear to be the protected their development is not an economic that they have any significance beyond servation of insects are in danger of however inconveniently, represent the sites where appreciable numbers of proposition for chemical companies any­ including a pandora’s boxload of multi­ destruction without their importance majority of Europe’s wildlife. And they these species may be found together, way—wipes out great numbers of “neu­ farious pestilence, offset only by the having ever been recognised; that insect are evidently as much under threat as as in the Forêt de la Massane, hidden tral” and beneficial insects and other honey-bee as the sole positive element species are being exterminated over other organisms. So some method of away as the southern end of the invertebrates, even when the pesticide recognisable among them! And even wide areas of Europe without prior selection has had to be employed to Pyreneean mountain chain, on the proves ineffectual against the target honey-bees sting! It is hardly surpris­ warning being given that they have decide which invertebrates might most border between France and Spain. pest species, due, for instance, to ing that frank incredulity is the normal reached “threatened” status; that the usefully be studied. To establish the M.C.D.S. development by the pest of resistance response to any suggestion that insects insect faunas of Europe’s nature reserves extent to which relevant data are avail­ against the pesticide. should be protected and conserved like and national parks remain largely un­ able about invertebrates, and to give surveyed and unknown and the precise The plight of the insects has been other sorts of wildlife. base-line data about a species-group ecological requirements of most insect made worse than it would otherwise The preoccupation of the universities, already receiving attention in national species remain conjectural. be because, to-date, the conservation etc., with more “fashionable” disciplines lists of protected species, the first effort in Europe has been focused than systematics has produced a genera­ There is a dram atic need for the im ­ Council of Europe project on inver­ largely upon vertebrate animals and tion of European biologists largely incap­ mediate introduction of programmes tebrates was focused on European flowering plants. This situation has able of correctly naming insect species aimed at the conservation of European butterflies. The results of this study resulted in very few nature reserves or of even knowing how to set out to insects. M.C.D.S. were published in 1981 [Threatened centres, publication of regional and Aims of the EIS .... national atlases, selection of, and sup­ ooe port for, suitable co-ordinators, approval European o g Surveys of invertebrates, unlike those O OOW of international projects, contributions OOOOO' of vertebrates and vascular plants, are oeeoeg to projects launched by internationaf faced with problems resulting from the organisations, etc. vast number of species: one has to Invertebrate reckon with tens of thousands of The results of the surveys carried out invertebrate species in Europe. In addi­ in a great many European countries tion to this, many European regions are a source of detailed and objective information concerning the presence of Marc Meyer have been insufficiently explored. These S urv6 V the species studied, changes in their difficulties were summed up by Profes­ sor Müller: “Die Ursache hierfür liegt distribution patterns, the interpretation um großen Artenreichtum und in derof the many threats facing them, the Vagilität der Invertebraten und derrecognition of indicator species and Individuenarmut ihrer Bearbeiter". It the explanation of theories relating was agreed from the outset that the to phenomena of the Tertiary and production of incomplete maps is pos­ Quaternary periods. sible and desirable provided that inter­ The EIS is now seeing some very use­ pretation of the types of distribution ful initiatives in a great many European involved is confined to the information countries in which wildlife information available. The collection of faunistic centres have been set up: Austria, and ecological data and the production, Belgium, Federal Republic of Germany, publication and interpretation of UTM France, Great Britain, Italy, Luxembourg, distribution maps were the preliminary the Netherlands, Romania, Sweden, aims of the EIS. Soviet Union, Yugoslavia, etc. The most he European Invertebrate Survey Its statutes currently set it the follow- important series of wildlife atlases deal­ (EIS) is an inform al international ing aims to promote and encourage: ing with invertebrates have been pub­ T body which brings together within a) The collection, mapping, inter­ lished in Belgium, Federal Republic of a com m ittee people interested in its pretation and ecology of invertebrates Germany, Great Britain and the Nether­ main aims and people co-opted for at European level. lands. particular meetings. Members of the b) The establishment and activities Committee are chosen from among of national centres concerned with specialists representing all the countries Prospects invertebrate distribution studies. of Europe. They are chosen as indi­ viduals. No member so far has officially c) National and international projects The future development of the EIS will represented an institute or nation. Since relating to invertebrate distribution. be geared mainly to the co-ordination 1983, administrative duties have been d) The standardisation of distribu­ of national projects and the standardisa­ carried out by a Bureau composed of tion data, precise methods for collect­ tion of data bases. It will be important a Chairman, two Vice-Chairmen, the ing them and proof of their authen­ to achieve maximum compatibility, and Secretary General, the Treasurer and ticity. indeed build up a network of com­ three ordinary members. puterised data banks. Both the collec­ tion and publication of data and inform­ Methods and results ation exchanges between wildlife centres Background An example of a distribution map on must be standardised on the basis of a European scale (Parnassius apollo) rules of procedure or codes of practice. The above aims must be achieved On 19 October 1967, at a meeting of The situation has changed considerably through the promotion of uniform map­ the Biogeographical Society, Professor since the early 1970s because we now ping methods at European level. Data J. Leclercq, Gembloux (B), called for have an increasing number of official relating to invertebrate distribution are co-operation in the production of atlases wildlife information centres pursuing collected on standard forms and cen­ showing the distribution of western the same aim: centralisation and inter­ tralised in data banks which may be European insects. At the same meeting, pretation of as much data as possible computerised or not. The instructions J. Heath, Monks Wood (GB), gave a relating to fauna and flora. demonstration of Britain’s achievements to recorders also specify the minimum Concern for the protection of endan­ in biogeography. In 1969, the two information required for each data item: gered species and biotopes will be a promoters of invertebrate mapping pub­ — Faculté des Sciences Agronomiques 1975 in Zürich, 1977 in Paris, 1979 in — the name of the species and its m ajor feature of future EIS activities, lished a preliminary document on the de l’Etat, Zoologie générale et Faunis­ Saarbrücken, 1981 in Leiden, 1983 in taxonomic group; the aim being to maintain or restore setting up of an “European Invertebrate tique, Gem bloux (B). Luxembourg. — the precise place of observation; the best possible quality of life for Survey” project, similar to the “Mapping Mention should also be made of the In the meantime, some 10,000 maps — the date of observation (the year people: “Ein Wissenschaftler darf nicht the Flora of Europe” project, involving “Abteilung Biogeographie” of the Uni­ showing the distribution of European at least); schweigen, wenn er erkennt, daß — und the production of UTM distribution maps. versity of the Saar, where the EIS found invertebrates have been produced and — the number of individuals; dies ist hier der Fall — die Grundlagen an experienced promoter in Professor new publications are added to the Two years later, in 1971, J. Heath’s — the name of the recorder. seines Forschungsgebietes in naher “Instructions for recorders” were pub­ Paul Müller. The membership of the archives each year. Zukunft von der Vernichtung bedroht first governing body reflects this situa­ lished. These instructions specified the In 1984, the EIS had 52 m em bers from The EIS has adopted the UTM (Uni­ sind”(De Lattin, N., cit. Leclercq, 1973). tion: Chairman: Professor J. Leclercq nature and form of the information 24 European countries. Its first European versal Transverse Mercator) projection M.M. (Gembloux); Secretary General: J. Heath required for an invertebrate mapping atlas was published in 1981: Heath, J. for mapping invertebrate distributions. (Monks Wood); Treasurer: A. Mousset project. Page 7 of the booklet mentions and Leclercq, J. (1981): Provisional Since the EIS does not have the staff (Luxembourg). the two “co-ordination centres’ from Atlas of the Invertebrates of Europe, and financial resources necessary for which the EIS project was launched: The EIS Committee has met regularly maps 1-27. the production of large-scale European — Biological Records Centre, Monks since 1972 for symposia and general atlases, the Committee has concentrat­ Wood Experimental Station, Huntingdon meetings: 1972 in Saarbrücken, 1973 ed on encouraging national projects: (GB). in Monks Wood, 1974 in Luxembourg, establishment of wildlife information Is legislation effective? Protection Generally speaking, it is difficult to judge the effectiveness of a piece of legisla­ tion. It would seem at first sight as though the best possible situation pre­ of invertebrates in Switzerland: vailed in the Canton of Vaud but, in practice, on both sides of the boundary between Vaud, where all invertebrates are protected, and Neuchâtel, where legislation is concerned only with snails, legislation and reality freshwater crayfish and, of course, red ants, there is no perceptible difference in the fauna. Swiss legislation on the protection of invertebrates is some­ times held to be exemplary, but one is led to wonder whether legislation is Willi Geiger and Christophe Dufour Protection of species really able to cope with the problems relating to the protection of inverte­ Two aspects of the concept of the brates, particularly insects. Although protection of endangered species are estimates of the insect population are embodied in Federal legislation, namely still most unsatisfactory—only a little protection against direct harassment and more than half the 30,500 species of­ ARRÊTÉ the protection of biotopes supporting ficially present in Switzerland have in concernant la protection des escargots endangered species. In practice, the fact been observed, and in very few cases is it possible to make any (IH* I fi février 1W1) first type of protection is the most (Edition de mat 1974) frequently applied. The Federal Acts estimate of their numerical fluctuation— on the Protection of Nature and the the small number of groups of which Landscape (LPN-1966), on Hunting and there is sufficient knowledge are giving the Protection of Birds (LChO-1925, cause for grave concern. It is known, recently revised) and on Fishing (LP- for example, that dragonflies—formerly 1973) contain provisions applicable to so common—are falling in number or the whole of Switzerland and which, disappearing in French-speaking Swit­ together with their implementing Orders, zerland at an absolutely alarming rate. directly concern the protection of endan­ A recent study has indeed revealed gered species. None of this Federal that 60 % of dragonfly species are legislation is greatly concerned with more or less at risk, while 18 % have invertebrates. LP-73 merely sets a already died out! minimum size for captured freshwater Similar tendencies have been noted in crayfish and LPN-1966 implementing the case of Ptecoptera or water-flies, Order protects the Formica rufa group. aquatic insects living in as yet unpol­ Several sections of this Act and of this luted running water, whereas the pre­ Order also mention the protection of liminary findings of a study of butter­ biotopes, which is designed to be given flies (Rhopalocera) seem to indicate concrete expression in the application that approximately one-third of the of the Federal Territorial Development Gomphus flavipes, a unique specimen dating from the middle of the 19th century. species present in Switzerland are under As in the case of a great many other species, the disappearance of this dragonfly is a result Act (LAT-1979), under which the cantons threat. It is sometimes possible to gather snails if they slip through the ring issued with of the deterioration of its natural environment must draw up master plans and the (Photo Natural History Museum, Neuchâtel) the p e rm it (Photo J. von Allmen, Natural History Museum, Neuchâtel) municipalities detailed plans for land use, including areas designated for protection. It is, then, at cantonal level Causes of regression that practical protection measures must On the other hand, it is urgent to draw In addition, it provides a unique guide Among the causes of what can only be very cloud has a silver lining and be adopted. While no canton is em­ up Danger Lists of threatened insects, to the management of biotopes of called an ecological catastrophe, the when, in the 1950s, the hydro­ powered to countermand the protection belonging to as many different groups limited size. foremost is, without any doubt, the electric installations along the Spöl of an endangered species mentioned in as possible. These lists should not E deterioration of these species’ natural The drawing up of Danger Lists of (the principal river of the Swiss National the Federal Act, it may add to the merely provide an inventory of species environment, whereas catching by col­ invertebrates implies a great deal of Park) and those at Rheinau on the Rhine species protected in its territory and whose capture will be illegal but, above lectors, even with such powerful aids work, which is most frequently carried were built in spite of fierce opposition the framers of cantonal legislation have all, serve to bear witness to the biological as luminous traps, remains insignificant out by isolated specialists, without any from nature protectionists, the opposi­ sometimes been more active in the value of a habitat whose resources should except in the case of species con­ technical or financial support. To remedy tion to this measure did give rise to defence of invertebrates. The Federal be protected by conservation measures. fined to a given area. The prohibition of this situation, we would strongly advise the adoption, in 1962, of an article system does, then, give rise to very Danger Lists should, then, be seen in straight-forward catching is not, then, the setting up of better-organised cen­ of the Constitution relating to the pro­ diverse situations. The Canton of Schaff- the first place as a tool for gauging an effective means of protection and, tres for the study of fauna. This was tection of nature and the landscape. hausen played a pioneer role when it the value of a site and justifying its on the contrary, would involve the risk the idea behind the recent opening of Its first paragraph contains a basic included insects among the species being placed under protection, rather of making ignorance of the damage the “Centre Suisse de Cartographie provision, delegating to the cantons worthy of protection. The Canton of Vaud than as a catalogue of prohibitions. the task of protecting both nature and protects all its fauna species, apart to insect life even more widespread. de la Faune” in Neuchâtel, a centre the landscape. The structure of Swiss from game and destructive inverte­ However, it would be desirable to pre­ The inclusion of invertebrates in inven­ which, in addition to local research law is such that Federal legislation brates. Unusual steps are sometimes vent rare species being bought and tories of fauna serves to increase, to a projects or those limited to certain constitutes a framework into which the taken. For example, in the Canton of sold and to introduce a Code of considerable extent, the number of aspects, will attempt a more compre­ cantons fit their own legislation, either Neuchâtel, snails can only be gathered Honour for Insect Collectors, along the species taken as indicators and to hensive evaluation of invertebrate pop­ reproducing or extending the provisions if their size exceeds that of a ring lines of that proposed in Britain in 1981, improve the management of ecosystems, ulations, using a computerised data adopted at Federal level. issued with the permit. by John Heath. hitherto based solely upon vertebrates. bank. W.G. and C D. Ecological living conditions of insect communities

Swim m ing (Dytiscus marginalia) (Photo Anne and Jacques Six)

Louis Bigot "^™he relationship between an insect Dependence of water community and its habitat depends I on both abiotic factors, such as A large number of communities, includ­ soil texture and structure, the nature of the terrain and climatic conditions, ing aquatic, riparian and hygrophilous populations, are more or less heavily and on biotic factors, such as the nature and density of the vegetation and com­ dependent on water. petition between animal species (e.g. The insects of aquatic communities presence of dominant pest populations). We propose to discuss a few points have undergone obvious morphological relating to the distribution of insect modifications, such as the swimming leg communities according to their adap­ of Coleoptera of the Dysticidae family, tative requirements. or the legs of Heteroptera of the Gerridae family, which are adapted for life on the surface of the water. Some aquatic Particular habitats species live in water for only part of their cycle, e.g. Diptera of the Chirono- midae and Culicidae families, and We shall first say a few words about Odonata (or dragonflies), only the larva communities associated with highly of which is aquatic. Others, such as specific habitats whose requirements Coleoptera of the Dytiscidae and Hydro- depend primarily on a particular sub­ philidae families, and Heteroptera of stance, wherever it happens to be locat­ the Naucoridae family, have a strictly ed. The example we shall give is that aquatic larval life, but adults, which of communities living in stercoral matter also live in water, can fly from one and corpses. Populations of copro- body of water to another. Because of phagous Coleoptera are not character­ this dispersion of many aquatic popula­ Arachnida, etc.). This community living istic of a specific plant group (as tends tions in space, the presence of free Necrophorus vespilio on a dead b ird (Photo Jacques Six) at the water’s edge is subject to a to be the case), but inhabit a variety water (running or stagnant) leads to the number of highly specific parameters: of areas typical of several different formation of unique ecosystems com­ e.g. location on the wet fringe maintained ecosystems. bining elements from two environments by the body of water and mobility Communities dependent for their food (land and water). according to variations in the water on the excreta of large mammals con­ level, which may extend to migration Sandy coasts shelter an extensive com­ tions to withstand submersion: some tribute to soil fertilisation in some West The existence of marine insects is not to more favourable locations in the event munity of insects which have to be Coleoptera of the Trechidae family African countries by burying dung. usually recognised. Yet insects occupy of complete drying up. Hence the highly specialised to live in this “extrem e” readily take refuge under partly sub­ Hence the economic importance of the ecological niches within communities of temporary nature of this population. environment, so termed because of the merged pebbles (e.g. Perypherus fascio- insects of these communities. Viewed the mid-littoral marine zone, e.g. Coleo­ It is also a “ closed” population, i.e. great instability of the abiotic factors. latus and P. eques). in general terms, they contribute to the ptera of the Staphylinidae family (Choira- one that admits very few species from These insects inhabit the supralittoral recycling of organic matter. And what dobium madagascariensis ), found on other biotopes, and a “contact popula­ and adlittoral terrestrial zones, the Watercourses present a riparian popula­ about Rhizophagus parallelicollis , a the boulder ridges of the coral reefs tion” characteristic of an interface zone, supralittoral zone having recently been tion dominated by Coleoptera of the coleopteran of the Nitidulidae family of the Mozambique Channel, and some or ecotone, between two major environ­ excluded from the marine environment Trechidae family. These are accompani­ with a predilection for the mould grow­ Heteroptera (Halobates katherinae), ments, land and water. and recognised as part of the terrestrial ed by other Coleoptera (the Nebridae, ing on waxy secretions (adipocere) from found in the mangrove swamps of the environment. “Riparian” animal species Staphylinidae and Scaritidae), insects of The water need not necessarily be free. buried corpses! This species with a southern Pacific. The latter move be­ do not have particularly conspicuous other orders (Orthoptera and Hetero­ One community of this kind lives in somewhat curious diet is reported as tween the infralittoral, mid-littoral and adaptive systems, but have under­ ptera) and other zoological groups the vicinity of névés in the wet fringe flying “sometimes in fairly large numbers supralittoral zones by skating over the gone extensive physiological modifica­ (Oligochaeta, Mollusca, Crustacea, maintained by melting snow. in cem eteries” . surface of water. Steppeland The air

At ground level, communities are active The insects of this stratum obviously throughout the day and night, moving move by flying: their spatial distribution among the stones and low grass, e.g. might therefore seem difficult to estab­ the unique community associated with lish at first sight. Yet studies have the desert-like plain of La Crau in shown that insects which move easily (Photo G. Lacoumette) south-eastern France. in flight, such as butterflies, remain The wildlife of this steppeland habitat attached to often small, ecologically is well adapted to the particularly Woodland is the main insect environment identical areas despite their powerful harsh conditions prevailing there: wide (Photo Central Office of Information, London) means of locomotion. Some Lepidoptera The current situation nychthemeral and seasonal temperature populations thus form islands, remain­ ranges, summer drought and violent ing confined to the places in which the winds (the mistral). plant species eaten by their cater­ pillars grow. This fact is well-known The transformation of this environment of dragonflies in the case of diurnal butterflies (Rhopa- as a result of socio-economic pressures locera): Zerynthia rumina (family Papilio- or, more simply, natural evolution to­ nidae) frequents the grasslands in which wards pre-forest stages leads inevitably waterfleas up to small fishes, depend­ Aristolochia pistoiochia grows; but the Jan van Toi Aeschna viridis to the standardisation of wildlife and the Microlepidoptera, apparently even more ing on species and size. The larvae are very small when they hatch from disappearance of the best adapted and so than the Rhopalocera, confine them­ Let us have a look at the life history the egg, and do usually not exceed most unique populations, e.g. the selves to particular species known as of one of the European dragonfly spe­ a few millim eters. La Crau locust, Prionotropis rhodanica. “support plants’’, which, logically, ought cies, the Green Hawker or Aeschna to be the same as the plants which act Alpine grasslands are formations in viridis. It is a fairly large species with The larva of Aeschna viridis moults as host to the caterpillar. Thus, Oxyptilus which flora and fauna depend on al­ a maximum wingspan of nearly ten centi­ about 13 times. The final instar larva lantoscanus, a lepidopteran of the Ptero- titude-related factors (soil and climate). meters in both sexes. Colouration in reaches a total length of 40-45 milli­ phoridae family, which was lost from Alpine grassland communities comprise he Council of Europe has instructed male and female is more or less the meters. The development from prolarva sight for nearly a century after it was species often restricted to small areas. to report on the status of the same with a remarkable extension of to the ultimate stage takes two to first described, was found again when Hence the high degree of endemism Tdragonflies or Odonata of Europe. green, as is indicated in its scientific three years in this species. In other its support plant, Hieracium lanatum reported among the fauna of this grass­ It is intended that after this study, name. Other species of the genus species this number may be quite of the Compositae, was accidentally land (e.g. Chrysocarabus olympiae, which will be completed by the middle Aeschna are predominantly blue or different. Some species, particularly discovered. “Plant-hunting’’, which was found in Valsessera in the Piedmont of 1986, protection measures for dragon­ brown, next to black and yellowish in the tropical and subtropical region, always the approach adopted by the Alps). fly species as well as for the biotopes white. have two or three generations per year, great field entomologists, is a truly in which they are living will be proposed. The "sansouires” of the Camargue (plant The adults of Aeschna viridis are usually whereas larvae of some Gomphidae ecological practice because it implies The first aim of our study, however, is formations growing on salty soils in the found in or along extensive lowpeat reach maturity only after five years. recognition of the direct relationship the investigation of the present status Rhone delta) are inhabited by com­ moor areas, which is a rather scarce between the plant and the insect. of all species in the Council of Europe The ultimate instar larva leaves the munities composed of halophilic spe­ biotope in Europe. The species is water to emerge. The actual emergence Many of these communities are now member states. Due to the activities cies. The balance of the entire eco­ widespread in Asia, but exact informa­ of the adult insect usually takes place threatened with deterioration or even of many amateur as well as profes­ system is dependent on variations in tion on its commonness in this area while the larva is resting close to the extinction as a result of the changes sional odonatologists during the last the water and salt content of the is scarce. In Europe it ranges from water edge on the bottom or is hanging which biotopes are undergoing. Scien­ decades, the distribution and occurrence substrata: fauna and flora respond to southern Sweden to the northern part at a firm stem of a plant. After the tists must remain vigilant if represent­ of most European species is relatively these variations by modifying their com­ of the Balkans,- the central part of the emergence the last larval skin or atives of highly unique ecosystems are well understood. Within the framework position and structure, the former almost Netherlands forms the western bound­ exuviae can be found still hanging in to be preserved. L.B. of the European Invertebrate Survey immediately, the latter more slowly. ary. It is absent in e.g. Belgium, France the vegetation along pools, rivers or (EIS) distribution maps have been pub­ and the countries in the Alps, but also lished in some countries. other water types. From this one may in Germany it is ranked among the rarest conclude that not only water quality, In this article information on this project species. As in a lot of other dragon­ stream velocity and water vegetation as well as on the biology of dragonflies flies, larvae of Aeschna viridis live be­ influence the distribution of dragonflies, and why their protection is needed will tween waterplants. Larvae of all Odonata but even the composition and structure be presented. It is emphasised that live under water, although there are of the vegetation of the water edge. Woodland protection of important dragonfly bio­ a few exceptions in tropical rainforests. topes may contribute to the survival Larvae of most lotie species are bor­ The adults, males as well as females, Although still virtually unexplored from of interesting aquatic ecosystems, of rowers in sandy and silty bottoms. live at some distance from the water the ecological point of view, woodland which dragonflies form only a quanti­ Larvae and adults of all species are for one or two weeks. The length of is the major insect environment. tatively minor component. predacious. The larvae catch prey from this period again varies significantly Owing to the enormous volume of its vegetation, the variety of plant species of which it is composed and the multi­ tude of habitats afforded by it (soil, trunk, bark, foliage, different exposures and strata, etc.), woodland shelters a large number of populations account­ ing for most of the insect orders known in this part of the world. A recent study by numerical analysis showed that leaf- dwelling fauna in the forest of La Sainte- Baume (Var) is related more closely to the plant environment and the ecological context represented by it than to the particular plant supporting it. insect... I I to adult 1 1 from larva

<3 % I—i^ P h [jl1Ph ^ E - | O P h between species. They spend their days The Council of Europe has understood with feeding on all kinds of smaller that we have special responsibility for flying insects, while the eggs are ripen­ the survival of these insects. It has ing in the female. After their return now stimulated the study “Protection to the water edge, the males become of dragonflies and their biotopes”. It tem porary territorial, i.e. each male is also very important that a connection defends a territory during only a few has been made between the protection hours daily. Females that enter such a of dragonflies and the protection of temporarily territory are caught behind their biotopes. Protection of dragon­ the head immediately. After a short flies only, i.e. a general prohibition to flight in tandem, in which the male collect them, is useless. Only when the takes the front position, the male fills protection of dragonflies results in the his accessory genitalia on his second protection of important sites for dragon­ abdominal segment with sperm. There­ flies, will these measures be successful. after the female brings the end of her Why do dragonflies need In such cases, the Odonata form just abdomen close to the male’s secondary protection? the monitors for environmental quality, genitalia, the pair then form ing a “wheel” . and their conservation may result in the conservation of other interesting The actual mating takes place in wheel The question why dragonflies need aquatic insects. To these ones belong position between reed vegetation. In protection is certainly legitimate. Indeed, for instance the mayflies Ephemoptera other species pairs mate hanging in the 5,500 species of Odonata form a and stoneflies Plecoptera, but also more trees or on stems of emergent water- quite remarkable group among the generally known groups as the water- plants. This wheel position is a unique c. 30 million species of insects. Prede­ beetles. These insects are in fact just feature among insects and occurs in all cessors of recent species lived on earth as interesting as dragonflies, although dragonflies. as early as 325 million years ago. Also they are usually less conspicuous. Soon afterwards, although preferably the largest insect that has ever existed at dusk, the females return to the water belonged to the dragonflies. This spe­ Summarising one may conclude that to oviposit. The ovipositing behaviour cies, known as Meganeura monyi, had dragonflies are very suitable as indi­ is quite peculiar in this species. Most a wingspan of more than 65 cm. The cators in environmental monitoring sche­ species that lay their eggs in the tissue extinction. Habitat destruction is cer­ recent species are only a relict group mes, since they are conspicuous, fre­ quently stenotopic aquatic insects with of waterplants are not very strict in tainly the main reason for this phe­ of an insect order that had its maximum diversity hundreds of millions years a life cycle of up to five years. When their choice, laying for instance in all nomenon, but in some cases also ago. During this very long period very protection measures for dragonflies floating leaves of aquatic plants. The climatological changes may have influ­ peculiar lifeforms as well as habits result in the protection of important female of Aeschna viridis, however, has enced distribution patterns. When spe­ have evolved. Particularly in the tropical sites and include the conservation of a strong preference to the leaves of cies are considered for protection, region species diversity is high. Here water quality in these areas, then other Water Soldier, Stratiotes aloides. This several other aspects next to exclusive we find species specialised in breeding components of these ecosystems also behaviour has, of course, great influence occurrence in a rare biotope have to be in epiphytic bromeliads, and species may have better prospects for survival on the distribution. taken into account. We mention here, for with an abdomen of 14 cm length and in Europe. J. van T. example, the distribution within Europe, Not all species of Odonata show endo­ only 1 mm width. European species the worldwide range, the total number phytic ovipositing. Those who have, seem to be less extreme in morpho­ of populations and the vulnerability to are also adapted morphologically, since logical features, but their habits are habitat destruction. the eggs have to be put in the soft just as interesting as those of tropical plant tissue under the epidermis. Other Some species are very common and forms. Although some are ubiquistic, dragonflies, e.g. libellulids, disperse also very widespread. The libellulid most species are quite stenotopic. Spe­ their eggs by dipping their abdomen species Libellula quadrimaculata or cies of the last mentioned category are at the water surface. Such eggs sink Four-spotted Chaser is Holarctic, and is very suitable indicators of water quality. to the bottom, whereafter the prolarva very common in Europe by its ubiquistic A lot of species are very vulnerable emerges after some time. In some spe­ habits. Other species have a very to eutrophication, thermal pollution and cies the emergence of the prolarva limited range, although species restrict­ other human influences to the aquatic occurs only after overwintering of the ed to Europe are rare. Most European environment. It is rather superfluous eggs. This is usually true for species species extend at least to the western to mention that a lot of species in living at northern latitudes, where winter part of Asia, particularly the area Europe have suffered much during the conditions are unfavourable for young around the Caspian Sea. An important 20th century. In general particularly larvae to survive and time to grow after reason for this phenomenon form the the riverine and peatmoor species of emergence of the prolarva is only Pleistocene glaciations, which made northwestern European have signifi­ short. north and central Europe unsuitable cantly decreased in the number of for the survival of dragonflies. Most populations, but also in other parts of our recent species were then re­ of Europe and species of other habitats stricted to southern Europe and western have become locally extinct. Threatened species and habitats Asia. Among the very few truely Euro­ pean Odonata are Macromia splendens Aeschna viridis is just one example of a and Gomphus graslini. Protection of long list of dragonfly species that are such species should have priority, since confined to very specific biotopes. Other their local extinction would be fatal. species are only met in, for example, the ^ favourable biotope for dragonflies (Photo G. Lacoumette) Both can be found in river systems of lower courses of large rivers (Gomphus central France, while Macromia splen­ Drawing flavipes), in mesotrophic waters with dens also occurs at a few localities on Magnocaricion vegetation ( Nehalennia the Iberian peninsula. The preparation speciosa), or in extensive peatmoors of a list summarising the areas of ut­ in mountainous areas (Somatochlora most importance for the survival of alpestris). Quite a lot of these species characteristic dragonfly biotopes forms are now in danger of at least local also a part of the study. Threats Reproduction

Orthoptera Sigfrid ingrish Threats to species of Orthoptera mainly The larvae hatch in May. They already arise from changes in their environ­ resemble the adults (instars); develop­ ment and the direct or indirect effect ment is direct (hemi-metabolic), the of pesticides and fertilisers. For example insects being adult after five or six grasshoppers have proved sensitive to moults. Instars can be found from he term Orthoptera in the broadest fertilisers containing nitrogen, which August to October. Females ready to sense comprises the order of can release ammonia. Compared with mate are attracted by stridulating males. grasshoppers/crickets ( Sanatoria, T unfertilised soils, the number of eggs In addition to the chirping, the court­ Orthoptera in the narrower meaning of laid per female and the survival rate ship ritual comprises vibratory move­ the term) and some orders with fewer of the eggs were markedly diminished. ments of the body. The male slides species which are more or less related backwards under the female in order to Saltatoria, namely stick insects ( Phas- Sites where Orthoptera abound or which to mate. Once he has anchored his cerci mida), earwigs (Dermaptera), praying are valuable to specially adapted species to the female’s sub-genital plate, the mantises ( Mantidea), cockroaches (Blat- are dry or semi-dry grassland, open female springs forward, causing the tidea) and termites (Isoptera). The sandy zones (e.g. dry, sandy heathland, male to fall on his back and hold fast Saltatoria are divided into two series: dunes including inland dunes, abandon­ to the ovipositor with his forelegs. The long-horned families ( Ensifera) whose ed sand and gravel quarries, the gravel male then fastens a large spermatophore major representatives are bush crickets banks of Alpine rivers), unfertile grass­ to the female's sexual orifice; as well (Tettigoniidae) and true crickets (Gryl- land, steppes, abandoned vineyards as sperm, this spermatophore contains lidae); short-horned families ( Caelifera) and water-meadows untreated with many nutritional substances and is including grasshoppers ( A crididae) and fertiliser. Many of these zones need later eaten by the female. ground hoppers (Tetrigidae). to be used for grazing or mown oc­ E. ephippiger lays its eggs chiefly in Many Saltatoria can produce a sound casionally in order to maintain them in their original condition. Changes in the ground, sometimes in plant stems. (stridulation): for this purpose a toothed Like many other Tettigoniidae, the eggs ridge located on the front wings or on the use of the land such as more take several years to complete embryo- the inside of the jumping leg is scraped intensive exploitation (e.g. transforming geny. This means that the eggs only against a sharp edge. Ensifera scrape meadows into ploughed land or draining hatch after the second or third winter their front wings together, Caelifera wetlands) or the abandon of cultivation resulting in new growth of scrub and following the laying. The continued exist­ scrape the hind leg against the wings. ence of the populations is therefore Each species has a specific trill, which trees alter the life-support conditions less subject to transient fluctuations may be used for identification. and change, and usually impoverish, the Orthoptera communities. in the weather, e.g. cool, rainy summers Grasshoppers/crickets mainly live on * + in the North or drought in the South of open land. In woodland they mainly In Southern Europe dry habitats abound. * its range. On the other hand the eggs settle in clearings. Only tree-dwelling According to my own observations in are exposed for a long time to any land + species such as bush oak crickets the Peloponnese, Orthoptera which are exploitation or use of fertiliser. (Meconema thalassinum) also colonise adapted to the corresponding biotopes, * dense woodland. The majority of grass­ e.g. Calliptamus italicus, can be found ★ + hoppers/crickets are therefore depend­ in massive quantities; in Germany on ent for their living space on man-made the other hand this species is threatened Distribution zones, especially biotopes with extensive with extinction. In order to conserve exploitation of the land in a favourable a rich array of Orthoptera in Southern Ephippiger ephippiger E. ephippiger’ s distribution ranges from A couple of grasshoppers (E. ephippiger) climatic situation. Europe, wet biotopes and woodland the north of Spain to the Ukraine. The (Photo Anne and Jacques Six) should be the chief targets of protection. This cricket belongs to the Tettigoniidae. northernmost point at which it is found It has a curved, saddle-shaped, thoracic in Western Europe lies in the Nether­ Mapping as wide an area as possible shield (pronotum ) which covers the lands. In Eastern Europe it is found all Focus on the stridulator organ in action (Photo Anne and Jacques Six) is necessary in order to keep track greater part of the reduced wing. Only along the Vistula to the Baltic Sea. In of the insect populations, to update the base of a covering wing has remain­ the south it is common in the mountains possible dangers and to be able to Conditions necessary ed, transformed into a song apparatus. of northern Spain, the Italian Alps and make use of their indicator function. Both sexes, but chiefly males, chirp. the Balkans down to northern Greece. However mapping makes heavy per­ On warm days they emit their chirp, Its wide range, combined with low vagility sonal and financial demands. For this interrupted by short pauses (it sounds has resulted in great local differences Most Orthoptera are heat-loving (ther- reason only regional maps of fairly something like “ts-tssss”) almost the between separate populations. Seven mophile), preferring temperatures be­ small groups of insects have been whole day long and into the evening. sub-species are distinguished today. tween 30 and 40 °C. They thus only successfully completed to date. Restrict­ When seized, both males and females Distribution is markedly patchy (dis­ become really active in warm weather ing maps to a few monitoring species produce a sound of alarm, consisting junct). In particular north of the Alps or sunshine, being able to increase their promises more rapid results. Such a of rapid repetition of the chirp at three E. ephippiger only occurs in patches. body temperature by sunbathing. Many project is now being prepared in the more species therefore live in warm or four times the normal rate. The highest concentrations are found fram ework of the EIS scheme (European in south-east central Europe, south-east climates than in cool ones. Moreover E. ephippiger prefers to live on bushes Invertebrate Survey). To be suitable as Europe and southern France. Orthoptera require specific microcli­ a monitoring species, (1) a species must in open land with plenty of sunshine. mates (temperature, amount of sun­ have a strong relationship with the It is not eclectic as regards its food, The patchy distribution is condition­ light, moisture), environmental struc­ biotope and therefore a high value as devouring smaller insects as well as ed by high ecological requirements. ture (plant growth) and soil struc­ an indicator, (2) its occurrence or many parts of plants. Compared to other E. ephippiger only thrives under the tures, the conditions required varying absence must be able to be established grasshoppers its jumping legs are poorly influence of warm dry summers. In the from one species to another. Com­ with a high degree of certainty within developed. Being unable to fly, its French Massif Central almost all its munities of species or individual steno- an acceptable time. Among the Ortho­ range of movement is lim ited and it habitats lie in zones where the dry tropic species which can only withstand ptera, stenotropic species with a strik­ therefore has a poor spreading potential. weather index for the month of July minor variations in environmental factors ing trill (stridulation) are suitable, e.g. Its colour matches the vegetation and is lower than 30. On the basis of its may therefore be used as indicators of Ephippiger ephippiger (known as the it is therefore difficult to locate unless ecological requirements E. ephippiger environmental quality. “tizi” ). it betrays itself by its loud song. was presumed to have been widely Why this decline? N. M. Collins and J. A. Thomas

he first step in any new conservation The message is clear: thousands of Netherlands, Norway, Spain, Sweden, programme is documentation of Europe’s insect species are on the Switzerland and United Kingdom. Some Tthreatened habitats and species. retreat in the face of mounting pressure of the countries with WWF offices are During the past five years the insects from agriculture and industry. Local spearheading insect conservation in of Europe have come under close extinctions are already occurring, Britain Europe and are taking steps to counter­ scrutiny as conservationists began to has lost four butterflies, the Netherlands act the threats. realise that vast numbers of species has lost eight. But this is not a local Although the specific needs of inver­ may be declining through man’s activ­ problem, before long the total dis­ tebrates have taken up only a small ities. The growing body of published appearance of numerous insect species proportion of the IUCN/WWF effort, results is revealing a conservation prob­ from Europe may be commonplace. many habitat conservation programmes lem of startling proportions. Every group Concerted action by national and inter­ are a great help to invertebrates as well of insects studied so far includes a national conservation bodies is needed as the more obvious birds and mam­ high number of species at risk. To take in order to bring this situation to the mals. However, the special needs of just one small group, the butterflies, attention of the public and, by influenc­ insects have sometimes been over­ a recent Council of Europe report ing public opinion, bring about decisive looked in these programmes, and there demonstrated that 96 of the 380 resident efforts to improve the protection of vital is great scope for improvement. Habitat European species are threatened, 15 of insect habitats throughout Europe. destruction has been the dominant cause these being in danger of extinction. of decline in insect numbers, particu­ Grasshopper (Photo G. Lacoumette) larly the virtually irreversible problems Co-operation IUCN-WWF caused by land drainage. This has Regression of insects in Europe been responsible for the dramatic The partnership between the Interna­ decline of 16 species of butterflies Several European nations have com­ tional Union for Conservation of Nature distributed in central Europe in the an exchange of genetic information on the plant structure. Appropriate biotope (including three of the European spe­ missioned reports on insects. Of the and Natural Resources (IUCN) and the warm period which followed the ice age the one hand and on the other a protection measures can replace this. cies of Large Blue butterflies discussed 14,000 species assessed in the British World Wildlife Fund (WWF) is unique (subboreal period). As climatic condi­ recolonisation of localities in which its Buffer zones should separate the pro­ in detail below), as well as numerous in its capacity to bring about integrated, tions worsened and became cooler and existence was adversely affected by tected biotopes from built-up areas and Insect Red Data Book, over 6 % are dragonflies. endangered or vulnerable and a further international conservation efforts. Work­ more Atlantic, its range gradually shrank. environmental factors or the hand of land under intensive farming, especially ing together, IUCN and WWF have aided IUCN and WWF are taking the lead in Finally it could only be found in places man. This is difficult in the north of its where a lot of pesticides are used. 5 % are rare. In Belgium a survey of over 3,000 conservation projects in an international campaign to conserve which emerged as islands of warmth range where its occurrence is patchy A suitable habitat for ecologically less the distribution of 1,600 insect species 130 countries. IUCN has an unrivalled European wetlands. Much of the interest from the surrounding landscape and and the sites where it is found usually demanding species or Orthoptera can revealed that over 11 % were disappear­ network of technical expertise while stems from lUCN's voluntary role as where man had prevented the advance lie several kilometres apart. also be maintained even in a farming ing so quickly as to be in danger of WWF contributes its sophisticated fund­ secretariat for the Convention on Wet­ of trees. E. ephippiger therefore owes area if it is well sub-divided, if the use extinction. Assessments of insects have raising and publicity skills, coupled lands of International Importance (us­ its recent occurrence in central Europe of fertiliser on grasslands is reduced been made in West Germany, Austria, with a network of national offices. IUCN ually called the Ramsar Convention). to the hand of man. However its northern and if water-meadows, hedges and small Spain (Lepidoptera only), the Nether­ lands, Czechoslovakia and Finland, all and WWF share an international secre­ The 36 Contracting Parties to the Con­ populations are now regressing, so that Frequency of occurrence variable patches of wasteland are allowed to tariat in Switzerland, but WWF also vention have listed almost 300 Wetlands for example it has been classified in according to the areas remain. S.I. with similar startling results. Most other has national affiliates in 26 countries, of International Importance, the majority the Federal Republic of Germany’s “Red countries, including Switzerland, Luxem­ 14 of these in Europe. These are of them in Europe. They cover a surface List” as a species “threatened by extinc­ This shows that the frequency of occur­ bourg, France, Italy and Poland, have Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, area of around 20 million hectares, but tion”. In addition to possible climatic rence of species of Orthoptera and any published documents or legislation that France, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, as the number of parties grows this causes the danger arises particularly threats to them can vary greatly from indicate threats to their native insects. from man’s influence on the landscape. one region to another. Concentrations The chief threats are: housing construc­ arise in regions where the ecological tion over suitable biotopes, industrial requirements of a species with regard facilities or traffic facilities (e.g. in the to climate are optimally met. In such Rhine-Main area); greater use of pesti­ regions its link with the biotopes is Lycaena (Photo K. Ross-Jacana) cides, especially in vineyards, since weaker, it occurs in large numbers and E. ephippiger is frequently found in is not endangered. On the fringes of wine-growing areas (e.g. mid-Rhine and its range its ecological requirements are Moselle). As an indicator, the occur­ only met in a few biotopes which stand rence of E. ephippiger points to favour­ out from the surrounding landscape able climatic zones but it also identifies because of local climatic conditions, biotopes as yet unharmed by man and possibly because of the structure of the deserving protection. vegetation or composition of the soil. If we wish to prevent a species dy'ng At the points of highest concentration out in such areas, this can only be done in south-east Europe and southern by maintaining these specific biotopes. France, E. ephippiger is usually found over a wider range than in central The habitats of rare Orthoptera house Europe, and dense populations are a multitude of rare insects belonging found in some areas. Here, in its to other orders and are also usually optimum clim ate, it is also able to floristically important. In many cases colonise small areas since, generally their preservation requires not only speaking, it only has to cover short their designation as nature reserves distances in order to make contact with but also extensive farming in order a neighbouring population. This permits to suppress unfavourable changes in Butterflies figure is expected to treble. To support Dragonflies the Ramsar Convention, IUCN and WWF The Butterfly Specialist Group includes have developed a Wetlands Programme The European members of the IUCN/ numerous European lepidopterists who with 89 projects, 39 of them field SSC Dragonfly Specialist Group have are very active in conservation in their projects. Many of the projects are out­ been particularly active in document­ own right. Many are also members of the side Europe but some, such as the ing threats and promoting conservation Societas Europaea Lepidopterologica, Wadden Sea Conservation Programme, action. Six out of Europe’s 130 or so which has its own conservation com­ are in vital European sites. Documenta­ species are in need of protection. Two mittee. Much attention has been given tion of the sites is still unfinished and of these are widespread outside Europe to the Apollo butterfly (Parnassius no assessment of their value to insects but may soon disappear from their apollo), mainly because of its import­ has been made, but there can be no European range. The other four are ance in trade. Several other species doubt that many groups will benefit. endemic to small areas in Europe, three are much more seriously at risk, includ­ An international assessment of the of them in south-west France. The fourth ing Hypodryas maturna, Coenonympha threats to one important group of fresh­ is Frey’s Damselfly (Coenagrion freyi), oedippus, Lycaena dispar and, perhaps water insects, dragonflies ( Odonata), now known only from one or two alpine most important of all, Papilio hospiton will be included in the programme. lakes. Due to the limitations of available funds, little action has been possible so from Corsica and Sardinia. Some have far. Conservation needs, documented received project finding from national by the Dragonfly Group in The IUCN WWF offices, notably in United Kingdom Invertebrate Red Data Book, include and Netherlands. The WWF-UK appeal surveys of possible new localities and to save Britain’s butterflies is seeking prevention of eutrophication and dis­ £ 40,000 for research and conservation turbance of littoral zones in lakes action on behalf of 14 of Britain’s known to harbour the insect. butterflies.

In recent years, invertebrates have begun to attract attention in their own right. IUCN began to tackle the problem of insect conservation by forming inter­ national Specialist Groups for Butter­ flies, Moths, Dragonflies, Ants and A noteworthy example: the failure Cave Invertebrates, all under the um­ of the measures taken to preserve brella of the IUCN Species Survival Maculinea arion in Great Britain Commission (SSC). These groups of experts have been taking important Conservation of the European species steps in identifying priority needs and of Large Blue butterflies has been re­ implementing recovery plans. They have cognised by IUCN/WWF as an interna­ also been influential in providing mate­ tional priority. Three species, Maculinea rial for two important new IUCN publica­ arion, the Scarce Large Blue (M. teleius) tions: The IUCN Invertebrate Red Data and the Dusky Large Blue (M. nau- Book (1983) and Threatened Swallow­ sithous) have already disappeared from tail Butterflies of the World - The the Netherlands, and M. arion is extinct IUCN Red Data Book (1985), both pro­ in Britain. These butterflies and their duced at the IUCN Conservation Moni­ close relatives, the two Alcon Large toring Centre in Cambridge, UK. Blues (M. alcon alcon and M. alcon rebeli— now believed to be distinct Formica rufa (Photo Anne and Jacques Six) species), are all at serious risk on the Ants European mainland.

In 1977 the IUCN/SSC Ant Specialist Large Blue butterflies have a strong Group, in conjunction with WWF Swit­ appeal for naturalists because, in addi­ zerland, began a campaign called "Ant tion to the cachet of rarity and impend­ Conservation in Central Europe” and ing extinction, they are very beautiful published a pamphlet, Les fourmis des and possess fascinating life cycles: in bois et leur protection, which described each species, the eggs are laid on the distribution and conservation of member countries to protect them. The The ants also help to improve soil flowers which the young larvae eat, Wood ants in Switzerland. This marked main threat was forest exploitation, but quality, disperse plants through seed but older larvae are carried by Red the beginning of a huge effort to protect damage to individual nests by passers- collection, and increase the yield of ants ( M yrmica spp.) into their under­ Wood ants, mainly by drawing public by was also a serious problem. The forest honeydew from aphids. Although ground nests, where the butterflies live for nine months and feed on ant brood. attention to the problem, but also by nests look like an untidy pile of pine the ants use most of the honeydew to "Game bag" (Photo G. Lacoumette) There have been numerous attempts encouraging the placing of protective needles, but in fact they are carefully meet their own energy needs, much to conserve Large Blue colonies, but few barriers around nests, by dividing nests, constructed to maintain a stable nest of the surplus is taken by bees and have been successful. The failure of and by mass rearing of queen ants to microclimate. The Wood ants are an turned into honey. In one summer measures to prevent M. arion from be­ start new colonies. It has been recog­ important part of ecology of European season a single nest of Formica rufa coming extinct in Britain illustrates well nised since the early 1960s that Wood forests, where they help to maintain in Germany collected 200 litres of the special problems that arise with ants were endangered in many parts the biological equilibrium by feeding honeydew, 50,000 seeds and 6 million insect conservation, and will be describ­ of their range and as early as 1964 on vast numbers of phytophagous in­ prey insects, including 400,000 forest ed in more detail. the Council of Europe encouraged its sects, many of them potential pests. pests. Decline of other species gether in the same wet fields and Role of the habitat than one butterfly each. Thyme or marshes, it transpired that each butter­ Marjoram need not be abundant; merely The extinction of M. arion stimulated fly was using a different species of Maculinea arion inhabits dry grassland, well enough distributed to be acces­ a detailed look at Britain’s other butter­ Myrmica ant, and that these ants had laying its eggs on Marjoram in warm sible to most ant nests. fly species and, very often, a similar different habitat requirements. It should climates and on Thyme in cooler regions It was also found that, in cooler situation was found. Most species are now be possible to conserve both spe­ such as Britain. Thorough surveys and climates, Myrmica sabuleti occurs in in decline due to changes in forestry cies on Europe’s wetland reserves, with monitoring of the British populations sufficient abundance to support M. arion and agriculture and several species will very little effort. This is essential, because began in the late 1940s and have con­ only on warm slopes where the turf is probably be largely or wholly eliminated these beautiful butterflies are unlikely tinued ever since, often funded by heavily grazed and trampled, allowing from commercial woods and farmland to survive for long on other land. The WWF-UK. By 1961 every colony had the sun to heat the underground nests. in the foreseeable future. Nature re­ same is true of Maculinea a/con alcon, a been found, but their conservation If the turf grows 2-3 cm too tail, serves, mainly established to conserve butterfly of moist heaths, and, to a lesser proved to be extremely difficult. Extinc­ Myrmica sabuleti deserts its nest and its extent, of M. alcon rebeli. The needs tions had been occurring on British plants, birds and mammals, have pro­ parasite, the Large Blue, becomes ex­ vided little protection for local butter­ of both species are currently being sites for over 150 years. Many losses tinct on the site. In contrast, Thyme flies and other insects. One woodland studied. were caused by the obvious destruc­ and other (unsuitable) species of Myr­ lost 14 of the 17 local species of butter­ tion of the habitat, but most extinctions mica often flourish in fields that are fly that had inhabited it when it was were puzzling because they occurred much too evergrown for Myrmica sabu­ bought as a reserve, and this is not on sites that still looked as suitable Conclusion leti and the Large Blue. This is the explan­ an isolated case. As with M. arion, as ever, and contained an abundance ation of most British extinctions, includ­ conservationists had often failed to of Thyme flowering over large areas, In conclusion, it is true that the limited ing those that occurred on nature maintain particular habitat types within with Myrmica ants easy to find. The resources of IUCN and WWF have so far reserves. During this century, farmers nature reserves, and these soon dis­ butterfly was even lost on the five mainly been used for effecting habitat have found it increasingly uneconomic appeared when site management was nature reserves that were established conservation and protecting endangered to graze unfertilised hills to the re­ changed or ignored. Because they have to save it. vertebrate species. At the same time quired intensity, and most sites have short life cycles, lay many eggs, and however, IUCN has been acutely aware For 45 years, there was much specula­ been abandoned. The final wave of experience large natural mortalities, of the unexpectedly long national lists tion about the causes of M. arion's extinctions occurred when rabbits were insect populations react rapidly to of threatened insects and other inver­ decline in Britain. Since the habitat lost due to myxomatosis. Thus, after changing circumstances. The decline of tebrates that are emerging from many usually seemed unchanged, other fac­ the 1950s, the specialised conditions butterflies on a nature reserve estab­ European countries. The IUCN Con­ tors, such as butterfly collectors, the needed by this butterfly were unlikely lished principally for its plant community servation Monitoring Centre continues weather, or genetic deterioration through to be produced as a by-product of British is more than a regrettable loss; it should to build a computer database on in-breeding, were often blamed, and agriculture, and its survival as a British be recognised as a serious warning of European insects and currently holds these hypotheses were used as the species was only likely to occur on nature gradual change. Perennial plants can over 5,000 records of conservation rationale for conservation measures. reserves where its habitat was deliber­ withstand adverse conditions for some issues relating to insect species. More This had disastrous results; for example, ately maintained. Unfortunately, this years whereas annuals may survive as Red Data Books will follow in the one site was obtained as a reserve did not occur, not because of a lack buried seed, but Thyme and many tradition of the Invertebrate and Swallow­ in the 1920s to protect the colony from of will or money, but because it was other low-growing plants are eventually tail volumes already produced by the butterfly collectors, but, unfortunately, thought sufficient merely to protect its shaded out of ungrazed M. arion sites Centre. The network of European WWF the cattle that grazed the site were flower-rich sites from obvious destruc­ just as Milk Parsley ( Peucedanum pa­ offices is taking the lead in notifying also excluded and the colony soon tion. The exact needs of this butterfly lustre) slowly declines in uncut reed- conservation problems and effecting became extinct. Other scientists rightly were not discovered until it was too late. beds in the years after its butterfly, recovery programmes for insects, while thought that the habitat had become the Swallowtail ( Papilio machaon britan- At present, attempts to recreate suitable the IUCN/SSC Specialist Groups serve unsuitable in obscure ways, but they nicus), is lost. habitat are being made, and it is hoped a vital function in obtaining an over­ invariably guessed the wrong reasons that M. arion will be re-established view of European needs and priorities. and great efforts and much money were in Britain using continental stock. This So far the level of funding for insect spent on well-meaning measures that difficult and expensive project is being projects has been modest, but mo­ are now known to have been irrelevant Several studies planned undertaken by a consortium of con­ mentum will gather as the citizens of or even harmful to M. arion’s needs. servation bodies and partly funded by Europe recognise that many familiar WWF-UK. It would never have been These lessons are being heeded in Britain where several surveys of local species are on the brink of extinction. necessary if research into M. arion’s N.M.C. and J.A.T. needs had begun a few years earlier. butterflies have been made, and many Importance of Myrmica sabuleti more are planned, funded by the WWF- UK appeal. A few detailed and several By 1972, M. arion was on the verge unintensive ecological studies have been of extinction in Britain. It was clear made, mainly by ITE scientists. As a that its requirements had not been result, it now seems that the Heath correctly guessed, even though the Fritillary (Mellicta athalia) has been basics of the lifecycle had been known A couple of Lycaena (Photo K. Ross-Jacana) saved from the brink of extinction in for nearly 60 years. A full-time pro­ Britain and that at least five other gramme of ecological research was endangered or vulnerable species can therefore started by the Nature Con­ be maintained on nature reserves that servancy, and continued by the Institute were largely established for other groups of Terrestrial Ecology (ITE). This soon of wildlife. revealed that M. arion had more spe­ cialised and slightly different require­ Similar projects have begun elsewhere ments than had been suspected. In in Europe. Particular attention is being particular, although up to five species paid to the other species of Large of M yrmica ant may inhabit a M. arion Blue. Using WWF funds, ITE has made site, the butterfly survived well only a survey of Dusky and Scarce Large in the nests of one species, Myrmica Blue colonies in parts of France, and sabuleti. Moreover, very large numbers their ecological needs have been studi­ of this ant must be present on a site, ed. Although both butterflies use the because few nests can support more same foodplant and often breed to­ An International laws: a worrying amazing insufficiency diversity H.-E. Back

Ali Demirsoy he national legislation of some systems of the earth, which must be avoid utilisation incompatible with their countries affords protection to in­ protected for this and the generations survival a n d/or in order that trade in The queen holds court Tsects whose range is far wider than to come;” and “that international co­ specimens of such species may be (Photo Anne and Jacques Six) the area of application of the particular operation is essential for the protection brought under effective control. law and which in many cases occur of certain species of wild fauna and Article IV of the convention regulates predominantly outside that area. For flora against over-exploitation through trade in specimens of these species. example, the Federal Republic of Ger­ international trade”, an international many’s endangered species regulations committee meeting in Washington in EEC regulations afford special protection to all Euro­ 1973 drew up a Convention on Interna­ pean Ascalaphidae (owlflies), Myrme- tional Trade in Endangered Species The convention’s provisions have been leonidae (ant lions), Cicadidae (cicadas), of Wild Fauna and Flora. To date, enforceable national law in the EEC Papilionoidea (true butterflies), Sphin- 87 governments have signed this con­ member states since 1 January 1984 by gidae (hawk or sphinx moths) and other vention and made it enforceable law virtue of the following special regula­ insect groups. Similar legislation exists in their countries. It is open indefinitely tions: in other countries. It often happens for accession. Council Regulation (EEC) No. 3626/82 he biggest prize of the Universal One of the most valuable elements logical studies carmine dye obtained that species which enjoy no protection of 3 December 1982 on the implementa­ The only insects mentioned in Ap­ Lottery was possibly won by Earth, in nature from scale insects is used as well as in the countries in which they mainly tion in the Community of the Convention tannin produced with gallflies. Some pendix II of the convention are the fol­ Tabout four billion years ago with occur are given special protection within on International Trade in Endangered products derived from insects (such as lowing butterflies: the creation of the first living being A group of creatures with such a variety the area of application of these laws Species of Wild Fauna and Flora extracts of Lytta vesicatoria) are used Ornithoptera spp. which could multiply by itself. Since necessarily took the suitable place it (e.g. cicadas). in conjunction with by man as medicine. Finally, insects all species then, the tiny ferment branched out, deserved, adding thus to the basic Trogonoptera spp. and especially butterflies give us deep of these taxa Commission Regulation (EEC) No. 3418/ ramified and varied in shape and size. structure of the fantastic network of Troides spp. pleasure when we observe their beautiful 83 of 28 November 1983 laying down It became the source of many other life. Even other creatures owe their Parnassius apollo creatures which could adapt to all colours and admirable designs. provisions for the uniform issue and existence and capacity of fertilisation to The Washington Convention Appendix II includes all species which, kinds of conditions. The insects certainly use of the documents required for the the insects’ presence. Most plants for Out of the 800,000 kinds of insects, although not necessarily now threatened received the greatest share from the implementation in the Community of the instance can only achieve fertilisation 2,000 only are harmful for man directly, with extinction, may become so unless branching and variation. Today we know “Recognising that wild fauna and flora Convention on International Trade in through insects. Undoubtedly the mar­ while 3,000 of them can harm us trade in specimens of such species is about 1,200,000 kinds of species, of in their many beautiful and varied forms Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and vellous and complicated structure on indirectly, that is to say that only one are an irreplaceable part of the natural subject to strict regulation in order to Flora. which 800,000 are insects and the which life is based has been built, out of 160 is harmful. This ratio is number of species can extend to about directly or indirectly, by insects. We probably no greater than that of human The regulations apply to imports and 2,000,000 by careful and detailed stud­ must admit their important role in life, beings who may harm others. The fight exports of specimens of listed species ies. The great richness in the kinds even if sometimes we cannot see them which man started against the insects, (those included in the appendices to of living creatures actually represents because of their size or because they without much thought about the con­ the Washington Convention) entering the richness of nature itself. adapt and thus hide themselves per­ sequences, not only caused many and leaving EEC member states and to fectly in the environment. defects in the network of life but also trade in, and transport of, specimens endangers the future of man. The of such species within the EEC member Even though some plants multiply methods we use to destroy some few states. vegetatively, the small creatures which harmful insects, are wiping out many carry the pollen from one flower to The provisions of the convention are kinds of other forms of life. Moreover, Geological considerations another serve yet another purpose: they actually made stricter because the EEC this has sometimes caused an increase cause genetic variation, i.e. hybridisa­ regulations contain a special provision in the population of some other “harm­ tion, which results in the creation of —Annex 1—under which the butterfly ful” species. Together with the plants The geological period during which the new plants. species mentioned are to be treated, we harvest we also destroy other plants insects developed the most is the from the legal point of view, as species on which “harmless” insects live. The carboniferous age, about which we have of Appendix I in the Washington clas­ water species are also being destroyed learnt from fossil studies. Today we sification. Insect-man by pollution. know about 20,000 different fossils of The effect of this is that anyone who insects. After this period, there was a Today, in many parts of Europe, there imports or exports living or dead butter­ large differentiation in the order of Insects have played an important role is a decrease in the num bers of butter­ flies (or part thereof), trades in them or insects. Their increase in num bers is in the evolution of humanity and some flies and damselflies which used to fill merely transports them within the EEC, parallel to the enrichment of the classes societies have been greatly influenced the sky during sunset, of cicadas, the must be able to produce certain docu­ of plants, especially the flowering types. by them. In the past mosquitoes, for daytime singers and of crickets, the ments proving that the legal require­ The large variety of insects and their instance, forced people out from many musicians of our evenings. These insects ments as to the various exceptions have evolution, and particularly the evolution areas around the Mediterranean now and other forms of wildlife are disap­ been satisfied. of those known as “developed” insects only ruins of ancient cities remain. pearing because of man’s actions Nature (such as lepidoptera, hymenoptera and On the other hand, other insects offer is becoming plain, monotonous and The exceptions and requisite documents diptera) follows closely that of plants us honey, silk, resins, lacquers, etc. lonely with the disappearance of insects. Danaus plexippus - the only insect mentioned in the Bonn Convention are specified in the regulations (in rela­ and is like a nuclear chain reaction. In the cosmetic industry and in histomo- A.D. (Photo J.-L. Dubois-Jacana) tion to the Washington Convention). National Agencies of the Centre

Contributors AUSTRIA ITALY NORWAY Univ.-Prof. Dr. Franz WOLKINGER Dr ssa Elena MAMMONE Mrs Irene SIGUENZA to this issue: Österreichische Akademie Ministère dell'Agricoltura Ministry of the Environment The provisions of the last two con­ der Wissenschaften Ufficio delle relazioni internazionali Myntgaten 2 ventions are not directly enforceable. Institut für Umweltwissen­ 18, via XX Settembre P.O. Box 8013 Legislation is necessary to make them schaften und Naturschutz I - 00187 ROMA N - 0030 OSLO Heinrich Straße 5/III enforceable law in the individual con­ A - 8010 GRAZ tracting states. LIECHTENSTEIN PORTUGAL Ing. Mario F. BROGGI Prof. Luis SALDANHA The last of these conventions shows M. Marc Meyer BELGIUM Liecht. Gesellschaft Liga para a Protecçâo da Natureza Convention of 23 June 1979 Secrétaire Général de la Cartographie all too clearly that insects are under­ M. Jean RENAULT für Umweltschutz Estrada do Calhariz de Benfica, No. 187 on the Conservation of Migratory des Invertébrés Européens (CIE) Ministère de l'Agriculture Heiligkreuz 52 P - 1500 LISBOA rated and indeed disregarded in interna­ Musée d'Histoire Naturelle Administration FL - 9490 VADUZ Species of Wild Animals Marché-aux-Poissons tional law. de la Recherche Agronomique SPAIN L - 2345 Luxembourg Manhattan Center 7* étage M. Joaquin ROS VICENT The purpose of this convention is “to Furthermore, the appendices to the Avenue du Boulevard 21 LUXEMBOURG Direcciön General de Medio Ambiente prevent, reduce or control factors that Washington Convention are in urgent M. Christophe Dufour B - 1210 BRUXELLES M. Charles ZIMMER Conservateur Direction des Eaux et Forêts Ministerio de Obras Püblicas y are endangering or are likely to endan­ need of extension—as are national Musée d'Histoire Naturelle 34, avenue de la Porte-Neuve Urbanismo ger” migratory species (preamble). One legislative provisions, which, by being Terreaux 14 CYPRUS B P. 411 Paseo de la Castellana n.° 67 of these factors is “taking” in the broad­ brought into line and adjusted to each CH - 2000 Neuchâtel Nature Conservation Service L - LUXEMBOURG-VILLE E - 28071 MADRID other can be made into a body of Ministry of Agriculture and est possible sense. M. Willi Geiger Natural Resources SWEDEN international law. Ligue suisse pour la Protection Forest Department MALTA Appendix II to this convention lists Mr. Ingvar BINGMAN de la Nature CY - NICOSIA Mr Joe SULTANA National Swedish Environment migratory species which have “an un­ The “red lists” of endangered plant and Case postale 73 Environment Division favourable conservation status”. The animal species which have been drawn 22 Wartenbergstrasse Department of Health Protection Board Merchants Street P.O. Box 1302 up by many countries show both an CH - 4020 Bâle DENMARK only insect mentioned there is Danaus Miss Lotte BARFOD M - VALLETA S - 171 25 SOLNA ptexippus. extremely rapid rise in the degree of Dr. Sigfrid Ingrisch National Agency for the danger and an increase in the rate at Protection of Nature. Institut für Biologie II THE NETHERLANDS SWITZERLAND Monuments and Sites which populations and species are dying - Zoologie - Mr D. A. HUITZING Dr Jürg ROHNER Ministry of the Environment der Rheinisch-Westfälischen Directorate for Nature Conservation, Ligue Suisse out. This awful realisation should pro­ 13 Amaliegade Convention of 19 September 1979 Technischen Hochschule Aachen pour la Protection de la Nature vide the impetus and scientific basis DK - 1256 COPENHAGEN K Environmental Protection on the Conservation of European Kopernikusstr. 16 and Wildlife Management Wartenbergstraße 22 for speedy legislation at national and D - 5100 Aachen Wildlife and Natural Habitats Postbus 20401 Case postale 73 international level so that the knowledge, FRANCE NL - 2500 EK THE HAGUE CH - 4020 BÂLE Dr. Martin C. D. Speight M'" Isabelle RAYNAUD convictions and concerns expressed in Chairman, Council of Europe This convention, which is the result Direction de la Protection the preambles to the conventions can be Consultant Group on Invertebrates TURKEY de la Nature of a Council of Europe initiative, is Research Branch Mr Hasan ASMAZ translated into action and do not remain Ministère de l’Environnement intended both to achieve a greater unity Forest and Wildlife Service President of the Turkish Association mere words. H.-E.B. 14, boulevard du Général-Leclerc Sidmonton Place for the Conservation of Nature between the member states in the nature F - 92524 NEUILLY-SUR-SEINE IRL - Bray, Co. Wicklow and Natural Resources CEDEX conservation field and to show recogni­ Menekse sokak 29/4 tion of the fact that “wild flora and M. Louis Bigot Kizilay fauna constitute a natural heritage of Maître de recherche au CNRS FEDERAL REPUBLIC TR - ANKARA aesthetic, scientific, cultural, recrea­ Université de Provence OF GERMANY Laboratoire de Zoologie Deutscher Naturschutzring e. V. tional, economic and intrinsic value UNITED KINGDOM Place Victor Hugo Bundesverband für Umweltschutz that needs to be preserved and handed F - 13331 Marseille Cédex 3 Miss Shirley PENNY Kalkuhlstraße 24 Chief Librarian on to future generations”. Postfach 32 02 10 Nature Conservancy Council Prof. Ali Demirsoy D - 5300 BONN-OBERKASSEL 3 Unfortunately, insects are covered only Hacettepe University Great Britain Headquarters Northminster House by the general provisions of this con­ Faculty of Science Department of Biology GREECE Northminster Road vention—and even then they are not TR - Beytepe - Ankara M. Byron ANTIPAS GB - PETERBOROUGH PE1 1UA mentioned expressly. Secrétaire général Mr N. M. Collins Société hellénique pour la IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre protection de la nature 219c Huntingdon Road 24, rue Nikis GB - Cambridge C83 OLD GR - 10557 ATHENES

Mr J. A. Thomas Institute of Terrestrial Ecology ICELAND Furzebrook Research Station Mr Gisli GISLASON GB - Wareham Director Nature Conservation Council Drs. Jan van Toi Hverfisgdtu 26 Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Historie ISL - 101 REYKJAVIK Postbus 9517 NL - 2300 RA Leiden IRELAND Mr John McLOUGHLIN Dr. H. E. Back Department of Fisheries and Forestry Mühlenweg 32 Forest & Wildlife Service D - 5308 Rheinbach 4 Leeson Lane IRL - DUBLIN 2 (Photo E.-G. Haarhaus)

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