The Pronunciation of Alveolar-Alveolar and Bilabial-Alveolar Consonant Clusters in English Words by Indonesian Learners of English
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THE PRONUNCIATION OF ALVEOLAR-ALVEOLAR AND BILABIAL-ALVEOLAR CONSONANT CLUSTERS IN ENGLISH WORDS BY INDONESIAN LEARNERS OF ENGLISH
AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra in English Letters
By NOVALITA PRADNYA PARAMITHA Student Number: 154214110
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS FACULTY OF LETTERS UNIVERSITAS SANATA DHARMA YOGYAKARTA 2019 PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
THE PRONUNCIATION OF ALVEOLAR-ALVEOLAR AND BILABIAL-ALVEOLAR CONSONANT CLUSTERS IN ENGLISH WORDS BY INDONESIAN LEARNERS OF ENGLISH
AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra in English Letters
By NOVALITA PRADNYA PARAMITHA Student Number: 154214110
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS FACULTY OF LETTERS UNIVERSITAS SANATA DHARMA YOGYAKARTA 2019
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STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY
I certify that this undergraduate thesis contains no material which has been previously submitted for the award of any other degree at any university, and that, to the best of my knowledge, this undergraduate thesis contains no material previously written by any other person except where due reference is made in the text of the undergraduate thesis.
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LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS
Yang bertanda tangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiwa Universitas Sanata Dharma
Nama : Novalita Pradnya Paramitha Nomor Mahasiswa : 154214110
Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul
THE PRONUNCIATION OF ALVEOLAR-ALVEOLAR AND BILABIAL-ALVEOLAR CONSONANT CLUSTERS IN ENGLISH WORDS BY INDONESIAN LEARNERS OF ENGLISH beserta perangkat yang diperlukan (bila ada). Dengan demikian saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma hak untuk menyimpan, mengalihkan, dalam bentuk media lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk pangkalan data, mendistribusikan secara terbatas, dan mempublikasikannya di internet atau media lain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu meminta ijin kepada saya maupun memberikan royalti kepada saya selama tetap mencantumkan nama saya sebagai penulis.
Demikian pernyataan ini saya buat dengan sebenarnya.
Dibuat di Yogyakarta Pada tanggal 14 Maret 2019
Yang menyatakan,
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First of all, I would certainly send my deepest gratitude to Allah SWT for giving me literally everything so that I can finish this research on time. I know that thanking Him is not always enough, remembering Him along with His whole bless and mercy toward all things in my life. Nonetheless, my gratefulness for
Him is not able to be delivered through this piece of paper only.
Secondly, I will not forget my beloved thesis advisor I have decided to choose since the 3rd semester, Arina Isti‘anah, S.Pd., M.Hum. since she has guided me wholeheartedly during this thesis writing. I thank my co-advisor, Anna
Fitriati, S.Pd., M.Hum. as well for always willing to give her time for me catching up the thesis defense in this tight deadline.
The third gratitude goes to my parents (Bapak and Ibu), brother (Dek
Yoga), and sisters (Dek Leyla and Dek Aliya) for supporting me through ups and downs of mine in life. We are not always together, yet I am sure their prayers do not stop for me.
Fourthly, I also intend to show lots of appreciation to my friends, especially The Micins—they say—(Ayu, Putri, Mba Uus, Vatma, and Widi) for always loving, embracing, and accompanying me during my life in the college.
My college life could have been worse without them all for sure. I really do not know what I have done to deserve them. Besides, my thanks also go to my whole friends and all of people around me, I cannot mention one by one, having supported and taken care of me as life goes on and on.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE ...... ii APPROVAL PAGE ...... iii ACCEPTANCE PAGE ...... iv STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY ...... v LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH ...... vi MOTTO PAGE ...... vii DEDICATION PAGE ...... viii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... ix TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... x LIST OF TABLES ...... xiii ABSTRACT ...... xiv ABSTRAK ...... xv
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION ...... 1 A. Background of the Study ...... 1 B. Problem Formulation ...... 5 C. Objectives of the Study ...... 5 D. Definition of Terms ...... 6
CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF LITERATURE ...... 9 A. Review of Related Studies ...... 9 B. Review of Related Theories...... 13 1. Phonology ...... 14 a. English Consonants Sound System ...... 15 i. Consonants Based on the Place of Articulation ...... 15 ii. Consonants Based on the Manner of Articulation ...... 17 b. Indonesian Consonants Sound System ...... 20 i. Indonesian Stop Consonants ...... 20 ii. Indonesian Fricative Consonants ...... 21 iii. Indonesian Affricate Consonants ...... 23 iv. Indonesian Nasal Consonants ...... 24 v. Indonesian Lateral Consonant ...... 25 vi. Indonesian Flapped Consonant ...... 25 vii.Indonesian Approximant Consonants ...... 26 2. The Comparison of English and Indonesian Consonants Sound System ...... 26 3. Consonant Clusters ...... 27 4. Phonological Processes ...... 29 a. Assimilation and Dissimilation ...... 30 b. Feature-Changing Rule ...... 31 c. Insertion ...... 31 d. Deletion...... 32
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e. Metathesis ...... 32 5. Orthography ...... 33 C. Theoretical Framework ...... 34
CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY ...... 36 A. Object of the Study ...... 36 B. Approach of the Study ...... 38 C. Method of the Study ...... 38 1. Data Collection ...... 38 2. Data Analysis ...... 40
CHAPTER IV: ANALYSIS RESULT AND DISCUSSION ...... 45 A. The Pronunciation of Alveolar-Alveolar and Bilabial-Alveolar Consonant Clusters by the Participants ...... 45 1. The Pronunciation of Alveolar-Alveolar Consonant Clusters by the Participants ...... 48 a. Nasal-Stops ...... 49 b. Fricative-Stops ...... 50 c. Nasal-Fricatives ...... 51 2. The Pronunciation of Bilabial-Alveolar Consonant Clusters by the Participants ...... 52 a. Stop-Stops...... 53 b. Nasal-Stops...... 54 B. Phonological Processes Observed in the Participants‘ Pronunciations ...... 55 1. Deletion ...... 58 2. Feature-Changing Rule ...... 62 3. Insertion ...... 65 C. Phonological Factors Observed in the Participants‘ Pronunciations .... 68 1. Language Use Influencing the Participants‘ Pronunciations ...... 69 2. English Acquisition Influencing the Participants‘ Pronunciations ... 77
CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION ...... 84
REFERENCES ...... 88
APPENDICES ...... 91 Appendix 1. Phonetic Transcription of P1‘s Pronunciation ...... 91 Appendix 2. Phonetic Transcription of P2‘s Pronunciation ...... 92 Appendix 3. Phonetic Transcription of P3‘s Pronunciation ...... 93 Appendix 4. Phonetic Transcription of P4‘s Pronunciation ...... 94 Appendix 5. Phonetic Transcription of P5‘s Pronunciation ...... 95 Appendix 6. Phonetic Transcription of P6‘s Pronunciation ...... 96 Appendix 7. Phonetic Transcription of P7‘s Pronunciation ...... 97 Appendix 8. Phonetic Transcription of P8‘s Pronunciation ...... 98 Appendix 9. Phonetic Transcription of P9‘s Pronunciation ...... 99
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Appendix 10. Phonetic Transcription of P10‘s Pronunciation ...... 100 Appendix 11. Questionnares of the Research ...... 101 Appendix 12. Questionnare Result of P1 ...... 103 Appendix 13. Questionnare Result of P2 ...... 105 Appendix 14. Questionnare Result of P3 ...... 107 Appendix 15. Questionnare Result of P4 ...... 109 Appendix 16. Questionnare Result of P5 ...... 111 Appendix 17. Questionnare Result of P6 ...... 113 Appendix 18. Questionnare Result of P7 ...... 115 Appendix 19. Questionnare Result of P8 ...... 117 Appendix 20. Questionnare Result of P9 ...... 119 Appendix 21. Questionnare Result of P10 ...... 121
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LIST OF TABLES
No Table Page
1. Table 1. Words with Alveolar-Alveolar and Bilabial-Alveolar Consonant Clusters 37 2. Table 2. Summarized Results of the Participants‘ Pronunciations (Table Example) 41 3. Table 3. Language Use Influencing the Participants‘ Pronunciations 43 4. Table 4. English Acquisition Influencing the Participants‘ Pronunciations 44 5. Table 5. Summarized Results of the Participants‘ Pronunciations 46 6. Table 6. Summarized Results of Alveolar-Alveolar Pronunciations 48 7. Table 7. Results of the Participants‘ Pronunciation in Nasal-Stops 49 8. Table 8. Results of the Participants‘ Pronunciation in Fricative-Stops 50 9. Table 9. Results of the Participants‘ Pronunciation in Nasal-Fricatives 51 10. Table 10. Summarized Results of Bilabial-Alveolar Pronunciations 52 11. Table 11. Results of the Participants‘ Pronunciation in Stop-Stops 53 12. Table 12. Results of the Participants‘ Pronunciation in Nasal-Stops 54 13. Table 13. Summary of Phonological Processes Occurring in the Participants‘ Pronunciations 56 14. Table 14. Summary of Deletion Phonological Process in the Participants‘ Pronunciations 58 15. Table 15. Summary of Feature-Changing Rule Phonological Process in the Participants‘ Pronunciations 62 16. Table 16. Summary of Insertion Phonological Process in the Participants‘ Pronunciations 66 17. Table 17. Language Influencing Participants‘ Pronunciations 69 18. Table 18. English Acquisition Influencing the Participants‘ Pronunciations 77
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ABSTRACT
Paramitha, Novalita Pradnya. (2019). The Pronunciation of Alveolar-Alveolar and Bilabial-Alveolar Consonant Clusters in English Words by Indonesian Learners of English. Yogyakarta: Department of English Letters, Faculty of Letters, Universitas Sanata Dharma.
Language is an important tool for human beings in life because the main function of language is to convey certain message and information. Therefore, language has to be clearly understood by the parties involved in communication. The clarity of language can be considered by one of the aspects, which is pronunciation or the production of sounds as people speak. This sound production is studied in phonology. In phonology, one of the topics provided is syllable where consonant clusters are explained as well. Consonant clusters are the combinations of consonant sounds within the syllables. Hence, alveolar-alveolar and bilabial-alveolar combination of consonants are termed the clusters of consonant. Consonant clusters are hard to perform, especially for Indonesian learners, for it contains the mixed sounds, which Indonesians are not accustomed to it. There are three main analyzed purposes in this research. The first one is to find out of how Indonesian learners of English utter English alveolar-alveolar and bilabial-alveolar consonant clusters. Then, the second is to observe phonological processes befalling in their pronunciations. The last is to scrutinize phonological factors affecting the pronunciations. The purposeful sampling method was used to collect the data of the research. Ten students of Management Study Program batch 2018 of Sanata Dharma University were asked to enunciate 8 words with alveolar-alveolar and bilabial-alveolar consonant clusters selected from their module Bahasa Inggris: English for General Purposes. Those words were displayed in the questionnaires part A while part B covers some questions about the participants‘ backgrounds. These questions were operated to solve the research question of phonological factors. The results are 73.75% of the respondents mistakenly utter the consonant clusters whereas 26.25% others do not. Those 77% of the respondents are known to act certain language phenomena or phonological processes. They are deletion, feature-changing rule, and insertion. The main factor leading up to these phenomena is the mother tongue of all the participants, Indonesian, so that it influences their enunciations. It occurs because English and Indonesian have different phonological system. Furthermore, it is found that their utterances are not backgrounded by their understandings of English knowledge although they all have it, yet their familiarity of the language itself.
Keywords: Consonant Cluster, Pronunciation, Phonological Processes, Phonological Factors
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ABSTRAK
Paramitha, Novalita Pradnya. (2019). The Pronunciation of Alveolar-Alveolar and Bilabial-Alveolar Consonant Clusters in English Words by Indonesian Learners of English. Yogyakarta: Program Studi Sastra Inggris, Fakultas Sastra, Universitas Sanata Dharma.
Bahasa merupakan alat yang penting dalam kehidupan manusia karena fungsi utama bahasa, yaitu untuk menyampaikan pesan dan informasi tertentu. Maka dari itu, penyampaian bahasa harus dipahami secara jelas oleh pihak-pihak yang terlibat dalam komunikasi. Kejelasan bahasa dapat dinilai dari suatu aspek, yaitu pengucapan atau produksi bunyi ketika seseorang berbicara. Produksi bunyi ini dipelajari dalam studi fonologi. Salah satu topik dalam ilmu fonologi ialah silaba/suku kata yang di dalamnya juga menjelaskan tentang klaster konsonan. Klaster konsonan adalah sebuah kombinasi dari bunyi konsonan dalam suatu suku kata. Oleh sebab itu, kombinasi konsonan alveolar-alveolar dan bilabial-alveolar disebut sebagai klaster konsonan. Klaster konsonan termasuk sulit diucapkan, terlebih bagi pelajar Indonesia sebab klaster konsonan terdiri dari kombinasi bunyi, yang warga Indonesia tidak terbiasa dengan hal tersebut. Ada tiga tujuan utama yang dianalisis dalam penelitian ini. Yang pertama adalah untuk mencari tahu tentang bagaimana pelajar Indonesia yang mempelajari Bahasa Inggris mengucapkan klaster konsonan alveolar-alveolar dan bilabial- alveolar dalam Bahasa Inggris. Yang kedua ialah untuk mengobservasi proses- proses fonologi yang terjadi dalam pelafalan mereka. Yang terakhir adalah untuk meneliti faktor-faktor fonologi yang mempengaruhi pelafalannya. Teknik sampling bertujuan digunakan untuk mengumpulkan data penelitian ini. Sepuluh mahasiswa Program Studi Managemen angkatan 2018 Universitas Sanata Dharma diminta untuk melafalkan 8 kata berisikan konsonan klaster alveolar-alveolar dan bilabial-alveolar yang diambil dari buku modul mereka, Bahasa Inggris: English for General Purpose. Kata-kata tersebut dituliskan dalam kuesioner bagian A sedangkan bagian B mencakup beberapa pertanyaan mengenai latar belakang partisipan. Bagian ini digunakan untuk memecahkan masalah tentang faktor-faktor fonologi. Berdasarkan hasil, terdapat 73.75% responden yang salah dalam mengucapkan klaster konsonan sementara 26.25% lainnya tidak. Pelafalan dari 77% responden tadi mengalami fenomena bahasa atau proses fonologi. Proses ini meliputi penghapusan segmen, pengubahan fitur bunyi, dan penyisipan segmen. Faktor utama yang menyebabkan terjadinya fenomena-fenomena tadi adalah bahasa ibu semua partisipan, yaitu Bahasa Indonesia, maka hal ini mempengaruhi pengucapan mereka. Hal ini terjadi karena Bahasa Inggris dan Indonesia memiliki sistem fonologi yang berbeda. Terlebih, pelafalan para partisipan tidak didasari oleh pemahaman mereka terhadap Bahasa Inggris meskipun mereka semua memilikinya, tetapi kebiasaan mereka terhadap bahasa itu sendiri.
Kata Kunci: Klaster Konsonan, Pelafalan, Proses Fonologi, Faktor Fonologi
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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
A. Background of the Study
Language is essential to human‘s life due to its main function. It is said that ―a primary function of language is for humans to convey information to each other or request services of some kind in a variety of situations (e.g., relating events that happen to them, giving someone directions, asking for services such as in a shopping or other service encounter)‖ (Armstrong & Ferguson, 2010, p. 6).
From the function of language mentioned, the researcher is able to conclude that language is important since it is used for communication in human‘s daily life.
Being operated as a tool of communication to convey messages or information, language should be clearly understood by the parties involved in that act of communication. One reason affecting the clarity of language spoken is pronunciation.
Pronunciation is suggested as ―the method of producing certain sounds‖
(Gilakjani, 2012, p. 2). It is shown that something mattering the most in the pronunciation is sound. Since human beings have the ability to produce sounds, pronunciation then becomes a fundamental part of spoken language. This field, pronunciation or sound production, is learnt in the study called phonology. It describes the system and patterns of speech sounds whose knowledge is unconsciously understood by every speaker of language (Yule, 2006, p. 43).
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One of the subtopics discussed in phonology is syllable. Syllable contains a vowel sound usually preceded by a consonant. The elements of syllable are onset (one or more consonants) and rhyme consisting of vowel as nucleus and consonant(s) treated as coda. Both onset and coda can have more than one consonant. It is known as a consonant cluster (Yule, 2006, p. 47).
Since consonant clusters are arranged by more than one consonants, it intermixes a consonant to another or the other consonant(s) to create particular sounds in a syllable. Nonetheless, the consonants combined can be from various features each consonant belongs to. In this study, the consonant clusters examined are alveolar-alveolar and bilabial-alveolar clusters. Alveolar consonants are made with the tongue tip coming near or touching the bony ridge behind the upper teeth, alveolar ridge. The fortis or voiceless sounds of this feature are /t/ and /s/ whereas the lenis or voiced ones are /d, n, z, l, r/. Fortis occurs when the vocal cords do not vibrate since they are apart, so that the air can freely flow through the oral cavity.
Lenis, on the other hand, is the sounds produced as the vocal cords vibrate since the airstream forces its way out. Bilabials is produced by both lips. There is only one fortis sound of it, that is /p/ while the other /b/ and /m/ are lenis (Skandera &
Burleigh, 2005, pp. 20-21). As the definition bares, alveolar-alveolar and bilabial- alveolar clusters denote that there are two consonants—belonging to the alveolar and bilabial features—being fused. The subjects declared above are the topic that is going to be analyzed and discussed by the researcher in this study.
The topic of consonant clusters is worth studying and chosen by the researcher because
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Children learning to produce consonant clusters in any language have a challenging task, and those learning English have a uniquely complex situation. The large variety of clusters permissible in English, both at the beginning and at the end of syllables, makes even monosyllables extraordinarily complex (in words such as strength). A further complicating factor is that morphological endings create even more complex phoneme sequences (e.g. sixth) (McLeod, Doorn, & Reed, 2001, p. 99).
The statement reveals that in acquiring consonant clusters, most of the people experience difficulties, for it includes more than one consonant that should be uttered so that the utterances later will be a more complex process. Indonesian does not have consonant clusters in the end position of words, so that it is rather problematic for Indonesians to utter consonant clusters in the end position of
English words. For example, the word send /sɛnd/ pronounced [sɛn] by
Indonesians is due to the different rule of consonant clusters between English and
Indonesian. This process, seen in the field of phonology, can be regarded as one of the factors influencing the pronunciation.
Furthermore, the researcher decides to involve English learners whose mother tongue is Indonesian to be the participants. This kind of participants is selected because it is kind of a concern for those who should leave their original languages and cultures in order to adjust to the new surroundings speaking different languages. For Indonesian, English is known as first foreign language and not as second language. It is because second language acquisition is the process of learning a new language after the acquisition of a learner‘s native language (Adipramono, 2011, p. 56). Nonetheless, second language in Indonesia is still occupied by regional language or Indonesian itself, not English. Besides, it
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has been observed by the researcher during the class that the tendency of mispronunciation in alveolar-alveolar and bilabial-alveolar consonant clusters in
English words by the participants is higher than in other clusters.
As learners, Indonesians are very possible to face complications in learning English since, based on Adipramono (2011), English is a foreign language for Indonesians so that they tend to do some mistakes. These mistakes that then will be researched by the researcher. Due to the reason that they are just learners of English, the interference of the participants‘ mother tongue needs to be considered as well. Those factors—both processes explained in the theory of phonology and intervention of the mother tongue—affecting the enunciation of
English consonant clusters are also examined in this study.
The factor dealing with the rules of phonology is called phonological processes while the other concerning to the mother tongue interference is termed phonological factors. Phonological rules or processes are the part of speakers‘ knowledge of language. It emphasizes on the rules handling the relationship between a phonemic representation of word and its phonetic representation or how it is pronounced (Fromkin, Rodman, & Hyams, 2011, p. 244). Unlike the phonological processes, phonological factors are more considered as the influence of any other languages the participants possess. In this case, it is Indonesian shaping the English learning process.
The researcher intends to scrutinize those factors because in the context of Indonesians learning English, especially pronunciation of the consonant clusters in this study, the learners may find some problems. Then, those problems
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must be backgrounded by the reasons or factors being able to explain why the inaccuracies can occur. This, at the end, leads to the revelation of English learners‘ proficiency in pronouncing English consonant clusters.
B. Problem Formulation
There are three problems that are going to be discussed in the study.
Those three problems are:
1. How do the Indonesian learners of English pronounce of alveolar-alveolar
and bilabial-alveolar consonant clusters in English words?
2. What phonological processes are found in their pronunciation?
3. What phonological factors influence their pronunciation?
C. Objectives of the Study
There are three major objectives of the study. The first is the pronunciation of consonant clusters, alveolar-alveolar and bilabial-alveolar, performed by English learners whose mother tongue or first language is
Indonesian. Then, the findings scrutinized into two studies covering the pronunciation processes in phonology and phonological factors.
As mentioned, the second objective of the study is an attempt to show the language phenomena having the effects on the pronunciation of alveolar-alveolar and bilabial-alveolar consonant clusters achieved by the English learners. These phenomena are termed phonological processes. It describes what procedures
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inside phonology able to clarify the utterances of consonant clusters having been done.
Moreover, the third objective of the study is the reasons from phonological factors point of view. It exposes the involvement of the English learners‘ mother tongue or language use and acquisition of English in forming the pronunciation of consonant clusters. The researcher tries to do a contrastive research between English and Indonesian sound system also provides questionnaires utilized as proofs of the learners‘ English acquisition. These will guide to the conclusion about why the pronunciation of consonant clusters goes in a certain way.
D. Definition of Terms
This part explains about the definition of some terms applied in this study in order to be easily understood when read. They are consonant cluster, alveolar consonant, bilabial consonant, phonological process, and phonological factor.
Since this study examines consonant clusters, it should be defined first.
Consonant clusters are consonants contained in onset or coda of the syllable
(Yule, 2006, p. 47). Consonant clusters in the onset enclosing two consonants are like trouble /trʌb(ə)l/ and sprawl /sprͻ:l/ including three consonants. Two and three consonant clusters can occur in the coda as well, such as blast /blɑ:st/ and tilts /tɪlts/.
Two kinds of English consonants that will be talked about in this study are alveolar and bilabial consonants. Alveolar is the consonant whose ―active
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articulator is the blade or tip of the tongue and the passive articulator is the teeth ridge or alveolar ridge‖ (Shariq, 2015, p. 149). Owing to the definition Shariq gives, the researcher can assume that in enunciating alveolar consonants, the tongue tip has the main role, meaning that it rises to touch the alveolar ridge, the passive articulator. Some consonants articulated by this way are /t, d, n, s, l, r/.
The other consonant mentioned is bilabial. Bilabial consonants befall when the upper lip meets the lower part of lip. Then, it creates an obstruction in the production of the consonants (Shariq, 2015, p. 149). The consonants considered bilabial consonants are /p,b,m/.
After that, as stated in the background of the study, there are two other aspects which are going to be conferred in this study. They are phonological process and phonological factor. Phonological process is the speakers‘ knowledge of language about how the articulation of a certain language is emitted
(Fromkin, Rodman, & Hyams, 2011, p. 244). The statement means that phonological process is kind of the capability of the speakers about how to produce sounds in a certain language. This process reveals many kinds of pronunciation phenomena of a particular language, such as English in this study.
Different from the phonological process, the other reason or background is measured by the phonological factors. It is the factor whose explanation tries to compare the sound system in the language examined and the language—either mother tongue brought by the interviewed participants or any other languages— affecting the utterance of the examined language. Besides, phonological factors also involve the learners‘ experience of obtaining English. They, finally, end up
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declaring what reasons behind the pronunciation of the studied language in the implication of the mother tongue or any languages that may be the influences.
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CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
In this chapter, there are three parts to be discussed. Those discussions then help the researcher conduct this research in the pronunciation of alveolar- alveolar and bilabial-alveolar consonant clusters by English learners. They include review of related studies, review of related theories, and theoretical framework.
A. Review of Related Studies
This study has four references or related studies, two theses and two journal articles, having been chosen. The selected references are based on the topics closely related to the topic of this study. Then, the contents of the references are reviewed. The reviews, finally, are used as supports of the study being conducted.
The first study is managed by Rahardjosidhi entitled Mispronunciation of
English Final Alveolar-Alveolar and Velar-Alveolar Consonant Clusters by the
Students of SMA Santa Maria Yogyakarta (2017). There are two objectives of the study in this study: identifying the mispronunciations of alveolar-alveolar and velar-alveolar made by the students of SMA Santa Maria and analyzing the reasons behind those mispronunciations (Rahardjosidhi, 2017, p. 4). The identification of the mispronunciations is done by deciding the methods into two ways, group interview and sound recording of the participants. The approach of this study is phonology. It is shown in the explanation of findings or result of this
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study. Rahardjosidhi states that there are two errors contributing to the mispronunciations and he discovers that the first is interlingual or interference errors. These include the justifications that the respondents tend to omit the last consonant in the consonant clusters, such as in a word kind /kʌɪnd/ becoming
[kʌɪn]. Besides, the participants change the voiced consonants into voiceless since
Indonesian does not have the voiced consonants in the final position of words and they also add schwa [ǝ] when a letter [e] appears between two consonants in the final position (2017, pp. 55-56). The second is intralingual errors. One of the examples is the mispronunciation of once /wʌns/ being [wʌnʃ]. It occurs due to the vowel sounds in that word (Rahardjosidhi, 2017, pp. 56-57).
The second related study is a thesis written by Oktavia under the title The
Pronunciation of English Consonants in Rihanna’s Songs Entitled ―Work‖ and
―Man Down‖ (2017). Oktavia conducts two objectives of the study: the detection of Rihanna‘s way in pronouncing English consonants in her song—this is going to divulge the social backgrounds where Rihanna belongs to—and the scrutiny of some possible factors backgrounding the pronunciation. Then, the approaches considered to be utilized in this study are phonology and sociolinguistics
(Oktavia, 2017, pp. 24-25).
The data collection accessed by Oktavia is the purposive sampling study, meaning that she selects certain units to accomplish a purpose. After that, the data are processed later producing discoveries or results related to the phonological processes. Some of them are deletion, palatalization, and affrication existing in the utterances of English consonants by Rihanna. Furthermore, the facts that Rihanna
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is Afro-Caribbean and affected by Jamaican music genre contribute to her pronunciations. Those are the judgments seen from the sociolinguistic viewpoint
(Oktavia, 2017, pp. 47-48).
Unlike the first and second related studies, the third and fourth related studies are taken from journal articles. The first journal article is composed by
Chin-Wan Chung with the title An Aspect of Consonant Cluster Simplification in
English (2017). In this study, two objectives are managed. They are the observations of an aspect of consonant deletion in coda clusters of English and the provisions of an alternative analysis of consonant deletion (Chung, 2017, p. 43).
The methodology the researcher uses to present the data is divided into two groups:
The first group consists of three-member coda consonant realization in mono-morphemic words. The second group of data is composed of three- member coda of mono-morphemic stem followed by a derivational suffix beginning with a consonant or a consonant initial word (Chung, 2017, p. 45).
The results found after scrutinizing the data are the words in the first group experience a weakening, but not necessarily a deletion unless it is followed by another consonant. It befalls, for there are obstruent stops appearing between consonants. However, the data in the second group undergo a deletion of /t/ sound to ―satisfy better syllable structure, such as maximization of onset, avoid having three-coda consonants, and forming singleton coda element‖ (Chung, 2017, pp.
45-47). Those assumptions are studied with the theory of constraints, provided as the alternative analysis, like trapped consonant, max-nasal, max-final consonant,
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faith-onset, onset-condition, max-peripheral, and max-coronal (Chung, 2017, p.
56).
The last study authored by Seo entitled Perception of a
Consonant/Lateral Cluster by Korean and English Listeners (2012) researches about the language universal and specific influences on Korean and English listeners‘ perception of a consonant/lateral cluster. The methodology functioned in this study is in the form of stimuli, recording the words performed by the participants having been elected, Koreans and English (Seo, 2012, pp. 675-677).
The results concluded are first, the listeners are more likely to discriminate acoustically and auditorily similar sounds, for two similar segments are not phonemically contrastive in their native language. Secondly, the listeners have a difficulty in differentiating a weak segment in the consonant clusters although it is allowed in their native language. It, finally, states that the phenomena of language perception are affected by various language universal and specific factors (Seo,
2012, p. 689).
Those four related studies are selected because they have similarities with this study. Those all share the same topic, which is consonant. In involving methodology, this study utilizes the same method with the first and the last study even though the term is dissimilar in the last study. The approach used for all the related studies and this study is the same, phonology, since all of them describe the language phenomena and the tries to uncover the factors behind them. The last study, especially, explains how the native language acquired by certain people has
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the effects on perceiving other languages and this is quite related to the upcoming analysis of this study on the phonological factors.
However, there must be some differences between the four related studies and this study. The second study‘s topic is consonant, yet this study deals with a set of consonants or consonant clusters. Moreover, the first related study investigates the alveolar-alveolar and velar-alveolar consonant clusters. This study, on the other hand, examines alveolar-alveolar and bilabial alveolar consonant clusters. The differences of this study compared to the last two journal articles are the contrast of the focus. The third study focuses more on the phonological processes of consonant clusters‘ simplification and the last study emphasizes on the phonological factors in perceiving consonant clusters, whereas this study concentrates on both of them.
The study about alveolar-alveolar and bilabial-alveolar consonant clusters is to improve or develop those four studies by converging both phonological processes and factors having the possible elucidations on why the utterance phenomena of the consonant clusters run in a certain way. It covers the reasons explicated by phonology‘s discipline and mother tongue interference standpoint.
B. Review of Related Theories
There is actually a main theory in this study that is phonology, yet it embraces many sub-theories below. Besides only reviewing both English and
Indonesian consonant sound system, in this part, the comparison between both
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languages, consonant clusters, and phonological processes are illustrated as well.
This part assists the researcher to develop the study in analysis later.
1. Phonology
According to Ufot, ―phonology is the study of the organization and patterning of sounds in a particular language. Phonology concerns with how the sounds function in a systemic way in a particular language‖ (2013, p. 110). The basic activities of phonology are:
phonemic analysis in which the objective is to establish what the phonemes are and arrive at the ‗phonemic inventory‘ of the language…(and) the study of stress, rhythm and intonation.…The way in which sounds combine in a language is studied in ‗phonotactics‘ and in the analysis of syllable structure (Jones, 2006, p. 388).
Owing to the definition of phonology explained above, the main topic, consonant cluster, elected by the researcher to conduct is included in phonology, for it examines how the sounds combined. Phoneme is the minimal unit in the sound system of a language whereas phone is the smallest perceptible discrete segment of sound in a stream of speech (Crystal, 2008, p. 361). The combination of sounds, on the other hand, is called phonotactic constraints. When the combination comprises some consonants, it is termed consonant cluster.
Phonological rule in each language is, of course, varied. English has its own phonological system, so does Indonesian. Therefore, they bear some differences in their systems. However, the system/rule that is going to be revealed in this study is limited to the consonant and consonant cluster only.
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a. English Consonant Sound System
Consonants in English are affected by the restriction in the vocal tract impeding the airflow from the lung. Furthermore, the way the airstream is shaped as it flows from the lung up to the mouth and nose has the influence on how the
English consonant is formed as well (Fromkin, Rodman, & Hyams, 2011, p.
195&198). These reasons determine the division of the consonants into two parts. i. Consonants Based on the Place of Articulation
The restriction in the vocal tract affecting the airflow establishes the place of articulation in English consonants. It is the location where the restriction takes place. Based on this, English consonants are distributed in eight places of articulation. They are bilabials, labio-dentals, dentals, alveolars, postalveolars, palatals, velars, and glottals (McMahon, 2002, pp. 30-33). The order of the place of articulation is arranged based on the location of the articulators starting from the front until back part of the vocal tract.
The first consonants are bilabials. It involves both lips to pronounce these consonants; bottom lip is the active articulator while the upper one is passive.
Consonants contained in bilabials are [p, b, m]. Proud, tribal, and handsome are the examples of bilabial consonants in words. The second consonants still bringing lips in their utterance are labio-dentals, yet this type of consonant only implicates the bottom lip as active articulator and upper teeth. There are only two consonantal sounds consisted in this type: [f] and [v]. [f] is like stuff and [v] is in veil.
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The third type is dental consonants. The active articulator is the tip of the tongue whereas the passive is the top front teeth. As labio-dentals, dentals also has only two sounds, which are [ɵ] and [ð]. In the word thigh is the [ɵ] and thy is the
[ð]. Then, alveolars is in the fourth type of the place of articulation. Alveolar sounds are produced by the tip or blade of the tongue moving up towards the alveolar ridge. The sounds covered in this type are [t, d, n, s, z, l, r]. There are many examples in words having those sounds, such as top, sadness, sun, soap, blaze, lamp, and core.
The fifth class is post-alveolar consonants. The sounds are [ʃ, Ʒ, ʧ, ʤ].
From the sounds having been stated, it can be concluded that the location is in the hard palate; the blade of the tongue touches the hard palate. This is why the tongue‘s blade is the active articulator, while the hard palate is the passive one.
This phenomenon is illustrated in the words ship, beige, chunk, and junk. The sixth type is palatal consonants. As post-alveolar consonants, palatal consonants also carry hard palate as a passive articulator and blade of the tongue as the passive. However, the blade of the tongue does not necessarily touch the hard palate. It just raises or moves up to the hard palate. The consonantal sounds pronounced in this way are [j] like in the word young.
The last two types are velars and glottals. The active articulator of velars is the back of the tongue whereas the passive is the soft palate or velum. The sounds of it are [k, g, ŋ, x]. They can be seen in the words cot, got, rang, and loch. Glottals, on the other hand, are ―the minority in articulatory terms, since they do not involve the tongue: instead, the articulators are the vocal folds, which
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constitute a place of articulation as well as having a crucial role in voicing‖
(McMahon, 2002, p. 33). There are two sounds of glottals in English: [h] and [Ɂ] as an intervocalic realisation of [t]. The application of them is like in the words high and butter uttered [bʌɁǝr]. ii. Consonants Based on the Manner of Articulation
If place of articulation reveals where the articulators are located in the vocal tract to produce sounds, manner of articulation uncovers how the sounds are made, especially the stipulation of the airflow as it runs when the speaker makes sounds.
Consonants involve at least two articulators. When the articulators are brought closer together, the flow of air between them changes: for instance, it can be stopped or made turbulent. The channels between any two articulators govern the pressure and flow of air through the vocal tract, and in turn this affects the kinds of sound that come out (Ogden, 2009, p. 16).
As the definition declares, the relation between both articulators are able to form the airstream and it ends up indicating the sounds performed. Ogden (2009, pp.
16-18) acknowledges that there are three main umbrellas of manner of articulation. Those three are stop, fricative, and resonant articulations.
Nevertheless, comparing to Fromkin et al (2011), manner of articulation splits consonants into voiced and voiceless also nasal and oral sounds besides what
Ogden has listed. Thus, the researcher combines those two sources in describing manner of articulation of English consonants.
The active articulator of deciding the voicing status is a vocal cord.
Consonants are said voiceless when the vocal cords are apart, so that the air flows freely through glottis to the oral cavity. Some consonants considered voiceless is
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/p, t, k/. In contrast, voiced consonants, such as /b, d, g/ are created when vocal cords are together and the airstream forces its way through then makes them vibrate (Fromkin, Rodman, & Hyams, 2011, p. 198).
The second classification Fromkin et al (2011) assert rather than voicing status is whether consonants are encompassed in nasal or oral sounds. Nasals is the sounds pronounced with the velum low, so that the air escapes from both mouth and nose. The consonants of nasals are [m, n, ŋ]. Oral sounds, in the opposite, occur when the velum is up and it blocks the nose. Therefore, the air flows only through the oral cavity. The consonants involved in the oral sounds are the other consonants outside those in nasals.
After that, corresponding to Ogden (2009, pp. 16-18), the phenomenon of the airflow‘s condition in the vocal tract when speaking as manner of articulation is divided up into three parts: stops, fricatives, and resonants. Stops is built when there is a complete closure inside the oral tract between two articulators. This stops the air moving out of the oral tract. Stops comprises a whole range of sound types varying based on the kind of the airflow, nasal and oral sounds, and whether or not the closure can be maintained for a long time. The sound types becoming a part of this manner of articulation are plosives, nasals, trills, and taps.
Plosives is constructed by a complete closure in the oral tract. The velum is raised and prevents the air from fleeing through the nose. The sounds of plosives are [p, t, k, b, d, g]. Those consonants are maintainable since the closure can be held longer in the oral tract and come out as an explosion. Nasals, linking to Fromkin et al (2011), is the complete closure in the oral tract, but with the
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velum low causing the air runs through both mouth and nose. The sounds or consonants are [m, n, ŋ]. The last two other sound types happen shorter, for the complete closure is only upheld in a short period of time due to aerodynamics or the movement of articulators from one position to another. The first one is trills; pronounced by the tongue tip striking the alveolar ridge repeatedly. [r] uttered rolled is the only sound in this type. This process of pronunciation is rare in
English, yet usually identical to Scottish. The last type is taps. Unlike trills, taps is quite common in English. The [t] and [d] sounds spoken [ɾ], like in the words writer [rʌɪɾər] and atom [aɾəm] are transpired by a short percussive of the tip of the tongue towards the alveolar ridge.
The second type after stop consonants is fricatives. It is the result of two articulators being in close approximation with each other. The airflow forms turbulent or friction noise, hissing sound in another word, because the air is held from passing through by the articulators in a small gap. [f, v, Ɵ, ð, s, z, ʃ, Ʒ] are consonants performed in this way. Those can be observed in words fish, vow, think, then, loose, lose, wish, and vision. Affricates is plosives released into fricatives. English has two sounds of this: [ʧ] and [ʤ] as in the words church and judge.
The last type in manner of articulation is resonants. It happens as the air streams smoothly through the vocal tract since there is no friction following. The consonants are usually called approximants. They are [j, w, l, r]. [j] and [w] are termed glides because they are closely related in phonetic terms to the vowels [i] and [u]—[j] is uttered in the same place as [i], which is front high position in the
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oral cavity. So is [w] and the vowel [u] sharing the same place of articulation, back low—and also considered as non-syllabic versions of these vowels. The [l] and [r] are labelled liquids. They also have similarities in the places where they appear in the consonant clusters. b. Indonesian Consonant Sound System
The mechanism of Indonesian consonants production is quite the same as
English. Consonants are shaped in three aspects: place of articulation, manner of articulation, and vocal fold vibration. Concurring to Dardjowidjojo (2009), those three aspects are allocated into 7 types of Indonesian consonants sound system.
The types are stop, fricative, affricate, nasal, lateral, flapped, and approximant consonants and the further descriptions of them will be quoted from
Dardjowidjojo (2009) page 36-48. i. Indonesian Stop Consonants
Indonesian stop consonant is distributed in bilabial, alveolar, and velar stops. Bilabial stop consonants are [p] and [b]. This bilabial is uttered by having the upper and lower lips in contact and the nasal passage is closed by the velum.
The sound is not accompanied by the vibration of the folds so it is called voiceless. Phoneme [p] can occur in the initial, middle, and final word. For example, pasar, api, and gemerlap. Another bilabial [b], on the other hand, vibrates the vocal folds when uttered. Therefore, it is considered voiced. Phoneme
[b] can also exist in three positions as [p], yet when it comes to the final position, the pronunciation is more like [p] than [b], such as in the word rebab[p].
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Indonesian alveolar stop consonants are [t] and [d]. Those are performed by having the tip of the tongue touching the alveolar ridge and the nasal passage is shut by velum. The sound [t] is voiceless since, as [p], it does not result a vocal fold vibration. Alveolar [t] is able to befall in three positions, like in the words tua, pintu, and lihat. Similar with bilabial [b], alveolar [d] is voiced and it becomes [t] when taking place in the final of the word, such as abad[t].
Indonesian velar stop consonants are produced the same as bilabial [p] and alveolar [t]; three of them are voiceless. The consonant [k] can take place anywhere, like kartu, akan, and sibuk. Then, velar [g] is voiced like bilabial [b] and alveolar [d], but it results in a voiceless [k] when occupying the final position of word, as in the word bedug[k]. ii. Indonesian Fricative Consonants
Indonesian fricatives are [f, s, z, ʃ, h]. Owing to Dardjowidjojo (2009), fricative [f] is used by educated Indonesians, whereas those who get less education tend to change it into [p] so that [f] and [p] in the word pikir are applied interchangeably (p. 40). The fricative [f] is pronounced by bringing the upper teeth having a contact with the lower lip. As producing it, the velum closes the nasal cavity. Thus, the air flows through the opening at both sides of the tongue and there is some frictions. It is, therefore, called labiodental fricative. Fricative
[f] can be found in all positions of words: initial, middle, and front, yet no allophone of it except itself sometimes changed into [p], such as in the words filem becoming pilem, lafal to lapal, and khilaf to khilap. The letter ―v‖ is also
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kown in Indonesian, yet pronounced the same as [f] or [p]. It can occur in only both initial and medial position, like in varia and Avanza.
Indonesian fricative [s] is uttered by putting the blade of the tongue on the alveolar ridge. The velum shuts the nasal cavity so the air is released through the tongue sides and it causes friction, yet there is no vocal vibration. The sound covered into these characteristics is called voiceless alveolar fricatives. Fricative
[s] occupies all positions. It can be observed in the words salam, kasur, and bebas.
Another sound whose production in the vocal tract is quite the same as
[s] is [z]. However, in articulating [z], the vocal cord vibrates. Thus, it is called voiced alveolar fricatives. It can befall only in two positions, initial and medial.
Sometimes, it is substituted with the sounds [ʤ] and [s]. The examples for this type are azaz into asas and zaman into jaman.
Indonesian fricative [ʃ] is performed by the tongue blade contacting the alveopalatal and the velum closes the nasal cavity up so that the air streams through the tongue sides. The vocal cord does not vibrate. Nevertheless, the term for this sound is voiceless alveopalatal fricatives. It is distributed in both initial and medial positions occassionally uttered as [s]. The difference between English and Indonesian [ʃ] is Indonesian [ʃ] needs no protrusion of the lips. This sound is like in the words syair into sair and masyarakat into masarakat.
The sound [x] is realized in a grapheme
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turned into [k] or [h] is found in all positions of words: khas to kas, akhir to ahir, and tarikh to tarih.
The other sound included in the Indonesian fricatives is [h]. The pronunciation of it is by the flowing of the air passing freely from the vocal cord until the mouth without impeded. It is named glottal fricatives and discovered in all positions although it sometimes replaced by a vowel [a] when [h] begins the words. It is dropped as well as locating the medial position between two dissimilar vowels. For examples, in the words hancur becomes ancur and lihat into liat. iii. Indonesian Affricate Consonants
The Indonesian affricates has two sounds, which are [ʧ] and [ʤ]. The affricate [ʧ] is produced by having the tongue blade to touch the alveopalatal as the nasal cavity is closed so that the air moves through the tongue sides. Since the vocal cord does not vibrate as pronounced, it is said as voiceless sound. The sound
[ʧ] now has three features: voiceless, alveopalatal, and affricate. Thus, it is termed as a voiceless alveopalatal affricates. The words cipta and puncak show that [ʧ] is able to emerge in the initial and middle position of words.
The other Indonesian affricate consonant is [ʤ]. The production of the sound is in accordance with the construction of [ʧ], yet there is a difference between them. It is the movement of the vocal cord, meaning that the vocal cord undergoes the vibration. This is why the affricate [ʤ] is voiced and now, the expression is voiced alveopalatal affricates. Compared to English, Indonesian [ʤ] is spoken with less lip protrusion and less vocal fold vibration. While English
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tolerates the occurrence of [ʤ] in the final position of words, Indonesian does not.
It only befalls in the initial and middle positions: jika and kijang. iv. Indonesian Nasal Consonants
The nasal [m], [n], [ŋ], and [ň] belong to Indonesian nasals. Except [ň] in nyaman, English has the other nasal sounds appearing as well in Indonesian.
Nasal [m] is pronounced by involving two lips together when the velum is low so it allows the air to flow through the nasal cavity. It is also named bilabial nasals.
The utterance is also supported by the vocal fold vibration. This ends up resulting the statement that all nasals are voiced. This sound, [m], can befall in the initial, middle, and final positions in Indonesian words, like macan, timpa, and kaum.
When the utterance does not require the lips as in the nasal [n], [ň], and
[ŋ], the label must be different. The nasal [n] is called alveolar nasal consonant because it brings the tip of the tongue in contact with alveolar ridge, yet the air runs through the nasal passage. This sound can be found in the words nomor, pinta, and pesan. The nasal [ň], on the other hand, is a palatal nasal. It is because in pronouncing it, the back of the tongue raises and touches the palate. In
Indonesian, it is like a combination of [n] and [y] and able to exist in the initial and middle position of words: nyewa and banyak. The last Indonesian nasals is
[ŋ]. It is a velar nasals since its place of articulation is in velar position along with the air releases through the nose. Indonesian [ŋ] can be contained in three positions, such as ngopi, sangat, and bilang. Nonetheless, English does not permit this sound to emerge in the initial position. Consequently, it is kind of obstacle for
English studying Indonesian to utter it.
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v. Indonesian Lateral Consonant
The Indonesian lateral is uttered by bringing the tip of the tongue touching the alveolar ridge with the velum up so that it closes the nasal cavity.
Therefore, the air flows through the side of the tongue without causing any frictions. There is only one sound of laterals, which is /l/. It is able to appear in three positions of word: initial, middle, and final. It is realized in the words langit, kalau, and kidal. For Indonesians comprehending English, the pronunciation of lateral /l/ is not a problem at all, yet it is if it places the syllabic position of word.
For example, the words little [lɪtl] uttered [lɪtəl], middle [mɪdl] to [mɪdəl], and battle [batl] to [batəl] reveal that Indonesians tend to retain the schwa [ə] in their speaking of the syllabic lateral /l/. vi. Indonesian Flapped Consonant
As Indonesian laterals, flapped consonant too has only one sound, which is /r/. It is shaped by having the tongue tip contacting to alveolar ridge many times. Then, the air streams is released through the opening of each of the flap.
Flapped /r/ is performed in two ways: flap and trill. In Spanish, flapped /r/ is like pero whereas trill is perro. Indonesian has a flapped /r/ rather than trill. The examples of flapped /r/ in Indonesian words are rumah, merah, and luar.
Since English /r/ is not flapped as Indonesian, people from English find it hard to speak Indonesian /r/. The same difficulty will also be discovered by
Indonesians learning English, for English /r/ is said differently from it is in
Indonesian.
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vii. Indonesian Approximant Consonants
The Indonesian approximant consonants [y]—written [j] in English—and
[w] is considered semi vowels since the production of them is more like vowels due to the absence of obstruction in the mouth, yet their purpose is as consonant.
The Indonesian [y] is uttered by the middle of the tongue raising toward the palate without touching it. The air is freed through the opening between the tongue and the palate. Thus, there is no obstruction in the mouth. The approximant [y] does not exist in the final position of word, but initial and middle, such as yayasan and payah.
Unlike [y], the approximant [w] is produced by bringing two lips without even touching each other. The air is unrestricted in the mouth, for there is no any impediment. As the result, it comes out through the opening between two lips as the nasal passage is closed. The approximant [w], same as [y], does not occur in the final position of words. It is viewed in the examples waktu and hawa.
2. The Comparison of English and Indonesian Consonant Sound System
In the purpose of knowing or contrasting what the two systems of languages are like, linguistics has a branch termed Contrastive Analysis.
Contrastive Analysis believes that the sounds which are not found in language A, but found in language B will constitute problems for the speakers of A in learning language B. For instance, the fact that English cluster [skt] found at the final position of the word asked will be an obstacle for Indonesian learner of English, for Indonesian does not permit three consonants located in the final position of words (Dardjowidjojo, 2009, p. 35).
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The explanation discloses that Contrastive Analysis is the study analyzing the phenomena or problems of language from the contrasts existing in languages being observed. It gives the clues what kinds of problem that will be faced by the speaker or learner of a certain language. Then, these problems are partitioned into four groups.
The first is if a sound in language A does not arise in language B, it will initiate a problem for the speakers of B studying language A. For example, /ð/ not being admitted in Indonesian, yet it is in English is going to complicate
Indonesians in uttering that. The second problem is a sound differently distributed—such as /ŋ/ in Indonesian beginning the word, but it does not exist in
English—can trigger a difficulty as well. Next, the complication will appear if there is a sound in language A found in language B, yet they are dissimilar in the production of pronunciation. One of the examples is an English aspirated /t/ in a certain position. It is surely hard for Indonesians to perform because Indonesian /t/ is spoken the same anywhere. The last obstacle is if two or more sounds can be combined in language A, but not in language B, learners from language B will have a hindrance in comprehending language A. It is shown in the word texts
[tɛksts] in English whereas the coda cluster [ksts] does not belong to Indonesian.
3. Consonant Clusters
Consonant cluster in phonology is actually analyzed by the discussion of syllable since it is usually used in the arrangement of the word‘s syllable.
Consonant cluster is revealed as two or more consonants are together in a syllable
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(Roach, 2002, p. 68). Consonant clusters are able to be in the initial, middle, and final position of the word.
Consonant cluster taking place in the initial position is reflected in the words spray [spreɪ], try [trʌɪ], and plane [pleɪn]. However, Roach remarks that [s] is a pre-initial consonant, [p, t, k] following the [s] are initial, and [l, r, w, j] are post-initial. In conclusion, [s] in spray is the pre-initial consonant and [p] is the initial one, yet in try and plane, [t] and [p] are the initial while [r] is post-initial.
Then, consonant cluster occurring in the middle position is like in a word signal
[sɪgnəl]. In the final position of word, similar to consonant cluster in the initial position, there are two sorts of two consonant final cluster: one final consonant preceded by pre-final consonant and the other consonants followed by post-final consonant. The pre-final consonants are [m, n, ŋ, l, s], such as in the words bump
[bʌmp], bent [bɛnt], bank [baŋk], belt [bɛlt], and ask [a:sk]. Then, the consonants
[s, z, t, d, Ɵ] are contained in the post-final consonants. Bets [bɛts], beds [bɛdz], baked [beɪkt], bagged [bӕgd], and eighth [eɪtƟ] are the words bringing post-final consonants. Another example is the word helped [hɛlpt] where [l] is the pre-final consonant, [p] is final, and [t] is the post-final one (2002, pp. 71-72).
Contrasting to English consonant clusters, Muslich mentions that
Indonesian consonant clusters are the impact of the loanwords‘ phonetic structures. However, Indonesian consonant clusters are only established on these combinations: clusters stood for two and three consonants. If the clusters consist of two consonants, the first consonant must be [p, b, t, d, k, g, f, s] and the second ones are only on the sounds [l, r, w, s, m, n, k]. The examples of this clusters are
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pleonasme, tragedi, psikologi, and kwintal. On the other hand, if the clusters are made of three consonants, the first consonant is always [s], the second ones are [t] and [p], and the other ones are [r] and [l]. In the words sprinter and skripsi, this type of cluster can be found. Furthermore, since Indonesian does not have its own consonant clusters, Indonesian speakers have a tendency to insert [ə] between the clusters as they are articulating the loanwords having consonant clusters, such as
[praŋko] often uttered [pəraŋko] and [slogan] turns out to be [səlogan] (2008, pp.
71-72).
4. Phonological Processes
Lass remarks that ―the only case where process terms can be used in a relatively theory-neutral sense is where the relation between input and output is temporal: i.e. in describing historical change. For example the change of [d] to [t] in German was a real event in historical time and it left traces of itself as a paradigmatic irregularity‖ (1984, p. 170). From the clarification given by Lass, it can be concluded that phonological processes are kind of irregularities befalling in a language. Lass also mentions that those ‗surface‘ irregularities are resolved by referring them to the ‗deeper‘ regularities. Therefore, the processes are needed to mirror the historical changes producing the irregularities in the first place. The classifications of the processes are summarized from Lass‘s (1984) account in page 171, 184, 186-187, and 188. The feature-changing rule, however, is justified by Fromkin et al (2011) in 249.
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a. Assimilation and Dissimilation
Assimilation is a segment becomes more like or identical to another or two become more like each other. In this case, it means the characteristics altered to be similar to one another. Assimilation can be either progressive/perseverative or regressive/anticipatory. This is considered from the direction; the assimilating influence may work in the left or right. It is presented in the examples open
[əʊpən] to [əʊpm] and I’m coming [aɪm kʌmɪŋ] pronounced [aɪŋ kʌmɪŋ]. In the enunciation of open, the influence moves from the left to right or forward whereas the last example tells the opposite, from the right to left or backward. In the open, the [n] changing into [m] is caused by [p]. They turn out to be alike since they share the same place of articulation, bilabials. The [m] adjusting to [ŋ] is due to
[k] produced identical with [ŋ] in the discussion of manner of articulation (Lass,
1984, p. 171).
Lass, on the other hand, exposes that dissimilation is the reverse of assimilation (1984, p. 171). While assimilation has the function to transform certain characteristic of sound so that it assimilates to either preceding or following sound in a segment, dissimilation is to dissimilate or convert the sound to be less similar to other sounds. It works to ease the pronunciation since it is easier to utter the words containing dissimilation, such as fricative dissimilation rule. The words fifth [fɪfƟ] and sixth [sɪksƟ] tend to be spoken [fɪft] and [sɪkst], for the changing of fricative [Ɵ] becoming dissimilar to the preceding fricative [f] to stop [t] (Fromkin, Rodman, & Hyams, 2011, p. 249).
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b. Feature-Changing Rule
Fromkin et al reveal that feature-changing rule is feature already present is changed. In another word, it is an addition of features in the other way. The /z/ plural morpheme is turned into /s/ when following the voiceless sounds. Another example is nasalization of vowel when certain vowel comes before nasals, as pen
[pɛn]. The vowel [ɛ] is finally added with the feature [+nasal] although before, vowel has no feature of nasal. Because of that, feature-changing rule is the phenomenon are able to determine the feature conversion of sounds (2011, p.
249). c. Insertion
Insertion is a new segment appearing ‗from zero‘ in formerly unoccupied marginal positions in the word or morpheme, or between two previously abutting segment. The common term for insertion is epenthesis. There are two types of insertion: prothesis and anaptyxis. Prothesis is an insertion of an initial segment, normally a vowel—usually with a phonotactic motivation. It can be observed in the transition of Latin to the Old French, like spiritus and stella become esprit and
étoile in French with the insertion of [e] before the consonant cluster [sp] and [st].
The second type is anaptyxis. It is the insertion of a vowel between two consonants, most usually sonorants, or an obstruent-sonorant or sonorant- obstruent cluster. In the words film [fɪlm] and athlete [aƟlit], yet pronounced
[fɪləm] and [aƟəlit], the schwa [ə] is inserted. Schwa there is the anaptyctic vowel referred as parasite vowels (Lass, 1984, p. 184).
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d. Deletion
Deletion is the opposite of insertion. If segments can emerge from zero on insertion, they can also merge with it, meaning delete (Lass, 1984, p. 186).
Then, deletion is shared into three classifications: aphaeresis, syncope
(syncopation), and apocope (apocopation). Aphaeresis is initial deletion, such as I am into I’m and the utterance for knight [nʌɪt] loses the phoneme [k].
Syncope or syncopation is formative-internal deletion. The expression is mostly used to show the vowel loss. The results of the syncopation are observed in the comparisons of American and British accents in the words secretary
[sɛkrɪtɛri] vs [sɛkrɪtrɪ] and dictionary [dɪkʃənɛri] vs [dɪkʃnrɪ]. The vowel [ɛ] and
[ə] are omitted in the utterances. The last type is apocope or apocopation. It is loss of final element and quite common in English, for instance, final [t] is deleted before a word beginning with another consonant, as in last time spoken [lӕstaɪm].
The final [t] in last is merged with the following consonant [t] in the word time as well (Lass, 1984, p. 187). e. Metathesis
Metathesis or the transposition of segments is less common than deletion or epenthesis. For instance, there have been a number of metatheses existing in
Old English: the interchanges of /p/ and /s/. They are wapse into waspe ‗wasp‘
(/ps/ /sp/), cosp into cops ‗copse‘, and wlisp into wlips ‗lipsing‘ (/sp/ /ps/).
Another metathesis involving nasal sequences: emnity for enmity and anenome for anemone. Owing to Lass (1984), there is no solution to this, meaning that the standard formulation for metathesis fudges the issue by not making a
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commitment, as in the phenomenon of /p/ and /s/. The phoneme /p/ can move to either right or left of /s/ or both can simultaneously (1984, p. 188).
5. Orthography
Orthography is another theory needed to answer the third objective of the study since this research deals with English words, especially the words with consonant clusters. According to Rumsey et al (1997), there are 2 cognitive abilities underlying visual word identification: phonological and orthographic components. Phonological component is defined as the ability to use speech code to retrieve information and this process involves the ‗sounding out‘ of the words.
Orthographic component, on the other hand, is a process as one gains access to lexical representations of printed words without phonological mediation (1997, p.
739).
From the definition of each, it implies that phonology and orthography are two different things. Orthography is a writing system of a language having nothing to do with the process of producing the sounds within the words, meaning that what is written is not necessarily what to read.
This theory is required, for the utterance of English consonant clusters is not the same as how they are written. Unlike English, Indonesian has the writing system corresponding to the sounds production. Besides, consonant clusters are not existent in Indonesian. Therefore, the participants, as English learners, may do some mistakes when pronouncing the consonant clusters provided in the selected words.
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C. Theoretical Framework
As having been explained in details in the related theories, this study uses the main theory: phonology. However, this theory covers many sub-theories.
Those are applied to solve the problems mentioned in the research questions, the reasons in both discussions of phonological processes and factors of the pronunciations achieved by Indonesian learners of English.
Phonology mainly explicates the sound system of particular language. In this study, it is worked to clarify English and Indonesian sound system, specifically consonant. Then, it is itemized into consonant cluster rule. Consonant cluster helps the researcher analyze consonants in both languages, English and
Indonesian. Since each language has its own characteristics, one to others must be varied. These distinctive characteristics are expected to identify the backgrounds underlying the utterances acted by the participants. Consonant cluster rule contributes to give reasons for the pronunciations done due to the aspects of those brought by each language being compared.
Moreover, the utterances attained by the participants are able to be scrutinized by the rules of phonology. It is to answer the second problem, phonological processes entangled in the pronunciations. The discipline elucidates the phenomena of pronunciation in language. The phenomena are assimilation, dissimilation, feature-changing rule, insertion, deletion, and metathesis. They can occur in the performance of language and of course have triggering grounds.
Therefore, it is functioned as phonological processes in scrutinizing the utterances
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later performed along with the descriptions of the motives initiating the utterances‘ phenomena.
Besides the rules of phonology, to answer the phonological processes of the utterances, the theory of orthography is utilized to solve the third objective of the study, phonological factors. Orthography uncovers that writing system does not parallel to the sounds production of the words. It has the effect on how the participants utter the English consonant clusters due to the consistency of writing system and pronunciation in Indonesian.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY
In this chapter, there are three parts of discussion. The first part is object of the study. It explains the objects, participants and the chosen words, conducted in this research accompanied by the reasons of the selections. Then, the approach of the study is in the second part of the discussion. It contains the description of the approach applied in the research. After that, the last part prescribing the method in examining the data is explicated in the method of the study. This part has two branches: data collection and analysis. They show how the data are collected and analyzed by the researcher.
A. Object of the Study
This research involved sounds to be observed since the data were pronunciations. The pronunciations intended for the investigation in this study were the pronunciations of consonant clusters. The participants required were those acquiring Indonesian as the mother tongue. The researcher specifically chose the non-English students, especially the students majoring Management of
Sanata Dharma University as the participants that would be interviewed. They were freshmen on the ages of 16-18. The selection was to comprehend the quality of their pronunciations in English consonant clusters, for consonant clusters in both English and Indonesian must be distinctive. Therefore, the researcher attempted to reveal what phenomena taking place in their utterances as well as the
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potential factors influencing them.
The words tested were taken from the module Bahasa Inggris: English for General Purposes compiled by Language Institute of Sanata Dharma
University. There are 8 words having consonant clusters, alveolar-alveolar and bilabial-alveolar, in the final position: the first 5 words included alveolar-alveolars and the other three were bilabial-alveolars. The words had 1-4 syllable(s), yet the researcher classified them based on the consonant clusters they possessed.
Table 1: Words with Alveolar-Alveolar and Bilabial-Alveolar Consonant Clusters Consonant Clusters No. Words Alveolar-Alveolar 1 Infant /ɪnfənt/ 2 Found /faʊnd/ 3 Increased /ɪnkrist/ 4 Well-organized /wɛl ɔgənaɪzd/ 5 Influence /ɪnfluəns/ Bilabial-Alveolar 6 Developed /dɪveləpt/ 7 Transformed /trӕnsfɔmd/ 8 Primed /praɪmd/
The words, having the functions as past tense verb, past participle {–ed} verb, adjective, noun, and non-finite verb, were taken out from the sentences in some reading comprehensions in the module. The words on the left side presented alveolar-alveolar consonant clusters in the final position: [nt], [nd], [st], [ns], and
[zd], whereas the clusters [pt] and [md] were categorized in the right side of the table displaying bilabial-alveolar consonant clusters in the final position of words.
The reason of words choice—besides they exposed consonant clusters related to the research managed by the researcher—is the module was the only material they used in learning English in class, so that they may be more familiar with the words.
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B. Approach of the Study
The main purpose of this study was to investigate the pronunciations of
Indonesian learners of English, particularly the students of non-English
Department in Sanata Dharma University. Pronunciation is dealing with sound.
The researcher, thus, applied phonological approach to this study as phonology is the study of distinctive sounds in a language (Brinton & Brinton, 2010, p. 50).
Phonological approach does not only rule about sounds, yet the patterns including the limitations managed by each language (Fromkin, Rodman, & Hyams, 2011, p.
227). This, then, was functioned to contrast two languages examined in this study,
English and Indonesian. After that, the contrasts uncovered what processes going on in the utterances by the participants.
C. Method of the Study
There are two sections contained within this part. The first is data collection explicating about the procedures of collecting the data. The second is the steps of how the accumulated data are investigated in detail. This is covered in the data analysis section.
1. Data Collection
This research employed purposeful sampling for gathering the data needed. The concept of purposeful sampling is commonly used in qualitative research. It means that the researcher selects the individuals and sites of the study since they provide understandings of the research problems and central phenomena of the study (Creswell, 2007, p. 125). To be exact, the research used
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criterion of purposeful sampling. It was because the individuals/participants and sites to be observed were not randomly chosen, yet they should meet some criteria useful for the quality assurance (Miles & Huberman, 1994, p. 28) so that the researcher was easily able to classify the data. Therefore, the words—as listed in the table 1—were preferred since not all words having consonant clusters, specifically alveolar-alveolar and bilabial-alveolar consonant cluster. Moreover, the words were often met by the participants as they were obtained from the main module usually discussed in class. The participants were limited in 10 people only; those in Management study program taking English General Lecture.
The intended participants had to encounter the criteria decided by the researcher, which was those procuring Indonesian as their first language (mother tongue). Then, they were provided questionnaires, one for each, to be filled. There were two parts of question in the questionnaires: part A contained 8 English words and part B was multiple choice questions asking about the involved participants‘ backgrounds. Part A was accomplished by one-on-one or face-to- face interview utilizing audiotape to be transcribed for further analysis (Creswell,
2007, p. 130); the participants were recorded as they were pronouncing every word listed in the questionnaires. Then, the voice records were transliterated into phonetic transcriptions. In this step, the researcher used a sound recorder in taping the utterances and wrote down each enunciation with helps of friends doing the same research in phonology to check on them or the researcher involved the second ears to validate the transcriptions. Part B, on the other hand, was achieved
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by instructing the participants to fill a choice, out of 2 or more choices, fitting them the most; related to their backgrounds and experiences.
The interview and questionnaires distribution were realized on Tuesday, the schedule for English General Lecture in Management Study Program,
November 2nd 2018 in class. These activities took approximately 30 minutes to complete; 10 minutes for them to fill part B of the questionnaires and 2 minutes for each of them to perform the utterances concurrently with the voice recording by the researcher.
2. Data Analysis
This section described the processes of analyzing the data after collected.
The recorded utterances were transcribed by the researcher—by listening to each utterance‘s recording and writing them down one by one—into International
Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) then checked by friends working on the similar research.
Then the pronunciations in the form of phonetic transcriptions were scrutinized with two viewpoints: phonological processes and factors.
In order to answer the first problem, the transcribed utterances made by the participants as well as the intended pronunciations were presented in the appendices. There were 10 participants whose each enunciation was converted into phonetic transcriptions and written down in the tables. The participants were termed as participant 1 (P1), participant 2 (P2), and so on until P10 based on the number of the participants. The tables showed which consonant clusters successfully spoken and which were not. These were followed with the
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dictionary-based, specifically Oxford Advanced Learner‘s Dictionary, transcriptions. In analyzing the data, the researcher created a table displaying the frequency of both correct and incorrect pronunciations along with their percentages as the results‘ summary of the utterances.
Table 2: Summarized Results of the Participants’ Pronunciations Consonant Clusters English Words Based Results on Coda Sounds
Correct Incorrect F % F % Alveolar-Alveolars Nasal-Stops Fricative-Stops Nasal-Fricatives Bilabial-Alveolars Stop-Stops Nasal-Stops Total F = Frequency
The table revealed two kinds of result of the utterances: correct and incorrect. The correct ones were those who successfully performed the consonant clusters in the final position of the itemized words, while the incorrect ones were those accomplishing the opposite. Both of them were also completed with frequency, meaning the number of the participants, and the percentage. There were 8 English words as specified in the Object of the Study: 5 words having alveolar-alveolar and the others containing bilabial-alveolar consonant clusters.
All the consonant clusters occupied the final position of the words. However, they were spread according to their coda sounds, reflected from manner of articulation: alveolar-alveolars was placed in 3 types, nasal-stops in the words infant and
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found, fricative-stops presenting the words increased and well-organized, and nasal-fricatives occupying the word influence, yet bilabial-alveolar consonant clusters were into 2 types, stop-stops as in the selected word developed also nasal- fricatives portrayed in the words transformed and primed.
As the result, the researcher had 80 data of pronunciations. The percentage of each word was obtained by dividing the number frequency, in the correct and incorrect columns, showed with 10 as the number of the whole participants. Then, the result appearing was multiplied by 100. For example, there were only 4 participants who could correctly pronounce the word infant, whereas the others could not. The percentage for the correct ones was 40% since 4/10 x
100.
It shared the same counting formula for searching the percentage of each classification of coda sounds. Only the divisors varied depended on the preferred word(s). For instance, the entirety of participants able to utter nasal-stop consonant clusters was 3. Since the words belong to nasal-stops were 2, the divisor was 20 (2 words x 10 participants). Hence, the percentage for nasal-stops was 15%, for 3/20 x 100.
Furthermore, the total of the overall summary percentages was gained by summing up the correct as well as the incorrect columns. Then, each summed up result was divided by 80 (8 words x 10 participants). The division result, after that, was multiplied by 100 to determine the overall percentage of the whole number of participants‘ enunciations. Lastly, the latest numbers gotten were justified in the analysis of phonological processes.
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In finding the phonological factors, on the other hand, the researcher prepared the other two tables describing language use and English acquisition as the factors of the utterances. According to Grosvald et al, ―a prominent issue is to determine whether the processes involved in sign recognition are driven by factors that are common to human action recognition in general or entail specialized linguistic processing (2009, p. 24). It can be deduced that language use is linked to either language features or languages as a whole, such as mother tongue or any other varieties usually implemented by the respondents so that it intervenes their
English pronunciations. English acquisition, however, is the cause of the language being learnt by the participants considered as activity or experience. Both data were constructed by the responses of the participants having filled the questionnaires.
Table 3: Language Use Influencing the Participants’ Pronunciations Language Use Mother Tongue Daily Communication Indonesian Local language Indonesian Local Language ......
The table above was split into two parts: language of the mother tongue and daily communication. Then, both columns offered two variants of language,
Indonesian and local language. The numbers appearing as frequency would reveal their habits toward certain language. Hence, it was researched further in the analysis by contrasting characteristics of each language that could have potential effects on the utterances performance of English.
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Table 4: English Acquisition Influencing the Participants’ Pronunciations English Acquisition Learning Pronunciation Differentiating Sounds Segmenting Words Yes No Yes No Yes No ......
The table of English acquisition covered whether or not the respondents having learnt English pronunciation are able to differentiate sounds in both
English and Indonesian also segment syllables in English. The total was then counted by the number of participants‘ frequencies in answering either ―yes‖ or
―no‖ concerned with their experiences in attaining English. This finally was applied as proof of their English utterances; the researcher matched the proof accompanied by pronunciations of English words they had achieved.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
CHAPTER IV
ANALYSIS RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
This chapter consists of three parts. The first part describes the distribution of how the non-English students, management students, of Sanata
Dharma University utter the selected English words with alveolar-alveolar and bilabial-consonant clusters. The second part is about the discussion on the phonological processes occurring in the pronunciations. Then, the last part explains the phonological factors affecting the participants in performing the utterances.
A. The Pronunciations of Alveolar-Alveolar and Bilabial-Alveolar
Consonant Clusters by the Participants
The focus of this research is on the consonant cluster only. As stated in the previous chapter, specifically chapter 3 in the object of the study, the words to be examined are elected from the main module the respondents learn in class.
Thus, the words may be recognizable by the respondents.
There are totally 8 words chosen. Then, they are grouped into distinctive types based on their coda sounds. Alveolar-alveolar consonant clusters‘ organizations are nasal-stops, fricative-stops, and nasal-fricatives. Nasal-stop coda sounds enclosed in the selected 8 words are /nt/ and /nd/ whereas the fricative- stops is the sounds /st/ and /zd/. The last, nasal-fricatives, is occupied with /ns/ only. Bilabial-alveolars, on the other hand, signifies its class to stop-stop /pt/ and
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nasal-stop /md/. All of the consonant clusters‘ utterances mentioned are constructed with dictionary-based pronunciations or phonetic transcriptions— having been transcribed in the slash—because one-to-one correspondence between clusters is in neither speech nor writing (Diouf, 2001, p. 4). For example, the final sound of the word developed is /pt/ although the final consonant is written in a letter
Table 5: Summarized Results of the Participants’ Pronunciations
Results English Words Consonant Clusters Based on Coda Sounds Correct Incorrect F % F % Alveolar-Alveolars Nasal-Stops 3 15% 17 85% Fricative-Stops 1 5% 19 95% Nasal-Fricatives 10 100% 0 0% Bilabial-Alveolars Stop-Stops 1 10% 9 90% Nasal-Stops 6 30% 14 70% Total 21 26.25% 59 73.75% F = Frequency
The table demonstrates the overall result of the respondents‘ enunciations in words bearing consonant clusters. The numbers in frequency represent how many times the data appear, not the quantity of the respondents. In nasal-stops of alveolar-alveolars, it is noted 17 in the frequency of the incorrect. It implies that the chosen words in nasal-stops, infant and found, are done 17 times falsely by 10 respondents whom each of them has to enunciate 2 words.
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All of the participants do not make mistakes in pronouncing nasal- fricative alveolar-alveolar consonant clusters, while in performing nasal-stops—to be exact in the word infant and found—three of them does the utterances successfully. Moreover, fricative-stops row uncovers a respondent performs consonant cluster in the word increased in an accurate way while the others do not. These results are justified in the percentages in alveolar-alveolar rows where nasal-fricatives obtains the percentage 100% in the correct utterance. Nasal-stops, conversely, gets three respondent enunciating the word correctly, in the percentage 15% and the others 85% utter it in an incorrect way and fricative-stops finds only a respondent correct, 5%, and 95% others are incorrect.
In the achievement of bilabial-alveolar consonant cluster, the percentages of correct as well as incorrect pronunciations in stop-stops and nasal-stops are varied: the correct performance in stop-stops is 10%, yet 30% in nasal-stops whereas the incorrect one is 90% in stop-stops and 70% in nasal-stops. Stop-stops tells there is a respondent uttering the word in this type well. The successful respondents are also observed in the class of nasal-stops. It is written that 6 frequencies—3 respondents are accurate in transformed and the other 3 are able to speak primed appropriately. Fourteen frequencies of the incorrect mean that both words classified in the nasal-stop consonant clusters are mistakenly enunciated by
7 respondents.
The total result of the table depicts that the quantity of the incorrect pronunciations is higher than the correct ones—shown in the percentages: 26.25% of the correct and 73.75% of the incorrect. It denotes that most of the respondents
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are not able to enunciate the final consonant clusters. Each part of these outcomes is elaborated further in the following sections.
1. The Pronunciations of Alveolar-Alveolar Consonant Clusters by the
Participants
After the table of synopsized result of the entire data is illustrated, the calculation is continued to the more detailed analysis. This section describes the whole results of alveolar-alveolar consonant clusters articulated by the participants. However, before the examination, a table is provided to summarize that result as a proof for the further descriptions.
Table 6: Summarized Results of Alveolar-Alveolar Pronunciations
Results English Words Based Consonant Clusters on Coda Sounds Correct Incorrect F % F % Alveolar-Alveolars Nasal-Stops 3 15% 17 85% Fricative-Stops 1 5% 19 95% Nasal-Fricatives 10 100% 0 0% Total 14 28% 36 72% F=Frequency
Alveolar-alveolar consonant clusters have 5 selected words categorized in three groups of coda sounds. The first group, nasal-stops, offers 2 words: infant
/ɪnfənt/ and found /faʊnd/. The second one is fricative-stops displaying the words increased /ɪnkrist/ and well-organized /wel ɔgənaɪzd/. The last, nasal-fricatives, evinces only a word, influence /ɪnfluəns/. The researcher now possesses 50 data (5
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words x 10 respondents) in alveolar-alveolars, meaning that each word is rated 10 times in its appearance of the data. Therefore, the percentage of the correct is
28%, from 14 (the sum of the correct utterances in alveolar-alveolars) divided by
50 then multiplied by 100 whereas the incorrect ones are found 72% (48 incorrect utterances/50 x 100).
Twenty eight percent of the correct is 14 data achieving approved pronunciation; 15% in nasal-stops, 5% in fricative-stops, and 100% in nasal- fricatives. The 72% is those acting the mistakes in performing the three categories in alveolar-alveolar consonant clusters—17 data (85%) in nasal-stops, 19 data
(95%) in fricative-stops, and no data (0%) in nasal-fricatives. Every division is enlarged in the next parts. a. Nasal-Stops
The respondents‘ pronunciation performances in alveolar-alveolar consonant clusters, particularly nasal-stops are deliberated in this section. The table displayed below is the table of that pronunciation result.
Table 7: Results of the Participants’ Pronunciations in Nasal-Stops Correct Pronunciation Incorrect Pronunciation Words Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage Infant 1 10% 9 90% Found 2 20% 8 80% Total 3 15% 17 85%
The table reveals a general outcome of the respondents‘ utterances in nasal-stop alveolar-alveolar consonant clusters. It is seen that the incorrect pronunciation gets the highest percentage, 85%, than the correct one obtaining a
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very small number of percentage, 15%. It is kind of a large gap between the correct and incorrect one.
In the pronunciation of the word infant, the percentage illustrates 10% of the correct and 90% of the incorrect. There is a respondent articulating the consonant cluster as the intended pronunciation exposes whereas the other 9 respondents do not. Most of them eliminate the sound /t/ in the final word so the utterance is like [ɪnfen], yet a respondent is realized uttering it [ɪnfeŋ]; changing the sound. Identical to the word infant, the percentage of the incorrect enunciations of the word found is higher than the correct one. However, they are distinctive in the number. In the pronunciation of found, the correct column gains
15% and 85% for the incorrect. The 15% presents 2 respondents able to articulate the consonant cluster in the word based on the dictionary-based pronunciation.
Oppositely, the 85% reveals the rest of the respondents not capable to perform the consonant cluster. All of them omit the last sound /d/ so that it is considered false since not corresponding to the intended pronunciation. b. Fricative-Stops
The outcome of the enunciations of fricative-stop consonant clusters by the respondents will be reviewed in this section. The following table exhibits the summarized outcome of it.
Table 8: Results of the Participants’ Pronunciations in Fricative- Stops Correct Pronunciation Incorrect Pronunciation Words Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage Increased 1 10% 9 90% Well-organized 0 0% 10 100% Total 1 5% 19 95%
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As the table portrays, the sum of the correct utterance is only 5% acquired from a respondent articulating the fricative-stop consonant cluster /st/ in the word increased precisely. The incorrect, instead, shows the opposite. There are 19 data of words in this classification mispronounced by the respondents.
Hence, the percentage attained is 95%.
The frequency of increased pronunciation tells that only a participant successfully speaking the fricative-stop consonant cluster /st/ in the final whereas the 9 others cannot achieve the pronunciation as the intended one. All of the incorrect participants in this case miss the final sound /t/ so that it is judged wrong. A dissimilar situation is observed in the utterance of well-organized; the whole respondents perform the mistakes in enunciating this word. Consequently, it is written 100% in the incorrect column of pronunciation. They commonly substitute the final sound /zd/ into [st], reduce the sound /d/—even combine them both so that the utterance tends to be [wel ɔgənaɪs] or [wel ɔrganɪs] and stuff, also add another sound between the consonants forming the word to be [wel
ɔrgənaɪzəd]. c. Nasal-Fricatives
The general result of the respondents‘ utterances in nasal-fricatives is going to be examined in this part. The examination is then validated in the table below.
Table 9: Results of the Participants’ Pronunciations in Nasal- Fricatives Correct Pronunciation Incorrect Pronunciation Words Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage Influence 10 100% 0 0% Total 10 100% 0 0%
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The table tells that all of the respondents correctly pronounce the nasal- fricative word, influence. It is stated in both column of frequency as well as percentage, which are 10 and 100%. Since this research‘s concentration is only on the consonant clusters‘ utterances, this success is accomplished since all respondents are able to utter the nasal-fricative final consonant cluster /ns/ in accordance to the intended pronunciation of the word, /ɪnfluəns/. It is justified in the explanation of phonological factors later.
2. The Pronunciations of Bilabial-Alveolar Consonant Clusters by the
Participants
As the alveolar-alveolars, in this segment, the concise result of the complete data of bilabial-bilabial consonant clusters‘ utterances is demonstrated as well. Furthermore, a table below is shown in order to condense the result so that the explanations are based on what is portrayed in the table.
Table 10: Summarized Results of Bilabial-Alveolar Pronunciations
Results English Words Consonant Clusters Based on Coda Sounds Correct Incorrect F % F % Bilabial-Alveolars Stop-Stops 1 10% 9 90% Nasal-Stops 6 30% 14 70% Total 7 23.3% 23 76.7% F=Frequency
Bilabial-alveolar consonant clusters share the different quantity of the selected words, which is 3 words and the categorization of the words is unalike.
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Bilabial-alveolar clusters own 2 only groups arranged by the coda sounds of the words. They are stop-stops and nasal-stops. There is a word in the group of stop- stops: developed /dɪveləpt/ while 2 words in the class of nasal-stops: transformed
/tӕnsfɔmd/ and primed /praɪmd/. As the result, the researcher obtains 30 data (3 words x 10 respondents) of bilabial-alveolar utterances; each word emerges 10 times. From this, it can be drawn to the outcome that in bilabial-alveolars, the correct data are 23.3% (7 correct pronunciations/30 whole data x 100), but the incorrect ones is 76.7% (23 incorrect pronunciations/30 x 100).
Twenty three point three percent of the correct data in bilabial-alveolar clusters is gained from 7 right utterances with the percentages 10% in stop-stops and 30% in nasal-stops. The 76.7% of incorrect ones, instead, is acquired from 23 inaccurate utterances as the percentages reveal 90% in stop-stops and 70% in nasal-stops. Every classification in bilabial-alveolar consonant clusters will be specified in the following subparts. a. Stop-Stops
This part argues the result of bilabial-alveolar consonant clusters, particularly stop-stops, articulated by the respondents. Moreover, the result examination is adjusted in the table below.
Table 11: Results of the Participants’ Pronunciations in Stop-Stops Correct Pronunciation Incorrect Pronunciation Words Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage Developed 1 10% 9 90% Total 1 10% 9 90%
That one participant in the correct pronunciation column is of course able to utter the stop-stop cluster /pt/ of developed. However, the other 9 mispronounce
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the consonant cluster. They are 6 respondents omitting the final sound [t], a respondent adding the other sounds—particularly [mən] so the utterance becomes
[devəlɔpmən], and 2 respondents replacing the sound /t/ into /d/.
As the data of each word have been investigated, the total data of both correct and incorrect utterances in stop-stop clusters is based on the result of the word developed pronunciation only: 1 and 9 with the percentages 10% and 90%. b. Nasal-Stops
The general outcome of the respondents‘ utterances is investigated in this part. The utterances principally are in nasal-stops. Besides, the clarification is supported by the table.
Table 12: Result of the Participants’ Pronunciations in Nasal-Stops Correct Pronunciation Incorrect Pronunciation Words Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage Transformed 3 30% 7 70% Primed 3 30% 7 70% Total 6 30% 14 70%
Based on the table, it is counted 3 participants doing the pronunciation of transformed rightly so that its percentage is 30%. As the research concentrates on the consonant cluster merely, the consonant cluster of nasal-stop /md/ is spoken precisely in this case. The frequency in the incorrect pronunciation of transformed, in contrast, uncovers that there are 7 participants—70% on the percentage. The reasons of these wrong utterances are 6 participants remove the sound /d/ in the final position of the word also a participant does two mistakes at once, put in the sound /e/ and alter the final consonant /d/ with /t/. Accordingly, the articulation tends to be [transfɔrmet].
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Then, in the word primed, there are 3 correct utterances by the participants, in the percentage of 30%, and 7 incorrect enunciations, 70%. Those 3 respondents successfully pronounce the nasal-stop consonant cluster /md/ in the final position of the word primed. However, 7 other respondents mistakenly utter it. The errors are in the addition of sounds between the consonant cluster by 4 respondents as well as the reduction of the final sound /d/ achieved by 3 other respondents.
After a complete result of every word‘s achievement is reckoned, the numbers coming out in the frequency of both correct and incorrect pronunciations are summed up to find the percentages. Since the table indicates 6 correct data and
14 incorrect data, the percentages must be 30% and 70%.
B. Phonological Processes Observed in the Participants’ Pronunciations
In the previous section, the results, mainly the frequencies and percentages of the respondents‘ pronunciations have been conferred so that the sum of each capable and incapable respondents in articulating consonant clusters is identified. Unlike that preceding part, this section will go into a deeper analysis of the utterances of the respondents, which is phenomena taking place in their enunciations or, in a linguistic term, phonological process. Phonological process, or phonological rule stated by Hayes, is generalizations of sounds that can be pronounced in a different way depending on the environments (2009, p. 8). This is to say, sounds in language undergo changes in accordance with the locations where those sounds occur. Consequently, people in uttering certain language may
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be distinctive from one another since the generalizations of sounds in the varied environments are perceived variously by each person.
Moreover, Sahulata (1988) says that phonological process is a dynamic units of the system enduring changes as in contact with the other units in a system
(Sahulata, 1988). The statement discloses that the respondents likely do some mistakes in uttering language that is not their mother tongue or daily language, for they are not accustomed to it so that some units are altered. Those alterations of units in utterances then are examined in this section.
As having been known in the previous part, the percentage of the participants who cannot enunciate the consonant clusters, both in alveolar-alveolar and bilabial-alveolar consonant clusters, is higher than it is in the incorrect pronunciation‘s percentage. It signifies that most of the participants fail in performing the consonant clusters or, meaning to say, they are incapable in enunciating the consonant clusters as the intended pronunciations. Since the accurate pronunciations have followed the phonetic transcriptions of the intended pronunciations, it does not further explanations. However, the inaccurate ones does and each of them is expanded below in the table as well as the analysis.
Table 13: Summary of Phonological Processes Occurring in the Participants’ Pronunciations Words Based Phonological Consonant No. on Coda Words Process Clusters Sounds 1 Deletion Alveolar- Nasal-Stops Infant, Found Alveolars Fricative-Stops Increased, Well- organized Bilabial- Stop-Stops Developed Alveolars Nasal-Stops Transformed, Primed 2 Feature- Alveolar- Nasal-Stops Infant
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Changing Rule Alveolars Fricative-Stops Increased, Well- organized Bilabial- Stop-Stops Developed Alveolars Nasal-Stops Transformed, Primed 3 Insertion Alveolar- Fricative-Stops Well-organized Alveolars Bilabial- Stop-Stops Developed Alveolars Nasal-Stops Transformed, Primed
Briefly, there are 4 kinds of phonological process befalling in the participants‘ pronunciations as the table above illustrates. The most occurrence of phonological process is deletion then following with 2 other processes: feature- changing rule and insertion.
Sound(s) in deletion tend to be eliminated by the participants; in this case, it is mostly in the final sounds so that sounds supposed to be articulated are missing. Feature-changing rule, on the other hand, is a linguistic phenomenon where the features attached to certain sounds in words are transformed. Then, it creates another feature of sounds. Contrasting to deletion, insertion is the contrary.
While deletion works in the sounds‘ eradications, insertion triggers the speaker to add a or some sound(s) to the syllable—the most often sound inserted is [ə] in this research. Thus, in insertion, the sound(s) expected not to be uttered is pronounced.
Each of these phonological process is elaborated in every section: deletion, feature-changing rule, and insertion.
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1. Deletion
Deletion is the most phonological process‘s occurrence in this research, meaning that it takes place in almost pronunciations performed by the respondents. It is the act when the respondents eradicate a or some sound(s) within the words. As having been explained, this research is more about the consonant clusters‘ utterances. Hence, the researcher only focuses on it. In this phenomenon, the sounds tending not to be enunciated are the final sounds of each word tested to the respondents. It befalls on both alveolar-alveolar and bilabial- alveolar consonant clusters with the same patterns. It, then, will be reviewed on the descriptions below.
Table 14: Summary of Deletion Phonological Process in the Participants’ Pronunciations Consonant Intended Participants’ The Words Clusters Pronunciations Pronunciations Alveolar- Infant /‘ɪnfənt/ [ɪnfen], [ɪnfhen], Alveolars [ɪnfeŋ] Found /faʊnd/ [faʊn], [fɔʊn], [fɔn] Increased /ɪn‘kri:st/ [ɪnkres], [ɪnkris], [ɪnkrɪs] Well-organized /wel ‘ɔ:gənaɪzd/ [wel ɔgənaɪs], [wel ɔrgənaɪs], [wel ɔrganɪs] Bilabial- Developed /dɪ‘veləpt/ [devəlɔp], [dɪvəlɔp] Alveolars Transformed /trӕns‘fɔ:md/ [transfɔm], [trensfɔm], [transfɔrm] Primed /praɪmd/ [praɪm]
In the scope of alveolar-alveolar consonant clusters, particularly in nasal- stops, there are 2 words provided to be examined: infant and found. As the table in the previous section reveals, 9 participants fail to utter infant whereas in pronouncing found, 8 participants erroneously utter it. Furthermore, the mistake
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generally found in their pronunciations is they delete the final sounds /t/ and /d/ of both words. Therefore, the enunciations are like [ɪnfen] done by P1, P2, P4, P6,
P7, P8, P9, P10, yet P3 articulates it [ɪnfhen]; all of them abolish the sound /t/ in the final position of word regardless of the change of the vowel /ə/, as in the intended pronunciation, to [e] and aspirated [f]. The happening of deletion in P7 as P7 speaks infant as [ɪnfeŋ], he/she omits the consonant /t/ first then replace the consonant sound /n/ into [ŋ]—this is contained in the elucidation of feature- changing rule phenomenon.
The articulation of found becoming [faʊn] is committed by P1, P4, P7, and P8. However, the utterance as [fɔʊn] is acted by P2 and P3 and found uttered
[fɔn] is performed by P6 and P9. They all remove the sound /d/ in the final position so that the consonant cluster /nd/ is not in line with the intended pronunciation since the correct pronunciation of found is /faʊnd/.
In the stop-stop consonant clusters of alveolar-alveolars, 2 words are selected as well: increased /ɪnkrist/ and well-organized /wel ɔgənaɪzd/.
Nonetheless, similar to the deletion in nasal-stops, the sounds /t/ and /d/ are omitted by the respondents. Table 8 informs that 9 respondents articulate the word increased inaccurately—seven of which do deletion—while all participants utter mistakenly the word well-organized. The word increased pronounced [ɪnkres] is achieved by P1, P3, P6, P7, and P10. P8, oppositely, articulate it [ɪnkris] and
[ɪnkrɪs] by P9. Although their utterances are quite different between one another, the error they produce to the consonant cluster is alike.
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The utterances of well-organized show something distinctive since it gets all participants producing it misguidedly even though the fault constructed is the same. Nevertheless, 6 of them act deletion of their enunciations. They are P1, P3,
P4, P5, P8, and P9 producing the word like [wel ɔgənaɪs] or [wel ɔrgənaɪs] whereas P6 and P7 utter it [wel ɔrganɪs]. Since the intended utterance of the word is /wel ɔgənaɪzd/, those 6 pronunciations are considered mistakes. The main problem is they miss the final sound of the consonant cluster /d/ besides substituting the voiced fricative /z/ with voiceless fricative /s/—explained in feature-changing rule‘s part.
Bilabial-alveolars as well as alveolar-alveolars explicates the alike mistake‘s pattern. It also takes place in 2 classifications of consonant clusters: stop-stops and nasal stops. Stop-stops provides a word examined, developed
/dɪveləpt/.
In the enunciation of developed, the phenomenon of deletion happens as well. As seen in table 11, the frequency of them acting the fault to the pronunciation is 9 participants, yet there are only 7 of them performing deletion.
P1 articulates it [devəlɔp], P3‘s utterance is [devəlɔpmən] by eliminating /t/ then replacing it with a syllable [mən]—conferred in insertion‘s explanation. P6, meanwhile, is [dɪvəlop], P7, P8, P9, and P10 are like [dɪvəlɔp]. Even though their performances are pretty distinctive between one another, the error they result is similar: deletion.
The next category, nasal-stops of bilabial-alveolars, presenting 3 words: transformed /trӕns‘fɔ:md/ and primed /praɪmd/ illustrates different data in the
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table, particularly table 12, yet the case is just the same although the sounds removed are dissimilar. The word transformed shows 7 participants in the quantity of incorrect pronunciations. Six of them: P1, P3, P6, P8, P9, and P10 are included in this error pronunciation. P1, P6, and P8 do not pronounce the final alveolar stop /d/ so that the enunciation is [transfɔm]. P3‘s and P10‘s are
[trensfɔm] whereas the last P9‘s is [transfɔrm]. They are incorrect since instead of uttering both consonant clusters, they only perform a consonant cluster /m/ by ignoring the other, /d/.
The word primed in the table 12 reveals there are 7 participants, as the word transformed, mistakenly perform the word, yet only 3 of them are engaged in this process of pronunciation. They are P1, P3, and P8. They all produce primed as [praɪm] rather than /praɪmd/. The process undergone by the sound /d/ is deletion due to its nonappearance in their utterances.
Those processes of deletion of the sounds /t/ and /d/ can be expressed in the notations below.
Deletion of /t/: /t/ Ø / ______#
Deletion of /d/: /d/ Ø / ______#
They have meaning that the sounds /t/ and /d/ are deleted or not uttered in the end of the words by the respondents. The symbol ―Ø‖ refers to ―null‖ entailing the absence of certain sounds. Hence, the consonant clusters are not able to be enunciated precisely.
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2. Feature-Changing Rule
Similar to deletion phenomenon, feature-changing rule almost takes the same portion in the utterances‘ performance of the participants. It occurs in all classes of the words, except nasal-fricatives. In this investigation, sound or some sounds are altered into another phoneme so that it has a different feature than before. The further descriptions are identified below.
Table 15: Summary of Feature-Changing Rule Phonological Process in the Participants’ Pronunciations Consonant Intended Participants’ The Words Clusters Pronunciations Pronunciations Alveolar- Infant /‘ɪnfənt/ [ɪnfeŋ] Alveolars Increased /ɪn‘kri:st/ [ɪnkrisd], [ɪnkresd] Well-organized /wel ‘ɔ:gənaɪzd/ [wel ɔgənaɪs], [wel ɔrgənaɪs], [wel ɔrganɪs], [wel ɔgənaɪst] Bilabial- Developed /dɪ‘veləpt/ [dɪvəlɔpd] Alveolars Transformed /trӕns‘fɔ:md/ [transfɔrmet] Primed /praɪmd/ [premət], [prɪmət], [prɪmet]
In alveolar-alveolars, this happening occupies nasal-stop and fricative- stop consonant clusters. The word infant in nasal-stops is uttered [ɪnfeŋ] by P7. It is proven as a mistake because the enunciation does not fit the correct or intended pronunciation, which is /ɪnfənt/. This case reveals that after the absence of the final consonant /t/ as described in the deletion process previously, the alveolar nasal /n/ is substituted by velar nasal /ŋ/, representing that the alveolar feature of the phoneme /n/ is shifted to velar feature of /ŋ/. It indicates that the place of articulation or the place where the sound is produced is dissimilar. Thus, it is considered the change of the feature in a particular sound.
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Fricative-stop consonant clusters expose something distinctive. P2 and
P5 pronounce the word increased as [ɪnkrisd] and [ɪnkresd]. Even though the productions are quite varied, their errors show the same type: converting the sound /t/ from the intended pronunciation /ɪnkrist/ into /d/. It means that the alveolar stop /t/—supposed to be enunciated with the vocal cord being apart so the air freely flows to the glottis and the oral cavity (voiceless)—is achieved by vocal cord being together (voiced). Due to this unity, the vocal cord is vibrated, for the air forces its way out through the glottis and oral cavity. Then, the voiceless alveolar stop /t/ now becomes voiced alveolar stop /d/; having a new feature.
Meanwhile, the word well-organized whose precise utterance is /wel
ɔgənaɪzd/ has erroneous pronunciations done by all respondents except P2: P1 and
P5 enunciate it [wel ɔgənaɪs], P3, P4, P8, and P9—slightly different from P1 and
P5—add /r/ in their pronunciations so it becomes [wel ɔrgənaɪs], P6 and P7— changing the schwa into /a/ after the consonant /g/ and failing to utter 63iphthong
/aɪ/—perform it [wel ɔrganɪs], and P10 produces the word as [wel ɔgənaɪst]. The mispronunciations are varied, yet they are classified into the same sound phenomenon. Besides almost of them falsely pronounce the final consonant cluster /zd/ by missing the sound /d/, they substitute the voiced alveolar fricative
/z/ into voiceless alveolar fricative /s/. The voiced feature has replaced by voiceless one. Furthermore, observed in P10‘s utterance, the final consonant cluster /zd/ whose features are voiced alveolar fricative combined with voiced alveolar stop changes into /st/ with voiceless alveolar fricative and voiceless
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alveolar stop features. It also implies the feature changing in the pronunciation, specifically the voicing status.
P2 and P5 inaccurately enunciate the word developed as well. Their pronunciations are [dɪvəlɔpd] from the correct utterance [dɪveləpt]. Focusing on the enunciations of consonant cluster, the voiceless /t/ produced by separated vocal cord is done with the closing of the vocal cord so that it changes to the voiced /d/. Similar to the word helped, the feature of voicing status of /t/ is transferred.
The respondents also make mistakes in articulating all the words in nasal- stops. A respondent, P7, out of 7 false utterances informed in the table 12 performs the word transformed /trӕnsfɔmd/ to [transfɔrmet]. Instead of inserting vowel /e/ between the consonant cluster—explained in the part of insertion—the respondent replaces the voiced alveolar stop /d/ in the final position of word with the voiceless alveolar stop /t/.
The last word primed with intended pronunciation /praɪmd/ is mistakenly articulated by P6, P7, and P9. P6‘s utterance is [premət], P7 is [prɪmət], and P9 is
[prɪmet]. Although their utterances are differentiated by the change of vowels contained in the word, the common mistake is they alter the final sound /d/, should be pronounced voiced with the closing of vocal cord, into voiceless alveolar stop /t/. It reveals the shift of the voicing status feature as all the other nasal-stops‘s occurrence in feature-changing rule clarify.
To make clear the discussions of the processes above, the researcher gives the processes‘ notations as below.
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[+alveolar, +nasal] [+velar, +nasal] / _____ #
The first notation elucidates the alteration of nasal-stop alveolar-alveolars /n/ into nasal velar [ŋ] in the end of the word infant. Meanwhile, other processes, like the voiceless consonant /t/ uttered in the voiced /d/ after voiceless consonants of the words‘ roots and vice versa—voiced /d/ is pronounced as voiceless /t/ after voiced consonants of the words‘ roots—the notations can be done by:
[-voiced, +alveolar] [+voiced, +alveolar] / [-voiced] _____ #
[+voiced, +alveolar] [-voiced, +alveolar] / [+voiced] _____ #
Lastly, the phenomenon of feature-changing rule befalling in the word well-organized /wel ɔgənaɪzd/ spoken [wel ɔgənaɪst] is able to be portrayed in the notation:
[+voiced, +alveolar] [-voiced, +alveolar] / [+voiced] _____ #
This act is rather different since there is an occurrence of two consonants change at once. The consonant cluster /zd/ which is voiced is substituted by voiceless cluster [st] after the diphthong /aɪ/. However, the process runs as /d/ replacement by /t/ after voiced sounds.
3. Insertion
Insertion phonological process is the third greatest occurrence in this discussion. It is the sound phenomenon as another or other sound(s) is added in to the words. In this study, there are sounds often put into the words: schwa [ə], [e], and even a syllable [mən]. Those sounds are mainly included between the consonant clusters. Like the table 13 illustrates, insertion arises in both alveolar-
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alveolars and bilabial-alveolar consonant clusters. In alveolar-alveolar clusters, it appears in the fricative-stop consonant cluster only whereas in bilabial-alveolar clusters, it happens in stop-stops as well as nasal-stops. However, it is only found in some words of both classifications.
Table 16: Summary of Insertion Phonological Process in the Participants’ Pronunciations Consonant Intended Participants’ The Words Clusters Pronunciations Pronunciations Alveolar- Well-organized /wel ‘ɔ:gənaɪzd/ [wel ɔrgənaɪzəd] Alveolars Bilabial- Developed /dɪ‘veləpt/ [devəlɔpmən] Alveolars Transformed /trӕns‘fɔ:md/ [transfɔrmet] Primed /praɪmd/ [praɪməd], [premət], [prɪmət], [prɪmet]
The fricative-stops of alveolar-alveolars, as seen in the table 8, shows that the word well-organized proves all respondents wrong. One of them, P2, commits this mistake to the utterance. The word well-organized, supposed to be articulated /wel ɔgənaɪzd/, is produced [wel ɔrgənaɪzəd]. It is observed that the sound schwa [ə] is gained between the consonant cluster /zd/. It is said incorrect due to the sound alteration of the consonant cluster along with the addition of the syllable, from 4 syllables into 5, within the word.
Dissimilar from alveolar-alveolar clusters, insertion is realized in stop- stop and nasal-stop consonant clusters of bilabial-alveolars. In stop-stops, especially in the word developed, it is written in the table 11 that there are 9 participants falsely articulate the word. From those 9 respondents, a respondent pronounces developed into [devəlɔpmən]. It does not meet the intended utterance of the word, /dɪveləpt/. It is because the consonant cluster /pt/ is mispronounced;
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eliminating the final sound /t/—discussed in deletion—then replacing it into a syllable [mən].
The occurrence of insertion investigated in nasal stops is noticed in the words transformed and primed. P7 is known erroneously in producing transformed whose intended articulation is /trӕnsfɔmd/. From 7 incorrect pronunciations, table 12, P7 puts in the vowel [e] between the consonant cluster
/md/ so that the pronunciation becomes [transfɔrmet] also revises its syllable from
2 into 3.
The last word in nasal-stops of bilabial-alveolar consonant clusters, primed /praɪmd/, also undergoes the same pattern of mistake as the word overwhelmed. The word is added by either schwa /ə/ or /e/. It is achieved by 4 respondents out of 7 inexact pronunciations of this word, detected in table 12.
They are P2, P6, P7, and P9. The addition of schwa is found in the utterances of
P2, P6, and P7 which are [praɪməd], [premət], and [prɪmət] whereas P9 puts in /e/ between the consonant cluster /md/ exchanging the word as [prɪmet].
Because the participants in this research have a propensity to add schwa
/ə/ or the vowel /e/ between the voiced consonants within the words, the notations to state this manner are as described below.
Ø /ə/ / [+voiced] _____ [+voiced]
Ø /e/ / [+voiced] _____ [+voiced]
They uncover that the sounds not supposed to exist within the words are even produced by the speakers so that the syllables of the words transform as well. The other insertion phonological process happens in the word development where a
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respondent pronounces it [devəlɔpmən]. It is not inserted by the sound schwa or
/e/, but a prefix. The notation below is able to illustrate the process.
Ø [mən] / ______#
C. Phonological Factors Observed in the Participants’ Pronunciations
As revealed in the previous part, phonological processes occurring in the participants‘ pronunciations are the utterances undergoing language phenomena.
There are 3 of them: deletion, feature-changing rule, and insertion. These types of phenomena have been ordered based on their numbers of occurrence. From this, it is explained that deletion is the most happening in the enunciations of the participants. Then, it is followed by feature-changing rule and insertion. Insertion is placed lastly since its existence is the most least in the utterances.
Nonetheless, those phenomena must be backgrounded by some reasons.
The reasons are called phonological factors. As Grosvald et al (2009, p. 24) state, the recognition of sign by human is affected by factors related to human‘s action or specific linguistic processing. A conclusion that can be drawn is phonological factor refers to certain experiences of human or languages causing the particular way of language pronunciations. From the definition of phonological factor by
Grosvald (2009), it is understood that phonological factor is distributed into 2 kinds. They are language use and English acquisition of the respondents.
Language use is the reason related to language belonging to the participants. It includes the mother tongue and language used in daily communication by the participants. English acquisition, meanwhile, is English knowledge obtained by
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the respondents. It covers English acquisition of the participants, including
English pronunciation learning, the ability of the participants to differentiate sounds in both English and Indonesian phonological systems as well as segment words in English.
Those 2 subparts are completed with table for each as a proof of the data obtained from questionnaires. Then, the table is narrated further along with the explanations of phonological factors triggering the participants‘ ways of enunciations.
1. Language Use Influencing Phonological Processes in the Participants’
Pronunciations
Since language use deals with language, in this section, the backgrounds influencing the participants‘ pronunciations are the languages that are both mother language and daily language. It is explicated in the table below showing the sum of the participants speaking either Indonesian or local language as their mother tongues and everyday communications.
Table 17: Language Use Influencing the Participants’ Pronunciations Language Mother Tongue Daily Communication Indonesian Local language Indonesian Local Language 10 0 8 2
It is described in the table about what language(s) participants speak as both mother tongue and daily communication. There are two options for each column. In the mother tongue and daily communication column, the researcher
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provides 2 other columns: Indonesian and local language. The languages included in the local language offered by the researcher in the questionnaires are Javanese,
Sundanese, Bataknese, and so on. Nevertheless, whether as mother tongue or regular language, the results express varied numbers of the respondents using it.
The table clarifies that all respondents‘ mother tongue is Indonesian even though 2 of them, P3 and P6, use local language as their regular communications.
Mother tongue is the language one learned first, meaning that the language one has established the first long-lasting verbal contacts in (Skutnabb-Kangas, 2000, p. 106). As the result, as the definition reveals, Indonesian as the mother tongue is the most possible interference in the English words utterances by the respondents.
Moreover, mother tongue belongs to one in the whole life, as in the definition by
Skutnabb-Kangas, although as the time goes by, the person may perform another language in delivering daily communication. This existence of mother tongue within the speakers, then, ends up intervening their processes of learning another language so that it initiates language phenomena in their utterances, such as deletion, feature-changing rule, and insertion—as described in the previous part, yet no inclusion of metathesis.
Simply, deletion is triggered due to the absence of consonant clusters in the final position of Indonesian words. For example, the consonant cluster /nt/ in the word infant cannot be uttered accurately; missing the sound /t/, for Indonesian does not acknowledge cluster /nt/ in its words. Another language phenomenon, feature-changing rule, where the participants replace the sound /t/ with /d/ in the enunciation of increased /ɪnkrist/ into [ɪnkrisd] is because Indonesians recite all
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the present sounds in the words. Insertion, on the other hand, where the sounds schwa /ə/ and /e/ are included between consonant cluster as in the word primed spoken [praɪməd] is caused by the inclination of the respondents to insert schwa or
/e/ to make the pronunciation of the word easier. It is found in some utterances of
Indonesian words; one of the examples is putra becoming [putəra], and so on.
Those brief justifications of how Indonesian as the mother tongue affects the
English learners will be clarified further in this section.
Besides the influences having been mentioned, the phenomena of feature-changing rule and insertion can also be justified by the theory of orthography. Orthography itself simply means that the writing of certain language is not in parallel with the articulation or the production of its sound. This reason is also a potential factor that is able to provoke the participants to perform feature- changing rule and insertion in their utterances. The occurrence of orthography appears due to the intervention of the mother tongue as well. Nevertheless, it fits in the discussion of language use of the participants.
In the occurrence of deletion in the participants‘ pronunciations, all participants have a tendency to eliminate the final sounds of the consonant clusters in both alveolar-alveolar as well as bilabial-alveolar consonant clusters. It is because of the absence of final consonant cluster in Indonesian. As
Dardjowidjojo (2009) states, the third obstacle in the Contrastive Analysis is when the combination of sounds appears in language A whereas it does not in language
B, it will create difficulty for the learners from language B in comprehending language A (p. 35). Indonesian, as the language B, does not allow consonant
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clusters in the final position as English, as language A, does. Indonesian only has consonant clusters in the initial and middle position of words; the consonant combination of 2 and 3 consonants. For instance, these consonant clusters are seen in the Indonesian words produksi, gamblang, so on and so forth (Muslich, 2008, pp. 71-72). Nonetheless, English possesses consonant clusters in the final position of words as words examined in this study. Consequently, Indonesian learners of
English tend to mistakenly pronounce the final consonant clusters, such as /nt, nd, st, zd, pt/ and /md/ in the provided English words, by reducing the last consonants in each words.
Furthermore, in case of 2 respondents whose daily language is local language, particularly Javanese, they do deletion as well in their enunciations.
Besides affected by their mother tongue, Javanese—their everyday language— also does not provide consonant clusters in the final position of words. Javanese consonant clusters only take place in the words‘ initial position, like /br, pr, kr, gr, tr, bl, pl, kl, gl, tl, str/. Those initial position clusters are able to be discovered in the Javanese words, such as blinger meaning bingung (Indonesian) and
―confused‖ (English) and trima meaning terima (Indonesian) and ―accept‖
(English) (Wedhawati, 2006, pp. 62-63). This proof strengthens the reason more of why they are not able to utter final consonant clusters in an accurate way.
Meanwhile, the word influence /ɪnfluəns/—nasal-fricative consonant cluster of alveolar-alveolars—gets no participants erroneously pronouncing it.
Relating to the language use factors in this section, it is still due to the mother tongue; why all respondents are able to perform the consonant cluster /ns/. Unlike
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what Contrastive Analysis confesses, the background of the correct enunciation of influence is because of Indonesian loanwords.
Borrowed words or loanwords are words adopted to the native language and their forms adapt to the forms of native language as well: nouns taking plural and/or possessive forms of the new language and verbs also adjectives receiving native morphemes (Hoffer, 2005, p. 53).
The definition of Hoffer reveals that borrowed words or loanwords are not only used in the native language, but also adjusted to the forms of the native language too. Therefore, it allows Indonesian to have final consonant cluster /ns/ in the words. The examples are the words ambulance /ambjʊləns/ and conductance
/kəndʌktəns/. Those two words are loaned to Indonesian with suffix spelling adjustment: from {-ance} of English to {–ans} so that in Indonesian, they become ambulans and konduktans (Johannes & Moeliono, 2007, p. 28). Since those both words have existed in Indonesian, it facilitates Indonesian learners of English to utter consonant cluster /ns/ in the final position of word as influence.
In the phenomenon of feature-changing rule, the second most happening phonological process in this research, the respondents are likely to alter the voicing status of the sounds in the consonant clusters—the voiceless becomes voiced and vice versa. This occurs in both alveolar-alveolar and bilabial-alveolar consonant clusters, such as in the words increased, well-organized, developed, transformed, and primed. The voiceless /t/ of the consonant clusters /st/ and /pt/ in the words increased, and developed is substituted by the voiced /d/. The reason is because Indonesians have a habit of reading out all the present sounds of words without being aware of the different phonetic system in English: if the regular verbs of the past-tense form end in voiceless segment other than [t], it is followed
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by [t] (Fromkin, Rodman, & Hyams, 2011, pp. 230-231). On the opposite, the voiced /d/ of the consonant clusters /zd/ and /md/ in the words well-organized, transformed, and primed is uttered in the voiceless /t/ by the respondents. It is owing to the reduction of voiced consonants when it comes to the final position as
Dardjowidjojo (2009, p. 38) affirms.
Additionally, the feature-changing rule committed by P7 in pronouncing infant /ɪnfənt/ becomes [ɪnfeŋ]—replacing alveolar-alveolar consonant cluster /nt/ with [ŋ]—is affected by another language rather than the mother tongue. After doing close interview with the participant, the participant had learnt French when in senior high school so that the utterance is affected by the language. As known, the word infant is an English loanword from Latin infant, meaning unable to speak, via French enfant—in the throne of Edward the Confessor—as the word saint (Roth, 2010, p. 255). The consonant cluster /nt/ in the final position is indeed read by French in nasal sound [ŋ].
The third happening of phonological factor is insertion. It befalls in both alveolar-alveolars and bilabial-alveolars as well. It is found the addition of the sounds schwa /ə/ and /e/ between the consonant clusters in the participants‘ enunciations, specifically in the words well-organized, developed, transformed, overwhelmed, and primed. According to Muslich, this addition is called anaptyxis: the process of inserting certain vowel between two consonants in order to ease the pronunciation (2008, p. 126). Indonesians are apt to do this process, such as in the words putra to putera [putəra], bahtra to bahtera [bahtəra], and srigala to
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serigala [sərigala]. Therefore, it triggers the addition of the words‘ syllables as well.
Insertion existing in the participants‘ pronunciations is not only the process of including vowels between the consonant clusters as uncovered before, but also the addition of the sounds [mən] considered as suffix for the word developed. This mistake called overgeneralization that will be explained in the next session, for it is not backgrounded by the participants‘ mother tongue, but the target language being learnt by the respondents.
Some occurrences of feature-changing rule and insertion acted by the respondents denote that Indonesians are likely to speak all of the present letters within the words by assuming that those sounds are in correspondence with how they are symbolized/written. For example, some respondents in performing feature-changing rule phenomenon utter the word developed /dɪveləpt/ into
[dɪvəlɔpd] by altering the sound /t/ with /d/ as it is written in the word. Moreover, in the insertion phenomenon, some participants articulate the letter
It shows that they suppose the letter
Orthography, based on Rumsey et al (1997), is a theory ruling that orthographic components are just lexical representations not related to the phonological components. It entails that printed words in a certain language do
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not stand for how that words are produced. English adheres this theory, whereas
Indonesian describes different system.
According to Muslich (2008), Indonesian spelling posseses phonemic spelling. It is the symbolism of phonemes by graphemes. Nonetheless, the number of phonemes is less than the number of the letters in the alphabets. However, there are still 2 problems often found in this system: one phoneme represented by two graphemes and two phonemes signified by one grapheme. One phoneme represented by two graphemes can be seen in the words menganga /meŋaŋa/ and makhluk /maxluk/ where the phonemes /ŋ/ and /x/ are written in two letters
/e/ (2008, p. 105). These processes of phonemes‘ representations in Indonesian tell that what is written is also what is read since each grapheme of the words has its sounds.
With those contrastive descriptions of English and Indonesian orthography, it is obvious that the respondents‘ enunciations are still affected by the mother tongue so that they treat English words the same as Indonesian. This is why they keep on uttering /d/ for the consonant /t/ in the developed—in the occurrence of feature-changing rule—and pronouncing the letter
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2. English Acquisition Influencing Phonological Processes in the
Participants’ Pronunciations
This section discusses the factors of second language acquisition causing phonological processes in the respondents‘ pronunciations. As having been explained by Grosvald et al (2009, p. 24), English acquisition is related to certain language being attained by the participants thought as human actions. This part illustrates about factors caused by language acquired by the participants. They are about the respondents‘ experiences in learning English—if they have acquired pronunciation knowledge, are able to differentiate sounds in English not existing in Indonesian, and segment words—since it is the language tested. This is also used as a proof of the pronunciations of English words they have performed so its summarized results are explicated in the table below.
Table 18: English Acquisition Influencing the Participants’ Pronunciations English Acquisition Learning Pronunciation Differentiating Sounds Segmenting Words Yes No Yes No Yes No 9 1 9 1 8 2
The table illustrates activities of the respondents in obtaining English acquisition influencing the respondents‘ enunciations. These factors cover the knowledge about English in learning pronunciation, differentiating sounds in
English not appearing in Indonesian, and segmenting words in English. In another term, it reveals the understanding or comprehension of the participants about
English.
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In the first column, learning pronunciation, it asks whether or not the participants have experienced such kind of pronunciation learning process or pronunciation course in either school or any kinds of such institution during their whole life. The result is 9 respondents have had knowledge about how to pronounce English words. It is achieved by all participants except P2; P2 admits that he/she has yet to acquire English pronunciation. Nevertheless, all of them— those either having experience of pronunciation learning or not—act mistakes in their utterances, based on the results. Therefore, in this analysis of English acquisition factors influencing the respondents‘ enunciations, the other reasons may play an important role. It will be exposed in the next descriptions.
The second column, conversely, describes another outcome. The data appearing are the same as the result in the learning pronunciation column, 9 respondents are able to differentiate English sounds not existing in Indonesian while a respondent is not. This column questions the participants‘ knowledge as well about phonetic system theories of both language, English and Indonesian or perhaps only self-awareness of each participants about the features‘ differences between the two languages. From the data, it is observed that most of the respondents have possessed this kind of understanding.
Lastly, the column of segmenting English words uncovers other distinctive number of outcome as well as data, the participants. This column also examines the knowing about English phonetic system, particularly syllable; if the respondents have the ability to segment words in English or divide them into
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syllables or not. It is found 8 participants are able to pass this skill whereas the rests are not. Those 2 participants are P4 and P7.
As the outcomes reveal, it is known that the pronunciations‘ performances are not in accordance with the data of SLA factors since according to the discussion in the chapter 4a, almost of the respondents, 73.75%, fail to utter the consonant clusters taking place in the final position of English words provided. The outcome of English acquisition factors explicates that most respondents have acquired the knowledge of English in either pronunciation or theory of English phonology: sounds and syllable in English. Nonetheless, since these factors are also treated as a proof of the participants‘ pronunciations and they have to be matched with the condition in the research field, it does not fit one another. From this, it can be concluded that the participants‘ pronunciations may be affected by neither experience nor knowledge of English as covered in English acquisition factors, but mostly by the factors of language use, especially the mother tongue.
According to Leong and Ahmadi (2017), one of the reasons of English learners speaking their mother language as speaking is because it is indeed natural for non-native speakers or learners of certain language to perform the mother tongue instead of the language they are gaining. Moreover, if the learners share the same mother tongue among them, its occurrence will commonly befalls (2017, p. 36). It can be drawn, after comprehending the explanation Leong and Ahmadi give, the mother tongue is the biggest influence for learners of certain language since they are more accustomed to it than the foreign language they are trying to
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acquire. Thus, in the data, the participants may be right about their experiences in understanding English, yet the failures they have shown in pronunciations are still caused by their mother tongue‘s intervention.
Besides, the fluency and accuracy of speaking are determined by, instead of the knowledge of the language learnt itself, the willingness of the learners to speak the language. Tuan and Tran state that one problem in speaking is the participations of the learners are low or uneven (2015, p. 10). From this statement, the researcher can say that in gaining fluency and accuracy of speaking certain language, the participants have to be involved in using that language. In this case,
English as a foreign language obtained by the participants should be performed often to achieve the correctness of its pronunciation, not only the knowledge gotten without being practiced.
Due to the unfamiliarity of English causing the more exposure of the participants‘ mother tongue, the three other phonological processes, deletion, feature-changing rule, and insertion—except insertion acted by P3 as the word developed /dɪveləpt/ read [devəlɔpmən]—taking place in the respondents‘ pronunciations are not able to be clarified in this section. It is because the three language phenomena having been mentioned are not initiated by the comprehension of English knowledge like illustrated in the table 19 revealing good results of the participants acquiring the knowledge, in fact. All the phenomena found in the respondents‘ enunciations should not be encountered if the data in English acquisition factors show significant numbers of respondents in
‗yes‘ columns of all English knowledge aspects. Conversely, the level of
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pronunciations‘ correctness does not fit the outcome revealed in this part so that other backgrounds creating tendencies of the participants to speak the English words that way must exist: mother tongue and the English speaking intensity like described before.
In the case of deletion, the highest happening of phonological process in the utterances, the respondents might have learnt to pronounce consonant clusters
/nt/, /nd/, /st/, /zd/, /pt/, and /md/ in the final position of words and been able to understand that Indonesian does not allow those consonant clusters in the final position of the words unlike English so that they are aware that the last sounds of the clusters should still be spoken. In spite of this, the missing of the last sounds in their utterances is affected by their low intensities of using English as their communications since they mostly speak Indonesian playing the role as both the mother tongue and regular language. Consequently, the interference of the mother tongue is essential as well in this research.
Feature-changing rule has a strong correlation with English phonetic knowledge; the understanding of how to pronounce the past tense {–ed} morpheme as the final consonant clusters. It means that the participants have to know whether /t/ or /d/ that should follow the final sounds of the words‘ roots.
Owing to the absence of this theory in Indonesian, it needs the comprehension about what sounds being existent in English whereas inexistent in Indonesian.
Since the data in the table uncover that 90% respondents have this kind of understanding, the data and the fact in the research field do not match each other—the respondents‘ utterances of the consonant clusters /zd/, /pt/, and /md/
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are inaccurate by altering the voicing status of the sounds /d/ and /t/. As the result, the researcher concludes other factors backrounding these failures: not the English knowledge having acquired by the respondents, yet the lack of English practice in their everyday life.
Insertion or addition of sounds in the respondents‘ pronunciations is able to be avoided if the respondents learn pronunciation of how to utter consonant clusters formed by past tense morpheme {-ed} without the letter
English words; if the words are added with the sounds schwa /ə/ or /e/ the syllable must change. Indonesian does allow it to ease the utterances of the consonant clusters within the syllable, yet English does not. This distinctive rule between
English and Indonesian triggers the inaccuracy in the consonant clusters pronunciations by the respondents. The respondents may be true in learning all aspects of English knowledge as revealed in the table. However, the fact data of the enunciations do not perform good results so that it is not because of their lack of understanding about English, yet the usage of English; the intensity or habitual
English performing. It ends up leading their routines to their mother language still,
Indonesian, taking the biggest portion in affecting their pronunciations.
Nevertheless, one phenomenon of insertion instead of adding vowels /ə/ and /e/, one of the respondents, P3, adds the suffix [mən] to the word developed that should be pronounced /dɪveləpt/ so that the utterance turns out to be
/devəlɔpmən/. This error is termed overgeneralization which is overextension of
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one rule to cover instances to which that rule does not apply (Saidan, 2011, p.
185)—at morphological level where derivational morphology is observed in the speaker‘s pronunciation (Ambridge, Pine, Rowland, Chang, & Bidgood, 2012, p.
49). In this case, P3 includes the derivative morpheme [mən] to the verb develop without being aware that the verb can also be in the form of regular past tense by putting the suffix {–ed}, not only in noun.
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CHAPTER V
CONCLUSION
The purpose of this research is to comprehend the pronunciations of
Management major students in Sanata Dharma University learning English. Ten participants are involved in this research. The provided words are the words with alveolar-alveolar and bilabial-alveolar consonant clusters in the final position of words. There are 8 words to test classified into other classes based on their coda sounds. Then, the results of the pronunciations are counted in the percentages; according to the correct and incorrect, examined in the viewpoint of phonological processes and phonological factors: language use and English acquisition factors as the last.
The analysis results and discussions describe in the summarized results calculation of the participants‘ pronunciations, the incorrect utterances are higher than the correct ones since the percentages show 73.75% of the incorrect whereas
26.25% of the correct. Except nasal-fricative consonant clusters, other classes of consonant clusters are erroneously enunciated. After that, this is divided again based on the types of consonant clusters: alveolar-alveolars and bilabial-alveolars.
The outcomes of alveolar-alveolars split into three classes of coda sounds: nasal- stops, nasal-fricatives, and fricative-stops still uncover the higher percentage of the incorrect, 72% while the incorrect is 28%. The other type, bilabial-alveolars fragmented to two coda sounds: stop-stops and nasal-stops, shares the similar results as well. They are 23.3% of the correct and 76.7% of the incorrect.
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From the data sum, it can be drawn a conclusion that most of the respondents inaccurately utter the English words containing consonant clusters in the final position. Moreover, those mistakes are able to be termed as language phenomena in phonological processes. This is discussed to solve the second objectives of the research, finding out the phonological processes taking place in the respondents‘ enunciations.
The participants have a tendency to delete or abolish the final consonants in almost all of the consonant clusters since it takes place in all words, except nasal-fricatives. Furthermore, they also substitute the final consonants of the words, particularly the words with past participle {-ed} morpheme as well as insert the sounds schwa /ə/ and /e/ between the consonant clusters. It occurs due to the interference of their mother tongue. Therefore, these phenomena can be justified by the description in the phonological factor related to language.
Due to the dominance of Indonesian, their utterances must be influenced by this language. In case of deletion phenomenon where the participants omit the final consonants of the selected words, Indonesian intervention plays an important role. Indonesian does not have consonant clusters in the final position of words, especially like the clusters in the words provided in this research: /nt/, /nd/, /st/,
/zd/, /pt/, and /md/, so that Indonesians are likely to erroneously enunciate English words containing those clusters in the final position of words. However, consonant cluster /ns/ exists since brought by loanwords. Therefore, clusters rather than nasal fricative /ns/ cannot be enunciated properly by the respondents.
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Indonesian as the respondents‘ mother tongue also triggers the respondents perform the other language phenomena, like feature-changing rule and insertion. In feature-changing rule where the sound /t/ as in the word increased /ɪnkrist/ is spoken /d/ and vice versa, it reveals that Indonesians actually read all the sounds out presented in the words as well as they utter the voiced sounds in the final position of words voiceless. Meanwhile, the tendency of
Indonesians insert the vowels /ə/ and /e/ between consonant clusters initiates the phenomenon of insertion. Feature-changing rule and insertion can also be justified by the different theory of orthography between English and Indonesia.
According to the analysis of the research, the most influential background in shaping the participants‘ pronunciations is the mother tongue.
Nonetheless, phonological processes begun by these errors are discussed in the phonological factors of language use. Moreover, in phonological factors of
English acquisition, factors produced by language acquisition, strengthens the statement that mother tongue occupies the most essential position in affecting the participants‘ utterances. Even though the result of the participants‘ English acquisition demonstrates high numbers, it does not necessarily denote that they completely comprehend the English knowledge leading to the correct English words‘ enunciations. However, the familiarity of the respondents towards English matters to be another factor in the utterances.
In this section also, the researcher encourages the future researchers to conduct other studies with different analyses and objects of English consonant clusters‘ pronunciations. Moreover, it is suggested that the researchers find other
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more familiar English words to be examined because the English words in this study are still hard to utter even though they come from the learners‘ module discussed in class. It is seen in the results of the analysis where the respondents perform lots of mistakes in their enunciations. Hence, it can be reckoned that managing research about English pronunciation by learners is essential.
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Appendices
Appendix 1: Phonetic Transcription of P1’s Pronunciations
P1 Words Consonant Based on Intended Participant’s Words C IC Phonological Processes Clusters Coda Pronunciations Pronunciations Sounds Nasal- Infant /’ɪnfənt/ [ɪnfen] Deletion Stops Found /faʊnd/ [faʊn] Deletion Increased /ɪn’kri:st/ [ɪnkres] Deletion Alveolar- Fricative Well- /wel Feature-Changing Rule Alveolars -Stops [wel ɔgənaɪs] Organized ’ɔ:gənaɪzd/ and Deletion Nasal- Influence /’ɪnfluəns/ [ɪnfluens] - Fricatives Stop- Developed /dɪ’veləpt/ [devəlop] Deletion Bilabial- Stops Alveolars Nasal- Transformed /trӕns’fɔ:md/ [transfɔm] Deletion Stops Primed /praɪmd/ [praɪm] Deletion
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Appendix 2: Phonetic Transcription of P2’s Pronunciations
P2 Consonant Words Words Intended Participant’s C IC Phonological Processes Clusters Based on Pronunciations Pronunciations Coda Sounds Alveolar- Nasal- Infant /’ɪnfənt/ [ɪnfen] Deletion Alveolars Stops Found /faʊnd/ [fɔʊn] Deletion Fricative Increased /ɪn’kri:st/ [ɪnkrisd] Feature-Changing Rule -Stops Well- /wel [wel Insertion Organized ’ɔ:gənaɪzd/ ɔrgənaɪzəd] Nasal- Influence /’ɪnfluəns/ [ɪnfluens] - Fricatives Bilabial- Stop- Developed /dɪ’veləpt/ [dɪvəlɔpd] Feature-Changing Rule Alveolars Stops Nasal- Transformed /trӕns’fɔ:md/ [transfɔmd] - Stops Primed /praɪmd/ [praɪməd] Insertion
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Appendix 3: Phonetic Transcription of P3’s Pronunciations
P3 Consonant Words Words Intended Participant’s C IC Phonological Processes Clusters Based on Pronunciations Pronunciations Coda Sounds Alveolar- Nasal- Infant /’ɪnfənt/ [ɪnfhen] Deletion Alveolars Stops Found /faʊnd/ [fɔʊn] Deletion Fricative Increased /ɪn’kri:st/ [ɪnkres] Deletion -Stops Well- /wel [wel ɔrgənaɪs] Feature-Changing Rule Organized ’ɔ:gənaɪzd/ and Deletion Nasal- Influence /’ɪnfluəns/ [ɪnfluens] - Fricatives Bilabial- Stop- Developed /dɪ’veləpt/ [devəlɔpmən] Deletion and Insertion Alveolars Stops Nasal- Transformed /trӕns’fɔ:md/ [trensfɔm] Deletion Stops Primed /praɪmd/ [praɪm] Deletion
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Appendix 4: Phonetic Transcription of P4’s Pronunciations
P4 Consonant Words Words Intended Participant’s C IC Phonological Processes Clusters Based on Pronunciations Pronunciations Coda Sounds Alveolar- Nasal- Infant /’ɪnfənt/ [ɪnfen] Deletion Alveolars Stops Found /faʊnd/ [faʊn] Deletion Fricative Increased /ɪn’kri:st/ [ɪnkrəst] - -Stops Well- /wel [wel ɔrgənaɪs] Feature-Changing Rule Organized ’ɔ:gənaɪzd/ and Deletion Nasal- Influence /’ɪnfluəns/ [ɪnfluens] - Fricatives Bilabial- Stop- Developed /dɪ’veləpt/ [devəlɔpt] - Alveolars Stops Nasal- Transformed /trӕns’fɔ:md/ [transfɔmd] - Stops Primed /praɪmd/ [praɪmd] -
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Appendix 5: Phonetic Transcription of P5’s Pronunciations
P5 Consonant Words Words Intended Participant’s C IC Phonological Processes Clusters Based on Pronunciations Pronunciations Coda Sounds Alveolar- Nasal- Infant /’ɪnfənt/ [ɪnfent] - Alveolars Stops Found /faʊnd/ [fɔʊnd] - Fricative Increased /ɪn’kri:st/ [ɪnkresd] Feature-Changing Rule -Stops Well- /wel [wel ɔgənaɪs] Feature-Changing Rule and Organized ’ɔ:gənaɪzd/ Deletion Nasal- Influence /’ɪnfluəns/ [ɪnfluens] - Fricatives Bilabial- Stop- Developed /dɪ’veləpt/ [dɪvəlɔpd] Feature-Changing Rule Alveolars Stops Nasal- Transformed /trӕns’fɔ:md/ [transfɔmd] - Stops Primed /praɪmd/ [praɪmd] -
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Appendix 6: Phonetic Transcription of P6’s Pronunciations
P6 Consonant Words Words Intended Participant’s C IC Phonological Processes Clusters Based on Pronunciations Pronunciations Coda Sounds Alveolar- Nasal- Infant /’ɪnfənt/ [ɪnfen] Deletion Alveolars Stops Found /faʊnd/ [fɔn] Deletion Fricative Increased /ɪn’kri:st/ [ɪnkres] Deletion -Stops Well- /wel [wel ɔrganɪs] Feature-Changing Rule and Organized ’ɔ:gənaɪzd/ Deletion Nasal- Influence /’ɪnfluəns/ [ɪnfluens] - Fricatives Bilabial- Stop- Developed /dɪ’veləpt/ [dɪvəlop] Deletion Alveolars Stops Nasal- Transformed /trӕns’fɔ:md/ [transfɔm] Deletion Stops Primed /praɪmd/ [premət] Feature-Changing Rule and Insertion
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Appendix 7: Phonetic Transcription P7’s Pronunciations
P7 Consonant Words Words Intended Participant’s C IC Phonological Processes Clusters Based on Pronunciations Pronunciations Coda Sounds Alveolar- Nasal- Infant /’ɪnfənt/ [ɪnfeŋ] Deletion and Feature- Alveolars Stops Changing Rule Found /faʊnd/ [faʊn] Deletion Fricative Increased /ɪn’kri:st/ [ɪnkres] Deletion -Stops Well- /wel [wel ɔrganɪs] Feature-Changing Rule and Organized ’ɔ:gənaɪzd/ Deletion Nasal- Influence /’ɪnfluəns/ [ɪnfluens] - Fricatives Bilabial- Stop- Developed /dɪ’veləpt/ [dɪvəlɔp] Deletion Alveolars Stops Nasal- Transformed /trӕns’fɔ:md/ [transfɔrmet] Feature-Changing Rule and Stops Insertion Primed /praɪmd/ [prɪmət] Feature-Changing Rule and Insertion
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Appendix 8: Phonetic Transcription of P8’s Pronunciations
P8 Consonant Words Words Intended Participant’s C IC Phonological Processes Clusters Based on Pronunciations Pronunciations Coda Sounds Alveolar- Nasal- Infant /’ɪnfənt/ [ɪnfen] Deletion Alveolars Stops Found /faʊnd/ [faʊn] Deletion Fricative Increased /ɪn’kri:st/ [ɪnkris] Deletion -Stops Well- /wel [wel ɔrgənaɪs] Feature-Changing Rule and Organized ’ɔ:gənaɪzd/ Deletion Nasal- Influence /’ɪnfluəns/ [ɪnfluəns] - Fricatives Bilabial- Stop- Developed /dɪ’veləpt/ [dɪvəlɔp] Deletion Alveolars Stops Nasal- Transformed /trӕns’fɔ:md/ [transfɔm] Deletion Stops Primed /praɪmd/ [praɪm] Deletion
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Appendix 9: Phonetic Transcription of P9’s Pronunciations
P9 Consonant Words Words Intended Participant’s C IC Phonological Processes Clusters Based on Pronunciations Pronunciations Coda Sounds Alveolar- Nasal- Infant /’ɪnfənt/ [ɪnfen] Deletion Alveolars Stops Found /faʊnd/ [fɔn] Deletion Fricative Increased /ɪn’kri:st/ [ɪnkrɪs] Deletion -Stops Well- /wel [wer ɔrgənaɪs] Feature-Changing Rule and Organized ’ɔ:gənaɪzd/ Deletion Nasal- Influence /’ɪnfluəns/ [ɪnfluens] - Fricatives Bilabial- Stop- Developed /dɪ’veləpt/ [dɪvəlɔp] Deletion Alveolars Stops Nasal- Transformed /trӕns’fɔ:md/ [transfɔrm] Deletion Stops Primed /praɪmd/ [prɪmet] Feature-Changing Rule and Insertion
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Appendix 10: Phonetic Transcription of P10’s Pronunciations
P10 Consonant Words Words Intended Participant’s C IC Phonological Processes Clusters Based on Pronunciations Pronunciations Coda Sounds Alveolar- Nasal- Infant /’ɪnfənt/ [ɪnfen] Deletion Alveolars Stops Found /faʊnd/ [faʊnd] - Fricative Increased /ɪn’kri:st/ [ɪnkres] Deletion -Stops Well- /wel [wel ɔgənaɪst] Feature-Changing Rule Organized ’ɔ:gənaɪzd/ Nasal- Influence /’ɪnfluəns/ [ɪnfluens] - Fricatives Bilabial- Stop- Developed /dɪ’veləpt/ [dɪvəlɔp] Deletion Alveolars Stops Nasal- Transformed /trӕns’fɔ:md/ [trensfɔm] Deletion Stops Primed /praɪmd/ [praɪmd] -
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Appendix 11: Questionnaire of the Research
KUESIONER PENELITIAN LINGUISTIK The Pronunciation of Alveolar-Alveolar and Bilabial-Alveolar Consonant Clusters in English Words by Indonesian Learners of English (Pengucapan Klaster Konsonan Alveolar-Alveolar dan Bilabial-Alveolar dalam Kata-Kata Bahasa Inggris oleh Pelajar Bahasa Inggris) Kuesioner ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui pengucapan beberapa kata dalam bahasa Inggris yang mengandung klaster konsonan di akhir silabel oleh partisipan dan mengobservasi latar belakang partisipan tersebut. Praktik pengucapan dan latar belakang ini kemudian digunakan untuk menjawab permasalahan di dalam penelitian yang sedang dilakukan oleh peneliti, yaitu proses dan faktor fonologi yang memengaruhi pengucapan klaster konsonan oleh partisipan tadi. A. Instruksi: Ucapkan 10 kata dalam bahasa Inggris di bawah ini satu kali yang secara bersamaan akan direkam oleh peneliti. No. Kata-Kata dalam bahasa Inggris 1. Infant 2. Found 3. Increased 4. Influence 5. Well-organized 6. Developed 7. Transformed 8. Primed
B. Instruksi: Isilah beberapa pertanyaan pilihan ganda di bawah ini dengan cara melingkari jawaban yang cocok dengan diri anda. 1. Saya berasal dari suku: a. Jawa b. Sunda c. Batak d. Lainnya: ... 2. Bahasa yang pertama kali saya pelajari sewaktu kecil (bahasa ibu) saya adalah: a. Indonesia PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
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b. Bahasa daerah (Jawa, Sunda, Batak, dll) 3. Bahasa yang saya gunakan dalam berkomunikasi sehari-hari adalah: a. Indonesia b. Bahasa daerah (Jawa, Sunda, Batak, dll) 4. Saya pernah belajar pengucapan (pronunciation) dalam bahasa Inggris. a. Ya b. Tidak 5. Saya dapat membedakan beberapa bunyi dalam bahasa Inggris yang tidak ada dalam bahasa Indonesia. a. Ya b. Tidak 6. Saya tahu bagaimana memenggal suku kata dalam pengucapan bahasa Inggris. a. Ya b. Tidak
Atas partisipasinya, peneliti mengucapkan banyak terimakasih dan partisipan menyatakan bahwa dirinya setuju jika data yang terdapat dalam kuesioner ini digunakan sebagai sumber penelitian.
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