Cn the Veneration ofthe Four Buddhist in

S h e n g K a i

Questions to be Noised

AMES ROBSON WRITES, ،،When made its way into China from JIndia, it did not bring along a systematically organized set of Buddhist . Buddhist sacred geography in was primarily keyed to sites associated with the life story of toe Buddha or the distribution of his relics, as well as some sites connected with particular .’i In China, however, Buddhist sacred sites came into being through toe long- to!™ accretion of Buddhist beliefs and traditions. They took shape in a variety ofways, such as travels in pursuit of religious instruction, toe build- ing of monasteries, and going on . Travelling in search of instruction from masters was a traditional means of learning for followers of Buddhism. In this way, some famous mountains and large monasteries gradually established themselves as centers for devo- tees in quest of learning. The “five mountains and ten monasteries”(wushan ofthe , a general term for Chan monasteries (اﺀ +ﻟالﺋﺚ shisha in toe region, was based upon that Buddhist system; hence, it was distinctly different from toe “Sacred Buddhist Mountains” (fojiao mingshan which is essentially faith-based.2 During toe Ming and Qtog رﻟالﺑﺠﺔ#

1 Robson 2009, p. 52. but for ,ﻟﻠﻤﺎ This paper uses “saered Buddhist ” to refer to fojiao mingshan 2 eonvenienee it makes an exeeption by using the term “marehmount veneration” to indieate

The Eastern Buddhist 44/2: 121-143 ©2013 The Eastern Buddhist Soeiety 122 THE EASTERN B^D H IST 44, 2

periods, as Chan monasteries declined, clerics and laypeople gradually used ap t’, and؛Putuo , ٠ ٠؛ traditional famous mountains like WutaiI n , F ’mc as major destinations for visits and pilgrimages. Due to this, the ﺀابJiuhua social influence of sacred mountains expanded and finally formed the basic .framework for the concept of the Four Sa،:red Buddhist Mountains Recent scholarship has mainly focused on case studies of Putuo Island and ,3 but has paid little attention to the reasons for the for- mation of the Four Sacred Mountains concept and to the exact time period during which it took shape. In fact, although each of the Four Sacred Moun- tains witnessed a flourishing of faith at different times, the joint appel- lation, the “Four Sacred Mountains,” appeared only when rose in status. Historically, regarding the formation of the sacred Buddhist mountains, and Chinese society have had differing opin- ions that have changed and developed over time. In spite of these varying have ﺀع and ﻟﻠﻤﺎﺀرunderstandings, famous mountains like Lushan never been included among the ranks of sacred Buddhist mountains. This suggests that the concept of a sacred Buddhist mountain must have some special connotation.$0 far, scholarship has revealed very little about what the veneration of “Buddhist mountains as sacred sites’" implies.4 Clarifying this will thus help us to understand the rationale behind the Sinicization of Buddhist belief and the historical causes for its formation.

The Time Frame in Which the Four Sacred Buddhist Mountains Concept Appeared Historically, the joint appellation “Four Sacred Buddhist Mountains” for Mount Wutai, E’mei, Putuo, and Jiuhua evolved over time. Many famous mountain monasteries were built by Buddhist monks, and were often centers for Chinese Buddhism. In spite of this, the Sacred Mountain concept has

the belief that has been formed centering on these sacred Buddhist mountains. Marchmount, originally, is a translation of foe Chinese term yue Ä and refers to what has become established in China as the Five Marchmounts, wuyue 3lÍL Edward Schafer was probably foe one who came up with the translation, and James Robson has a detailed discussion on it in his Power ofPlace. My borrowing of this term is justifiable given that there were Buddhist complexes on some ofthe yue, specifically M and #T. 3 For studies on Mount Futuo, see Ishino 2010, pp. 143-59. For studies on Mount Wutai, .Choe2005,pp. 15-29 ؛Choe2003,pp. 192-94 ؛seeCui 2000 4 Sheng 2011, pp. 80-82. Building on this article, foe present study further explores foe formation of marchmount veneration. ENE BAT I ON 123 ٧ SHENG: BUDDHIST MOUNTAIN

the essay, “Gu Mengyue hi dashi Xiangtang ١١؛ ,varied with time. For example Commemorative) ”؛Tangxingsi Yangong he Stele Engraving for the Monk Yan[zhi] of the [Southern] Feak Vinaya Tradition, [Resident of] the Tangxing Monastery at Cily), Eiu Yuxi S'IMMv (772-842) made a survey ofthe Buddhism ofhis time: Within the Nine Divisions (i.e., China), Buddhism varies aceord- ing to loealily. [People] in central China are preoccupied with [personal] reputation and interest. Sinee nothing is more effee- tive than marvelous enlightenment in breaking [the illusion٠٩ reputation, those who practiee meditative stillness admire Mount Songshan. Northern folk are eager to exert martial force. Nothing is better than the myriad physical manifestations of the Buddha for deterring people from the use of martial force, so those who pursue the way of holiness venerate Mount Qingliang. People of the South are imprudent and frivolous. Nothing eounteraets sueh behavior better than the cultivation of a dignified manner, so peo- pie practieing the Vinaya-pitaka admire Mount Hengsham These three famous mountains constitute the sublime realm.5 pointed out that among the renowned Chinese Buddhist mountains ofhis time, Mount Songshan was the eenter for , Wutai was the center for mysterious inspiration, while Hengshan was the center for those who practiced the precepts and eultivated a dignified manner. According to the research of Daoyu i l s , a Taiwanese scholar. Mount Wutai is kno^n as the “Qingbang" mountain because it has a year- round aecumulation of snow and the weather there is never hot. This char- acteristic matches the account01 ' Mount Qingliang given in thePusazhuchu wherein ,® ه . pin chapter of the jing Mafiju^l takes up residence on this mountain, thereby generating divine inspiration and mass fervor. As early as the fifth century, the legend that Mañjusri Bodhisattva was manifest at Mount Wutai was already in circu- lation. As for Mount E’mei, it was merely a famous mountain for x Dynasties (220-589). It was reported that while out harvesting؛$ during the encountered the bodhisattva أا؛ا medicinal herbs, old Mr. Pu

رال^ﻣﺤﻬﺠﻤﺢﺀةةﺀ ,«®ﺀﺀ ,₪ ا'1>׳ابﺀف?ﺀ1ق

,vol. 3 ,اا0 ه .رﺀ#اﺀ § fascicle 610 of Quart Tangwen 1990 #,ﺑﺞ. آ־ﺀ ,اااﻫﺒﺞ ﻟال©ﺀ( .ل3 حpp. 273 124 THE EASTERN BUDDHIST 44, 2 there, but this legend laeks the confirmation of textual evidence.^ During the mid-Tang era (618-90?), Chengguan its (738-839) made a , first going to Wutai and then to E’mei, hoping to encounter Samantabhadra. When annotating the Huayanjing, he praised Mañju^l and Samantabhadra as two of the three saints of Huayan, which led to Mount E’mei being .(־known as the “Silver Realm” during the Five Dynasties period (90?960 Eor , it was during the early that accounts of Ä (i.e., Avalokitesvara) at Mount ٢: the efficacious response of i.e., Potalaka) was introduced into China. With the) ﺀﺟﻬﺰ-قﺀأﺑﻢButanluojia by the Japanese monk Hui’e Ä ﻣﺢ؛اأإلﺀconstruction of the Guanyin chapel the statue of Guanyin that was unwilling to leave آﻟﺔ (M (Jp. ; fl. 863' the legend that Guanyin had ,(׳and be ferried easfivard to its former country) taken up residence on Mount Putuo started. During the Song dynasty(960- 12?9), people on ships imperiled in the nearby seas prayed to be rescued by the Putuo Guanyin; during the Southern Song(112?-12?9), the mountain’s reputation was established due to the reappearance of Guanyin’s inspiring, -cave and the Chan Buddhist cultiva ﻫﺄو׳اefficacious responses at Chaoyin tion of Chan Master Zhenxie QingliaoÄiWfT (1088-1151) and others. During foe (12?1-1368), stories about Guanyin’s instant assistance on Mount Putuo grew more diverse, and the mountain repeatedly received imperially-bestowed titles and money. Due to a combination of Putuo’s Chan tradition and Guanyin’s efficacious responses. Mount Putuo evolved into a sacred site for Guanyin. The story of Mount Jiuhua began .Ch) ﺀأا؛ﻇﻮهwith foe cultivation practice of foe Sillan master ^im Chijang Jin Dizang; ?05-803) on that peak. Because of a paucity of capable monks to continue his tradition, as well as a lack of incidents demonstrating the .Skt) صinspirational, efficacious responses of foe bodhisattva Dizang itigarbha), this tradition came to be overshadowed by a group of literati؟K during foe (:اﺑﻤﻮ5ﺀواب know as foe “Jiuhua Poetry Society”(jiuhua shishe Song and Yuan periods; hence, foe mountain was foe last one to be listed as a sacred peak.7 So, when did the joint appellation “foe Four Great Sacred Peaks” actually By foe Mingdynasty (1368-1644), foe ؟.appear? That is a difficult question

,n.d.]). T no. 2035] ٠; from fascicle 43 of Fozu tongji by Zhipan) إﻣﺢ11ةق ؤ ,وص 49: 395b. 7 Daoyu 2008, pp. 58-106. 8 In the article referenced above, Daoyu cited the Baizhang qinggui zhengyiji .Γ¿ as evidence and claimed that the “Four Sacred Mountains” appeared only after 18?8؛ϋ SHENG: BU ^H IST MOUNTAIN ¥ENEEATION 125 title “Three Great Sacred Peaks” had appeared. In Wanli 17 (1589), in ,(Preface to the Mount Butuo Gazetteer) أﻣﺔرﺛﺂ؛اي”his “Butuoshan zhi xu :wrote ( ه (Tu Long®1605-1543 Of the three major [Buddhist] sites in China, [Mount] E’mei in the west is the seat of Samantabhadra, Wutai in the north is the seat of Mafijuárf, while Butuo in the East Sea is the seat ofGuanshiyin n t t . Since the north and west are not far from the Buddhist coun- try [i.e., India], they have enjoyed close, easy contact and have been gradually influenced by the Way of the Dharma. The East Sea is a deeply isolated location. This remote wasteland is far removed from contact with Buddhism; hence, people there have been submerged [in the sea of samsara] for a long time and are tainted by the five kinds of impurity. Through the Buddha’s deep compassion, Guanshiyin has bestowed cultivation and salvation on Butuo [Island] and [in her manifestation as the rain-bestowing Dragon King] Sagara^garäja, is an efficacious and helpfifl guide. Deep, steep, and magnificent, both E’mei and Wutai are the most gorgeous holy sites in China, while Butuo, in a remote location in ؟.the vast sea, is especially extraordinary Unambiguously, this preface establishes Mount Putuo as Guanshiyin’s sacred seat, E’mei as Samantabhadra’s, and Wutai as M añju^l’s. n.d.-1607), the Minister of) ٠ ٠ ^ In Wanli 33 (1605), Li Kites, also mentioned the “three great sacred peaks” in his essay, “E’mei Dafosi luocheng song bin xu” (Extolling and Intro- ducing the Construction of the Giant Buddha Temple on [Mount] E’mei), saying, “I have heard that there are three Buddhist sites in China: namely, E’mei, Wutai, and Putuo. They stand firmly as the three legs of a cauldron within the universe, serving as guides for humans and gods.”10 But a piece by Chaoyong S7k (n.d.-after 1693) records that after Chan Master Tianyin left home at ffie age oflwenly-four in Wanli (ﺀا1اﺀ1؛1آﺀت (Yuanxiu 1635- 1575 27 (1599) to become a monk, a fellow monk told him, “1 have heard that bodhisattvas manifest themselves on ffie ‘Four Great Sacred Peaks’; their

, ص؛ﺀق It 1 ,ﺀﻫالإ 1اﺑﺠﺎاﺀ,* ﻫﻦ*ق , S B .S T و ,®ﺀص ج5ﻣﻤﺤﻢﺀﺀأا ,Μ mm», &ΜΆΜ0 mmWum ﻣﺎ'ا'ا׳ﺻﻤﻪ, ﺀص'سﺀ ,Μ» ﻫالل־ﺑﻤﺄق , m m m m .from fascicle 6). Wang 1993, pp. 595-96) ﺳﺄا .Wang 1993,P ﻣﺂأ1 ه 0 ,هﺀ 0 ١٠ 126 THE EASTERN BUDDHIST 44, 2

supernatural power Is vast.”]1 Judging from this, it can he seen that the four great sacred peaks appeared gradually ٠٢ designation of either three during the Wanli period (1573-1620). ي n.(1.-1610) in the Buxu gaoseng zhuan) ﺀﺀ The biography ofYetai Ä Ä iiii records his experiences of divine responses during a pilgrimage to Wutai, E’mei, Putuo, and Jiuhua. Not only does it clearly mention that Great Sacred Peaks,” ’ but it also ٠٧٢ ? the master has recently visited ‘the“ ends with the statement, “Yetai visited the ‘Pour Sacred Mountains’ and left his footprints everywhere in the imperium.”12 TheBuxu gaoseng zhuan was compiled by Minghe (1588-1640) who, right before his death in Chongzheng nos 13 (1640), asked his disciple Daokai Zhijong ilM ê of ( ه? ل1ا il (1601-1652) to continue the project. It was in Shunzhi11647) 4 the that Daokai did the final editing of the book, and declared less completed, but the commentary attached to that the project was more٠٢ Yetai’s biography was written by Minghe himself. ؛ft1- ؛؛In fascicle seventeen of Yunxi Liangting [Jingjting chanshi yulu '771 The Recorded Sayings of Liangting [Jingjting of the) [ ﺀ] Ψ eliciting support for the (ت־ارد Yunxi Monastery), there is a petition essay(s/ill Petition to Erect) أأوﺑﺠﺠﻬﺎا1 م”building of a entitled “Yunxiujianta shu of ( أﺀﺀأ (a in the Misty Peaks). Here, the monk Jingting 1684- 1615 the monastety Yunxisi relates: “at the top of it are the ‘Pour Sacred Mountains’ dedicated to the worship of the four bodhisattvas.”' 2 Jingting Ji’en ٧ ^was a native of Renhe tf p , Huangzhou. His secular name was and his , ﺀص and Shichen 1 أﺑﻤﻤﺢ his courtesy names were Liangting , اﺗﺄه؛# -In Shunzhi 18 (1661) when he was forty . وه literary name was Yiting Master Sanyi ١١؛١١٦ 'seven years old, he received the full precepts ftom 6 and served as the abbot of the temple Yunxi ( آووﻗﻖ £ (Mingyu 1665- 1599 This proposal to erect a pagoda must have been written .## صﺀ־ Jingshe while he was in charge of this monastery. Here, Yunxi expressly mentions the Pour Sacred Mountains. canon, the Tiantong Hongjue [Daojmin chanshi ﺀﺀ In the Jiaxing Collected Essays ofthe Northern Travel) ג1נ ] beiyouji

by ﻣﻬﺄة׳ات from fascicle 64 of Wudeng chuanshu) غﺀﺀن, #ﺟﺂاإإلج, #ﻟالةﺛﺂي3ااﺀﻗﺂ " م71 . ﻛﺎn (cited as X hereafter), n o؛؛؛B 7ftfiü،í ﺗﻲﺀﺀChaoyong). Shinsan dainippon zoku zökyö 1 82: 293b. 12 Minghe, fascicle 10 of Buxu gaoseng zhuan, X no. 1524, 77: 209a-b. 13 From fascicle 17 of Yunxi Liangting Ting chanshi yulu by Yunxi Jingting. Ming ban -cited as JXZ hereafter; the number for texts in the con) ة!ﻣﺄﺑﺈﺀﻫﺄأروو jiaxing da zangjing .begins with B), no. B294, 33: 797a [ﺀﺀإﺀﺀﻣﺤﺄل؛tinued JXZ [Xujiaxingzang 1 SHENG: BUDDHIST MDUNTAIN VENERATION 127

ue؛of Chan Master Hon^'ue [Dao]min of Tiantong [temple]) by Bong Daomin ,jLftMS (1594-1674) records that “Chan Master Xingxu ÍT1É [n.d.] of Haiyu MA drew [his own] blood to copy the Lotns Sutra for the Four ׳¡!¡!!{ Sacred Mountains.”14 In Zizhulin Zhuanyu Heng heshang The Recorded Sayings of Monk Zhuanyu [Guan]heng of the) ﻣﻘﺆﻟﻪ؛ﻫﺄأﺀ ( ص(ft !!?1646-1579؛Purple Bamboo Forest Temple), Zhuanyu Guanheng mentions “visiting the four great sacred peaks and travelling all over the four In fascicle five ofPinji [Zhijxiang chanshiyulu M وا” .uarters of the world ؟ The Recorded Sayings of Pinji [Zhijxiang), “Shi Quezhi) ﻣﻪﺀأأ؛؛إوأآاي ]و] a [Showing Bow the Chan Monk [Quan) ] ﺳﺎﺀث]ه ”Quan]sui chanren] sui Followed his Master’s Teachings), Pinji Zhixiangin § # (1637-1709) mentions the “four bodhisattvas” —Mafijusrl, Samantabhadra, Guanshiyin, and Dizang16—as corresponding to foe “Four Sacred Mountains.” In foe Konggu Daocheng chanshi yulu (Recorded Sayings of after- أﻗﻠﻲ؛وChan Master Konggu Daocheng), Konggu Daocheng1616) 1 وأﺀ wrote of the Four Sacred Mountains in Kangxi17.(1680) 19 (1683 axing canon was begun؛!. Given that foe carving of w oodblocks for foe during the Wanli period and mostly concluded during the Kangxi period (1662-1722), foe term “Four Sacred Mountains” must have been very popular during foe Kangxi period. For example, in Kangxi26 (1687), Cao n.d.), then foe Surveillance Commissioner{ancha shi) ﺀ(أﻣﺤﻢ Suzhi claimed, “The ‘three Es’ [i.e.. Mount E’mei] are higher than foe Five Peaks. It is foe most beautifiil peak in foe Nine Divisions [i.e., China], foe foremost mountain in China. It is not included among the Five Peaks, but is instead In Kangxi 37 (1698), in ؟؛”.listed as one of the Four Great Sacred Peaks Mount Putrro of the Southern Seas) ه׳ الظ' أا־أأﻣﺤﺂأأ foe Nanhai Putuoshan zhi :recounts ( ﺀأﺀ (Gazetteer), Qiu 1729—1644 Mafijusn, Samantabhadra, Guanyin, and Ksitigarbha are all bodhi- sattvas who have attained foe realization ofdharma-käya. But due to their eagerness to save sentient beings, they are present every- where. Additionally they want sentient beings to have proper

.jue Daomin, Tiantong Hongjue Min chanshi beiyouji, fasc. 5, JXZ Bl^o, 26: 303a؛؛H©n 14 15 From fasoicle 3 of Zizhulin Zhuanyu Heng heshang yulu by Zhuanyu Guanheng, JXZ B21^ 28:671c. 16 From fascicle 5 of Pinjixiang chanshiyulu by Finjie Zhixiang, JXZ B454, 39: 622c. 17 From fascicle 8 of Konggu Daocheng chanshiyulu by Konggu Daocheng, JXZ B471, 39: 963a. from a) -ﻣﺤﺮ0ةﻧﺤﺂﻳﺴالوألا , Ä lfiΤ Λ 1 1 ﻫال؛®li-l* إ'ﺑﻤﺎ׳اﺑﻢﺀ,* ﺀهﺀ؛،« ا8ق preface to E ’mei shanzhi). Jiang 1980, p. 7. 128 THE EASTERN BUDD^ST 44, 2

places in which to render respect. Therefore, Mañju^l mani- fests his response holies [Skt. nirmäna-käya] at Mount Wutai, Samantabhadra at Mount £ ’nrei, and Guanyin and Ksitigarbha at Mount Putuo and Jiuhua [respectively]. Some people think that earth, water, fire, and wind correspond with the Four Sacred Mountains. The mundane world believes that each peak is respec- tively governed by one of the fundamental elements-earth, water, fire, and wind [Skt. mahä-bhüta]; however, in my opinion, that idea is false and unfounded.19 During foe Kangxi period, not only did the “Four Great Sacred Feaks” appellation appear, but foe four firndamental elements of earth, water, fire, and wind were also utilized to characterize them. Thus, the concept of the Four Great Sacred Peaks must already have reached widespread popularity before this period. Therefore, foe concept of the Four Great Sacred Peaks probably appeared during foe Wanli period and attained a general consensus among Chinese Buddhists and Chinese society by foe Kangxi period. This was due to the 1573-1620), who esteemed foe Buddhist presence on .٢) Wanli emperor Mount Jiuhua, and to the writing and compilation of gazetteers regarding Mount Jiuhua which occurred shortly before or during the Wanli period. These include: -Gazetteer of Mount Jiuhua), six fas) ﻣﻢ1 ااﺀاب Jiuhua shanzhi .1 n.d.) during the Jiajing) ﺀ—ص cicles, compiled by Wang Yihuai period -Gazetteer of Mount Jiuhua), six fas) ﻗﺂ،ﻟالﺀاب Jiuhua shanzhi .2 n.d.) and compiled by) وص cicles, re-edited by Su Wanmin Sun Sui (n.d.), finished in Wanli 7 (1579) Gazetteer of Mount Jiuhua), eight) ه,ﻟالﺀه Jiuhua shanzhi .3 finished in Wanli 21 , ﻫﻲ- ﺑﺞ fascicles, re-edited by Cai Tishcn (1593) The listing of Mount Jiuhua among foe Four Great Sacred Peaks must have occurred during foe Wanli period, during which foe overall faith- based framework for the concept of foe Four Sacred Mountains took its final shape. The formation of the “Four Great Sacred Peaks” was a landmark in foe history of Chinese B1]ridhist belief and foe most representative product of

, وج#ﻫﻦ ﺗﻮ'أ׳ﺀﻫالإ ﺀ±, , ﻏﻬﻈﻤﺤﻬﻦ«ﻣﺺ , m m ٠ ٠,» ﻣﻤﺤﺔتوا اا'اس ﺀص ,ص ص * from)ﻣﺤﻤﺢ1أآآ , ةﺗﻪﺀ 1،ةاﺟألأآ , مﺀآب₪ﻫﻪ ٨, ,k س7؛ل , ﻫﻠالﺑﺠﺂي₪ﺀﻣﺤﻪ ٨, , 7 fascicle 6 of Putuo shanzhi). Wang 1993, p. 558. SHENG: BUDDHIST MOUNTAIN VENERATION 129 the Sinicization ofBuddhism. Their veneration was an expression of popular faith. These places were where devout people, men and women alike, could on pilgrimage to express their religious feelings; thus, they are a vivid ٥ § representation of Buddhist culture.

The Significance ofthe Veneration ofthe Four Great Sacred Peaks The veneration of these four mountains was the result of a long-term accretion of Buddhist belief centered around them and others like them. His- torians studying Buddhist history have explored their geographic and demo- graphic environments, as well as ancient historical sites, and their efforts have shaped a unique genre of “mountain gazetteers,"’ which constitutes a significant component of local Buddhist gazetteers.In compiling a moun- tain gazetteer, writers must address a core question: Why did this particular mountain become a famous Buddhist peak? Thus, the components of these sacred peak gazetteers furnish us with an important foundation for understanding the significance of this sort of mountain veneration. صﺀ compiled by the monk Huixiang , ﺻﻤﺤﺰﻣﺚ'ق The Gu Qingliang zhuan (n.d.) ofthe Lan’gusi during the reign ofthe Tang emperor Gaozong is the first gazetteer to be exclusively focused on Mount ,( ٢( أأ7لﺀا . 649 683- Wutai.21 This two-fascicle book, which is structurally patterned after ii.s (Säkyamuni Local Gazetteer),22 recounts the ﻣﺢ؛أم the Shijia fangzhi evolution of Mount Wutai as a Buddhist sacred peak ftom five angles: (1) “Becoming a Standard Sacred Site” gives reasons why “Qingliang” mountain became renowned as a standard sacred site for manifestations ofMafljusri; (2) “The Territory’s Mystical Beauty” covers the peak’s geography and its favorable topology; (3) “Famous Ancient and Modem Historical Sites” provides a study ofthe peak’s monasteries and famous sites; (4) “Mystical Rapture Experienced by Filgrims” is a collection of miracle tales associated with Mañjuárl. (5) “Minor Miscellaneous Writings” explains the mountain’s flowers, grasses, medical herbs, trees, and so on.23 The preface to this book states:

,us©؛ao (2011, p. 2) summarized the charaeteristies ©۴ Buddhist gazetteers as relig€ 20 eal aee©unts؛st©r؛nal, p©inting out that “Buddhist gazetteers are h©؛historieal, textual, and reg that ree©rd the development of geographical and human environments ofBuddhism. They are ”.a given region ط compendiums of works and materials of Buddhist historical geography -hereafter cited as T), no. 2098, 51: 1092c) ﻗﺼﺮﺀا<ﺑﻤﺄ-س Taishö shinshü daizökyö 21 1100c. 22Tno. 2088, 51: 948a-975a. Fengyu“ ,ظ( سﺀ ”The titles of these five chapters in Chinese are: “Liming biaohua 23 ”Zhiliu zashu“ , ﺀهﺀ ”gantong , ٧٠٧١“ﺗﺲ־ﺑﻤﻪ؛ ”Gujin shengji“ ,هﺀﻣﺢ~ﻟﺐﺀ ”lishu 130 THE EASTERN BUDDHIST 44, 2

This fam©us Daoist mountain dedicated to Mañjusri, the teacher of seven Buddhas, is where practitioners cultivate their original vitality (zhenyuan M7t), while the divine realm of [Mount] Qing- liang is where ten thousand bodhisattvas hide their traces. [The fame of the mountain] has spanned from ancient times to the pres- ent, and has been well recorded in maps and books. Rare flowers and spiritual grasses are fragrant, and quiet stones and cool springs are sparkling and pure. Auspicious air is emitted from its forests, ,dark crags ٠٥,and propitious clouds he across its ridges. At night [Buddha’s] lamps and candles always shine brightly. In the mom- ing, in green caves, the sounds of drums and bells constantly men walk leisurely in valleys, while children play ه1 م .reverberate games amidst misty clouds. Buildings and pavilions are splendid, and temple halls are magnificent. Eminent monks come from afar, and the noble visit it personally, [?eople] lay the foundation for achieving the Way by observing the Buddhist teachings, and make the most sincere vows alter witnessing the magnificent marks of the Buddha. Erom that very day, [they begin] to cultivate special merit, and will realize the wonderful fruits of [enlightenment] in future lifetimes٦٨ According to this preface, geography and environment, large-scale and monasteries, as well as pilgrimages all made significant contributions to Mount Wutai becoming known as the locus where Mañjufrl Bodhisattva manifests his transformation body. Zhang Gong points out that around fee Northern Wei period (386-557), Buddhist circles started viewing Mount Wutai as Mount Qingliang, the sacred site for Mañjuárl, alluding to fee Residing Places of) ا؟ﻫﻬﺠﻤﺢﺀ”Huayan jing's chapter “Pusa zhuchu pin fee Bodhisatfras). And it was during fee Sui-Tang transition that the culture of Mount Wutai as a sacred Buddhist site took shape. It took as its basic contents fee history of local Buddhism, scenic spots, Buddhist monasteries, divine traces, and miracle tales.25

ﺑﻤﻬﺒﺞ:ق , , 24m m & \h ,mmim ; أو־ أآأوﺳﺲ,ص \ m«*»® , ةوﺀأﺳﻤﺢ»ا; ﺀ mmmtëttB, I . ﻗﻢﺀﻣﺤﺄﺀﺀأأﺀابﺀأ m ' m m n m m ,ﺀةﻗﺜﻪ{ أم .from fascicle 1 of Gu Qingliang zhuan, by Huixiang). Tno. 2098, ^1: 1092c) ه م6لZhang 1997, vol. 2, p. 7 25 SHENG: BUDDHIST MOUNTAIN VENERATION 131

n of sacred Buddhist mountains in medieval©؛Cunceming V€nerat China, foe value of theGu Qingliang zhuan lies in the fact that it is the first source to associate Mount Wutai with this sort of veneration, and has since established a new model for works focusing on such sacred ׳؛«mountains. Thereafter, the Song-dynasty Guang Qingliang zhuan If if fi. 1060) and the Xu Qingliang zhuan by Zhang) — ﺟﺄ by Yanyi ص were both modeled after the Gu Qingliang (؟ (SfSQ1121- 1043؛؛ Shangyin zhuan and enhanced Mount Wutai’s significance as a sacred mountain. In particular, the author of theGuang Qingliang zhuan divides his information into categories that are supplemented by chronicles of events. The book comprises twenty-three distinct sections dealing with questions like Ihe him, his merits and virtues, accounts bodhisattva’s location, information٠٥ foe mountain, reasons ٠٥ ofthe bodhisatt/a’s divine efficacy, when he arrived for foe name “Mount Qingliang,” traces of divine actions and divinity, scenic monasteries, as well as descriptions of temple structures and dwellings. The earliest surviving gazetteer of Mount ?utuo is foe Yuan-dynasty Its author divided foe contents ةﺗﻤالإأﻗﺔئ'آص Butuoluojia shan zhuan and three appendices. These are entitled ( آه into four chapters (pin “The Virtues of Guanyin,” “The Geography of foe Island and Temples,” -€ ٠٥ Guanyin’s Auspicious Responses,” and “The History of Building“ struction,” “Appendix,” “Encomium for Guanyin Mahäsattva,” and “Poems ,(During the Ming Wanli period (1573-1620 ال” .by Renowned Worthies ﺋﻤﺤﻤﺎ؛مZhou Yingbin M s lt (n.d.), a disciple of Master Yunqi Zhuhong (1532-1612), feeling that foe mountain had received more attention than the temples, revised foe mountain gazetteer, calling it foeChongxiu Putuo This six-fascicle gazetteer is divided into fourteen ؛.ílísT'Éfo-í28،؛ shanzhi sections: “Imperial Writings,” “Maps and Paintings,” “Landscapes,” “Build- ings and Temples,” “Building Specifications,” “Histories of Buildings,” “Supernatural Events,” “Imperial Gifts,” “Envoys,” “Buddhist Monks,” “Pro- ducts,” “Art and Literature,” “Events,” and “Poetry.”29 In foe Putuoluojia

.ط1353-1140 ل :اك ,ا.210 ﺋﺔت Dongyu fengyu” ihl'-ri-l“ ,. أوو:!/؛؛؛؛ ”In Chinese, the ehapter titles are: “Zlzal gongde 27 Fulu” PflÄ, “Guanyin dashi“ ,ﺀﻗآل؛ﺀأﺀإ ”Xingjian yatt’ge“ ةأآ'أهﺀر ”Yinggan xlangrui“ ,؛y .and “Mingxian shiyong” T1ÍÍSÍI*, respectively ع±ﻏﻢ ”zan 28 Zhou 1980. 29 The Chinese titles of these sections are as follows: “Chenhan” “Tukao” lil# , ,§ا؛و؛أ ”H,“Lingyi” sm, “Banci؟Shanshui” liizk, “Dianyu” ®fo, “Guizhi” MM, “Jianzhi” 'd“ #أ ”and “Shilei ,٠٠ ”Wuchan” m m , “Yiwen” m x “Shilüe“ ,-آ و ”Mingshi” “Shizi“ 132 THE EASTERN BUDDHIST 44, 2

e־!the , ا3 وا in ﺀزﺀوﺀ completed by Wang Xiangyan ﻫﺖ,' ﻣﺢﺀﻫﺎﻳﻬﻎ'؛اه xinzhi ure ttvelve chapters entitled “Guanyin,s Miraculous Responses,” “Scenic Locales,” “Supernatural Events,” “Donors,” “Buddhist Temples,” “Chan Masters,” “Building Construction,” “Rules and Regulations,” “Travellers’ '^”.Refirges,” ،Tine Arts,” “Supplemental^ Materials,” and “?ostscript ,in 1938 ه*.أ foe Jiuhua shanzhi,32 compiled by Desen ٠٢ The format ه،ﻟالﻣﻬﻢ is foe same as that of thePutuoluojia xinzhi. The E ’mei shanzhi of foe Republic of China consists of eight وآ־الﻣﺔ compiled by Xu Zhijing Its contents are as follows: “Illustrated Geography,” “Divine أو.fascicles Activities of BodhisatU/as,” “Scenic Spots [to Be Found] on foe Entire Mountain,” “Outstanding Features of Buddhist Temples and Nunneries,” “Wonderfirl Responses and Supernatural Events,” “Eminent Monks Through foe Ages,” “?atronage of Emperors and Officials,” “Immortals, Hermits, and Travellers’ Refirges,” “Ancient and Modem Fine Arts,” “Animals, Flants, and [Local] Froducts,” and “Supplementary Materials. Through an examination of theQingliang shanzhi, E ’mei shanzhi, Putuo ٠٢ shanzhi, and Jiuhua shanzhi, foe Important elements and slgnifieance ,sacred Buddhist mountains can be deduced. In my opinion ٠٢ veneration one can view foe evolution of this veneration as a historical process that has resulted from foe following six elements: (1) records from classical texts; (2) geography and scenic spots; (3) miracle tales; (4) pilgrimages made by devotees; (5) , temples, and eminent monks; and (6) state support. It is foe clearest indication of the Buddhist faith in China. These six facets are foe sacred mountain gazetteers, which are analyzed ٢ also the core contents٠ in foe following

(1) Records from Classical Texts Records contained in classical texts are foe source texts for holy 1'alth; they ”foe “Four Great Sacred Mountains paved foe way for foe formulation٠٢

.Wang 1980 ل<ئ , n ® ”؛T, “Xingsheng” JFfj, “Tingy׳؛؛The Chinese titles of these ehapters are: “Benji” A 31 ,تﺀأ؛ا، ”Guizhi” iSÆi, “Liuyu“ , ﺀ؛■؛I ”س؛ زﺟﻂ“¥ﺀق؛أ ؟ااا ”Chande“ , اﺀﺀ؛ ”Tanshi” te s ،, “Fansha“ . and “Ba” m ,ﺀظ. ”Yiwen” m x “Zhiyu“ 32 Desen 2006. 33 Xn 2006. nsa?“ ةآو1أﺀه ”The Chinese titles of these fascieles are as follows: “Xingye tushuo 34 St, “Sian shenggai” “Ganying ﺻﻞ1 ظ ”shengji” “Quanshan xingsheng Xianyin liuyu،’ f،il“ ,م!ﺑﻢ.?ا-آ ”lingyi” i ü Ä , “Lidai gaoseng” MfäßjiiS, “Wangchen waihu .أﻣﺢ:ق,ﻗﺄﺀ ”and “Jiangbian zhiyu ,ﻣﺤﺒﻢ ؛ ﻣﻲﺀ”Gujin yiwen” “Dongzhi wuehan“ ,؛*؛؛؛« .lit SHENG: BUDDHIST MOUNTAIN VENERATION 133

concept. Although other famous Chinese mountains fillfill these conditions, uiring the status of holy ؟a lack of textual support prevented their ac peaks among Buddhist circles. For example. Mount Tiantai, Lushan, and ,are all the foci of abundant long-term Buddhist traditions اا.اآم Hengshan but compared with the Four Great Sacred Feaks, they lack the textual evidence of sanctity recorded in sutras. In the Jin translation of the Huayan jing completed by Buddhabhadra ,it is recorded that “in the Northeast ,([فFotuobatuoluoiftw tl![359 130) there is an abode of the bodhisattvas called Qingliang Mountain. In the past, many bodhisattvas resided there. Currently, a bodhisattva called Mañjusn lives there who has ten thousand fellow bodhisattvas, to whom he often preaches the Buddhist Dharma.”^ In the Tang-dynasty Wenshushili translated by Bodhiruci ﺀةمﺀآﺻﻢ؛ ة1 اأأوص fabaozang tuoluoni jing it is recorded, “After I enter nirvana, there י([Putiliuzhi [572?-727) located northeast ofJambhdvipa ,ل' اوﺀغ will be a country called Da Zhen’na (Ch. Shanbu zhou In that country, there is a mountain called Wuding ,II (literally Five Peaks), in which the child form of Mañjusn wanders ﺀ lives, and expounds the Buddhist Dharma to sentient beings.’’36 Based on is located on ﺗﺎا؛ةthese two scriptures, we can see that MañjusrT’s sacred Mount Wuding, also known as Qingliang, in the country of Da Zhen’na. The Jin translation of the Huayan jing records: “In the $outhwest, #ص Guangming ؛there is an abode of bodhisattvas called Mount Shut Ά. Previously, bodhisattvas fre،}uently resided there. Currently, there$% is a bodhisattva named Xianshou ΚΪΓ who has three thousand fellow bodhisatwas, to whom he often preaches the Buddhist Dharma.”37 The Huayan jing translated by Siksänanda (Shicha’nantuo [652-710]) in the Tang dynasty, replaces “Xianshou” with “Xiansheng” K ^ ,38 but the two editions both consider Mount Guangming to be a sacred site for bodhisattvas.

, اﺀنﺀأةس .دس1 (from fascicle 29 of Da fangguangfo huayanjing T no. 278,9: 590a. ﺀ1ﻣﺄالﺀﺗﺞ ,االﻫﻢﺀﺋﺢ * Foshuo Wenshushili fabaozang tuoluonijing ص0ﺀ ) ,HÈ؛l .A, 20: 791c م> ال.رﺀﺳﻢﺀ. 1185 لص. ,iالأوﻇﻮ«»ﺑﺞ .from fascicle 29 o i Da fangguangfo huayanjing). T 9: 590a) < ﺀم 38 In fascicle 45 of Da fangguangfo huayanjing, T no. 279, 10: 241b. 134 THE EASTERN BUDDHIST 44, 2

The frutg translation 01'ffieHuayanjing relates, “To the south, there is a äs, where a bodhisattva called Guanzizai&؛؛mountain called Butanluojia M1fi records, “To the east of ةأﻣﺤﺮﺀﺀ/غ The Da Tangxiyuji وأ”.[ I h / f [resides where Bodhisattva . . . ﺀﻗﻬﺰ־قﺀﺗﺒﻢis Mount Butanluojia ئ[والﺀﻳﺄMount Molaye there is a ,ومﺀآ ”In the chapter entitled “?umen ؛؛^”.Guanzizai wanders description of Guanyin Bodhisattva heeding the sounds of sufferers and coming to their rescue. Although there is actually a Mount Butanluojia in India, Guanshiyin is venerated due to her compassionate vitality and her role as a tutelary god/goddess of seafarers. -itigarbha’s seat largely due to the asso؟Mount Jiuhua became known as K ciation of this bodhisattva with the Sillan monk Jin Dizang/Kim Chijang. This combination does not seem to have happened until the Ming, but mime- ulous stories related to the monk had already appeared on that peak as early as the ninth century.

(2) Geography and Scenic Spots In order to be designated as a sacred mountain, a peak must ftrlfill two geographic conditions: (1) its topographical features must tally with those described in classical texts; (2) it must be sufficiently spacious to accom- modate ffie building of a large number of monasteries, thereby providing a clean and pure site for spiritual cultivation. For example, Chengguan personally investigated Mount Wutai for ten years. Noting ffie severely cold weather on northeast India’s Wutai Moutr- tain, as well as its five peaks, he suggested, “Mount Qingliang is actually Mount Wutai in ¥anmen prefecture of Daizhou; there is a temple named Qingliangsi inim# there. It is called Qingliang because solid ice remains there all year round; even in ffie summertime, it snows there and ffie wea- ther is never hot. Its five barren peaks tower loftily and resemble earthen ؛literally, five terraces).”4) هﺀ terraces, from whence comes ffie namewutai No trees grow on its peaks; seen from afar, they look like earthen terraces, which is ffie source of ffie name “Wutai.” The mountain towers high and is always wrapped in mist and fog. Hidden behind a misty screen, its shape is obscured; it only appears during clear weather when ffie clouds disperse. from fasoicle 68 of Da fangguangfo) , أﻟﺔ&؛؛.Ittsכlh4 \ ﻳﻤﺤﺲه39 huayanjing). T 10: 366c. Tangxiyueji س from fascicle 10 of) . .. الاأإﻗﻬﻘﺼﺼﻠالئ[؟الأﻳﺄ .2087, 51: 932a .٨٠ T .([ ص [by 664- 602 fc؛i ,ﺀه ؛م , M im m ﻫﺠﺜﻤﺒﺂﺑﻤﺄوﺳﻢ41m w ,111, 0 from fascicle 47 of Dafangguangfo) ,صﺀﺀ 0أﻣﺤﻢ ﺀﻏﺖ±ﻗﻪﺀه/'0 huayanjing shu by Chengguan). T no. 1735, 35: 859c. SHENG: BUDDHIST MGUNTAIN VENERATIGN 135

Huixiang, the author of theGu qingdong zhuan, marveled at the similarities in locality and weather between Mount Wutai and Mount Qingliang, which the Huayanjing claims as the abode ofMañjusri. For such a pure realm, the crevices ׳{says, “The mountain’s . . . divine peaks and hoi ؛.׳,,Kuodi zhi Jni'f are not suitable as the dwellings of vulgar, mundane folk. Its residents are all people practicing meditation and dwelling on profound thoughts. [There- fore,] when foe dharma thunder sounds and fragrant smoke converges from foe four directions, foe heart of compassion and enlightenment will natu- rally be spread abroad.”^ It is clear that not only does Mount Wutai possess a mysterious and divine atmosphere, but it is also a good place to cultivate foe Way and practice meditation. Mount E’mei, located in , tallies with foe prescribed because ( ل ا-اﺑﻤالأز characteristics of a “luminous mountain”(guangmingshan ”in foe daytime and “holy lamps (ﻇﺆﺀit has “Buddha light” (foguang 1 (shengdeng MS) at night. When it comes to Mount ?utuo, foe preface to its gazetteer reads: Starting with foe Tang dynasty, when foreign monks came to wit- ness [Guanyin’s] miraculous transformation, the l'anre 01' Butuo- luojia began to spread. [The mountain] stands imposingly in foe eastern Yue region, gleaming from afar amid great waters [i.e., foe East Sea], Stone caves are embedded in cliffs, and foe for- ested ridges there are pure and deep. Followers of the Way reside there, and countless Buddhist monasteries have been constructed there. Those who are not curious about exploring remote regions and travelling by boat are seldom able to reach foe mountain.^ originated due to its island أإﻗﻤﺤﺒﻢ؛اهUndoubtedly, the name Futuoluojia landscape and special geographical features. Mount Jiuhua is also strikingly beautiful; it protrudes through clouds with row upon row of peaks and ridges. ٠٢,Its nine peaks rise like lotus blossoms; hence, it is called Mount Jiuhua “Nine-Blossom Mountain.”

(3) Miracle Tales and (4) Filgrimages of the Faithful With foe introduction of sutras associated with the four bodhisattvas, all kinds of bodhisattva legends were disseminated throughout China.

.from fascicle 1 of Gu Qingliang zhuan). T51: 1093a) ﻫﺚ ج . هر from) ﻇﻘﻘﻘﺄأآ ¥ ﺀه »*ﻣﺔﻫﺄةجﺀﺀ#ق fascicle 1 of Butuoluojia shan zhuan , by Sheng Ximing [fl. 1344]). T 51: 1135b. 136 THE EASTERN BUDDHIST 44, 2

i©us religious experiences obtained on the sacred־؛Meanwhile, the va peaks as reported by monks and adherents were taken as evidence of the bodhisattvas’ presence. Such tales unceasingly aroused religious fervor and encouraged others to make pilgrimages. Therefore, legends of miraculous responses were a driving force for the growth of veneration of these sites. Both Mañjuári’s transformation body at Mount Wutai and that of at ( ص]%[ ﻟﻮ׳ا Guanyin in the Cave of Tidal Sounds 1chao[fan]yin ( dong Mount Putuo are very charismatic, and have thus attracted countless pious believers to make pilgrimages to these places. During the Tang dynasty, when the Japanese monk Ennin l i t (793-864) made a pilgrimage to Mount Wutai, he described his feelings in this way: In May, the nights are extremely cold on Mount Qingliang [Wutai], and people usually wear padded jackets. Trees on the ridges and in the valleys stand upright and tall—not a single one is crooked. After entering the realm of the Great Sage [i.e., Mañjusri], [1] dare not despise even the basest of people. When encountering -other animals, [I] also suspect them to be transforma ٠٢ donkeys tion bodies of Mañjusri. Whatever 1 see, 1 always suspect them of being Mañjuári’s transformation bodies. In the realm of the holy spirits, the scenery naturally inspires awe in the hearts of people.44 -E.nnin's veneration of “the transformation body o،' Mañjuárl” is represent ative of the psychological state of all pilgrims to Mount Wutai. ,(says that in Qiandc 4 (966 ة£ﺳﺂﻣﺢ Tor example, the Fozu tongji officials] frequently reported sightings of Samantabhadra] ا־1'ا׳ﺀﻣﺢ Jiazhou“ In Taiping Xingguo 7 (982), Wang Gun .ﻫﺂﻳﺔ”4ق at Baishuisi ,n.d.), a supervisory official from Jiazhou, submitted a memorial) جﺀ stating: “When [1] recently went to Mount E’mei to supervise the building of Baishui Temple, [1] saw that the brick roofs had all become golden, tall golden body ( ي and within this glow appeared the six yard (zhang of Samantabhadra. At noon on the following day, [1] saw two arhats riding on purple clouds and walking in the sky.”46 These auspicious signs

AXS , * « ¿ ص ,44ttitwnh ﺟﻮ ﺗﺈ1ﻋﺄوآووأو: E m m iL K S I ,يﺀﻣﺢ؛«ﻣﺢ from fascicle20f Nittöguhö) ﻇالا׳ ﺀﻣﺂوةأ ؛ ودق^؟WlSXftmitZfä, 1 !״ junreigyöki Ennin 1986, p. 108. .n.d.]). T no] وص from fascicle 43 of Fozu tongji by Zhipan) 45 2035,49: 395b.

(from fascicle 43 of Fozu tongji). T 49: 398a. SHENG: BUDDHIST MOUNTAIN VENERATION 137

the direct support ؛associated with Samantabhadra secured for Mount E'me of Northern Song (960-1126) emperors. Such measures to profit by and protect the mountain’s Buddhist presence undoubtedly played a crucial role in the final establishment of the mountain as a sacred site for the hodhisa^a. In discussing the transformation of Mount ?utuo into a sacred site for Guanyin Bodhisattva, Chün-fang Yü states: Miracles and pilgrimage sites played an important role in the Chi- nese cult ofKuan-yin. Both contributed to the domestication and sinicization ofKuan-yin. Mimóle tales, local lore, literature, and art were the media through which information about pilgrimage sites was made known. They created certain expectations in the hearts of potential pilgrims, and probably shaped their experi- enees during the pilgrimage. Both monastic and lay pilgrims were the agents who transmitted local traditions to other parts of the country.47 The compilers of mountain gazetteers carefully collected and preserved these traditions, as can be seen in the various Putuo shanzhi published through the years. Thus, miracle tales and pilgrimages were important formative factors in foe veneration of these sacred Buddhist mountains, and bofo facilitated foe domestication and Sinicization of Guanyin.

(5) Stupas, Temples, and Eminent Monks In order to be recognized as a famous mountain, a peak must have foe proper dimensions and effects. Only forests of stupas, temples, and statues and foe presence of generations of eminent monks can spark belief and religious fervor. Buddhism was first disseminated on Mount Wutai in foe Northern Wei dynasty. During foe Qi dynasty (479-502), it was reported that “there thousand temples in foe realm [i.e.. Chinai: among these are ׳are nearly forty more than two hundred monasteries [on foe Wutai ranges]. Additionally, foe land taxes of eight sub-prefectures are given [by foe government] to pay for the clothing and medicine of the resident monks. With such privileges, this sacred site, an abode of foe immortals endowed with spiritual and monetary (ﺀﺀ (At foe time, Master Lingbian II522-477 ؟gifts, has flourished.”4 of one hundred fascicles, foe first Chinese صﺀ composed foeHuayan lun

47Yü2001,p. 355. Mitm .ﺀةﺀ «سﺀﺗﺎ xfijA'j'Hm وت 1ثﺀأأ ﺻﺴﻢا ; ددس0 .from fascicle 1 of Gu Qingliangzhuari). T 51: 1094a) ,ﺳﺂةﻣالأ{ال ! , p 138 THE EASTERN BUDDHIST 44, 2

sutra commentary, ?rom t^en on, Mount Wutai gradually became the North- em Chinese center forHuayanjing research and study. During the Sui-Tang built temples and ordained monks (٢ ( س. era, Emperor Taizong 649- 626 649-683) exempted mountain-dwellers from .) ٢ there, Emperor Gaozong r. 690-705) constructed pagodas as a) ه ١٧٧ paying taxes, and Empress ه the empress ordered Huize ,( 2 واواي(religious offering. In Longshuo 662 n.d.), a monk of the Huichangsi in the Western Capital [) ،؟؛ اااﻟالﺻﺜﻤﺚ& to write the single-fascicle Qirtgliang liiezhuan ,[ ﺀو or Xi’an ¡§ؤه who was then ,(?أ؛وي (and also ordered State Preceptor Degan if.704- 6597 ,!٠ i f ’), to reside at the Qingliangsi؛؛‘׳ serving as Buddhist Supervisor(sengtong ,(π period (713-741؛on Mount Wutai. During the Tang Kaiyuan ί3 the cult of Mafljusri centered on Mount Wutai reached its peak, causing the mountain to become the sacred seat ofMañjusri; concurrently, the scale ofits temples and monastic compounds also reached an apex of expansion. In the Yuan and Qing dynasties, as a resuit of the promotion of esoteric Buddhism, ,temples. During the Wanli period ־there was a dramatic increase in Umtric more than three hundred temples and monasteries stood on Mount Wutai. had the first temple (מ (In the early fifth century, Huichi ®412 337 on Mount E’mei constructed, the Puxiansi1 '،1Ϊ ΐ‘ ■۴. From the Tang dynasty onward, the phenomenon of “Buddha light” appearing on the mountain was widely known. With people explaining this “Buddha light” as “Samantabhadra’s auspicious omens,” coupled with firrther support from the Northern Song emperors, Mount E’mei gradually became the sacred seat o^m antabhadra. Buddhism reached its peak on the mountain during the ; there were more than 170 monasteries there, housing overthree thousand resident monks and countless adherents. The history of Mount Putuo began in Dazhong Τνψ 1 (847) when an eminent Indian monk took up residence on the peak. In the Later Liang (when the Japanese monk Hui'e (Ip. Egaku ,(ااا؛؛'ا era’s Zhenming 916) 2 built the cloister Bukenqu Guanyinyuan (the temple of “G^nyin-who-reftrsed-to-leave”), the cult ofGuanyin became increasingly popular and temple construction rapidly increased. By Daoguang ilfc 12 :'ئ. أا!ت؛'ل1 ﻣﺎ؛ﺀ؛ث'ا؛ف׳ق؛ آآ؛;according to Chongxiu Nanhai Putuoshan zhi |1 ,(1832) (Introduction to the Newly-reviled Southern Seas Mount Putuo Gazetteer) by Wang Dingxun T-ffiSjj (n.d.-after 1834), “There are no fewer than seventy temples in the mountains with over athousand resident and guest monks.”49

49 (from fascicle 12 of Putuo shanzhi). Wang 1993, p. 625. N 139 ه SHENG: BUDDHIST MOUNTAIN V EN ER ATI

In the Tang Zhide era (756-758), a Jiuhua country squire named هfor Jin Qiaojue # س n.d.) and others built Huchengsi) ®٠١ Zhuge Jie If mm (705-803), marking the start ofBuddhism on Mount Jiuhua. Gradually, it was said that there were a thousand temples on that mountain, all scattered in clouds and fog. In the Qing-dynasty Mount Jiuhua gazetteer, “Huacheng si Records of the Dormitory of Monks in Huacheng) ة؛ ﺀج{#س ”sengliao ji n.d.) claimed that at most, there were a) م#ﻟﻮا Temple), Zhou Wenbin thousand resident monks in each of China’s flourishing Buddhist temples.50 Clearly, with monasteries scattered throughout the land as plentifidly as stars in the sky, crowds of eminent monks, splendid Dharma assemblies, and frequent Buddhist ceremonies, these grand scale effects provided an atmosphere that was highly conducive toveneration of these mountains

(6) State Support A sacred mountain would never be able to expand its influence without imperial support. The coinage, the “Four Great Sacred Mountains,” was authorized as a result of imperial and royal patronage. Northern Qi emperors channeled the taxes from eight prefectures into funds for the clothing ق ؟and medicine of Mount Wutai’s monks. Tripitaka Master Bukong (Amoghavajra; 705-774) vigorously spread the cult of Mañju^l with the 4 (769), the ٠ ٨ 762-779). ( In Dali .support of Fmperor Daizong #7K٢ emperor sanctioned Bukong’s memorial requesting that Mañjusff occupy the in all temple refectories, with Samantabhadra ( ه־ل seat of honor(,shangzuo and Guanyin acting as attendants. In this way, Mount Wutai became the ؛foremost among all sacred mountains.5 Mount E’mei obtained various kinds of support from the Northern Song ordered the ( ﺑﺞ1 (٢ . emperors. In Qiande 4 (966), Fmperor Taizu 976- 960 n.d.) to travel to Puxiansi ’η ΐί if to decorate) ﺀ®eunuch Zhang Zhong Buddha statues. In the first month of Taiping Xingguo 5 (980), Emperor n.d.) to) ﺀت1ﺀق Taizong (r. 976-997) dispatched the eunuch Zhang Renzan oversee the casting of a bronze image of Samantabhadra. It was two yards (zhang) in height, and was erected in the Puxiansi at Baishui Ö7K along with a large pavilion to cover it. In Ihis way, five temples wero also rebuilt, ,#Heishuisi H7k , # ®؟Huayansi i , # اﺀآا7 ؛ة including Baishui Fuxiansi In . # وآي as well as Zhongfeng Qianmingsi and Guangxiangsi

.Cited from Yang 2008 ٠؛ Zhenyuan xinding shijiao tnulu fase. 10, τ ,(؟?, (Yuanzhao IB,809-727 51 no. 2157, 55:887c. 140 THE EASTERN BUDHHIST 44, 2

Emperor Taizong ordered eunuchs to deliver precious ,(وأﺀأ Yongxi 987) 4 caps [to bedeck Buddhist images], jade decorations, and monk’s eassocks to acting under imperial order, the eunuch ,( م؛؛اث uxiansi. In Duangong 989) 2? Xie Baoyi (n.d.) brought craftsmen and three hundred taels of gold to the mountain to decorate Samantabhadra’s statue and renovate the temple compound. In Dazhong Xianfu 4 (1011), Emperor Zhenzong Ä7K granted three thousand taels of gold to enlarge the mountain’s (997-1022 .٢) Puxiansi and to firnd vegetarian feasts for thirty thousand monks. Be also ordered the ordination of four monks eaeh year. With this imperial patron- age, the Buddhist presence on Mount E’mei increased rapidly at the eost of Daoism. Due to imperial support, during the Song dynasty, the mountain beeame renowned throughout ('hiña and abroad as the sacred seat of (1368-1398 .٢) Samantabhadra. During the Ming dynasty. Emperor Taizu ,1335-1395) as the state Buddhist preceptor) ٠ honored Master Baotan٠ and the Wanli emperor built a beamless brick hall to protect the statue of S^antabhadra riding on a white elephant. Meanwhile, he personally wrote for the newly-built ; ﻫﺠﺒﻤﺎم^ a name tablet for the Shengshou Wanniansi bronze hall, he bestowed the name tablet “Yongshi Buazangsi” by imperial decree. The Qing (1654-1722) composed poems, eouplets, and name tablets for temples there. With the direct support of Ming and Qing emperors, there were more and more temples built there, and the mountain’s roads and environment were improved, making pilgrimages more convenient The development of Buddhism on Mount ?utuo had much to do with emperors of these two dynasties, who esteemed it highly. Wanli donated several copies of the Buddhist canon to the mountain; Chongzhen (r. n.d.-1643?), a member of the) §ا؛ ﺋﺆﺀ ordered Tian Bongyu (1628-1644 n there and offer imperial incense. In Kangxi؛׳

Conclusion: The Formation of Sacred Mountain Veneration and the Overcoming ofthe “Borderland Complex ” The appellation the “Four Great Sacred Mountains” likely appeared during the Wanli period; by the Kangxi period, it had already reached a consensus among Chinese Buddhist circles and within Chinese society. However, not only did the Chinese venerate Mount Wutai as a sacred Buddhist site, it was also venerated by eminent Indian monks. From the Song and Yuan dynasties on, the rise of Mounts E’mei and Futuo as sacred Buddhist sites was allied with the decline of Indian Buddhism and the “national centrality” of Chinese Buddhism. Chinese Buddhists had a “borderland complex’" concerning some of the territories associated with Indian Bud- dhism. During the Tang-Song transition, the Sinicization of Chinese Bud- dhism was accomplished in a three-tiered process that entailed Buddhist beliefs, thought, and regulations; the Chinese formulated their own versions of these three components. With the decline of Indian Buddhism, the status of China as the center for Buddhism became even more evident, lending the “Four Great Sacred Mountains” a more dramatic importance. Chinese Buddhist veneration of these mountains is not a replica of Indian Buddhist sacred sites. Instead, it is based upon “canonical records” conjoined with “geography and scenic locales,” the continuous presence of eminent monks practicing cultivation, and travelling students of Buddhism. State support for the construction of shrpas, temples, and for the provision of monastic ftrrnishings and supplies contributed to the formation of large- scale temples and monasteries, which wem the material foundation for this phenomenon. Finally, miracle tales stimulated religious fervor, bringing in a continuous flow of pilgrims and thereby forming foe psychological foun- dation for foe veneration of these sites On foe basis of these holy, material, and psychological factors, foe four bodhisattvas-M añju^f, $amantabhadra, Guanyin, and K§itigarbha—were transported to China. In this way, China overcame its “borderland complex” and erected its own unique Buddhist beliefs, thus demonstrating its zeal to become the world center for Buddhism. In a broader view. High Tang 142 THE EASTERN BUDDHIST 44, 2

China was the eultural center of the entire world, and Chinese people from the Song dynasty onwards eontinued to harbor this dream. Against this baekground, we ean better understand the emergence of the “Four Great Sacred Mountains.”

ABBREVIATIONS

JXZ Ming ban jiaxing da zangjing 40 vols. Reprint. Taipei: Xing Wenfeng Chuban Gongsi. 1986-8?. T Taishö shinshü daizökyö 85 vois. Ed. Takakusu Junjirö .Tokyo: Taishö Issaikyö Kankökai. 1924-34 .ﻇﺮه'ﺛﺌﻤﺤﺐ and Watanabe Kaikyoku أج vols. Ed. Kawamura Köshö ﻗﺼﺄم|ي و ٠٠٨. X Shinsan dainippon zoku zökyö 88 et al. Tokyo: Kokusho Kankökai. 1975-89.

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