ISSN: 1042-864X

to this Issue Commission on the Commemoration of the presents... The Meadows Museum Museum The Meadows It It is not our intention to deal Portuguese were, Portuguese in chronologi­ main they main motives were (and of­ spices.3 for search the and ; of that is listing summary Another Antonio do Carmo speaks Reis, of who a “motivating penta­ beyond be might there lands what route to to . route here with the impulses behind the the behind impulses the with here successors. and collaborators his Let just it be that mentioned ac­ cal order: a crusading quest the gold; Guinea for zeal; desire king a Christian the John, Prester for said to rule over a kingdom in curiosity know (to gon”: scientific the commercial ); Age Age of and the Discovery efforts and Navigator the Henry Prince of cording to Charles four the Boxer, historian, British eminent the ten mingled) which inspired the politico-philosophical treatises of treatises of politico-philosophical important an played little Map,” the “Great unrolling in part six­ and fifteenth the in especially almost say that the unrolling be­ whose on India, western with gan the shores terminated European voyage of discovery of the sea teenth teenth centuries, and we might the worldview that his generation generation his that worldview the was privileged to enjoy through the maps, travel accounts, and It is to good that recall the time.2 35 Notes on Contributors 34 Upcoming Events: 33 The National in ” Mozambique” in Music “Coping with the the with “Coping War: of Consequences of “The Power -Lynette Peck An Interview with Albie Sachs Sachs Albie with An Interview Today on Mozambique the Child" of The Rights “Mozambique “Mozambique Update” -llene Cohn -Dawit Toga The The repercussions of Portugal’s 23 Special Report: Edmund Edmund Burke in concerning 1777 Mankind is unrolled at once,” wrote wrote once,” at is Mankind unrolled Europe and for the true faith. true the for and Europe achievement were momentous, and and momentous, were achievement expanded the horizons of the knowledge. “Now Great of Map man’s had had a national importance, but it engaged was Portugal as inasmuch in a fight for the spiritual values of heroic heroic motifs of Homer or Virgil. It boasted of an even wider import, gal gal had accomplished in the East was incomparably greater than the

The C am ões C enter Q uarterly is m ade possible by a grant from The Tinker Foundation.

the epic national of World History the Context of A Conversation Experience in Western India Presence in Lusiads, I I Boxer on Boxer: 6 The Indo-Portuguese I The Portuguese John Correia-Afonso, S.J. John Correia-Afonso,

The The Vasco Vasco da Gama embarked from Jit■' ing their native Portugal behind them them behind Portugal native their ing by played role key the of recognition what Portu­ Camões, For literature. Camões sang of “heroes, who who leav­ “heroes, of sang Camões the opened way to Ceylon and be­ ever had man no seas across yond, sailed before.”1 He adopted the as his fundamental theme in clear of the nation Portuguese and of its voyage voyage of de Vasco to Gama India the Asia evolution of in the opening May 1498. Two days later he dropped dropped he later days Two 1498. May country from to . Luis de de Luis Japan. to Brazil from country Portugal, the Portugal, story is of a small na­ a a century their of spread faith the and over flag the the carrying seas, Presence in Presence anchor a few miles north of Calicut, Calicut, of north few a miles anchor who were the , by received the of letter contents the at pleased the bearer. was which he of in a fleet of four vessels on 8 8 on vessels four of fleet a in Lisbon

tion which in the space of a little over over little a of space the in which tion at the port of Capocate. It was not till till not was It Capocate. of port the at which gifts the by impressed from far da but seemed brought, Gama had July July and sighted 1497, on India 18 — the the end of the month that he was Western India Western The Portuguese The •*’=*-*. •*’=*-*. -— m y z z M ichael T eague to Europe,to but contributedgreatly to zation).4 finally religious conversion (evangeli­ the Portuguesethe India.discovery of delineatetomapdatedearliest the tionmadewas introductionwith the a century fifteenth the of end the political alliance with Christian rulers Muhammadan power);the of edge more(throughknowl­accurateegy prospects(fromproductsthe which andchart theseas,but also traded, atgahcl nweg. h fa­ The knowledge.cartographical Euro­Portugalquently becamethe extended the limits of the notonlyworldempires.discoveriesTheir known seaborne Europe’s the of pathfinders were They achieve? plorers i tesii fte rsds; and Crusades); the of spirit the(in might befound there);military strat­ mousCantino planisphere (1502) is and geographical for center pean subse­ and , of scale a of revolutionary cartographical innova­ itsmore accuraterepresentation. At h Pruus dd o ut sail just not Portuguese did The u htddte Portuguese ex­ the did whatBut hns nae i te intercoastal the in engaged chants tocloser brought hemispheres two the bonds of .Not only were the iey udrd rnhs f the of branches sundered widely together,for better of for worse,the tilian conquered,andsettledlands. Their ah te, u h European mer­ the but other, each dimly, of itsdimly,ofessentialunity.”5 firstthus humanTheyfamily. great ern rim of Christendom, who brought in n ioain f h different the of isolation and sion new a of beginning the was deed in­ Here world. medieval the from above all else, marks off the modern and essentially is Asia and Africa dominionon thecoasts and seasof made humanity conscious, however rnhs f akn. I ws the was “It mankind. of branches age,for before Iberianthe discover­ peculiarly connected with the begin­ history of civilization was the disper­ the of feature striking most theies of expansion maritime the of nings otgee inesad h Cas­ theand pioneersPortuguese which, Christendom and Europe Thisunity wasmade more real by conquistadores 2 fromthe west­ them. Territorial empire was beyond able.”8Boxer,AccordingCharles to She factories. trading and tresses Portugalhold mustkeyfor­ only to. will makewilltheir abode.”7 e oes n wud e unprofit­ be would andpowers her relymustnavalpoweron defend to adhered always was Albuquerque by down laid principle “The quest. concernedwith trade than with con­ more fact, in Portuguese were, the feats, military and naval country’s their lauding chroniclers tuguese iis ad eefrln ae they ages long for here and cities, and lands, victories, win will come to still soldiers Portuguese shores Comorin, Cape in ends it till ward probablyowingits origin Por­tothe rCyo. EverywhereCeylon.or alongthese Taprobana facing Cori, Capeonce asyousee,continuesrunsouth­ to sion: “This celebrated coast of India, vi­ impressive an Gama da Vasco India. in elsewhere French the thandid Dutch,the English,the and they period this In (1961). territory deAfonso by of conquest the trade between the Asian ports alsoportsAsianbetweenthe trade cally of mutual recognition andeven not were Portuguese the Though and civilizations advanced with that of the Spaniards in South Amer­ hindsight, had already placed before Camões, no doubt with the benefit of land the in roots deeper cast also lower­ and(1510)Albuquerquethe and a half centuries passed between duration of the Portuguese presence eastAsia,, andJapan. South­ India, joining another, one of“cousinly” friendship. relationsbasi­peoples,werethese devoid of injustice and cruelty in their governments.”6 indigenous strong between the Portuguese experience n o te otgee lg n that in flag Portuguese the of ing mally leaveto it. Almost exactly four in thesubcontinent, and thelast for­ inIndia. western They were the first helped to bring parts of Asia close to relations with native princes and their ropehow to trade profitably in areas Eu­ showed Portuguese “The ica. andinAfricaown inandAsia,their Europeansestablishthemselvesto otay o oua ble, and belief, popular to Contrary n my lo tes h long the stress also may One oeotyto s h difference the is tooNoteworthy there were probably not more than or the French. On the whole, the ten thousand able-bodied Portu­ Portuguese rulers took the line that guese in all the Portuguese over­ religion and not color should be the seas territories in the sixteenth cen­ criterion for full Portuguese citizen­ tury. It would have been foolish for ship, and that all Asian converts to them to believe that India could be should be treated as the conquered and held by such small equals of their Portuguese coreligion­ numbers. And so the high-sounding ists. Yet, the religious orders in the term Estado da India (State of India), Portuguese possessions would not in fact, designated basically a series admit nonwhites to their ranks for a of posts along commercial sea routes very long time. Among the Portu­ controlled by Portugal in varying guese in India, odious distinctions degrees. With the decline of this were made between the reinois, control and the rise of the Dutch and those born in the reino or Portugal English in the seventeenth itself, and the indiaticos, those born in Asia of Portuguese parents. More­ century, the Estado da India declined Father John Correia-Afonso: “Culturally rapidly to a shadow of its former self. over, slavery was an important pillar speaking, the Portuguese, according to If the commercial motive prevailed of the Lusitanian empire. Antonio da Silva Rego, were unconscious over the military and political, how In India the Portuguese kings receivers and conscious givers." did it fare with regard to the evangeli­ usually favored the policy of interra­ It must be remembered that six­ cal or ? The reported cial marriages which had been initi­ teenth-century Portugal was a poor answer of Vasco da Gama’s men ated by Albuquerque after his con­ country, “rotten at the core, an when questioned at Calicut about quest of Goa in 1510. There were enormous deadweight of which Philip the reason for their long journey is few white women in the Estado da was to find himself master in 1580,” well-known—“Christians and India, and many Portuguese men as Fernand Braudel wrote.13 As his­ spices.” According to Boxer, this entered into either regular or irregu­ torian Michael Pearson notes: “In­ close association between God and lar unions with Asian and Eurasian deed, anyone who travels today on Mammon formed the hallmark of the women. The offspring of these un­ the Western Coast of India and in empire founded by the Portuguese ions generally remained loyal to the Portugal will be impressed by the in the East, and for that matter in Portuguese Crown and the Catholic appearance of fecundity and of lush Africa and in South America. religion, and it is sometimes held vegetation in the former compared Boxer’s conclusion seems to be a that they formed the basis of the with the rocky, infertile appearance fair one: “The Portuguese did not Portuguese power overseas. Yet, of much of Portugal. At least visually, seek to impose Roman Catholic what is surprising is the relatively and initially, Goa must have looked Christianity at the point of the sword, small number of Indo-Portuguese or like paradise to a sixteenth-century but they did seek to foster their reli­ mestiços to be found in India today. Portuguese peasant.”14 gion through coercive and discrimi­ (Portuguese surnames do not nec­ Vasco da Gama was followed by natory legislation.”9 It is this, and the essarily signify Portuguese descent, Pedro Alvares Cabral in 1500. Cabral caesaro-papism present for long in since such surnames were given to was embroiled in a quarrel with the the Estado da India that leads many, converts in western India at the time Zamorin. Learning that the ruler of especially in the Third World, to of baptism, irrespective of their race.) Cochin hated them and was eager to regard the spread of the Gospel as a Another reason for the greater do business with the Portuguese, phase and tool of the expansion of permanence of Portuguese influence Cabral called at Cochin, established European domination.10 There is also in Asia was the wide acceptance of friendly relations there, and loaded a the view that the sustained exploita­ their language, which became a cargo of pepper. He then called upon tion of the natives by their white commercial lingua franca in the East, the raja of Cannanore (a city also coreligionists in the colonies in the and contributed many words to na­ rich in pepper) because he came to past has not merited any serious tive idioms. Even the Dutch, who know that this prince too wished to analysis and admission of some beat the Portuguese at sea, found escape the Zamorin’s domination. complicity of the Church and its that it was futile to take drastic Cannanore was thus drawn into the in India.” measures against the use of Portu­ Portuguese sphere of influence. It is often claimed that there was guese, which was “an easy language But, the most important event in no color bar or racial discrimination to speak and easy to learn.” It is said the establishment of the Estado da in the Portuguese colonies. This is that Robert Clive, the British con­ India was the capture of Goa from an exaggeration. It is true that they queror of Bengal who was never the forces of the Adil Shah of Bijapur were generally more liberal in this able to give an order in an Indian in 1510. Goa provided the Portu­ respect than the Dutch, the English, language, spoke Portuguese flu­ guese with an excellent natural har­ ently.12

3 bor and a base of operations better religion and language) were made in the field of law it was the British situated than Cochin. It also made chiefly through the institutions which who made the greatest contribution the Indian rulers believe that the Por­ became associated with the Estado to Indian society and life, the Portu­ tuguese meant to stay, and that they da India from its early days: the guese were ahead of them in the were now an Asian imperial force. church, the primary school, the Mis­ effort to abolish abuses like sati, and The Portuguese were moving ericórdia, the hospital, the orphan­ to guarantee to women basic rights northwards along the West Coast age, and the hostel for girls. The of ownership and inheritance.15 and they had visited Bassein in 1509. attention paid to education, particu­ On a more material plane, one Becoming more ambitious, they larly to that of young boys, is worthy may mention the contribution which made some raids on the town in of special note. It was, of course, a the Portuguese are generally cred­ 1530 and 1531, and two years later part of the effort at evangelization, ited to have made to the flora of stormed and demolished the small and hence the work of the primary India, and to its study. Though their fort the Sultan of had built schools was complemented by that title is challenged today in some there. Thereupon, Sultan Bahadur of the minor seminaries and of insti­ cases, tobacco, pineapple, papaya, Shah sought peace, and ceded tutions of higher education like that maize, cashew, red pepper, sweet Bassein to the Portuguese, who also of the College of Saint Paul in Goa, potato, and ornamental plants such acquired other neighboring areas, which was endowed with a fine li­ as the pagoda tree are reputed to including Bombay (1534), and brary. It was here that the first print­ have been introduced by the Portu­ . ing press with movable type was guese into India, generally from In trying to strike even a rough established in 1556, and was soon South America. balance of the positive and negative used to produce not only catechisms A recent panegyrist of the Portu­ aspects of the Portuguese presence and dictionaries, but also philosophi­ guese power in India has written: “Of in western India, sweeping generali­ cal and scientific works, first in Por­ all the nations of Europe which zations must be avoided. All are tuguese and Indian languages, and ploughed the seas in search of the aware that this presence varied over eventually in Indie characters. fabulous East, only Portugal dis­ a wide range in form, time, and even Lusitanian traits are also to be played interests more lasting than in place within western India itself. found in the architecture, fine arts, those of a plain economic exploita­ Some of the Portuguese contribu­ music, and cuisine of western India. tion highly profitable and made by tions (such as those in the fields of Although it is generally thought that the arrogance of arms—the attitude

A Portuguese gentleman with his retinue in India

4 of the majority of the European na­ tradition which has lasted to this day. > C . R. B oxer, Four Centuries of Portuguese tions which not only looted the riches In his recent work, The Portuguese Expansion, 1415-1825: A Succinct Survey (Johannesburg, 1961), p. 6. of the East, but impoverished it to in India, Pearson comes to the con­ • A ntonio do C arm o Feis, Historia da Civili­ such a point that even today, the clusion that “in many areas the Por­ zação Portuguesa (O porto, 1975), quoted by effects of that spoliation are noted in tuguese impact was minor; in a few Carmo Azevedo, Os Descobrimentos e vast areas of Asia.”16 This is an it was substantial. Overal I, there was Conquistas dos Portugueses na Historia da H u m an id ad e (Pangim , G oa, 1988), p. 7. oversimplification. Like other Euro­ much more co-operation and inter­ s B o x e r , Four Centuries of Portuguese Ex­ pean powers, the Portuguese were action than dominance.”21 This is a pansion, 1415-1825: A Succinct Survey, also guilty of aggressiveness and view with which by and large I am in p . 1 . exploitation in their relations with agreement. Goa Dourada (Golden * D . K . F i e l d h o u s e , The Colonial Empires India. They have also been accused, Goa) should rather be termed Goa from the Eighteenth Century (New York, 1971), p. 138. not without reason, of denationaliz­ Indica (Indian Goa), according to 7 The Lusiads, p . 2 3 9 . ing their converts to Christianity, i.e., Caroline Ifeka, “for the similarities ■ F ieldhouse, The Colonial Empires from the of alienating them from their native between Hindu and Catholic cultures, Eighteenth Century, p . 1 3 9 . culture. But it must be recognized which existed prior to contact, fa­ • B o x e r , Four Centuries of Portuguese Ex­ that they also brought positive ele­ vored the evolution of not just a pansion, 1415-1825: A Succinct Survey, ments to enrich the mosaic of Indian Portuguese society but a nice work­ p . 3 7 . civilization, elements which have ing out of the Portuguese and the Perhaps the best-know n w ork on E uropean by an authorfrom the Third W orld

lasted after their empire vanished. Indian.”22 is K. M . Panikkar’s Asia and Western Domi­ But what of the effects of the Por­ The Portuguese presence was not n a n c e (London, 1953). Also see Jerom e tuguese presence in western India an unmixed blessing for western D ’S o u z a , Sardar Panikkar and Christian Mis­ sions (D indigul, India, 1957). on Portugal itself? It is not uncom­ India—some would not consider it a " S ee Teotonio de Souza, “Jesuit History:

mon today to view these rather blessing in any form—but it left its Q uestion of R elevance,” in Indian Missionol- negatively. But already a century mark. In an oft-quoted passage, the ogical Review 9 (Bom bay, 1987), p. 275. ago the Conde de Ficalho had cyni­ Portuguese chronicler João de Bar- 72 S ee J. B. H arrison, “T he P o rtuguese,” in A. cally written: “The Portuguese looted ros wrote in 1540: “The Portuguese L. B asham ed., A Cultural (London, 1975), p. 342. India: India corrupted them. They arms and pillars placed in Africa and 72 Fernand B raudel, The Mediterranean and are quits!”17 in Asia, and in countless isles be­ the Mediterranean World in The Age of Philip Such cynicism may not be totally yond the bounds of three continents, //(L ondon, 1972-73), I, 585-591, quoted by baseless, yet the Portuguese—and are material things, and time may M. N. Pearson, The Portuguese in India (C am bridge, 1987), p. 20. Europe—did draw important bene­ destroy them. But time will not de­ ■ P earson, The Portuguese in India, p . 2 0 . fits from the discoveries, and specifi­ stroy the religion, customs and lan­ s S ee Pratim a K am at, “Som e Legal A spects

cally from the Indian venture. As a guage which the Portuguese have of the Socio-Econom ic Life of W om en in well-known historian of western co­ implanted in those lands.”23 A pre­ Portuguese G oa,” in B. S. Shastry ed., G o an lonialism put it, the great voyages tentious prophecy, perhaps, but it Society Throughout the Ages (N ew Delhi, 1 9 8 7 ) . “liberated Europe from a geographic has proved substantially true for four * M aria Selm a de V ieira V elho in “As Pos­

and mental cell.”18 And Martins and a half centuries. síveis Influencias dos V iajantes em A lgum as Afonso declared, “The discovery of And we conclude with the words of Sociedades C osteiras das Partes do Ori­ so many new realities brought as an Balkrishna Borkar, a great Goan ente,” paper presented at the Fourth Interna­ tional Sem inar on Indo-Portuguese History

immediate result the ruin of book humanist, and a Hindu: “Though (Lisbon, 1985), p. 15.

knowledge, which was replaced by partially impaired under the Portu­ 77 I n Garcia de Orta e o seu tempo ( L i s b o n , the knowledge of facts and by the guese onslaught of superior arms 1886), quoted by C arm o A zevedo, p. 10. observation of nature.”19 and machinery, Goan culture not ” Fieldhouse, quoted by Pearson, The P ortu­ Culturally speaking, the Portu­ only outlived it but even absorbed guese in India, p . 1 3 . guese, according to Antonio da Silva some good and progressive features ” Breve Historia de Portugal, (O porto n.d.), quoted by C arm o A zevedo, p. 12. Rego, were unconscious receivers of their Latin culture. Besides, it » S e e Temas Sociomissiologicos e Históri­

and conscious givers.20 They were turned every difficulty they thrust cos, (Lisbon, 1962), pp. 45-49.

not consciously prepared to receive upon it into a new opportunity to 27 P earson, The Portuguese in India, p . 2 .

anything, yet the discoveries have a revitalize and enrich itself. It adopted 22 S ee “The Im age of G oa” in Teotonio de very important national significance some fine modes of Western living Souza ed., Indo-Portuguese History: Old by reason of the impress they left on and grafted on its ethos and aesthet­ Issues, New Questions (N ew Delhi, 1985), p . 1 9 1 . the mentality and , ics the good sense and good taste 22 B o x e r , Four Centuries of Portuguese Ex­ by their role in the configuration of peculiar to Latin culture brought by pansion, 1415-1825: A Succinct Survey, the modern national identity, by the the Portuguese.”24 p . 9 3 .

27 In ‘T h e G oan P ersonality,” Boletim do Insti­ value and transcontinental charac­ ' The Lusiads, trans. W illiam C. Atkinson, tuto Meneses Bragança, No. 96 (Pangim , ter they gave to the Portuguese lan­ (London, 1952), p. 39. 1971), p. 61. guage, and finally by the formation of 1 See P. J. Marshall and Glyndwr W illiams, a scientific, humanistic, and civic The Great Map of Mankind (London, 1982).

5 to teach a survey course for the China, a week on Mughal India, and Asian studies program, but it ended a week on this and that, or is there The Indo-Portuguese up looking at Portugal from a Euro­ any possibility of talking of a world Experience in pean standpoint, stuck out there do history in terms of themes? Now, the Context fim do mundo. The only way to be one theme that is interesting and has rescued from this situation is by come up in conferences over the of World History teaching the “Expansion of Europe” past few years is the possibility of /4s part of the recent Camões and by reinterpreting how world his­ world history taught in terms of Center Symposium on Mughal India tory should be taught and structured empires and not in terms of the and the Portuguese, which was held in universities. The strange thing is, “expansion of Europe.” So, in teach­ in collaboration with the Southern in American universities, as you ing world history we would talk not Asian Institute of Columbia Univer­ know, if you offer a course that the just of the expansion of Europe, but sity, a group of senior scholars dis­ university has hired you to teach in of the expansion of India, of the cussed the current situation in the the area of Latin American studies Chinese empires, and so on. I should study of Indo-Portuguese history. The for example, your Chairman will add that while we have talked about panel was chaired by Professor probably say, “Well, what else can this theme nobody has managed to Ainslie Embree, Director of the you offer?” Consequently, teaching come up with either a textbook or a Southern Asian Institute. Other par­ the “Expansion of Europe” is always syllabus. ticipants included Professor Charles taught only if the professor himself Pearson: It is very important, as a Boxer, Camões Professor Emeritus, decides to teach the subject as an matter of fact, that even in the frame­ University of London, England; Fa­ elective. work of the “Expansion of Europe,” ther John Correia-Afonso, Director When I taught the “Expansion of there is no decent text and perhaps of the Heras Institute of Indian His­ Europe” at the University of Florida one of us should sit down and write tory and Culture in Bombay; Profes­ for eleven years the moment I left, one. Robert Palmer got a decent text sor Michael Pearson, University of the course was dropped out of the on European world history simply by New South Wales, ; and catalogue. The same happened to sitting down and writing it. Maybe Professor George Winius, Univer­ Paul Hauffman, who taught at the that’s a message for some of us. sity of Leiden, the Netherlands. University of Wyoming and later Winius: I would like to add that if one Embree: What do you see as the moved to Baton Rouge, and as soon did turn to world history my guess is major problems in studying Indo- as he left the University of Wyoming that Portuguese expansion would Portuguese history and world his­ the course was also removed from be slighted. For those of us who did tory in general? the catalogue and it was added at not have the advantage of having Winius: First of all, Asia is not to be Baton Rouge. The earliest course studied at Columbia with Professor covered by the ball of one’s thumb was perhaps taught at Columbia Garett Mattingly, these themes have except in the University of Florida, University by William R. Sheppard, not been heard before. This is true where when I taught there we had an who was really the inventor of this especially when scholars are ex­ Asianist but the poor fellow was a modern concept, and it was titled the tremely interested in their own topics Japanologist so, of course, neither “Expansion of Europe.” Unfortu­ and extremely uninterested in what Indian nor Chinese studies got nately, and I am ashamed to say, it goes on in the next room. I find it taught. Moreover, he was supposed hasn’t gotten much further than in enlightening that the Dutch who are Sheppard’s day and I think that most so full of Dutch expansion some­ of the people who are teaching the times only remember me as a Portu­ course in this country all came from guese specialist as an afterthought. Columbia University. However, I do They realize that the Portuguese not know what the remedy is, al­ were there first, but the topic is al­ though I think the reason I am saying ways seen as setting the stage for this is that I wish you would be aware Dutch historical studies, so maybe of the problems should you ever sit there is not even as easy a remedy on a university curriculum board, or as I suggested. have money for endowing chairs, or Pearson: I think Professor Embree have any influence to exert in this wanted us to talk about world history direction. and so I thought in terms of what the Embree: We have at present a very Portuguese might mean in this con­ active world history movement in text. In the first of my own works, as this country and one of the things the some of you know, I tried to look OPRIMEIRO CONClLIO world history people are trying to Prouinqial ^elebrado cm Goa, analytically at what the Portuguese discover is what world history is. Will experience really meant and I have Frontispiece of a book published at Goa, it be just a series with a week on 1568 proven to my own satisfaction that 6 their impact was smallon most parts guese history, including those who The second obstacle which I see of Asia. However, if one were writing come from my part of India, are is the difficulty of the retrieval of a world history then I think that the familiar with the Portuguese lan­ relevant material in the archives, place of the Portuguese would be guage. Even before the integration which are most important for Portu­ quite significant because they led to of Goa into the Indian Union in 1961, guese history. The archives in Lis­ a huge increase of knowledge. If you English had gradually displaced bon, Rome, and Goa are rich in are writing a history of the world then Portuguese, even in Goa, as the material and they are mostly well that connection to knowledge of other commercial language. Today, the preserved. However, as those who parts of the world would seem to me , though it is have worked with them know, they to be a theme which would have to allowed in the curriculum of Bombay are not well indexed, with the result be prominent in it. University, is nonetheless studied that it is a herculean task to retrieve Winius: What we are talking about very little. material. Sometimes what happens is a fundamental change in the cur­ On the other hand, European his­ is that one particular gold mine is riculum and how to modernize it. I torians dealing with India and Indo- found in the archives and everybody think that probably world history is Portuguese history are hopefully concentrates on that forgetting the the way to do it, but how, especially familiar with Portuguese, but not other mines waiting to. be found. in universities in Europe and Amer­ perhaps with the other European I would say, however, that there ica which have been relatively stag­ languages, like Dutch, necessary have been new, positive develop­ nant for about twenty years in terms even for a knowledge of Portuguese ments in this field of study; one of of budgets and of ? India. These languages help to give them is the fact that historians of Embree: Father John, do you want a balanced view of the Indo-Portu­ various countries, for example, In­ to say a word since you come from guese experience. So, one obstacle dia, Portugal, Australia, the Nether­ an educational system that is among that I see in this field of Indo-Portu­ lands, England, or France, have been the world’s more conservative and guese history is the command of able to come together in a true spirit more resistant to change? languages and which is found in very of cooperation and collaboration in few people who combine the knowl­ our Indo-Portuguese history semi­ Father John .-This may sound a little edge of the principal European lan­ nars. Those of us who have been hypercritical of the teaching of his­ guages with those of India. present at these meetings can bear tory, but I should like to add that I belong to a generation in India which had to do a lot of European history together with Indian history as part of e u g a e T l e a h c i M our college education in the 1940s in Bombay University. In India we had to learn European and American history (I could talk to you about the New Deal and all sorts of things), but when we come to the United States we find that basically the American undergraduate student by and large really does not seem to have that knowledge which we ex-colonial territories had embedded in us and which has been a tremendous ad­ vantage to us when we go abroad. Regarding what Mike Pearson and George Winius said earlier about the importance of the Portuguese con­ tribution, I would really like to come to the theme as I thought we should have discussed it, which is the ob­ stacles and importance of studying Indo-Portuguese history (and this is also true about world history). First of all, it is very important to have a knowledge of languages and this is very difficult. What happens now in India, for example, is that very few of those Indians interested in Portu­ The ornate façade of the Jesuit College in Diu 7 witness that by and large these between Portuguese and Indian is not indigenous to either Indian or meetings have been very cordial, historians is something to be very Portuguese culture, I have got to very objective, and although there much appreciated and feel happy acquire some sort of sympathy and are bound to be occasional strongly about. It, of course, has something familiarity with both of these before I expressed differences of opinion, I to do with Portugal’s own revolution feel that I can say anything very think that a more objective view of in 1974 as much as anything. Yet, I useful about Indo-Portuguese his­ the 450 years of the Indo-Portuguese think these seminars provide a tory. So the task is stimulating and experience in India has been found uniquely valuable forum for working fascinating, and there are all sorts of today more than before. So, I see out some of the problems that we good things, but the difficulties are that a great improvement has been face in doing Indo-Portuguese his­ certainly not to be underestimated. made in the development of the Indo- tory. Winius: As you ask these larger Portuguese history and I am more One other comment, which George questions which require more knowl­ hopeful for the future. Winius could in fact talk about better edge of other cultures and the inte­ Pearson: The language problem is than I, is the way in which in the gration of Portuguese studies into not to be sneered at because life is 1950s, I think, especially when de­ them, you require not only more tools, short and finite and to be the com­ colonization was in full swing, the but also a great deal more time and plete Indo-Portuguese historian you colonialism in the empires was auto­ research. Just to use the “shadow would need to know the two or three matically seen as a negative and empire” theme: who were these Indian languages and perhaps three bad thing, and this even applied to people and where did they come or four European languages that the academic world so that it would from? The sources do not want to tell Father John identified. I do not know not even be studied. Many of the these things. In using the simile of how many of us have the expertise, previously flourishing courses in ore—high or low grade—what you competence, patience, or the time to European expansionism and coloni­ have to do is process an enormous acquire these. It may be an argu­ alism simply collapsed because they number of sources for little scraps of ment for more cooperative efforts were seen as negative by the domi­ information. between people who control Indian nant intellectual fad of the time. Now, We all know that as graduate stu­ languages and people who control in Leiden, where George Winius dents when we go out to write disser­ European languages. teaches, there is a revival in the tations what we really need to do is to The comment on the five semi­ study of European expansionism. grab some papers which are pretty nars on Indo-Portuguese history, The new emphasis, however, is concentrated in their information, like which all three of us here attended, that we really try not to write simply of Barbosa Machado, or something like are very much to the point. Father Europeans in a vacuum on the West that, and then write a piece that more John forgot to tell you that he was Coast of India or anywhere else, but or less delineates what you found in probably the main instigator and still rather by means of learning several your bundled documents. You have the main mover behind these very languages to put the Europeans into to maintain systematically an ex­ successful series of seminars and the context in which they are operat­ tremely large pile of cards drawn that should be acknowledged. You ing, which may be in western India, from many sources. Yet, because should be aware that the proceed­ , Mozambique, Asia, or Af­ you get only a tiny idea out of one ings are normally published when rica. This then means that Indo- card, it is only until you have added they are in Portugal and the stan­ Portuguese history is both challeng­ it in the context of 150 other cards dard has been remarkably high. ing and very difficult and the chal­ you cannot say anything. In other Given that it was only in 1961 that lenge is not only the language but, in words, it means that research is Goa was liberated, as they say, I looking at myself, for example, as a becoming more meaningful. Perhaps think that the amity and the civility sort of New Zealand-Australian, who we are asking bigger and better

Participants: Michael Pearson, George Winius, Ainslie Embree, Charles Boxer, Father John Correia-Afonso

8 questions, but the results come rather it as a field that would attract young hard and rather slow. scholars? Em bree:One other familiar obstacle Boxer: Yes, I do. I certainly want to in this old question of studying Indo- attract them. For instance, one field European history is supposing one which is wide open and has every­ studies Indo-European history, ei­ thing in it like human interest and ther in India or in this country, what financial skullduggery is the archives are the likelihoods of finding aca­ of the Misericórdia—da Santa Casa demics to teach it? Also, along with da Misericórdia—in the provincial these intellectual obstacles one has towns of Portugal. There you can to take seriously the whole question find the papers of people who died, of how it fits into the curriculum. This perhaps in , India, or , is not an easy thing and for those of and who left all their capital, or any­ you who teach Portuguese history way a slice of it, to the Misericórdia of their hometowns. In Portugal I have when you turn to a specialty like Title page of Damião de Goes’s C h r o n i c a Indo-European history it requires the seen some of these, for example, in do Felicíssim o Rei Dom Em anuel (Lisbon, kind of language skills that you spoke Ponte de Lima, Viana, Foz de Lima, 1 5 6 6 ) about. How much incentive is there and they are absolutely fascinating. ships, the question became how to for doing this kind of work and how You see, when a man makes his remit this money by letters of ex­ would you lead the students into it? will or testamento is when he starts change, through Jews or some other Winius: It is easy, because young speaking the truth. They say that way over land or by sea, but in such scholars are rather pristine creatures they are making that testament in a way that the English and Dutch and have not yet learned the wicked order to compensate for something could not get a hold of it. ways of universities! They do things they have done wrong and they pay In one case I dealt with, it took the for the love of it. Well, I think they will an additional contribution to the local girls twenty-five years to receive the do what they love, and what they find Misericórdia and they leave money money, and by that time they must worthwhile, and maybe they will find to save five poor, but respectable, have been fairly old in age, but that’s a teaching position all the same. orphan girls—this is recognized as a the way they got it. You find details of Embree: May I ask Father John if in popular way of easing your way into all this and many other things as well India itself the study of Indo-Portu- heaven, or still was in the sixteenth in the archives of the Misericórdia. guese history is a kind of specialty to eighteenth centuries. This is the sort of thing I do not think that could be found valuable in the I happen to have some of the you will get nearly so much of in the Indian academic context? documents from Sintra and there are English and Dutch archives although many of these in the archives of you do get the odd ones. However, I Father John: I am sorry to say that Macau, which have documents that think that it is very much more com­ the Indian academic employment do not go back further than about the mon with the Portuguese and I pre­ situation is very sad at the moment, 1760s (although they have copies of sume with the Spaniards. and it is not the time that one should earlier ones) and in these there are What I am trying to get at with this go into esoteric disciplines. In the many documents about afilhadas or long-winded response is that this is total Indian economic context and in the goddaughters the Portuguese an enormous field and it is wide open most other societies, certainly the took on. For example, the Chinese with plenty of archival material. teaching profession is not the most would deposit a baby girl (they did People working in the small provin­ attractive field economically, but not want girls) in a little basket out­ cial archives in Portugal and proba­ perhaps there are few places as bad side the door of some fairly wealthy bly in nine out of ten cases are in India. In other words, the situation Portuguese home and the babies only too glad to see someone work­ is such that this little problem is lost would often be adopted by the family ing and using them, so you can be in the totality of the academic field in and when they grew up they would assured a very good reception. It is India. Having said this as a back­ be given a dowry in order to induce very rewarding and I would encour­ ground, I would like to say that pre­ someone to marry them. age any student, who is uncertain of cisely because of this, basically, in In addition to having a human in­ what to do, to read some books India teachers have to be general­ terest side, these documents also about the Misericórdia, like Russell ists and they do not have opportuni­ have a lot of financial information Woods’ book on , then pick ties to specialize, except perhaps at about how the money was paid and some particular archive in Portugal, the high graduate school level. Basi­ how it was secured. When the Eng­ like Ponte de Lima, which is one that cally, the field is not attractive. lish and Dutch were controlling the I know, and dive into the archives. Embree: Professor Boxer, as the trade of the Indian nation and captur­ Once you get started you get fasci­ senior scholar in the field, do you see ing a large number of Portuguese nated and hooked and you won’t leave it. 9 it has been written with more heat kill him he promptly fled down to the than with light. As far as India goes coast of Mozambique and then to the studies have been written per­ Macau, where he thought he would haps more calmly and deliberately, be safe from her. However, before but they are still partial studies. he got out of the Zambezian valley To my knowledge there is no book his wife sent out after him a few of her that I would recommend as being a warriors in killer war canoes, who in complete overall critical view of Goa, chasing him met a Portuguese Ser­ a book that one can say, “Look, here geant Mor coming up in the opposite is an account of the colonial experi­ direction. When Sergeant Mor saw ence in Goa, which has neither the these canoes approaching he got a Portuguese nor Indian bias.” Insofar bit worried, of course, and called out, as an “objective account” is possible but they were not looking for him. In in this limited world of ours, I am not the end, they did not catch their man, aware of anything of that kind. Indi­ who managed to escape to Macau. vidual questions may have been dealt These daughters of Zambezia with a little bit more objectively and I lasted I think well into the nineteenth would imagine this would be the case century. In one way, of course, the for Africa since Africa has experi­ Portuguese had no control overthem enced an even shorter period of whatever, but on the other hand they

O compromiso da Confraria de independence. Yet, what is positive, kept the Portuguese presence there M isericórdia. Lisbon, Valentin) Fernandes and I will repeat what I have said by always flying the Portuguese flag & Hermão de Campos, 1516. earlier, is that there is much more and regarding themselves as loyal João Carlos Gomez: In Portuguese­ interest in trying to find a common vassals of the king of Portugal, pro­ speaking Africa we are very much point of view and a certain interpre­ viding the king did not bother them. interested these days in studying tation that would be judged as fair- They also paid some nominal tribute Portuguese history from a different minded and that can at least be in gold, which was not all in all very perspective other than the perspec­ admitted as the truth. However, I do substantial. tive that the Portuguese presented not think anything has been written Joao Carlos Gomez: Don’t you think to us during the colonial period. Do to this date. it would be very useful to have a you know of any work being under­ Boxer: I would like to just refer to conference which would include taken by someone who is trying to Helen Issacman’s very interesting Portuguese, Brazilians, Africans, and link the African, Indian, and Asian book on Africa and the daughters to Asians, in order to set up some kind perspectives into one single work Zambezia, who were very wealthy of an outline for future studies? which I could use as a journalist? women—mulatas—whose fathers or Father John: Itwould be. You know, The reason why I am asking is that, grandfathers were white and their there was a UNESCO history of the for example, in my broadcasting mothers or grandmothers were black. world that received criticism and, of programs back home in Guinea Their history is fascinating and al­ course, probably satisfied nobody, , we often find it very hard to though good work has been done on but perhaps in the context of what put together a good program that this by Issacman and others, there used to be the Luso-Brazilian Collo­ would be well accepted by the na­ are still a lot more possibilities there, quium held long ago and with our tives because what we learned is if you want to explore black-white Indo-Portuguese seminars maybe sometimes very contradictory with relations. this could be an item on the agenda. what we hear from the ancestors of You see, they lived on these Pearson: I would also like to add that our country. I need something that enormous estates in Zambezia and a good many non-Portuguese histo­ has not only an African or Portu­ in the surrounding areas. They had rians, people like David Birmingham, guese perspective, but which uses a their own armies and it is said they have looked at that same history more scientific approach. could mobilize about ten thousand from a non-Portuguese standpoint. I Father John/The question I believe men. The Portuguese government should think that would serve some is whether there is an overall view of had to be very careful not to antago­ of your purposes. Portuguese his­ the experience written from a non- nize them. tory has attracted historians who are Eurocentric point of view. To my There is one daughter of Zambe­ not Portuguese and who have a knowledge most of what has been zia, who is particularly well-known certain objectivity about certain written, let us say from an African or and who had a white husband with aspects, although, of course, they Indian point of view, has often been whom she quarreled (this happens are fanatically concentrated on things written before these territories ob­ between husbands and wives some­ like slavery, perhaps to the exclu­ tained independence and therefore times), and when she said she would sion of other kinds of history.

10 as Japan, China, Brazil, India, and help fill this gap. Angola has come close to it. The conversation took place over Boxer on Boxer: What follows is not the whole story a dinner hosted by Richard and Juli- A Conversation of this eminent historian, book col­ eta Ramer on May 6, 1989, in New The study of the Portuguese­ lector, and soldier, but the conversa­ York City. Otherparticipants included speaking world has always had a tion does cover the various aspects his wife, Emily Hahn, and daughter, low priority, especially in the United which make up Boxer’s extraordi­ Carola Vecchio; Kenneth Maxwell, States. Few individuals have had nary life, and also gives us a glimpse Director of the Camões Center; mastery over the languages or pos­ of his style and humor. Boxer's out­ Lynette Peck, Program Assistant, sessed the local experience needed put, originality, and verve are legen­ Camões Center; Mia Turner, Editor, to tackle the breadth of this topic, dary, but we know less about the Camões Center Quarterly; and Mi­ though Charles R. Boxer with his man himself and how he became chael Teague, Secretary, American ongoing prolific writings on the Por­ interested in Portugal and its empire. Portuguese Society. tuguese experience in places such The aim of this conversation is to e u g a e T l e a h c i M

A religious procession enters the Manueline-style entrance to a church in Cochin. 11 Kenneth: How did your interest in and drowned with 780 people Baron Nishi, from a very wealthy Portugal begin? onashipcalled H.M.S. Captain which Japanese family in the 1930s, but

Charles: Well, through the Japa­ went down in September 1870 in the there were not many of them. Baron nese. I wasn’t interested in the Por­ Bay of Biscay. The ship overturned Nishi went into the army and be­ tuguese at all really, or the Dutch for and they say the designer was also came a wonderful rider. He was one that matter. However, I was very on board and he was drowned too. of the first people to have his horse interested as a child in Japan. I used The only people who escaped were jump over a Rolls-Royce. I wonder if to collect netsuke, a Japanese carved the seven sailors who were on watch anyone in the West did that? Yes, I ivory, and when I got older I collected and who managed to scramble into am sure the French Cavalry School Japanese prints from . I lifeboats and get away. My grand­ probably did it.

later read Japanese history in the mother was left pregnant. She pro­ Lynette: How long were you in ancient books and I realized that the duced two sons, one of whom was Japan? my father, who later joined the army— Portuguese and the Dutch were there Charles: I was there for three years, first. the regular army. So, you see they’ve from 1930 to 1933. I was living in all been either navy or army. I was Carola: Daddy, as a child how did Tokyo, then in Nara, which is near you start to be interested? supposed to go into the navy, but I Kyoto, and the last year I was in a failed because of my eyesight. My Charles: Looking at books in place called Toyohashi. I’ve been older brother got in to Dartmouth grandmother’s library in Australia back several times to Japan and it College (the Royal Navy Academy in where I was born. has sort of changed now. Devon) and was expelled for insults, Mia: Why were you attached to the Emily: He and Beryl used to write which infuriated my father very much Japanese army? Japanese characters. and he was almost sent to Kenneth: Who is Beryl? to grow oranges, but then the First Charles: At that time, in 1930, it was the end of the Anglo-Japanese alli­ Carola: His sister. World War broke out and my father ance, which hadn’t been abrogated Lynette: When did you start study­ was killed and my brother was badly entirely. You see, because of the ing Japanese? wounded. He survived the Second World War and then died after that. Washington Treaty in 1932 and Charles: Young—it was 1930 and I pressure from the United States, Kenneth: Where did you go to was born in 1904. We had a prelimi­ , and Australia, the Anglo- school? nary course in the School of Oriental Japanese alliance was abrogated in Studies in London, which is not where Charles: Wellington College, then the naval sector and the Japanese it is now. It was at that time a very to Sandhurst, and finally to the army. navy was very annoyed about this small place somewhere in the city. It was more or less inevitable I would and would no longer allow English The school had a very good teacher join because my father and brother naval officers to come. However, the of Japanese and there were only were in it. army did not do this. The Japanese three classes a week, very short Emily:\Ne had a neighbor who came emperor Hirohito was an honorary lessons, and no weekends. Anyway, to see us when we got back to Dorset field marshal in the British army and that was preliminary work. I then and asked Charles if he wrote this he decided that the exchange of took a very slow Japanese boat to particular book and Charles said, Japanese and English officers would Japan which called on places like “Yes” and I said, “And he wrote all of continue as it had done since 1904 Gibraltar, Marseille, Palermo, Shang­ those too” and the neighbor said, when the agreement was made. hai, and so on. “Good gads, you must be brainy.” What that meant was that one or two, Kenneth: Were you then in the Kenneth: The thing not to be! So, but never more than six English offi­ army? you were in the artillery? cers would go to Japan and be at­

Charles: Yes, I was a captain. Charles: No, in the infantry. I ain’t tached to Japanese units for three

Kenneth: You were going as part of brainy like that! Of course, the infan­ years and conversely the six Japa­ a military contingent? try is one of the most prestigious nese officers would come to Eng­ land and they would be attached to Charles: Yes, for three years. I was branches in Japan. Usually in ar­ on an exchange of army officers, mies the smart people were in the the English army. The Americans something which had been stopped cavalry, but in Japan the cavalry was had the same thing, but the Ameri­ in the navy. regarded as a lot more stupid and can officers did not stay with one unit upper-class and not nearly so good for any length of time. They moved Michael: How did you get involved around quickly from one unit to in the army? as the infantry. The Japanese are not good with horses and they had another. They didn’t get to know Charles: My great grandfather was no idea then how to control a horse them very well, but as I was there for in the army and my great greatgrand­ properly. They have changed a lot a year I knew them very well. father was in the navy. Later my now. They had exceptions of course, Mia: What was it like serving in the grandfather became a captain in the because there was one man I knew, Japanese army?

12 Charles: I liked it. I was very pro- she said. She actually wanted to and it looks like you were being Japanese anyway and the older keep a bit of power. Anyway, never photographed with wrestlers or were generation was still very pro-British. mind, that was a typical husband- they swordsmen?

When they invaded Manchuria wife quarrel. Charles: They were kendo fighters. around 1930 it was a bit awkward, Mia: So, she was like your wife? Lynette: When was your last trip to but they were very polite and I was Charles: She was a housekeeper Japan? very polite. It was a man’s country who cooked me eggs and bacon. Charles: It was around five or six and if you learned Japanese, which She could do that, you see, because years ago. I just went to Tokyo, Kyoto, I did, it was fine. she had been the cook to an Ameri­ and Nara. Lynette: What happened to your can man first. In the army you only Mia: Has it changed? Japanese friends during the war? had the midday meal in the barracks Charles: The trains, first of all, were Charles: They were nearly all killed and had your breakfast and evening always good and very fast, but now in the war, especially those in the meal at home. She was like a concu­ there’s the Bullet train. Also, today, army. Very few survived. You see, bine. Well, there was no secret about of course, everything is very expen­ there was the war in China, the war it. She had been someone else’s sive and you need an enormous with America, the war with England— concubine before and was very reli­ grant to live there. The first time I in effect it was the Second World able. She was not a Tokyo girl, but went I did not have an enormous War. rather a northerner from Hakodati, grant, nor did I need one. Mia: Did some of them go up to on the island of Hokkaido. Michael: I was looking in some notes Mia: How did you meet her? Manchuria? I wrote on Bandar Abbas [a southern Charles: Yes, I think so. Some of Charles: Someone found her, and I Iranian port opposite Hormuz] and I them were killed before that, but leased her. You know, in the 1930s had written that a Captain Boxer most were killed in the Pacific War. leasing someone was no problem from Dorset lay in the cemetery there. Mia: Could you have stayed on? and I don’t think it is now. It was also Charles: Yes, he was an uncle who very cheap. Charles: Yes, I had a Japanese died there of fever. He was in the house. Mia: How good were you at kendo? and served as consul or

Mia: So, you were living quite well? Charles: I was quite good then something like that. since I was young and lusty as an Charles: Yes, very well. When you’re Michael: What was your first con­ young and lusty as an eagle and with eagle and I had two hands. I wasn’t nection with the Persian Gulf area? fantastic at all and my eyesight was lots of money you do. Charles: It was historical. bad, but the Japanese eyesight is Mia: Where did your money come mostly bad too. When I was in the Michael: Just historical? I thought from? A grant? Thirteenth Regiment I was in Nara, you were then still in the army. Charles: No, I had my army pay, which is the seat of the famous girls Charles: Oh, no, not at all. I went which was quite good, and I had training college, where they were there in 1950 or 1960. some private means. training women to be teachers. The Michael: But didn’t you write your Mia: What else did you do besides girls were taught Japanese fencing theory on the Persian Gulf earlier? your duties in the army? with naginata, which was a spear Charles: Yes, in 1930. It’s being Charles: I was a fencer and so I took with a curved thing at the top for reprinted in my collected works. up the Japanese fencing called swiping your opponents legs and Michael: I think that was your first kendo. Everyone does it now, but in cutting them off. We had a fencing book written on the Portuguese in 1930 all the foreigners did jujitsu. I contest at the girls school with my­ the area. was the first one to do kendo. self using kendo and the girls using Charles: No, I wrote about the at­ naginata and bamboo sticks. The Mia: Why did you want to do kendo? tack of the Dutch in Macau and this girl I fought with did hit my legs, but Charles: Oh, because I wanted to. Persian book came very soon after. I fenced in England. At that time I had didn’t cut them off. The whole per­ formance created quite a sensation. Kenneth: Did you know Dutch prior two hands and could use my left to 1949? hand. Carola: Daddy, didn’t you wrestle as well? Charles: I have a reading knowl­ Mia: What happened to your left edge of it and I could work in the Charles: No, never. I haven’t got the hand? archives. The only language I ever size. Charles: I was shot in the vertical spoke, although I’ve forgotten it all plexus. In kendo you grip with the left Carola: There is a photograph of now, was Japanese. I was an inter­ hand. After I fenced I would inevita­ you with wrestlers. preter in Japanese and my Portu­ bly get a scolding by my cook. Emily: He was just showing off. guese was and still is very bad. My

Mia: Why? Carola: No, really, there is a photo­ reading in Portuguese is all right, particularly seventeenth century. I Charles: She was “waiting for me,” graph you showed me last summer 13 am not too happy with twentieth- Michael: Were you seconded to cuckoo clocks made by the leading century Portuguese, but with seven­ military intelligence because of your clock makers. Of course, they teenth-century Portuguese I have languages? couldn’t them up half the time. no trouble at all. Charles: I don’t remember. I was in Michael: Did the Japanese have the Emily: They loved it. They told me the War Office in London in military clock fetish that the Chinese had? that Charles spoke seventeenth- intelligence from 1935 to 1936. Charles: No, not to the same extent, century Portuguese when he first got Mickey—who was that man in China but the Portuguese did present them to Lisbon. They took him to a Lisbon who had that scandal over the book with clocks. comedy and they asked him whether he purloined written by the Italian Kenneth: So, you spent two years the girls were pretty and he said, “I woman? Oh yes, he was called in London before going to Asia? liked the damsels in the last act.” Simon Hoggart Smith and he was in Charles: Yes, I was two years in the military intelligence and all these Carola: A Dutch man said the same War Office in London. During that people, Blunt and so on, were all thing—that you speak beautiful sev­ time I had something to do with around at this time in London from enteenth-century Dutch. Anthony Blunt or Anthony Burgess— 1935 to 1936. Charles: Anyway, I also noticed that one of those traitors who was in the Hoggart Smith was also in China one of the reviewers, who was a Foreign Office because we had to with the British Embassy—an intelli­ Dutchman, of The Dutch in Brazil, liaise with each other overthe phone. said the book was very good and all gent young man. He wrote a biogra­ Kenneth: When was that? that, but the author is rather inclined phy about Catherine Medici or some Charles: Nineteen thirty-five to 1936. to favor the Portuguese side. The other Italian figure. It was very well But I don’t remember anything about reviewers in the Portuguese Histori­ reviewed. Then someone noticed it much except that I did know these cal Review, however, said the book that it seemed familiar and went and people. Then I had to go and was is very good and all that, but the got a book out of the library pub­ very thankful for it. I went to Hong author is rather inclined to favor the lished a year or two before and it was Kong via the Trans Siberian Rail­ Dutch. So, I think I rather got them the same as Hoggart Smith’s book, road. Fascinating. It was in 1936 and just about right, or at least I hope so. unchanged word for word. Even where the Italian made one or two it was midwinter and I left just before Kenneth: How did you first begin to mistakes and quoted something, he the abdication and there was all this get interested in writing history? did the same. This was an obvious thing working up about Mrs. Simpson Charles: Well, you have the urge to fraud and Hoggart Smith was only and so on. They were tearing out all write. How did you first start? momentarily fired by the BBC where the American magazines. It was so Kenneth: But you were an army he was a broadcaster, but he got childish. There were also hordes of officer! back again afterwards. The publish­ French and Italians bringing in the

Charles: Yes, but you can still write! ers paid the Italian authoress a large French and Italian newspapers that gave details about the latest. Any­ Kenneth: Not many army officers sum in compensation and had a wrote a history of Portugal. proper English translation published way, I got on this railroad, which was as well with her name. But how did the old imperial Russian pre-1917 Charles: I joined the army in 1923 rolling stock, so it chugged along and provided you hunted and had a this come up? What does this have rather at a walking pace. horse and that kind of thing then you to do with going to Japan? were regarded as more or less all Kenneth: No wonder intelligence Lynette: How long did it take to get right. Whether you took any interest was so bad. What else did he plagia­ to Moscow? in history didn’t really matter at all. If rize? Charles: It took a week to get to you were interested in Portuguese Emily: It took ages before anyone Moscow. It didn’t go as far as Vla- or Dutch that was regarded as mildly noticed and I thought that the British disvostok, but I went to the Manchu­ eccentric, but as long as you hunted were so good at Italian, but I was rian border which was at the time and had a horse those were the main wrong. underthe Japanese control, and then took another infinitely faster express things. But, of course, it has all totally Charles: But, Simon Hoggart Smith changed now. Quite rightly, you spent time in China and he did a very down to Mukden, Korea, and then I couldn’t run an army like that any good catalogue published in Tientsin went over to Japan and on to Tokyo, longer. It is clear that in this period around 1935, which I have got, of the Shanghai, and Hong Kong. That was between the wars the lesson of the foreign clocks and watches which a very nice trip too. First World War obviously had not were presented by the governments Carola: Didn’t your sister join you on been properly resolved. of Spain and Holland to the Chinese this trip?

Lynette: So you were collecting, emperors. Chinese emperors loved Charles: Yes, my sister joined me in writing, and serving as an officer in clocks and watches, which were great Moscow. She’d been in the Cau­ the army? things for bribing them. In the palace cuses, the Persian Caucuses that is,

Charles: Yes, that’s right. of Peking there were thousands of

14 and had to come up to Moscow to gence reports on the situation in meet me. It was all rather difficult China? because it turned out that when we Emily: Yes, he was. k c e P . M . L met in Moscow, Stalin was going to Michael: Do you rememberthe story be inaugurated or something or other of breaking the Japanese code? was happening and lots of things Charles: Oh, of course, they are still were closed. Moreover, my sister as talking about it and it remains a usual didn’t have the proper amount controversy in the papers. of money or passport, but as usual she managed to talk her way, mak­ Michael: Can you tell us about it? ing eyes at the sentries and so on. It’s really fascinating. She finally made it to the station and Charles: I don’t agree with what only just before the train pulled out. other people are saying. It’s true it is To her fury she had to travel first not altogether clear, but I was in the class since I as a rule travelled noth­ Army Joint Staff in Hong Kong and ing but first class and she as a rule we were told by Headquarters, which would travel nothing but third! But, was then in Singapore, that the this time she had to travel first class. Americans had broken the Japanese She had another experience after codes. This code was in a weather we had been in Japan staying with report. I don’t know whether they the Dutch ambassador. I was com­ passed that on to the White House, but the thing was that apparently ing down to Hong Kong and she Charles Boxer: “You probably learned long came later to join me there, but when they did not tell Hawaii or Honolulu. before I did, but if the opportunity is there, she got on the Japanese ferry from It is quite incredible that not even take it." Shimonoseki to Shanghai, I think, Manila knew. Everything was on the thought that in spite of the signals she got a third class ticket and squat­ ground in Manila—all the planes and they wouldn’t. I couldn’t believe it. I ted down with all the rest of the so on—and consequently they were thought they would attack us, the people in third class. The captain, bombed by the Japanese before they Dutch, the French, or perhaps the however, said, “No, you can’t do could take off. As you know the Russians. this!” and she replied, “I’ve got no Japanese caught the Americans with money.” The captain then told her their trousers down at Pearl Harbor. Michael: The Japanese codes had that it didn’t matter if she had money One explanation atthe time, or shortly been broken like the German codes or not she would have to have a afterwards, was that Roosevelt was were broken with Eureka? cabin. There was then practically a trying to swing American opinion. Charles: I don’t know about the wrestling match, with my sister even­ There was a very big antiwar move­ Germans, but the Japanese codes tually being driven almost forcibly ment in America—not universal but had been broken by the Americans, into a cabin. If she couldn’t do a thing widespread—and the bombing of not by us. Pearl Harbor united the whole coun­ the hard way she didn’t want to do it Carola: Daddy, didn’t you have to at all. try. This apparently was all done by tell the Japanese that Hong Kong Roosevelt on purpose. Emily: What was the bet she made refused to surrender? Michael: So you think they knew that she could get back from India to Charles: Yes, fortunately I didn’t London on something like five beforehand? have to negotiate the surrender, pounds? Charles: Yes. because I was wounded in the hos­

Charles: Something like that. I think Mia: Did you know personally? pital. It was Alf Bennett who had to do that. We surrendered on Christ­ it was a bit more than that. Charles: We were told by the mas Day. Emily: And she did it. Americans about a week before. Emily: Yes, Charles was in the Michael: Did you travel a lot to­ Consequently, the other man, a Brit­ gether? ish air officer, and myself— the two hospital bed and Alf Bennett came in who knew Japanese—had to be on and raised hell because Charles Charles: No, I avoided it. Good didn’t have to do it. I was very angry. God, you had to fight to go first class! twenty-four-hour duty listening to weather reports until these things Charles: Well, he was the inter­ Kenneth: You remained in the army came around. preter of the general surrender and I in Hong Kong? Kenneth: How did you feel about it? was not the interpreter for it. We had Charles: Yes, I was in military intel­ been in the army together and in ligence. I would go to Macau and Charles: It was quite obvious what wasgoing to happen. Everyone knew Japan and so forth. We were good travel to China. It was all that kind of friends. thing. more or less and, in fact, I was sur­ prised they attacked America. I Carola: In that little book Captive Kenneth: Were you writing intelli­ 15 Christmas published in Hong Kong, Lynette: Did you put yourthings away Michael: Charles, were there many it said that you told the Japanese at during the war? things that went into the Emperor's first that Hong Kong would not sur­ Charles: No, I was in Hong Kong. library apart from your things? render. When the Japanese captured Hong Charles: Oh yes, I think the whole

Charles: Yes, I did, but then they Kong they took all these things away Singapore Library was there. Most changed their minds. People always to Japan. As much as I like these sort everything was sent back in the end say “no surrender” and then five of things I don’t lay awake thinking either to Rangoon and Singapore, minutes later they surrender. about them, although I’ve always but I’m not terribly sure on that.

Mia: Were you afraid? I have heard been unfortunate like that, many Richard: Were the books marked terrible stories of what happened after ways preferring material things to with your name? people. As long as I’ve got books the Japanese came into Hong Kong. Charles: Yes, a lot of them had my and my art things around me I don’t Charles: There was some raping name, but others didn’t. Unlike the but not actually a great deal. They care much whether people are there non-rare books in my library the rare behaved fairly well and it went better or not so long as I’ve someone who books had my book pages. cooks. than Nanking. When they came in Carola: Nobody gave you any prob­ they started torturing Chinese and Michael: Did you lose your books in lems when you went to collect your tying them up with barbed wire. They the war, I mean what you collected? books? tortured about one hundred people Charles: Yes, they took everything. Charles: Well, of course I knew but not in Hong Kong. I think people I got most of them back at the end of people like Colonel Jureka, who was don’t realize that they treated the the war. They were mostly all in an old friend from Hong Kong. Chinese far worse than they treated Japan in the Emperor’s library. Mia: How many books were there? us, yet the whole of their propa­ Michael: In the Emperor’s library? ganda was to liberate the Chinese Charles: Oh, I guess around a thou­ Richard: I thought you once told me people. sand or so. Anyway, several hundred, there were three missing? maybe a thousand. Mia: Why did the Japanese treat Charles: Yes, there were three them differently? Mia: Do you have any Japanese missing. prints depicting the Portuguese? Charles: They have a very ambiva­ Michael: Was the Emperor’s library Charles: I don’t have any, but I do lent attitude towards the Chinese. good on these sorts of things? They despise them enormously in have some of those with the Dutch. Charles: Oh yes. You see, after many ways, but on the other hand I did have a very rare Tuba Sword Japan’s surrender General they realize that their whole civiliza­ Hilt Guard, depicting Portuguese MacArthur had issued an order that tion is derived from China. Confu­ black slaves, but I lost that during the no foreign property taken by the cianism and everything else is all war. I got my library back, the screens Japanese was to be touched on the Chinese transplanted via Korea to and a lot of other things, but I never pain of death, realizing fully that Japan. The Japanese hated it that got that back. hundreds of people wanted to do they got direct or indirect copies Michael: Did you mainly buy your this. He also had a moratorium un­ through Korea or China and that books from European sources or in der which nothing could be touched they were obligated to those two. So, the East? or taken away. So, in order to get my this makes them terribly schizo­ Charles: I bought them all in Japan books back I went to the American phrenic. The whole thing is so com­ in the 1930s, that is the Japanese Liaison Office. Fortunately, I knew plicated. For example, the Chinese books and prints. The others I mainly an American marine very well called and Korean can hold their liquor very bought from Mags in London, from Colonel Jurika, who I had known well and can drink all night and remain Nijoff in Holland, and from the Librar­ before the war and entertained in upright. The Japanese, however, fall ies Coelho in Portugal. Of course, Hong Kong, and I explained to him over vomiting on the floor after about there were other places as well. that my Japanese friends told me the three glasses of sake. I don’t know if books were in the Imperial Library. Michael: And most of those books they are much better now, but in the So, he said that he would give me a are now in Indianapolis? old days they could not hold any­ truck and Gl and I could go and get Charles: No, in Bloomington, Indi­ thing. You could drink any Japanese the books myself. I think it took about ana. under the table in about five minutes. two years until everything was sorted Mia: We heard you have quite a Anyway, they are very schizophrenic. out. Essentially, they took my whole collection of books. Actually, we, the British that is, had library which was then in Hong Kong the same problem with the French. Charles: Yes, I do. I sold part of my and not just the rare books. Thanks Our civilization was derived largely library in 1965 to the Lily Library. to Colonel Jurika I went and retrieved from the French—the Norman con­ Richard: Do you remember what them and put them in the compound quest and all that with a sort of Anglo- was the first real rare book you ever of the British Embassy and then one Saxon residual. bought? or two years later they sent them off. 16 Charles: It was the Commentaries even if Japan is only mentioned once Emily: Charles, tell that story about of Rui Freire de Andrade. in the texts. the manuscripts.

Richard: There was a copy of that at Richard: In a way it’s like in the Charles: Oh yes, well, Ruben the recent sale in Germany. 1920s when there were great collec­ Leitao’s brother, a very nice army

Charles: Yes, when I bought it years tors of Americana and even if there doctor, was on maneuvers once in ago it didn’t cost much. was a book with one or two words the north of Portugal and told us later about America they made a big deal how, when the local people called up Richard: It is quite a rare book. about it. Now if a book is about for conscription, the men had to strip Charles: Yes, but I have much rarer America it does not mean anything. down naked and stand in front of the ones. I had the limited edition of medical officers and then go back , which was printed Charles: One of Maggs’s cata­ and dress. Well, one very hot day in Canton and signed by the author, logues, which I ordered from, was when the new recruits were standing a Swede who lived in Macau called published in 1929, just at the time of there sweating it out, the medical Andrew Ljungstded. Only a hundred the Stock Market Crash, and so lots board told them to take some of the copies were printed and I’ve never of their main buyers either bought old parchments down and wipe them­ seen more than anothertwo. I bought nothing or very little. Consequently, selves over with them. It ended up this one before the war or just after when I went to meet them and they these old medieval parchments and the war and it has gone to the Lily saw I was young and had money and documents, which were the proceed­ Library and so it is not lost to civiliza­ so on, they told me they had a book ings of the local comara, dated back tion. I also had the other issues of the going for 1000-1200 sterling, but to 1500 or something like that. 1836 edition printed in Boston and that I could have it for 750 sterling which I’ve never been able to find cash down and, of course, I bought Michael: Are there many Portu­ again. I’ve tried in America; I’ve tried it. Those were the days! I like Maggs guese collectors now? and trust them totally. I’ve known every bookstore I know and the Richard: It’s beginning to boom. The nearest I came to it was in Lisbon three generations of them. The gov­ internal market is stronger than the where the bookseller had the unpub­ ernment has helped them grow and international market. Yet, more than lished plate the “View of Macau” for become more well-known. They now anything else there is a lot of interest which he wanted a hundred pounds have a worldwide prestige and quite in twentieth-century literature be­ sterling and so I immediately wrote rightly so. And they are still finding cause it is the easiest thing for people to my friend to come and buy it. stuff. to get involved in today. Many people Unfortunately, I should have cabled. Richard: I was there two years ago don’t have the kind of education to It was gone, gone and I’ve seen and one of John Maggs’s employees appreciate sixteenth-century books nothing since. You probably learned was showing him a copy of and they don’t have the languages. long before I did, but if the opportu­ Vancouver’s voyages of the Pacific They prefer instead the first editions nity is there, take it. northwest, which in the 1920s and of , Mario Carnello, 1930s was very common—they must or the modernistas like Miguel Torga, Michael: Are you now collecting who are just booming in Portugal. again? have had a dozen copies. Anyway, the employee said to John, “Well, Charles: What about the sale in Charles: Yes, as far as my means this copy is an unusual copy” and allow. At that Reiss and Auvermann Oporto? John Maggs said, “Go down to the sale I only bought one atlas and I am Richard: Yes, they had an auction basement and get another copy and very pleased with the one I did get. I sale in Oporto in November and there let’s compare it” and the employee would have liked to have bought a lot were both private individuals and said, “We don’t have another copy." more. There were three items on the institutions buying. The institutions So, I thinkthat they are coming pretty Portuguese East Indian Company in are very erratic in their buying. They close to the bottom. The quantity of 1628, but I couldn’t afford them. don’t have fixed budgets such as the stuff in the basement was nothing American or English libraries have, Mia: In Japan who were you buying what it was and I think this was the but for special occasions they can the books from? perfect indication. get grants from the Gulbenkian Charles: From all over. There was a Michael: Where do you buy in Lis­ Foundation or sometimes directly very good bookstore that is still there bon these days? from the government because the and is the number one rare book­ Charles: Well, I can’t buy, because director of the National Library is a store in Japan run by a man called my finances don’t permit me. If I did friend of the Minister of Culture. At Isseido. He survived the bombing it would be mainly from Americo the sale in Germany the National and he’s still alive. Anyway, at their Marques, who is the one I know best Library spent about 400,000 prices, you can’t buy them in Japan and he knows what I want. But, I deutsche marks, but if I offer them a now. Prices have gone through the have not bought anything in Lisbon book for $300 they say, “Oh, this is atmosphere like they did for Picasso for a long time. so expensive. We are a poor coun­ and so on and books are bought

17 try ” Yet, I can understand, because and once you’ve been to Brazil you’re on your 1949 trip to Brazil? they don’t have a budget to buy on a stuck, because they are all so friendly. Charles: Yes. regular basis, but rather for special They are such a different sort of Mia: Have you travelled in Africa? occasions for which they get a grant Portuguese, so very open. Charles: Yes, before independence, that they must spend. I bought one Michael: Was this around the time but not recently. I was in Angola, lot on commission for Harvard but of the first Luso-Brazilian colloquium Mozambique, and São Tomé. I most [American] universities don’t in the Library of Congress? Weren’t climbed up the volcanic mountain in have the money or the patience to you instrumental in getting that to­ São Tomé where I found at the top a read the catalogues. gether? little tin and inside it was paper left Michael: But, are the Portuguese Charles: For the Library of behind by Gago Coutinho, the fa­ collections in the United States in Congress’s 150th anniversary I did mous Portuguese and avia­ general expanding? the inventory. I was what they call tor, when he went up there twenty or Richardses, but at a reduced rate. “consultant.” I think it was for two thirty years before. I brought it down American institutions just don’t have months during 1949 and 1950, but and gave it to the governor and I told a great amount of money and the I’m not sure. him he had better keep it there to prices of books have gone up three Michael: What was your job? protect it against the weather and to five times what they were ten to Charles: My job was in the Latin deterioration. I also remember I twenty years ago. Also, while the American section. It was then headed stayed a night in the district office. I budgets for some of the libraries by Lewis Hanke. He wanted me to had arrived in my sombrero, khaki have doubled, if they are lucky, a lot help with the cataloguing, buying, or shirt, and so on, which were all ripped, of them are the same and some are something or other, of Portuguese torn, and absolutely unwearable. I less than what they were before. In books. I really can’t remember now. had, of course, another change down addition, they need to spend a cer­ I also worked with that old man who below and so I said he could throw tain amount of money buying all the died, who did that dictionary on the these clothes away and he said, “No, newly published books and periodi­ Ching Dynasty, now what was his I will give them to the slaves and cals. name? Arthur Hummel. Yes, Hum­ have them mended.” Next morning, Michael: The University of Texas mel wanted me to do Portuguese my clothes were as if they had just told me the other day that they had stuff on China. So, I had a kind of come out of Savile Row. They must on their open shelves the Gazeta de double thing like that. have stayed up all night sewing and Lisboa from 1702 to 1850—a com­ then ironing. That was in 1955. Michael: Wasn’t there a sympo­ plete set. sium about that time? Kenneth: When you did the race Kenneth: That’s true for all the big relations book on the Portuguese Charles: Yes there was, the Luso- libraries in the United States. The Brazilian Symposium. That was which caused that one thing the older American univer­ again Hanke’s doing in 1950. It was huge scandal in 1967... sities have are all these gazetas. later made into a book. Charles: My book? Richard: They also have rare eight­ Kenneth: What about your book on Kenneth: Yes, it was a little book. eenth- and nineteenth-century books Salvador de Sa? There were very vicious attacks which today have great value, but against it. Charles: That came out later in the which they bought one hundred years 1950s. Charles: Yes, they were very an­ ago when they were just second­ noyed about it. But, that is all gone Michael: Did Salvador de Sa follow hand books. I go up to Harvard a now. couple times a year and one of the side functions of my visit is showing them rare books and it often turns out that two or three of the books k c e P . M . L they not only have, but they are out on the open shelves. Consequently, they make an evaluation and re­ trieve them.

Kenneth: How did you get inter­ ested in Holland and Brazil?

Charles: I got interested in the Dutch in 1936, the same year as the Portu­ guese. For Brazil my interest arrived via Japan, Portugal and Holland and so on. I first went to Brazil in 1949,

Charles Boxer (with Mia Turner): “Home is where I hang my hat." 18 Kenneth: It is interesting what put it upstairs, they never destroyed is now back as it was in Hong Kong happened. I remember when I came it. It is still there now and it has been and people are living high on the hog through Indiana when you were there put back in place. They had merely now. and I’ll never forget that you had in put it away in an upstairs room. They Mia: Were you in a concentration your wallet two things which you are very loyal. camp in Hong Kong? showed to us, myself and Richard Mia: Are you going to travel again Charles: One was in Kowloon and Kagan. Do you remember Kagan, soon? one in Hong Kong, but because I the Spanish historian with the little Charles: I am planning to go to was wounded I was in hospital. I was MG? We drove what seemed like six Macau later on this year, but I don’t later sent to a camp in Kowloon and hundred miles to go to a decent know when that will be. I have to go then to a jail in Canton. restaurant that actually served wine to Lisbon, because Mario Soares Mia: Why Canton? and beer. You might forget, butto me telephoned me not long ago and it was extraordinary, because we Charles: Well, they found us doing said that he is going to confer on me something and three of us were shot seemed to drive endlessly. But, when the order of the Gran Cruz de San­ and I was luckily not one of them. we finally got there you showed us tiago de Espada. two things in your wallet: one was a The others who were not shot were Mia: Congratulations! sentenced from fifteen to twenty gold coin from São Tomé and the years apiece. We were moved to a other was a letter that Armando Charles: He didn’t say, however, jail in Canton two or three months Cortesão had written in the Diario de that he would arrange for me to come, Noticias or some other publication he merely said when I come to let before the end of the war. him know and he will do it then, attacking you. Yet, several years later Mia: Did you think you would be I opened a book and saw that you which I will do. I go to Lisbon two or there for fifteen years? three times a year. had dedicated it to him. Charles: No, of course not! I knew Mia: What made them come to this the Americans would win the war Charles: Well, yes, I did. Before, we were very great friends up until this decision now? long before that, but the Japanese happened. I never broke with Ar­ Charles: Oh, I have no idea. Well, were determined to kill all their pris­ mando, he broke with me. He was yes, it’s my eighty-fifth birthday! I got oners, every man, woman, and child very annoyed with me. What an­ telegrams and congratulations— and then fight to the last. noyed Salazar was that I played upon things from all over the world. Mia: It must have been a fearful the word of Capitão Antonio de Ol­ Mia: Will you be going back to time. iveira de Cadornega as though it Macau in the near future? Charles: No, I knew the Japanese was Antonio de Oliveira de Salazar. Charles: I try to as often as they ask and I saw clearly what would happen Capitão de Oliveira de Cadornega and pay me. I hoped to have my to us. I knew damned well that if they was a Portuguese living in the sev­ eighty-fifth birthday there, but they treated their own people badly why enteenth century in Angola, where said not to come then. Of course, should they treat us any better. The he died. I criticized very politely the they are reorganizing the university Japanese army’s discipline was very Salazar thing about the blacks and and they asked that I come later this severe, even when they made the Portuguese all being brothers and year when the reorganization was slightest mistake. We had seen all that there was no racial question. completed, to which I agreed. this in Japan and I had no illusions. Yet, I think in retrospect Capitão Mia: What kind of reorganization? Mia: Well, wouldn’t you then be Oliveira de Cadornega knew rather Charles: There is a lot of infighting afraid knowing they treated their own more about the Portuguese attitude going on as in all universities as to people so severely? towards blacks in the seventeenth whom will have what share and how Charles: No, there was no reason to century than his Excellency Antonio things will be developed and so on, be afraid. It was part of life. I feel de Oliveira de Salazar, which under­ and until this is settled they won’t sorry that a lot of people who died standably annoyed him a great deal. send me the formal invitation. But, it never lived to see the end of the war. He then issued an edict and a de­ will come sooner or later I think. My friends never lived to see this, nunciation was to be published, but Mia: What was your life like in Hong because they were shot and killed. I people had never heard of Cador­ was one of the lucky ones. nega and I think some of them had Kong during those nine years you hardly heard of Salazar. The whole were there? Kenneth: Did you both meet in China? thing was ludicrous beyond belief. Charles: It was very good. The nine years included four years in the hands Emily: Yes. When did we meet, Kenneth: I remember in the Casa do Livro in Lisbon there used to be a of the Japanese, but in general we Charles? lived high on the hog. big portrait, which was a photograph Charles: Nineteen thirty-eight or of you in uniform entitled Capitão Mia: And then the war came and 1939, or something like that. Boxer, which then disappeared. things changed drastically. Emily: He came to Shanghai and I

was living there teaching school and Charles: No, they still have it. They Charles: Naturally of course, but life 19 was writing a book about them. After writing to each other on their hands that I didn’t come back to Shanghai in both Chinese and Japanese char­ but went on to Hong Kong and was acters. As Charles said, the charac­ there the last three years of my nine ters look similar when written, but years. they sound differently.

Mia: How did you like Hong Kong Mia: When you were in Hong Kong during those nine years? how were you your Por­ Emily: Oh, I liked Hong Kong, but it tuguese studies?

has changed now. Charles: I was going to Macau and

Charles: Yes, I also loved Hong working in the archives when I had Kong. Life was very easy and very the weekend. You could go to Macau pleasant. I like it now but it’s so since there were ferries three times hectic. It’s a cross between New a day. Now, you have the jetfoil, but York and Chicago. It’s all right for a then it was by ferry—a very nice ferry week or ten days, but when you’re through calm seas normally and past Charles Boxer in prison camp in Hong my age it’s a constant round of cock­ all these islands in the South Pearl Kong in 1943 tail parties and entertainment. River Delta. Half of the islands, of working for a newspaper called the course, are now cities, but at that Mia: Do you speak Chinese? North China Daily News. Charles time there were not even fishermen Charles: I was nine years in Hong and I both wrote for the magazine huts on some of them. Now, you Kong and I never learned Chinese. It Tienxia and that’s how we met. have the bloody big skyscrapers. Oh was quite unnecessary since every­ (‘Tienxia’ means “everything under God, it has changed! one in Hong Kong spoke English. heaven.”) It was a literary magazine Also, travelling in China in those Mia: When did you both leave Hong in English for Chinese intellectuals. days, about 1937-39—Indian tariff Kong? Michael: Were you both in Hong time—outside of Canton and the . Emily: Charles was there until the Kong during the war? Pearl River Delta nobody spoke end of the war and I was there fortwo Emily: I was in Hong Kong and Cantonese. We discovered this when years and then Carola was born and Charles was in jail. He was captured friends of mine and myself went on a I was repatriated when she was two. in Hong Kong. As an American I did trip by car and took along a Hong Charles: When the war ended the not have to get out, but I left two Kong Chinese boy to cook our meals. Japanese let us out to Hong Kong years later. The boy, who was bouncing on where they were still in control be­

Michael: Were you both interned in twenty years old, had never been cause the British fleet was still down Hong Kong? away from his mother before and we in Australia a thousand miles away

Charles: I was in prison first in Hong thought he would cry when he got and the Japanese wouldn’t surren­ Kong and then in Canton. I ended up out of Canton. He was at first com­ der to the Chinese. The Chinese in Canton. pletely useless, but we couldn’t take were on the border of Hong Kong him back so we had to drag him and wanted to come and take it and, Emily: I didn’t go to jail. This is a rather delicate question, because I along. He got a bit more useful later actually, the Americans would not lied and said I was Eurasian and on, but he was very much of a have stopped them. The Americans since they were not interning anyone mother’s boy. were very anticolonialist. It was the Japanese who said, “No, we took with Asian blood they left me alone. Mia: How did you manage without speaking Chinese? Hong Kong from the British,” and so Charles: The Japanese Consul, the Japanese stayed. Eventually Takeo Oda, helped to arrange that Charles: When we came to a village British and American warships came because he knew perfectly well you it was often pitch dark and I would in and they surrendered. I was there weren’t Eurasian. Oda was the Japa­ write in Japanese characters (which about another month ortwo and then nese consul before the war and we have some similarities with Chinese boarded a ship for . were friends. characters) “English Officers” and they would say, “That’s okay.” They Mia: California! Michael: Were you able to see Charles in prison? would then go away and produce Charles: Yes, it was an American within minutes someone in the vil­ ship and I never saw land again until Emily: No, I was able to bring food lage who had either been in Sin­ we got to the San Diego Naval Base. and he could stand outside in the gapore, Hong Kong, or the Philip­ Mia: Why California? yard. They all did that. pines,and who spoke English. If worse Charles: Well, it didn’t go to Hawaii Kenneth: So, you met in Shanghai came to worse they would produce and both of you stayed on? or anywhere, but rather went to San someone who spoke Japanese. Diego. It was an American naval Emily: Well, I went to Chungking to Emily: During the Japanese occu­ ship, but very comfortable. I was the follow the Soong sisters because I pation you saw everywhere people only Englishman on board. Then 20 I got a plane from San Diego to New clue who I am, have you?” And he York where my wife had a house. said, “Well, it’s on the tip of my

Mia: You had not seen each other tongue.” And she was his wife. She for how long? must have changed.

Charles: Not long, about three years Charles: We were not together very or something like that. long. Emily: I asked had she changed Mia: Did she know you were alive? much and he said, “No, she was Charles: Oh yes! quite the same, I simply hadn’t ex­ Mia: Were you married in China? pected to meet her.” Emily: No, we were married here. Richard: Well, that can happen when Charles: We bribed a judge be­ you meet people out of context. cause we discovered that there was Emily: I see your point. a law that a marriage with one of the party being divorced was illegal. So Charles: Well, Carola said that this woman looked at me for some con­ we had to hire a car and drive up to New Haven, I think. I must ask about siderable time before she finally came up. this. Do you remember in our mar­ The exaggerated mast of the Portuguese riage when we or you had to bribe n a u (great black ship) which traded with Emily: Yes, she followed you around the judge? China. From Japanese Nambam screen, all the way to the hippopotamus. 1 5 9 3 - 1 6 0 0 .

Emily: Yes, we bribed him for $100. Charles: It appears she wasn’t quite Emily: One day Charles took sure. Charles: Yes, but exactly why Carola’s little sister, Amanda, and couldn’t we get married in New York? Mia: How did you get started in Amanda’s friend to Whipsnade, a teaching? Emily: Because you hadn’t been country zoo about two miles from us divorced long enough. It's very diffi­ Charles: I was offered a teaching (Charles doesn’t like zoos). Anyway, position at the University of London cult to get married in New York if you apparently while they were there a haven’t been divorced over a certain and I told the principal of King’s strange woman walked up to him College that I can read Portuguese amount of time and you had only just and said, “How is the gallant major?” been divorced. without any trouble and I can write and he said to himself, “Oh, crash, it about it, but I can’t teach it. I said if we Charles: Then we or you had to hire is somebody in the village!” Charles get students I must get a number two a car and we had to drive up to New doesn’t remember people, it’s awful. or an assistant to teach the grammar Haven and then you had to pay $100. He doesn’t care about people! So, of the language and I’ll be in the Michael: How long had you been he said, “I’m all right” and “Do you background and teach the history. married the first time? think it will rain” and he went on like After two years they got this man. Charles: Not all that long. that and she said, “You haven’t a

Charles Boxer and company

21 Kenneth: You recruited Portuguese Charles: When I resigned I said I Charles: No, it is a well-known to come to teach? was going back to King’s, and they anecdote. Bah, anyone could tell it

Charles: Yes, but this was during said, “Why are you doing this?” I told and make it sound like an ancient Salazar’s time and they were very them that my knowledge of Japa­ tale! sticky. They wanted to have fascists nese is colloquial and katikana, hira- Mia: It seems listening to you talk and people like that in England as gana, and no further. Well, I could that you have always had a strong teaching assistants. There was a read the newspaper with the charac­ inclination to be in Asia. ters in Japanese, but I was certainly perpetual battle to tell them that they Charles: Of course, I’ve always couldn’t do that. In Portugal it was not capable of the Chair. Also, among been very interested in Japan, the government which controls, and my students I had Chinese, who Macau, and China too, but I didn’t it can say “yes” or “no” to anyone. were graduated from China. It was learn Chinese. My wife learned Chi­ Not now, of course, but in the Salazar ludicrous! Then they appointed Bis- nese and I learned Japanese. I’ve period. ley and he didn’t speak Chinese ei­ been to quite a bit, but ther. Anyway, he took the job. There Kenneth: What happened in the never got to Timor. I’d love to go to end? is a story about a Portuguese king. Timor. Do you know anything about Portu­ Charles: There were always argu­ Mia: Would you have stayed in guese history? ments and the Portuguese Embassy China and Asia? Mia: A bit. was in a difficult position because Charles: It depends. You need a they knew what the English wanted, Charles: There is someone in the helluva lot of money, especially in but they also knew how difficult eighteenth century called King John Japan and Hong Kong. I am quite Salazar was. Eventually, things were V who was a very famous man, very happy where I am in the “provincia” more or less settled. Gulbenkian took rich and so on. He had varied love in England. London is close and I get it over in the end and the Portuguese lives, one of which was with a nun for to Lisbon and Holland easily. I also still give a sort of small fortune, but whom he built an enormous nunnery come to America frequently. I think since 1975 they pay much more. where he could visit her. Anyway, he at my age, which is eighty-five, you had this love affair and one of his Kenneth: How is the department can’t really stay in Asia. You have to doing now? confessors was a rather famous have the financial means to live in man—a priest, but not a Jesuit— Charles: All I know is that it is really Asia. If I had that I might accept to who kept on agitating with the King flourishing. They have eighty to one live in Hong Kong and since my wife and saying, “Your Majesty, you’re hundred students and a lot of profes­ doesn’t live in England anyway, she not really setting a good example to sors, teachers, and girls from Mozam­ could go to Hong Kong just as easily. your subjects and everyone knows bique. It’s all very exotic, erotic, and I have an unmarried daughter still in about it. The Queen (rainha) is very everything else. England. But, I don’t think any of this disturbed and the counsels too and will happen. Kenneth: So when exactly were the Princess of Austria, the Daugh­ Mia: But, in retrospect, would you you teaching at King’s? ter of the Austrian Emperor, is very have stayed on in Asia after the war Charles: We fended students off upset about it. The whole nation finished? until 1947-48 and I was there until knows it and you shouldn’t do this.” 1967, when I retired. I also had two Well, he kept agitating like this and Charles: No, I wanted to come back years as professor of Japanese and the King got fed up with it and so he to England. I had a big country house Chinese history at the School of Ori­ gave instructions to the Royal chef in England. ental Studies but I resigned that after that for all meals the confessor was Mia: But you also had a home in a couple of years and went back to to be served nothing but chicken Asia.

King’s. (galinha). The confessor went on Charles: Yes, but I was finished with

Mia: Why did you go to the School eating chicken for every meal, but he the army and I was offered a Chair in of Oriental Studies? saw others getting served other foods England at King’s College. I am quite

Charles: Well, they had a Chair and he couldn’t understand why he happy where I am, but I would quite there and they asked me to become alone was having chicken so he went like invitations to travel like this one the first professor and after some up to the King and asked, “Excuse here from Columbia University. Yet, hesitation I accepted. However, I me, your Majesty, but I don’t under­ if England became a bloodbath or resigned it after a year or two be­ stand the object of this. I like chicken, taken over by communists or some­ cause I couldn’t speak a word of of course, but you make me have it at thing like that then I would go to Chinese. I had never spoken Chi­ every meal and I never get a change.” Hong Kong, Singapore, or some­ nese in my life. The King looked at him and said, place else. Otherwise, I was very “Galinha, galinha, rainha, rainha.” happy living three years in Japan Mia: Did the School try to dissuade and I am quite happy where I am. you? Mia: Did you dig up these stories in the archives? Home is where I hang my hat.

22 independence posed a great chal­ lated only in 1980) and the socialist lenge to the new FRELIMO govern­ economic strategy which came within Special Report: ment. FRELIMO recognized early this ideology emphasized a policy of Mozambique Update on that its organization was too loose central planning whereby the state assumed control over the economy. — Dawit Toga to undertake the massive task of restructuring Mozambique’s shat­ For FRELIMO, this economic strat­ Despite the recent Namibian set­ tered political and economic appara­ egy was perceived as the most tlement, the southern African region tus and in these circumstances the appropriate for a nation newly inde­ is still going through tumultuous times creation of a strong Marxist-Leninist pendent and burdened with a fragile largely due to continued South Afri­ Party directing a highly centralized economy largely dependent on South can support for antigovernment in­ economic system seemed the most Africa, as well as with a scarcity of surgent forces in the former Portu­ appropriate response. Conse­ skilled personnel after the mass guese colonies of Angola and quently, in 1977 at the Third Party departures of Portuguese expatri­ Mozambique. This policy is most Congress, FRELIMO adopted a ates. Although the strategy brought damaging in Mozambique where Marxist-Leninist ideology (the defini­ initial economic gains during the RENAMO (Resistência Nacional tion of the new ideology was articu- 1978-80 period, the growth of Moçambicana) guerrilla forces, in opposition to the current government Mozambique headed by FRELIMO (Frente da Libertação de Moçambique), are creating chaos for the nation’s politi­ cal and economic life. Even before attaining independ­ ence in 1975, Mozambique played a pivotal role in the shaping of ’s national security strategy. Despite the fact that the Nkomati Accords of 1984 were to insure that military aid to RENAMO from South Africa be cut, clandestine support continues. Since gaining its independence Mozambique, because of its eco­ nomic dependence, has also been vulnerable to pressure from South Africa. Indeed, in the two years fol­ lowing its independence, South Af­ rica not only replaced Portugal as Mozambique’s principal source of imports, but it also provided the new nation with 80% of its hard currency earnings. The postindependence govern­ ment established by FRELIMO tried to minimize this dependency on South Africa, but without success. This formidable economic reality has undoubtedly influenced FRELIMO’s decision to adopt a more pragmatic approach, which is not only unique in revolutionary African politics, but also in a movement professing a Marxist- Leninist ideology. This pragmatism is central in understanding the inter­ nal and external political and eco­ nomic landscape in contemporary Mozambique. Reconstruction in the aftermath of

23 Mozambique’s economy came to a bique, the government is trying to The reform package suggested complete standstill in 1981. combine both state and private sec­ by the IMF involved a whole new The failings in the economy, inten­ tors. “They do not want to go com­ strategy for Mozambique including sified by the guerilla warfare carried pletely private, because they still the deregulation of government out by RENAMO, made FRELIMO believe in state guidance, but then controlled prices on agricultural pro­ realize that a reconsideration of its they are faced with the country’s duce, a wage freeze, devaluation of policies was essential. Conse­ difficult economic realities,” said currencies by as much as 300%, and quently, a Ten-Year Victory Over Novicki. even the reduction of the size of Underdevelopment Plan was insti­ The state farms in Mozambique, Mozambique’s armed forces as a tuted in 1981 and called for a 17% as in most quasi-socialist states in means for controlling budgetary increase in the country’s gross na­ developing countries, not only hin­ spending. tional product (GNP) and a fivefold der the growth and transformation of Albie Sachs, a longtime observer increase in agricultural production agricultural institutions, but also of Mozambique, in a recent interview by the end of the decade. adversely affect the revitalization of disputed the extent of the IMF pres­ In spite of the earlier recognition unproductive sectors of the econ­ sure as a source for instituting the by the FRELIMO leadership that its omy as they require a disproportion­ new economic reform program. economy could not support large ate amount of capital. According to Sachs, the reforms were development projects, the Ten-Year In January 1987, in attempting to generated after an assessment by Plan still stressed iron and steel deal with the country’s economic the Mozambicans of their economic production and the support of state stagnation, FRELIMO launched the situation and the recognition that farms. Flowever, the shortage of both Economic Rehabilitation Programme major adjustments had to be made. capital and trained manpower cre­ (ERP), whose principal aims were to “The involvement of the IMF and ated difficulties for achieving the (1) increase agricultural production World Bank came within that recog­ goals set by the Plan, which was by emphasizing the family-based nition,” said Sachs. revised in the Fourth Party Congress production sector, (2) promote ex­ The initiation of ERP has been in 1983. Under the new Plan, the ports, (3) rehabilitate the economic beneficial to Mozambique’s efforts idea of huge projects and state farms infrastructure, and (4) mobilize new to secure external aid. In 1987 alone was dropped with emphasis being external resources.2 Under the ERP, the London and Paris Clubs gave placed instead on small develop­ assistance was given to private farm­ the country $407 million of debt relief ment projects, which would use local ers through price incentives and in­ and new commitments for $700 mil­ raw materials to produce goods for frastructural support such as high lion. Moreover, in the November 1988 local consumption and private farms. yield seeds, fertilizers, and tools meeting of the Paris Club, donors The state farms, although symbol­ specifically geared towards small- and creditors pledged to give $820 izing FRELIMO’s commitment to scale farming. million through 1989. socialism, were large sources of The ERP envisaged increasing the The most significant measure of capital drain. For example, in 1981 agricultural production of family farm­ success for FRELIMO’s economic the 350,000 acres of state farms, ing by an average annual rate of restructuring is the military support it while absorbing virtually the entire 29% from 1987 to 1990 and of state is getting from the “donor commu­ agricultural budget, produced only and private enterprises by 17%. The nity.” Both Spain and Britain provide 50% of marketed output and 25% of programme also assumes an in­ the country with military assistance total output, and at a heavy loss.1 crease in industrial output by 12% specifically designated to protect Under the influence of the newly annually to the year 1990.3 economic projects from RENAMO revised Ten-Year Plan the state Although the dismal performance attacks. farms were to be divided into more of the economy largely explains the Collen Morna explained in a re­ manageable units and support for creation of the ERP, pressures from cent article published in African Busi­ private farmers was to be increased. the International Monetary Fund ness that despite the concrete 4% However, even though the govern­ (IMF) and the World Bank must also gross domestic product (GDP) ment has resolved the issue of de­ be considered. A recent report in growth achieved in 1987 as a result centralizing state farms the role of Kessings pointed out that an IMF of the IMF sponsored economic re­ the larger private farmers and pri­ study of Mozambique’s economic form program, these gains are largely vate businessman in the economy situation revealed that exports had restricted to the urban areas. Conse­ continues to be debated within the declined by nearly 75% since quently, although industrial produc­ government. 1980-1981 and that imports had tion expanded by 18% in 1987, agri­ According to Margaret Novicki, been severely compressed, leading culture remained stagnant even with editor of Africa Report and who re­ to severe shortages and the emer­ price hikes in producer goods and cently returned from a visit to Mozam­ gence of a large parallel market. government support for this sector.

24 Although it is too early to assess tempted to negotiate with RENAMO closely associated with the Party prior the success of the ERP, a report by using South Africa as an intermedi­ to independence,” observed Marina the U.S. Department of Commerce ary. The talks were stalled, however, Ottaway, who has written on Mozam­ on Mozambique’s economic perform­ when RENAMO representatives bique. ance indicates “a slight rebound in walked out of the negotiations. Nothing is more threatening to the production.” The report emphasized Undoubtedly, the revised eco­ future stability of Mozambique than that the per capita GDP rose by nomic strategy has posed a daunt­ the continuing threat from RENAMO. 11.4% and the ERP has managed to ing challenge to the leadership as it The success of the economic re­ arrest the “vicious circle of economic implies re-analyzing FRELIMO’s forms depends on peace and na­ decline which had characterized the commitment to its Marxist-Leninist tional reconciliation which is currently economy’s performance in previous ideology and dismantling its policy of unobtainable given the scope of years.”4 central planning. RENAMO attacks on Mozambique’s Despite these tangible gains, the An “ideological purification move­ economic infrastructure. restructuring did not make the econ­ ment” was launched in the late 1970s Although RENAMO has certainly omy a free-market system. Privati­ in an attempt to purify the Party of its lost much of the little international zation did not abolish the state sec­ disenchanted members whose loy­ support it had, especially after the tor and had little impact on the rural alty to FRELIMO could not be trusted. U.S. State Department published the peasant economy, affecting instead These purges, however, pushed Robert Gersony report on the atroci­ the urban population and the peas­ some members to oppose FRELIMO. ties it has committed, the organiza­ ants working on the state farms and Increasingly, the popularity that tion still manages to function with in communal village cooperatives. FRELIMO had acquired during its continued support from South Af­ It is interesting to note that FRE- struggle for independence began to rica. For the attainment of security in LIMO has not completely rejected erode. southern Africa and the success of the planned economy model nor The Party’s disastrous economic the economic reforms in Mozam­ accepted wholeheartedly a policy of policies have also raised the levels bique, a concerted international ef­ decentralization and free markets. of discontentment not only within the fort to pressure South Africa to dis­ Before initiating the ERP, an experi­ Party, but within the population as continue supporting RENAMO and ment of free markets was attempted well. It is increasingly clear that the to abide by the Nkomati Accords are in the province of Zambezia in 1983 less ideological, pre-independence major preconditions. under the direction of its former political structure of FRELIMO had ’ Marina Ottaway, “Mozambique: From governor and the current Prime more popular support, and today the Symbolic Socialism to Symbolic Reform ,” Party is finding it difficult to convince The Journal of Modem African Studies, 2 6 , 2 Minister of Mozambique, Mario (1988), p. 216. the population to assume a more Machungo. Despite early criticisms, ! K essings, 34 (February 1988), 35688. serious commitment to its socialist Machungo’s experiments of liberali­ • “Country Profile: M ozam bique, 1988-1989”, zation and free markets in Zambezia principles. Economist Intelligence Unit (London, 1989), were hailed as successful and “RENAMO support is limited to p . 1 0 . adopted as general policy in 1985. disgruntlement and those joining are * U.S. Departm ent of Comm erce, “Foreign those disaffected by early FRELIMO Econom ic Trends and Their Implications for The country’s economic problems the United States," American Embassy, continue to be exacerbated by the policies of land distribution,” said M aputo, (June 1988), p. 3. guerilla activities of RENAMO which Novicki. attack economic installations with However, regardless of whatever the aim of forcing the breakdown of discontent there is against FRELIMO

transportation, and commercial and policies, RENAMO activities continue i k c i v o N . A t e r a g r a M government infrastructures like to be seen as acts of banditry and schools, roads, and health centers. therefore not a legitimate opposition It was the Rhodesian secret serv­ to the current leadership. Unlike most ices which created RENAMO in 1977 single-party states in Africa where as a way to penalize Mozambique individual figures dominate the po­ for the political and military support it litical scene through personality cults, was providing to the Zimbabwean FRELIMO has managed to develop liberation organizations of ZANU and into a cohesive force emphasizing ZAPU. After ’s independ­ consensus building among its ence in 1980, South Africa began members. “FRELIMO was not a tool training and supplying RENAMO of Samora Machel before, and is not forces. In 1984, former President of a tool of Chissano now. Rather, it is FRELIMO soldier Mozambique Samora Machel at­ controlled by a group of individuals

25 An Interview with the colonial system and create to­ 1985-86 there was a shift towards a tally new institutions. Yet, in order to policy of regulation rather than pe­ Albie Sachs on avoid anarchy in the judicial system nalization. Mozambique Today many of the legal codes of Portugal, The post of Prime Minister was Mozambique has experienced such as the commercial code, were created to supervise the Economic important changes in its legal, eco­ retained and have been adapted to Rehabilitation Programme and it is nomic, social, and political structures some extent. The areas of biggest currently held by Mario Machungo, a since its independence in 1975. The change have been in public law, leading FRELIMO economist. judiciary was severely damaged by family law, and laws regulating the The new strategy involved the the departure of most of its judges. economy. deregulation of prices, especially for The economy has suffered from the After independence out of a total goods produced by the peasantry, a ongoing military conflict with the of seventy judges only five remained devaluation of the currency so that it REN AMO insurgent forces and from in Mozambique. The few that stayed came closer to black market value, the problems of a state-oriented on performed a valuable service, but and a move towards trying to regu­ development program. The war it­ basically Mozambique has had to late the whole black market or paral­ self has left thousands dead or dis­ build up a whole new legal structure lel economy rather than suppress it. placed and food production has fallen and that was done quite success­ What I did notice when I was back on by 75%, leaving half of Mozambique's fully. a visit to in December 1988 population of 16 million people de­ Perhaps the most important was that morale has picked up con­ pendent on food aid. change and a major achievement siderably and the economic upturn A new economic program in which was establishing Popular Tribunals was really evident. state controls were relaxed was in­ in the local communities. About eight —Problems facing the economic troduced by former President Sam- hundred of them are now in opera­ development program: ora Machel, who was killed in a plane tion with thousands of judges, many The new economic program is crash in South African territory in illiterate, who are drawn from the showing very positive signs. The 1986 returning from an official visit in communities and handle cases in­ shops now clearly have ample stocks Zimbabwe, and have continued volving family law and neighbor dis­ and there is a sense of free trading. under the leadership of President putes. Yet, there are limitations since a lot Joaquim Chissano. The new pro­ The judges in the popular tribu­ of this is being financed by loans and gram seeks to encourage a more nals do not work with written codes the results do not necessarily repre­ active private sector and necessi­ but rather use the oral African tradi­ sent a major revival of productive tates political readjustments for the tion; however, the norms they apply capacity. government’s postindependence are drawn from the principles of the In addition, there are the problems ideology. Constitution. The whole approach that arise from greater social stratifi­ Professor Albie Sachs, a South and rules they use are completely cation. What has emerged from the African lawyer, writer, and member new, but the procedures are infor­ discussions is that, while there is of the African National Congress, mal, intimate, friendly, and courte­ has spent over ten years living and ous—very much in the African style. working in Mozambique. He was —On the economic development teaching international law in the program: Eduardo Mondlane University in The main thrust of development Maputo before he became Director in Mozambique was aimed at im­ of Research in the Ministry of Jus­ proving the lives of the working tice. In addition, he has been active people. The impact of the war, how­ in the cultural movement and pro­ ever, combined with what the duced a film on war and art in Mozam­ Mozambican leadership recognizes bique entitledThe Deeper Meaning. as their own mistakes, resulted in an Following his recovery from an as­ extremely difficult economic situation sassination attempt in which he lost and clearly measures had to be taken. his arm, Albie Sachs accepted an The “new thinking” began to sur­ invitation to teach for a semester at face around 1985-86, but the prob­ the Law School of Columbia Univer­ lems were already evident, espe­ sity where the following interview cially because of the war. Earlier in was held in April 1989. 1983-84 attempts had been made —On the current state of the legal to deal with the very difficult eco­ system: nomic situation provoked by the war, The policy at the time of independ­ for example, by penalizing black ence was to completely break with market activities. However, by Albie Sachs 26 general popular understanding and —On ideological reorientations been Pretoria that has basically vio- ■ support forthe changes, there is a lot and consensus within FRELIMO lated them. of concern about the social effects in with respect to the economic re­ The pressure of sanctions on producing wealthier and poorer forms: South Africa indirectly helps Mozam­ sections in the society. There are I think there is a consensus on the bique in the sense that some coun­ special measures being taken to deal need for change. The argument is tries or leaders who are against the with this problem. more on the rate of change and the imposition of sanctions wish to prove You must also recognize that controls that are necessary. There is their anti-apartheid credentials by having a mixed economy implies that a very big debate going on in Mozam­ manifesting support for the frontline if there was going to be a private bique in the run up to the Fifth Party states as an alternative to sanctions. sector then proper conditions had to Congress of FRELIMO scheduled In this way they support the territorial be provided for the private sector to for July this year. integrity of Mozambique, which gives function. You still have a large num­ I think what is clear is that people rise to some international pressure ber of parastatal enterprises and an feel free to debate even fundamental on Pretoria. Also, the massacres and extensive network of cooperatives, questions and although I have not brutalities of RENAMO have been which are particularly important in heard a proposal to permit alterna­ so horrendous and well-documented the consumer field. tive organizations to function within that it makes it extremely difficult for —On external aid: FRELIMO, and in public in general, South Africa to continue to support Mozambique gets quite a lot of there is a relaxed air. People are not RENAMO overtly. external economic support and some tense when they debate these hard —On economic relations with of it is food aid, which has become political questions, and they are not South Africa: vital because the war has destroyed worried that they will be denounced That has been very much exag­ food production. Secondly, there is as antipatriotic or counterrevolution­ gerated, partly because South Af­ quite substantial bilateral govern- ary. On the contrary, people are rica has, in fact, applied sanctions ment-to-government aid. The encouraged to speak out frankly and against Mozambique for many years Scandinavian countries, Italy, Can­ say what they feel. In preparing for rather than give support. For ex­ ada, and the Netherlands play a the Congress a series of theses have ample, the rail traffic from the Rand particularly important role here. been distributed and literally thou­ to Maputo was reduced from some­ There are also a lot of nongovern­ sands of people are taking part in the thing like 9 million to 2 million tons a mental organizations (NGOs) which discussion. year. are involved in small programs, but —On open political discussion as What has been important is the because they have become so ex­ a FRELIMO policy: employment the South African gold tensive now there is some debate Well, it is a tradition of FRELIMO, mines provide to Mozambican work­ about whether or not they are influ­ but there have been times when ers. The fact is these tend to be encing policy. Everybody recognizes there was certainly far less free and relatively skilled workers and South that they play a valuable role, but open discussion. Public debate is African mines need them just as their decision-making role and the not something that is being invented much as the miners need the in­ role of the government always has to now. It is something that started in come. But the damage South Africa be worked out. the liberated zones. There have been has caused the Mozambican econ­ Then you have international financ­ periods of lively public political de­ omy outweighs by a hundred times ing in terms of loans from the IMF, bate and periods where serious the economic benefits that it has which Mozambique has joined, and debate took place only behind closed received. the World Bank. The problem is to doors. For a couple of years now —On the current status of RE­ integrate all these inputs into com­ there has been relaxed and rela­ NAMO: prehensive programs. tively open debate. I think that from a diplomatic point It should be stressed, however, —On Mozambique-South Africa of view REN AMO’s position is disas­ that the new economic strategy was relations and the Nkomati Ac­ trous. The U.S. State Department not brought on by pressure from the cords: issued a report that was extremely IMF. The new strategy was based on The Nkomati Accords were signed critical. They have no leadership and an assessment by the Mozambicans in 1984. The Mozambican objective no program. Internationally, there is of their own economic situation and was to bring peace to the country. no one who dares to come up with the recognition that major adjust­ Unfortunately, after Nkomati the war any support. ments had to be made. The involve­ continued and the economic situ­ At the same time in the rural areas ment of the IMF and World Bank ation got worse. Mozambique has of Mozambique there are RENAMO came within that recognition, and been anxious to hold South Africa to groups that are still capable of caus­ was not its cause. the terms of the Accords, and it has ing severe damage. The key thing is

27 M argaret A. Novicki in rm hc i pesgns fur­ press-gangs it which from tion ther members.ther popula­ roving landless a creating h laesi hs manifested this has leadership the Iwhicharmy,andcreatedthethink which launched the popular struggle, ais it 1960s.sense Inone late the whatis interesting is that thereview because countries socialist the actively destroy the rural economy,ruralactivelydestroythe exist. not could RENAMO this support Without Africa. South within alltheway. but rather it was the popular struggle the after only emerged army The et utd o Mzmiu. Yet, Mozambique. for suited best O rltos ih h Soviet the with relations —On to u p a M ural, m a n ta a g n la a M popular struggle.It was not the army organization. nationalistic strongly lishedits current coreleadership by Mozambicans thought that they were of features and forms institutional certainover take stagecertainato tries: to continues however, RENAMO, from get they support much how t a fre i 16 ad estab­ and 1962 in formed was It Union and the Eastern Bloc coun­ Ibelieve therea was tendency at FRELIMO has quite a long history.

justification for weakeninginter­ the tem of apartheid.tem a as used be to Africa South with tained friendly relations with the ANC. wishany relations Mozambique has tional communityhas responsibility. positionevenduringthethis tained hr ae ay set o Portu­ of aspects many are There TheANCitspartisfor aware of the O rltos ih h African the with relations —On perestroikaXhaX hy lo tes ht hy o not do they that stress also They stressedthat thisis aninternational andpolicythat continues. countries, both with relations good had that world the in organization to managed has country the that hrb Mzmias ee com­ Mozambicans were whereby way unilateral a in imposed were pastthePortuguese these features in that however, is, difference The guese culture and society, which now produced an impact in Mozambique. enormous price the frontline statesfrontline pricethe enormous politicalsupport to theorganization. and diplomatic full given has and Mozambique: tre i Mozambiquebefore in started was institutions these of many of —On the historical legacy of the of historical the legacy —On ainl rsue gis te sys­ the against pressure national problem for which the whole interna­ mustinSouthgo have Africa.They apartheid that time the all insisted only the FRELIMO was I think ion. Un­ Soviet theand Chinabetween conflict the during and War, Cold main­ They West. and East both countries of range wide extremely pelled to adopt Portuguesepelledadoptto culture, of the new Mozambican personality. liberationofsouthern Africa. thefor pay to oncalled beenhave National CongressNational (ANC): ing” emerged nor, clearly, vice versa. Portuguese colonization and rele­ ae ey od eain wt an with relations good very have religion, and way of life in order to be ina transformed way constitute part It discusses questions with the ANC estroika vance to the current situation in situationcurrent the tovance h MozambicanhasleadershipThe What is evident inMozambique is oabqe a awy main­ always has Mozambique otgee ooiain clearly colonization Portuguese and soit wasnot aresult of there the “new think­ 28 per­

n cmae vr favorablywith very compares and ht utrl fimto hd n ex­ in had affirmation cultural that importance the to back dates this townMaputo on the first Saturday of move­ theater interesting an tries, smallalsoare There stars. football tion movements against Portuguese neighboringstates. registered very noticeable advances broader cultural front the country has dence period. Although Mozambique postindepen­ the in important very affirmationI and think that has been thingsbeneficialthatare toAfrica. gratedinto Mozambican society are independence. for struggle the during personality African-Mozambican the pressing someof think I recitals. guitar and every month they have public poetry indus­ film and TV developing but house­ are sculptors and painters of Africa. colonial struggles in many other parts Angola and Amilcar Cabral of Netoof Agostinho Guinea like colonialism that almost all the founders of libera­ inwasanticolonial struggles in Brit­ thoughI would not say it comes from what was called “assimilated.” Now, oi shr I ol sy n the on say would I sphere nomic hassufferedextensively in theeco­ cultural and nationalism between policy produced a stronginteraction emergent,”andfromtake the world oevr i eta ParkinMoreover,Central indown­ raphers, and somelively journalists. ment,radio,good excellent photog­ hold names, even better known than in tradition a not was This poets. strongerencefarwaswhich than it or culture national own their oped Mozambicanshavedevel­the ess: o “uotoiaim bt “Africa- but “Luso-tropicalism” not isu rt o clue r were or culture on wrote Bissau ishcolonies.Iitis nothink accident Mozambique’s struggle for independ­ a powerful onheritage.African based personality national itis a totallydifferent kindof aproc­ Portugalandwhichhave been inte­ otgl i te oe f utr in culture of role the is Portugal, Theresistance to the assimilation hr sadne movementdanceanda isThere Something that I found noticeable, The strong elements derived from Coping with the It is difficult to grasp or convey the without security or visions of their extent and the implications of the own f utu res—these are the products Consequences of War: psychological damage done to tens of the war. Yet, to merely list these The nights of the Child of thousands of Mozambican chil­ realities is perhaps to diminish the —Ilene Cohn dren by the country’s fourteen-year- impact and significance of each one. Ms. Cohn is a lawyer and Re­ old internal war. Over the past few There are so many stories and pub­ search Director of the Project on years media reports on this situation lic awareness is only one step to­ Children and War, a collaborative have been so consistently gruesome ward a solution. project between Columbia Univer­ that tales of inconceivable suffering The government of Mozambique sity and Duke University. Ms. Cohn have become the norm and individ­ has not assumed the role of helpless recently returned from Mozambique ual names, histories, and total num­ victim in the struggle to address the where she is organizing a study, in bers of affected populations merge war’s effects on these children. A conjunction with the Ministries of into an impression of inexplicable 1985 “Children in Difficult Circum­ Health, Justice, and Education in violence. stances” policy has stimulated a Maputo, on the legal and psychoso­ In Mozambique today there are number of innovative, community- cial problems of children in war in starving children roaming the coun­ based responses to the tragedy of Mozambique. The aim of the study is tryside, forced to witness the brutal orphaned and unaccompanied chil­ to find practical responses in the destruction of their families and dren. form of prevention and rehabilitative communities and then made to re­ In response to this situation the programs as well as the use of human peat the death and destruction them­ Department of Social Action in the rights in order to promote the welfare selves as slave-soldiers. Children Ministry of Health promotes, among of these children. without schools, without stability, other things, a family tracing and rcMîKnsQd LOCALIZAÇÃO DA FAMUA QA CfWWÇA DESAMPARADA i k c i v o N . A t e r a g r a M

CARTAZ PAHA kOCMMMÇÀO DA ÍAMB.IA DA CRIANÇA DESAMPARADA

rí CARTAZ PARA CARTAZ PARA ! LOCALIZAÇÃO DA FAMÍLIA localização d a f a m íl ia DA CRIANÇA DESAMPARADA d a CHANCA DESAMPARADA

AVAL3 . 4*^' ü ..r Billboard bearing photos of abandoned children

29 M ozam bique M ission family members of over 80% of them. families separatedby the war.Over rn n scedd n rcn the tracing in succeeded and dren onethousand unaccompanied chil­ to close documented teamsaction period,monthrecentsocialathree hlrn tte ainl ee while level national the at children protectingrightsofofways thetive legal the that problems social ous the postindependent FRELIMO FRELIMO postindependent the reunification program for children and the Mozambicanthelegal system. The Mozambique. characterizes of Justice has sought to design crea­ systemmustMinistryconfront.The continuity andthe preventionof dis­ on been had emphasis the where the serve to designed one new a state apparatus andreplacing it with colonialcompletelydismantlingthe government had a clear idea that the in working in experience with yers fot o te iity however, for responsibility difficult a Ministry,present the of efforts respectingthecultural diversity that interests of Unlikethepeople. other require would system legal new Mozambique,havepointed out that ugees e e g fu e R uto, oabqe ogt to sought Mozambique ruption, states African independent newly h wr iety ass numer­ causes directly war The AlbieSachs and Gita Welch, law­ with anewwithtotally one. ooil oiain n rpae it replace and domination colonial of years from inherited apparatus state whole the scrap completely inl oit wt te ed o a for need the with society tional totalabsenceof trained profession­ the country’s independence in1975, ec lgsain a eatd to enacted was legislation gency emer­ meantime,the In Assembly. tradi­ diverse a of customs the cile familylaw, which attempts torecon­ involv­ problemswelfare child gent h feiiiy fte a, traditional law, the of flexibility the on society Mozambican traditional guage groups, and shortages of fi­ of shortages and groups, guage ethnic andculturaldiversity, theex­ als,an extremely high illiteracy rate, would system legal new a building o—0,0 aadnd r or­ phanedchildren. or abandoned non—300,000 Popular the by approval awaiting now is legislation national unitary new A delinquents. juvenile and three years of a placement the child familygroup. dure that insertsa childinto another for the implementation of any proce­ Despite adoption. of level looser a that inverifying difficultiespractical extended family, andbecause of the nancialandhumanresources. istence of approximately twenty lan­ havebeenhampered by almostthe respondato phenome­war-related ing,for example, orphanedchildren ur­ several innovativelytorespond rbt t te ie n ueie delin­ juvenile in rise the to tribute exceedingly an is this but family, child’s a trace to made be efforts attitudes remaina significant barrier no family exists, thelaw provides for no having children for care tohow conditions of extreme poverty con­ povertyextreme of conditions increasing the violence, escaping returnedisnatural tothe family. provinces. If any family is found within difficult given task birthsthat fewor numbers of abandoned children, and nel, and there is limited access person­ to and workers socialthe of lack marriagesregistered,are is athere e, vn f ec hd followed had peace if even Yet, h lgl ytm a bgn to begun has system legal The There is virtually no precedence in Theinflux into the citiesof people all that mandate does law The 30 uny Mzmiu’ pnl law penal Mozambique’s quency. rie eces Aan policyand Again,teachers. trained transportation to reunite families and, beingattempted. underageofsixteen, theand alter­ children of incarceration prohibits possibilitydiverge. of course, there are not nearly enough personnelareandassupply, short would system the found, is family achild’sin family,and theevent no posed to provide the services to trace h Mzmia mnsre. They ministries. Mozambican the and welfare child with concerned nongovern­ and international that dards. lawyers,cialists,policymakersand Nations United the of completion inl hl cr ognztos and organizations care child tional an to Maputo in convened be to native institutional are iiain e, socialworkersbilitation.areYet,in reha­ and education, care, provide exacerbatedbythe war. the address to attempts of failure the of aware be must protection, importantis Mozambique it ination stan­ international Convention’s ine domestic legislation in light of the reexam­ to Justice CourtSupreme meet weekly under the guidance of a Conventionthis fall.Child care spe­ the of anticipation in Child the of olbrto wt te rjc on Project the with collaboration The Mozambican children.of state andEducation, and individualmem­ multifacetedchildproblemswelfare ingof thereasons for the success or by set already goals and priorities mentorganizations, andaiddonors NationalCommissionRightson the formedalreadyMozambiquehasa aiddonors. interna­ and regional of audience Ministriesatconferenceaby these ChildrenandWarbepresented will in produced being is which report, report on thelegal and psychosocial Child,have the undertaken of to produce Rights a the on Commission National Mozambican the of bers musthave alsoa clear understand­ h Cide’ Tiua i sup­ is Tribunal Children’s The The Ministries of Health, MinistriesJustice,of The In spite of the very real limitations, n eln wt te urn situ­ current the with dealing In The Power of from the traditional music of each tries to nurture political solidarity. people involved, unity is emerging.” “African music in America developed Music in Mozambique In this way music has helped solidify over two or three centuries to be­ —Lynette Peck political aims and has provided a come, for instance, black jazz or National unity is not easy to discourse for revolution, and the spirituals; these forms are coming achieve in a country like Mozam­ power of community ties is slowly back again to Africa,” Carvalho main­ bique, where hundreds of diverse being superceded. It is this trend tained. “They are symbols of op­ peoples come together under a single which the government is eager to pressed black Africans who achieved political umbrella. Culture defines sustain. liberation. It’s a reinterpretation of community; mere political bounda­ In addition, Carvalho underscored their own traditional music through ries are not likely to override commu­ the ongoing influence of the libera­ an American experience.” nal bonds. But when in 1895 Mozam­ tion movement in South Africa, which A persistent question is how ex­ bique was arbitrarily carved out of predates by several generations the actly FRELIMO will implement its southeastern Africa, no one thought struggle in Mozambique. “Through­ policy of music promotion. For many about the difficult task of building a out this century thousands of Mozam­ people music’s function is primarily viable nation in the face of commu­ bicans have emigrated every year to aesthetic. It is hard to picture its nal segregation. It was not neces­ the South African mines. Most of capacity as a practical and effective sary: colonial rule disguised the is­ them have come back again to the political tool. Indeed, this is a knot sue. Fourteen years after independ­ southern zone of Mozambique, bring­ which FRELIMO has yet to undo ence, however, cultural fragmenta­ ing with them new kinds of liberation entirely. Governments can support tion continues to belie the unity which music in addition to a heightened particular performance groups, just defines “nation.” awareness of the South African situ­ as European countries support their Today the FRELIMO government ation.” The power of music is laid national orchestras. But in Mozam­ is pursuing a new tack in the hope of bare in this dynamic; politics and bique traditional musical forms are bridging cultural segregation: the music are closely linked. numerous and to choose between promotion of national music. Joâo Carvalho also drew a connection them brings political consequences Soeiro de Carvalho, a Portuguese between the music of Mozambique’s of its own. Financial assistance graduate student in ethnomusicol- liberation struggle and that of the means broader outreach; however, ogy at Columbia University, spoke African experience in America. The since not all representative perform­ with me recently about music in musical forms which went to Amer­ ance groups can receive support, Mozambique and its primary role in ica through slavery have returned to the political effect will be selective. the struggle for national unity. Mozambique and other African coun­ Only these groups will become na- Music has long been recognized as a highly effective conductor of social and political processes. Cul­ tures throughout history have used n o i s s i M e u q i b m a z o M music to bind together their mem­ bers and maintain the fabric of in­ digenous traditions. “Music is a tool, a tool to work out social relations and political groupings,” said Carvalho. “It can express a particular ideology, often not explicitly but through sym­ bols that are specific to each lan­ guage or culture.” In modern times music has been a rallying call to national identity and pride, and without doubt Mozam­ bique has begun to feel its power in this regard. Carvalho emphasized that despite the lack of a common cultural root in Mozambique, the music which emerged from the lib­ eration struggle has introduced a foundation of cultural unity. “What’s happening is that through the music of the liberation struggle, which came

31 M ichael T eague fn e e ofeghte h-e ur Potgus ac tcue n ambi sa d Islan e u iq b m za o M on itecture arch uese ortug P ry tu -cen th teen h eig f o le p m a ex fine A oenetb a fiscoc is choiceits of way bygovernment that’s different. Then you say, This is adifferent impact.”symbolic good music and it’s our music.It has you if But music. fine That’s say, hearyouperformance a group, you tional symbols, said Carvalho: “If you hearnational a performance group, Maputoinareanother or place and Carvalho also pointed out that the oad utrl nerto i an is integration cultural vehicle toward a as music on emphasis is hwvr te government’s the however, ties, trulyaspawn attempttoan quickly cated, and in a country as volatile as politicallyassociated with musicthe nationalidentity. Mozambique nothing will defeat more indi­ is preferencepolitical A itself. Despite these logistical uncertain­ 32 h ot s etil el insidethewell certainly is foot the door. African traits. Obstacles abound, but no nto roe i is uniquely its in rooted nation a into Mozambique build to is indicated, Carvalho as challenge, The sort. The political. than other ways in is looking beyondits colonial origins encouragingsignMozambiquethat otgee et eid nt o a of unity behind left Portuguese On June 12, Camões Day, munici­ palities throughout Portugal will The National launch celebrations commemorat­ Commission on the ing the nation’s historical naviga­ Commemoration of tions and overseas discoveries. The celebrations officially began in 1988 the Portuguese and will end in the year 2000, which Discoveries will mark the quincentennial of the Vasco Graça Moura, who gave arrival of the Portuguese in Brazil. the first Camões Center Annual Between these two dates numerous Lecture on May 3, 1989, is Chief events are planned to correspond Executive Officer of the National with the maritime discoveries that Commission for the Commemora­ were made as the Portuguese navi­ tion of the Portuguese Discoveries, gators sought to open up connec­ a post to which he was nominated in tions between Europe and the world 1988. He has also since 1979 been at large. Administrator of the Portuguese The commemorative project was National Press, where he is respon­ initially aimed at celebrating Bar­ sible for editorial policy, and is Portu­ tolomeu Diaz’s voyage to the Cape guese Commissioner for the Seville of Good Hope. A commission was Vasco Graça Moura Universal Exposition of 1992. formed to organize the program, but Born in Oporto in 1942, Dr. Graça international pressures directed at would not make sense for them if the Moura took his law degree at the South Africa made organizers de­ former explorers or conquerors were University of Lisbon. His many pro­ cide to give the project a broader trying to impose on them some kind fessional positions include member­ perspective, emphasizing not only of program,” he said. ship on the Board of Directors of the the importance of the discoveries of Celebrations will also take place in Bar Association of Oporto, Director Diaz but of all the major Portuguese other countries such as the United of Portuguese Radio and Television, navigators. States, France, and England. In 1990 Secretary of State for Social Secu­ The broader mandate was also and 1991 the New York Public Li­ rity, President of the Portuguese PEN designed to show the cultural links brary and the National Gallery in Club, and Representative of the that were consequently established Washington are scheduled to hold Portuguese Government to the between countries. “The Portuguese major exhibitions on the Portuguese Council of Europe’s North-South discoveries marked the first time discoveries. Commission. He is the author of western man had a natural image of The Commission is made up of a many works of poetry, and for his the extension of the world, its geog­ staff of about thirty permanent translation of Shakepeare’s sonnets raphy and diverse cultures, so that members, but as new events are he received the Calouste Gulben- afterwards there were no monsters suggested a temporary task force kian Prize of the Portuguese Acad­ in the human race, but instead unity comprised mainly of academics is emy of Science. and a global idea of mankind,” said established to organize the program. Dr. Vasco Graça Moura, National Financing for the celebrations will Commissioner of the Discoveries come out of the national budget, Program, during a recent visit to the private sponsorship, and the sale of Camões Center. special coins for collectors. Bilateral commissions will be es­ In addition to academic research, tablished in several countries. Ac­ the celebrations will also include cording to Dr. Moura, the former events aimed at attracting a popular Portuguese colonies are very inter­ audience such as book exhibitions, ested in participating in the program musical and theatrical programs, and which will not only generate histori­ sports competitions. cal research, but will also help to “There can be no celebration if preserve monuments and sites in you forget the common man. We these countries. Dr. Moura pointed want people to feel that celebrating out that the Commission does not the Discoveries is not specialized, want to thrust the program on other but includes everyone,” emphasized countries, but instead negotiate the Dr. Moura. creation of bilateral commissions. “It

33 ized by nautical motifs such as an­ to document its architecture. In 1981 chors, chains, and seaweed, and the he received a grant from the Graham Upcoming Events ornamentation was superimposed on Foundation to support his studies. The Meadows typically Gothic structures. “Portugal is a unique country with a Museum presents In the eighteenth century under unique culture,” said Brummel, “I was “Churches of Portugal” the rule of King John V, the discovery elated by this architectural style that of gold and diamonds ushered in a reflects Christian, Moorish, and In­ Southern Methodist Univ. new era of wealth for Portugal. With dian flavor.” Dallas, Texas 75275 the availability of Brazilian gold, the Brummel will give a free public June 8-July 22, 1989 interiors of churches were lavishly lecture at 12:00 p.m. on Friday, June The exhibition of photographs decorated with Talha Dourada, a 9 in The Meadows Museum. For entitled “Churches of Portugal” by gilded carving combined with poly- more information call (214) 692-2614. Chester Brummel documents the chromed tiles. From this concept was Friday, November 10, 1989, the captivating history of church archi­ born the “Golden Church,” a style Camões Center will host a sympo- tecture in Portugal from the Visi- which became immensely popular in sium on the “Portuguese gothic period through the eighteenth both Portugal and Brazil during this Constitution.” The symposium will century. Compared to the famous age of prosperity. take place in the Kellogg Confer­ churches in other European coun­ By the nineteenth century a chain ence Center, 15th floor, International tries, many of those in Portugal are of historical events put an end to the Affairs Building, Columbia Univer­ relatively unknown and Brummel’s age of great religious building in sity, 420 West 118th Street, New detailed photographs provide the first Portugal. The Napoleonic invasions York City. For more information in-depth study of Portugal’s rich forced the flight of the royal family to please contact the Camões Center, architectural heritage. Brazil. When they returned to Portu­ (212) 854-4672. On two separate occasions in the gal in 1821, they were stripped of June 7-9,1990, the Camões Center sixteenth and eighteenth centuries, their autocratic power and no longer will host a special symposium on Portuguese architecture achieved had access to the royal treasury in “Portugal and the Making of the great distinction. During the early order to support the costly architec­ Modern World.” The symposium sixteenth century, with the discovery tural programs. will take place in the Kellogg Confer­ of Brazil and the sea route to India, Chester Brummel became inter­ ence Center, 15th floor, International Portugal gained control of the spice ested in the architecture of Portugal Affairs Building, Columbia Univer­ trade. It was during the reign of King when he first visited the country in sity, 420 West 118th Street, New Manuel that “Manueline,” a unique 1966. Trained both as an art histo­ York City. For more information style of architectural ornamentation rian and a photographer, Brummel please contact the Camões Center, emerged. The style was character­ has been back to Portugal ten times (212) 854-4672.

Macao in the eighteenth century — OU-MUN-KEt-LEOK

34 Charles R. Boxer, Camões Michael Pearson, University Professor Emeritus, University of New South Wales, is the Notes on of London, is the author of The author of Merchants and Rul­ Contributors to Portuguese Seaborne Empire ers in Gujerat: The Response 1415-1825(1969), Portuguese to the Portuguese in the 16th this Issue Society in the Tropics: The Mu­ Century (1976); Coastal West­ John Correia-Afonso, born in nicipal Councils of Goa, Macao, ern India (1981); The Portu­ 1924 in Goa, had a very distin­ Bahia and Luanda, 1510-1800 guese in India: Cambridge guished career as a student at (1965), Race Relations in the History of India, vol. 1, part 1 St. Xavier’s College and the Portuguese Colonial Empire (1987). University of Bombay, graduat­ (1963), and many other works Lynette Peck is an assistant at ing in 1943 with first class on the Portuguese in Asia, Af­ the Camões Center and a honors in economics, and ob­ rica, and South America. graduate student of political taining his Ph.D. in history in Ilene Cohn is a lawyer and Re­ science at Columbia Univer­ 1953. He entered the Society search Director of the Project sity. of Jesus in 1946, and studied in on Children and War, a col­ Michael Teague, American- , Spain, and the United laborative project between Portuguese Society, New York, States. In 1967 he was ap­ Columbia University and Duke is the author of In the Wake of pointed Secretary-General of University. the Portuguese Navigators, and the in Rome, Ainslie Embree, Director, has lectured extensively on the and later Assistant (for India) to Southern Asia Institute, Colum­ architectural heritage of the Por­ the Superior-General. He re­ bia University, coauthored with tuguese in Africa, Brazil, India, turned to India in 1975 and is S. M. Ikram Muslim Civilization and the Far East. The Camões now Director of the Heras Insti­ in India, and is the author of Center is grateful to Mr Teague tute of Indian History and Cul­ Charles Grant and British Rule for permission to reproduce ture, Bombay. Father John is in India, and India’s Search for photographs from his book in the author of Jesuit Letters and National Identity. He is the edi­ this issue. Indian History (2nd edition, tor of The Hindu Tradition, and Dawit Toga is an assistant at 1969), The Soul of Modern India Pakistan’s Western Border­ the Camões Center and a (1960), Letters from the Mughal lands. graduate student of political Court (1980), and /ndo-Portu­ João Carlos Gomez, who science at Columbia Univer­ guese History: Sources and participated in the Symposium sity. Problems (1981). The lecture on Mughal India and the Portu­ on which his article is based George Winius, Reijksuniver- guese, is a broadcast journal­ was part of the Portugal-Dimen­ siteitte Leiden, the Netherlands, ist from Guinea-Bissau. sions Series, made possible coauthored with the late Bailey with funds from the Calouste W. Diffie Foundations of the Gulbenkian Foundation. 1415-1580 (1977) and The Fatal History of Portuguese Ceylon: Transition to Dutch Rule (1971).

Goods were brought from China or even India and transported from the n a u in small barges. From Japanese Nambam Screen, 1593-1600. 35 CAMÕES CENTER QUARTERLY

1 The Camões Center Quarterly is published by the Camões Center. The Camões Center for the Portuguese-Speaking World is based at the Research Institute on International Change, Columbia University, 420 West 118th Street, New York, New York 10027, and is directed by Professor Kenneth Maxwell. For further information contact Lynette Peck, (212) 854-4672/4638.

© 1989 Cam ões Center: All Rights Reserved.