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Unit 4 the Consonants of English

Unit 4 the Consonants of English

UNIT 4 THE OF ENGLISH

Structure

Ob,jectives Introduction The Phonemes of English 4.2.1 The choice of a model 4.2.2 The phonetic symbols 4.2.3 Classification of consonants on n chart. Detailed Description of Consonants 4.3.1 4.3.2 Afkicates 4.3.3 Nasals 4.3.4 4.3.5 Lateral 4.3.6 Approximants Consonant Clusters 4.4.1 Introduction The Syllable 4.5.1. Division ofwords into syllables 4.5.2. The structure of the syllable 4.5.3. Types of the syllable Initial and Final Consonant Clusters 4.6.1 Initial two consonant clusters , 4.6.2 Initial three-consonant clusters 4.6.3 Final two-consonant clusters 4.6.4 Final I'our-consonant clustcrs Let Us Sum Up Key Words Exercises Answers to Exercises

4.0 OBJECTIVES

In this Unit we shall describe the consonant phonemes of English and the of each phoneme. We shall introduce you to the sy~nbols(given in three dictionaries) for the consonant phonemes of English. These are used to indicate the pronunciation of words. We shall look at sequences of consonants or consonant clusters in the next higher unit i.e. the syllable. We shall also discuss the nature of syllable and the structure of the syllable in English.

After completing this .unit you should be able to

(i) Identify the consonant phonemes of English and phonemic contrasts. (ii) Describe the consonant phonemes using the three-term label. (iii) Identify the allophones of each consonant phoneme in words and in connected speech. (iv) Give the syllable structure of English words. (v) Indicate the syllable division in English words.

4.1 INTRODUCTION

In Unit 3, we familiarised ourselves with the difference between the written word and 40 the spoken word We discussed the lack of correspondence between spelling and 7 rings thing Englislr I lane spilt bell and Plronologyd f fish raft stiff veil sleeves hive think months width they breathed bathe soap test cross zero confi~sion crows shop brushed flash confusion beige heart behave ------red brave watch sweat yacht news

4.2.3 Let us naw plat these consonants on the chart below:

Table 1 Classification of Consonants

- P fv 08 sz h - 13 ' Approxi- w I' .I lnant Lateral I Approxi- lnant ,

Look at the Table carefully. You will find that when classified according to the there are in English.

6 plosives 2 3 nasals 9 fricatives 3 Approximanls of which /w/and /j/ are generally called semi- 1 Lateral Approxiinant

When classified according to the there are in English

4 ailabial consonants 2 Labio-dental consonqnts {I 2 Dental consonants 6 Alveolar consonants 1 Post- , 4 Palato-alveolar consonants . 1 Palatal cansonant 3 Velar consonants 1

Nins of the twenty f~urconsouants are voiceless, the remaining are voiced. 1 We shall describe the consonants of English in greater detail with reference to that I 4 2 determined by the manner of articulation,

I ti The Consotinnts of English 4.3 DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF CQNSONANTS

4.3.1 Plosives

Tliere are three stages in tlie production of a . Durjng tlie first stage Ihe. al-ticulatory organs come togettier to make a firm contact with each other: During tlie second stage the air from tlie lungs is conipressed behind tlie closure. Dul'ing the third stage tlie air is released with explosion owing to tlie sudden parting of tlie articulatory organs. English (RP) has six plosives Bilabial /p,bl Alveolar /t,dl Velar /k, g/

lp,t,W are voiceless ancl /b,d,g/ are voiced.

Bilabial Plosives /p,b/

Fo~.tIieproduction of/pl the two lips are tightly closed, tlie lung air is co~npressed behind Ilie closure, tlie vocal cords are kepl wide apart. The soft palate is raiscd to shut off tlie nasal cavity when tlie closurc is released, tlie compressed air cscapes will1 force. Thus /p/ is a voiceless bilubiulplosivc.

Allophones of /p/

(a) /pi is ospirotrd [pll] when it occurs initially and ill an accented syllable. For example, pool, pall, ap'pear, play, ap'point, pure.

In all such cases the or voiced consonant that ininlecliatcly follo\vs /p/ beco~ncs devoiced.

(b) /p/ is ~~naspiratedwhen (i) it occurs in unaccented syllables as inpre'vent, 'leper, 'reny~er (ii) it is preceded by Is/ as in spell, spy, sl~cech,and (iii) it occurs niedially in a syllable as in opt, kept, lcq7se

(c) /p/ is inaudibly released or released without explosion when (i) it occurs If nally, thal is before silence, as in CL~I,step, &s~~eep (ii) it occurs berow another plosive or al'liicate for example, kep, wrcq1p4, keep checking

(d) /p/ is nasally released i.e., the air passes out tlirougli the nasal passage when it i4 followed by In/ as in topnzost, stop me.

/b/

The consonant /b/ differs from /p/ only in respect of voicing i.e, in the production of /b/ tie vocal cords vibrate. Hence it is a voiced bikzbialplosive

(a) /b/ is devoiced in the initial and tlnal positions In words because the voicing of /b/ is delayed owing to the silence that precedes it in the initial position for example belt, bird, bmc~d.It is devoiced in the final position in words because OF tlie silence that follows for example job, rube, ~ztb. ~~~~li~,,,~,lo,relics fi) /b/ is ~~neesploded01. ina~~dibly~cleased (i) in tlie ti~ialposition it1 words for and Phonologv-I example crzb, sob (ii) when it occurs before anollier plosive or for example, snubbell, ohlra~de,strbdued, obiecl (c) /b/ is fi~llyvoiced when it occurs between two vowel sounds wl~icliare voiced for example I ubbei; szibtlrb, aho~le,sztbnlter.17 (d) /b/ is nasally released i.e. tlie air is rcleased th~~oi~glitlie nose wlien it is followed by /m/as in .s~Bm~n.ine,subrnc~*ge

Alveolar Plosives /t,d/

For the articulation of/(/ ancl /dl tlie lip and blade of the tongue makes a firm contact wit11 tlie , tlie lung air is conipressecl behind tlie ~IOSLI~Cand the velum is raised to SIILI~ offtlie nasal passage. With ~licrelease of the closure, tlie compressed air escapes with explosion.

For it1 the vocal cords are apart, therel'o~cit is voiceless. For /dl thc vocal cords * vibrate, therefore it is voiced.

Allophones of It/

(a) Like /p/, /1/ is aspirated wllen it occurs in Ilie initial accented position in words. For exa~npletorch, at'tuin, twist, frrclilor.111 all s~~clicases the voiced consonant or vowel that immediately follows It/ becomes devoiced. F&. example Iwl in mist and /rl in truilor are devoiced. (b) It/ is unaspiratecl (like /p/), wlien (i) it occurs in unaccented syllables. e.g. 'litter, to'nighl, 's,~lire (ii)it is preceded by Is/, eg stearn, stsap, stew fc) it is inai~diblyreleased in tlie filial position in \vords, i.e. befbrc silence, e.g. ~kute, bo~lglzland when it is followed by anotlicr plosive 01 affricate e.g. wel duy, wl7ire ~iress,diistbin, hot chips, w/~itecl?alk (d) it is nasally released i.e. tlie air passes out through he nose, if it is followed by In/, e.g, cotton, rotten, button (e) it is laterally released wlien it is followed by /I/, e.g. kettle, bottle, rattle (f) Id becomes a dental plosive (like the Hindi $as in Jl3 'weigli') if it is followed by the dental fricatives / 0, 8 1, e.g, eighth, cut ~ltese. (g) it is realized as a post-alveolar plosive wlien fallowed by the past-alvcplar ap proximant 11-1,e.g. tree, purrruy, trim

Allopllones of /dl

(a) /dl is devoiced when it occurs initially in a word e.g, dip, clny, dread, dzle and finally e g.jlo~)ed,read, hide (9 it is inaudibly released when (i) it occurs finally e.g. asked, told (ii) it is followed by ailother plosive or.affricate, e.g, good times, wide gap, lendpencil, bad judge (g) /dl is firlly voicecl, that is voiced through all the three stages of its articulation, when it occurs between voiced sounds e.g. radar, nlodesy, good~)ill (11) /dl is nasally released when it is followed by In/ hidden, midnighl, guodnes~,loud noise (i) /dl is laterqlly released when followd by 111, e.g. iddle, red light, bed lamp (j) /dl becomes a dental plosive (like Hindi in 'heart') when it is followed by the dental fricatives 1 0, d I, e.g. width, sad thoz~g/zt,,feed them. (k) Id/ is realised as a post-alveolar plosive when it is followed by the post-alveolar approxilnant /r/ as ip drop, frredrice I, Pronuncjation of the past tense marker -d or -ed I The past terise marker -d or - ed is pronounced i

1 9 It/ afler voiceless consonants otlicr than It/ for example (i) The Consonallts of English /r~pt/ ~~r-o/~pccl' /si:sti censed /be~kt/ baked lflaj11 ,jlashed /st~ft/ stz!fed IS :ht/ searched

(ii) it is proliounced /dl after voiced sounds (voiced consonants and vowels) other than /dl

robbed cried begged sho~~ed loved brewed

(iii) it is pronounced /ld/ after /t,cl/ e.g. r-atcd plotted, n~oz~ldcd,gli~ieci Velar Plosives /Ic,g/

For tlie p~~ocli~ctionof /!d and /g/ the back oftlie tongue ~naltesa iirrn contact with the soft palate or veli~m,\vliich is raised to shut oll'tlie nasal passage. Tlie lung air is compressed behind the closure. The closure is released and tlie compressed air escapes with plosion. For /k/ the vocal cords are wide apart, therefore it is a ~~oicelcss velurplosivc. For the pl.oduction of/g/ the vocal cords vibrate. 'rlins it is a .

Allophones of lld

(a) Like /p and t/, /kt is aspirated whcn it occurs in tlic initial accented position in words, e.g. cozirt, kite, CIC'COIYI, quarter, crane. In all such cases, the vowel or voiced consonalit tliat i~ninediatelyfollows /Ic/ becomes devoicud. (b) /k/ is iniaspirated when (i) it is preceded by Is/, e.g. score, skales, skiing, sqz~arh (ii) it occurs in ~lnaccentedsyllables, e.g. 'basket, c~n'lr-asl,'rocket (c) /kl is inaudibly released, that is, witho~tplosion, when (i) it occurs finally in words, i.e., before silence, e,g, lo&, wreck, niake (ii) it is followed by another plosive or affricate e.g. lucked, black heurd, rock garcien, tlzick cljuin. (d) /kl is articulated newer the hard palate wlien ibll;wetl by a fiont vowel e.g. keep, kid, cap. It is all advanced variety of lW. (e) lW is articulated f~u-therback in the month whcn followed by a , e.g. cast, cost, cord, cook

Allophones of /g/

(a) /g/ is fully voiced, wlien it occurs between two vowels, e.g. luggage, regal, jbrgo (b) /gl is devoiced wlien it occurs initially in a word becairse it preceded by silence. E.g, goal, guide, gear. : It is devoiced when it occurs finally in words because it is followed by silence ' e.g. log, mug, flag (c) /g/ is inaudibly released when (i) it occurs finally, e.g. big, stag, jug (ii) it is followed by another plosive or affricate e.g., big dog, stagparty, egg ctp, fig tree, big jar, (d) /g/ is articulated nearer the hard balate, i.e. it is advanced when followed by a , e.g. give, get, gain. It is articulated f~~rtherbock in the moutli i.e, at the soft palate, when followcd by a back vowel, e.g, gztnrcl, gol~)~)og,gorgeotls, goose. Eng/islZPltonelics 4.3.2 Afft-icates nrzrl Phonology-I Palalo-alveolar Affricates /tj and d31

During the articulation of /tj and d3/, the tip and blade of tlie tongue lnalces a closure with the alveolar ridge, the rims of tlie tongue make a contact with tlie upper side teeth. At the same time, the front of the tongue is also raised towards the hard palate. The soft palate is raised to shut off the nasal passage. The closure is released slowly, the air escaping with friction occ~vringbetween tlie blade-to-front region of the tongue and tlie alveolar-to-front palatal section of tlie roof of tlie moutli. 4

During tlie stop and fricative stages the vocal cords are wide apart for /tj/, ~I~LISit is , voiceless. They vibrate for/d3/, which is voiced. The lip position will be conditioned by that of adjacent sound. (e.g, lip rounding is greater in choose in relation to 11iat of cheese.), though with some speakers a certain amount of lip-protl.usion is always present for these two consonants.

Allophones of /tj/

No important variants of /dl occur, except for tlie degree of rounding and protrusion which depends on the vowel following It.//.

Allophones of /dj/ . . (a) /d3/ is devoiced when it occurs initially in a word, e.g..joke, giraje, Jewel, and wher it occurs word finally, e.g. badge, siege, rage. (b) /d3/ is fully voiced, that is, it is voiced tlirougli all tlie stages of its articulation, when it occurs between voiced sounds e.g, ledger, r~joice,suggest.

4.3.3 Nasals /m,n,g/ I Nasals ale produced by rnakinga completc closure in the mouth (as for plosives). I They are different from plosives in that tlie soft palate is lowered and the ail- allowecl i 1 . . to pass tlirougli the nasal passage. Since the air escapes through the nose, nasals can I I be continued, whereas plosives cannot. In this respect they are like fricatives, though I r i there is no audible friction as there is in the case of fricatives. Tliey are, in other 1 I I words, vowel-like. All the three nasals in English are voiced. I : i I Bilabial Nasal lml I For tlie articulation of /m/we make a co~npleteclosure at the lips. The soft palate is i Towered to allow a free passage of air through the nose. Allophones of /m/

(a) /m/ is realised as a labio-dental nasal [~g]when it is followed by the labio-dental fricatives lf,vl e.g, confort, triumph, circlrmvenf,sonz vibmtion. (b) Iml is devoiced when preceded by Is/, e.g. snzootlz, smoother, smug, cottrse materials.

Alveolar nasal In/ For the production of In/ we make a closure in the mouth between the tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridge, and the rims of the tongte and the upper side teeth, The soft palate is lowered and the air passes out tliro~1g1ithe nose without any obstruction.

Allophones of In/

(a) when /nl is followed by /8,irl in words, it is released as a dental nasal as in ninth, 46 plinth, Jne thein, ~ignthese. 1I

I (b) /n/ becomes a post alveolar nasal when followed by /r/ e.g. unrest, enrcpt, run- The Consonants rate of English Velar nasal /'3/

To articulate 131 we make a complete closure between the back of the tongue and the soft palate. The soft palate is lowered to allow the air to pass freely through the nose.

/I/is regularly represented by the spelling ng or n followed by a letter representing /W, e.g. ring lung, drink, wrinkle, anchor.

The spelling ng in the final position in words is always pronounced 191, never /ygI, e.g. long, bring, string.

The spelling ng in the medial position in words is, however pronounced

(iii) lr~lin derivatives of verbs ending in /TJ/, e.g. bringing, longing, singel*. (iv) IT@ in other words, e.g. longer (comparative degree of the adjective longj ,fingel; hunger

There are no allophonic variants of 131.

4.3.4 Fricatives For the articulation of fricatives there is no closure in the oral tract as there is in the case of plosives, affricates and nasals. The articulators are brought sufficiently close to each other so that the air produces audible friction in passing through the narrow gap between them.

Labio-dental fricatives If, v/ During the production of /f,v/, the soft palate is raised shutting ofTthe nasal passage of air. The lower lip makes a light contact with the front upper teeth, leaving a narrow gap through which the lung air escapes, producing audible friction. The vocal cords are held wide apah for If/ which is voiceless. The vocal cords vibrate for /v/ which is voiced. Allophones of /f/

If1 has no important allophones.

Allophones of /v/

(a). Ivl is devoiced when it occurs initially (i.e. after silence) e.g. , vowel, vain (b) Ivl is devoiced when it occurs finally (i.e. before silence), e.g. drive, value, save.

Dental fricatives 18, 2)/

For the production of 18, B/ the soft palate is raised to shut off the nasal passage of air, the tip of the tongue makes a light contact with the inner surface of the upper front teeth, the rims of the tongue make a firm contact with the upper side teeth. The lung air eschpes through the narrow gap between the tip of the tongue and the upper front teeth, causing audible friction. For 181 the vocal cords are apart. It is thus a voiceless consonant. The vocal cords vibrate for / B 1. Therefore it is voiced.

Allophones of /el

There are no iinpottant a1 loplwnic variants of 181. (a) / d / is dcvoiced wl?en it occurs initially (i.c. alter silence), e.g. t/~e.rc.,rhrrqjbf'e, , theirs. (b) / B / is devoiced when it occurs finally (i .e, before silence), e.g. seetile, breathe, soothe . . I$lveolar fricatives Is, z/

For tlie a~ticulationof'/s,z/ the soft-palate is raised to sliut off the nasal passage of air, the tip and blade ot'tlie torlgire make a light contact will1 the teeth ridge. At the salne time the side r.irns of the tongue make a fir111escape tl~rouglia rlarrow goove along thexentre of the tongue, causing audible friction between the tongue and tlie teeth ridge. The vocal cords are wide apart for I'sl, therefore, it is voiceless. For lzi the vocal cords vibrate, therefore it is voiced:

Tliere are no allophonic variants of'/s/.

Allophones of /z/

(a) Id is devoi~edwhen it occurs iriitially (i.e. afer silence) e.g. xu, zc~u,xcf-0.x. (b) /d is devoiced when il occurs finally (isbefore silence), e.g. rose, hr.ec.zc, choose

Tlie pronunciation of tlie silffixes (e) s, 's, s '.

The suffix -s und-es used in the plural fbr~nationofnouns or the third person singular present tense form of verbs, and the suffix 's 01. s' for thc possessive forms of nouns are pronounced in three different ways, depending up011 the encling ol'the stem (i.e. the uninflected form of the noun or verb).

(i) /JZJafter. Is, z, 1, 3 , tJ, d3/, e.g.

faces . passes pri~~cess's roses 1 oses Collins's brushes crashes coacl~es mirages massages coaches' churches stretches judge's 1 judges singes judges'

(i 121 after a voiced sound (i.e. all vowels and voiced consonants) other than /z,3, d3/

days plays baby's . flags bribes chilldren's birds slogs teacliel-'s , hives dives teacliers' buns burns colonel's films swims colonels' bales sells adam's

/s/ after a voiceless consonant other than /s, tj/: ' (iii) 1, I bats fits elephant's caps wraps ship's 48 hooks bakes / bullock's

I i puffs bluffs calfs The,Cotisonallts baths froths Ruth's of English

Palato-alveolar fricatives /j, 31 For the production of /j, 31 tlie soft palate is raised to Shut off the nasal passage of air. The tip and blade oftlie tongue inalte a light contactwith the alveolar ridge and the side rims of the tongue make a firm contact with the upper side teeth. At tlie same time the front of the tongue is also raised to\val3dsthe hard palate. As a result of this simultaneo~~sraising of the Front of tlie tongue, tlie narrowing between the tongue and the roof of the mouth spreads from the tip and blade to the front of the tongue. The air escapes through this narrow but diffuse gap witli audible friction. The vocal cords are wide apart ror /I/ which is voiceless. For 13 / the vocal cords vibrate. Therefore it is voiced. Some native speakers produce these two co!isonants with rounded.lips in all positions in words; others do so only when a rounded vowel (e.g.3,XIaU,u: ) precedes or follows them.

Allophones of /I/

There are no allophonic variants of /jl

Allophones of 131

(a) / 3 / [nay be devoiced when it occurs in the final position in words, e.g. prestige, beige, ma.~sage.

Glottal Fricative /11/

For the production of Ill/, the soft palate is raised. Tlie air from the 1~1ngsescapes through a narrow witli audible friction. The position of the tongue and lips is determined by tlie following vowel. Thus for tlie articulation of /h/ in heat, the front of the tongue is raised towards tlie hard palate and the lips are spread. Fos tlie articulation of /Id in hoof, tlie back of the tongue is raised to the soft palate and tlie lips are rounded. All such types of English /Ill have one feature in common, that is, the passage of a strong, voi~elcssairstream tlirough the open glottis. /Ill is therefore referred 10 as a voiceless glottalfiicative

Allophones of /h/

,I 1 (a) Between two voiced sounds, /h/ is realised as a , e.g. bchold, behave, behest.

4.3.5 Lateral

A lateral consona~itis produced when tliere is a closure, essentially, in the centre of the oral passage, so that tlie air can escape on one or both sides oftlie closure. English has only one lateral, tlie alveolar lateral I1 /.

Alveolar lateral Approximant / 1 /

During the articulation of I I / the tip of tlie tongue is in contact with tlie alveolar ridge, with one or both sides of the tongue remaining low so that the lung air can escape freely without friction thl-ougli tlie side(s). Tlie soft palate is raised to sli~~toff the nasal passage of air, and the vocal cords vibrate. /I/ is tli~~sa voiced alveolar lnteral approxin?ant. Englislt Plzonetlcs Allophones of / I/ ~ndPltonology-I The two main aI10ph011es of I i lare the Clear [ 1 ] and the Dark [+I. In addition to the description given above, for clear [ I I, the front of the tongue is raised towards th~ hard palate, while, far dark [+I, the back of the tongue is raised towards the soft palate, tile front of the tongue being somewhat depressed.

(a) Clear. [ I 1 is used only when the lateral approsilnant is followed by a vowel or st ' semi-vowel, e.g. large, lctke, lose,j7ute, lieu, lzil-e. (b) Dark [+I Is used whenever the lateral is not followed by a vowel, e.g, word fl~l~llyas in jeel, spoil, tall, and beforc consonants other than /j/, e.g. wealth, reqlw. hulk, fa~lt,cooled, solve, elbow 11 h (c) I 1 / becolnes devoiced when it is preceded by aspirated Ip ,k / e.g. please, clear., reply. I I I is less devoiced when it is preceded by ~tnaspirated/p,k/ or by /s,f, f, 01, e.g. stapler, sprirzkles, mostly, antler,~slo~~,Jeer, breathless, panzpldet

Approxiinants /r,j,wl

Past-alveolar Approximant ar frictionless continant 11-1

Far the articulation of/r/, the tip of the tongue moyes tpwards the alveolar ridge, SQ. that the gap between the tongue and the roof of tlx 1~outI1is wide enough for the IFI~B air to pass through freely witbout any audible frictian. The soft palate is raised to sh~ii off the nasal passage of air. The vocal cords vibrate, lr/ is therefore voiced.

pronunciation of the letter r

In R.P., the letter I. is pronounced orlly when it occ~~rsilvlnediately before vawels. It is ellent before consonpnts qnd ward 8nally; for exqmple in the words aroma chqrqcter, g~owndther is pronouncecl, while in words yard, stqrt, blurred the r it1 thc spelllpg Is sot pronounced'and in ole words f~r,fair, mother the r in the fin41 position is not pronounced either. Similarly when words wit11 r in the final position are fallawed by a word beginning with a consonant, the r is not pronounced e.g, n.fiw p-7, q.fqir gqme, mother called. But they are pronounced with lrl if they are fallowed by tinather word beginnlvg wilh a vowel, where 11.1 74s i? linkin form, B.P4fClr (?fj phea, ,fair evaugh, hother w#;l;?ther..

Howeyor In other nati~~varieties of Bnglisb; such gs 8tandard , Bducatgd S~ottis!~~?P~Hs~I, ~hg r in the +elling is prprlounced ip all cases.

(a) 11'1 16 s~alis~d8s 8 yoiaed post-alyeolar fricative [$] when it is prepeded hy /d/, @,g.drill, drlye, dread, quadrangle (b) /rl is realised as a devoiced post-alyeolar fricative [$] when it is preoeded by the y~icelessqspirqted plosives /p, IV, or /kt, e.g. 'pretty, ap'prove, 'lraclor,POF''&~Y, 'prowded, &?cyeaqa. (P) lrl &co!nes q sli4htly deyaiped post-alvaolay fricatiye when it is preceded by ~~I~elessGonwnwts ~Iliarthqn'tlle aspi]-ate4/p,t,!?. e.g,fieb s4rj21k3sqfioo, nlg%rhroom,aqd wh~rlit is pl.eceded by unaccented fp,t;V e.g. 'zlprighl, Vprf4, sprgp, nitrate, strict, lcoc/$oach, fqcrobat. (4) 1i.l fs frequently reyealed as a yoiced alveolar tap or flap when it occurs between two yawels, e.g. terrible, carry, sorry, forever apd when it is preceded by / Q / or / a I, e.g, thrifty, thrice,forthright, with regards, ; 4; d1 i There are thus a number of allophones of the /r/ phoneme described above, is. voiced fi post-aheolar frictionless [ j 1. Nevertheless, the variety of /r/ described i ' je i i.e. post alveolar approximilnt still remains the most frequent variety in R.P. because .+ $ 50 $2 , the contexts in which it occurs are [nost frequent. Thew ar~ j / $ L I I (i) Initially before vowels, e.g. ride, ring, road, rude The Consonants (ii) After voiced consonants other than Id/, e.g. bread, grow, still raw, all righf, of English (iii) In the word-final position when followed by another word beginning with a vowel, e.g. answer it, wear out, take care oxfar andlzerrr

Approximants (Semi-Vowels)

Semi-vowels are rapid vowel glides within the same syllable. They are vowel-like in that there is a free passage of air because the a~~ticulatorsare failslyfar apart. ~utihe~ are treated as consonants because they function as consonants. This is borne out by the fact that we use a not an before words beginning with (j or w/, e.g, a unit; a yak, a ,, yesman, a wheel, a watch, a wasp. Before vowels an is used, e.g. an hour, an honest I *person,an apple. Semi-vowels, like the vowels in English, are voiced.

Labio-velar Semi-vowel /w/

For the production of /w/ the back of the tongue moves towards the soft palate, and then moves quickly to the position ofthe following sound. The lips are rounded, the vocal cords vibrate.

Allophones of /w/

(a) /w/ is devoiced altes aspirated /t/,/k/, e.g. twist, weed, queen, quick. It is also slightly devoiccd atler unaspirated /pl /t/ /k/ and other voiceless consonants e.g. at work, squash, swim, sqzrirrel, thwart, swear, upward, outward, equal.

Palatal Semi-vowel /j/ For the production of /jl the front ofthe tongue is ralsed tawqrcls the hard palate byt Is not so close as to cause audible friction. In other w~rds,tl~e J~ing air can pass opt freely without any a~idiblefrlctlon. The tongue lnoves 4w~ylrnmediately to the position of the following sound. The soft-palate Is raised to shut off the nasal passage, and the vocal cords vibrate. /j/ is thus a voicedpalatal semi-vowel.

Allophones of /j/

(a) /,I is realiscd as n voicolcss palatal fricntive when It Is precod~dby aspirate? /p,t,k/ a~~d/11/, ancl followecl by ILL:,ual, o,g, pt{ny, ywr71tnn, (zme, c~bo,bvn~ai~, cure. (b) /jl is devaiced wlien It is preceded by unsspiratecl /p,t,k/ as i~ 's(z~&ent, cop^//^, 'occup,y,

4,4 CONSONANT CLUSTERS IN ENGLISH

We have studied in detall thc ca11sanBntphanemes nf Bnglisll. We shall nQw !Q~!cat the possible ways In which canwnants can galnbinq wllh ane a~~tlierin yprELs. Therc are certain restrictions an tll~comblnatarlal passibilliles.

In the initlal position /t!, dg, B , z/ do oot co~nbiriewith qny consonaqt Ir, j, w1 can occur only as the final ele~neotin initial clusters, e.g. /tr, c(r, k~, blT,fr, pr, gr, sr, t.1, dj, k], fj, pj, tw, dw, kw, SW/ (iii) In the final positlon, consonant clusters sucll as /pf, td, Izd, zbdl are nat possible. ,figfish p~~~~~d~~When we refer to sequences of consonants that occur within a syllable we RndPhonolomr-I generally call them consonant clusters. Siu~ewe have to ~eferto the syllable in order to define a corlsurlant cluster, it would be worthwhile explaining what a syllable is.

- 4.5 THE SYLLABLE

The phonemes of a language combine to form the next higher unit, which in turn forms pal-t of the next higher unit, and so on.

The unit at the next higher level than the pl~onemeis called the syllable. The syllable as a unit distinct from the phoneme and the word is very significant in the production of speech, and we cannot describe and analyse speech without taking it into account.

Though many attempts have been made to define the term 'syllable', no agreed definition is yet available. However, it is not SO difficult to identify the number of syllables in a given word. And this is sufficient for us to be ahle to divide worcls illto syllables.

4.5.1 Division of words into syllables

A word can consist of one or Inore than one syllable. It should be comparatively easy to point out how many syllables a given word has in most cases. For example, il is not difficult to say that the words rock, repl~t,hesirate, in~rodz~c/ion,eleclricily, characterization, have one, two, three, four, five and six syllables, respectively. How can we count the n~unberof syllables in a word? The simplest proced~~rewould be to count the number of vowel sounds in a word. T11us there would be as many syllables in a ward as tliere are vowels. The word rock has o~ilyone vowel sound, the word reply has two vowel sounds and so on. Tliis becomes clearer if we transcribe these words to get their pronunciation - lrt~ld,/rrplar/, /liczrtert/, /~ntrad~k/n/,Ilektrrsrti/, /kzel.~ktararzerjan/.Now if we mark the syllable division with a hyphen we get tlie number of syllables in each word tli~rs- /rbW /t~-pla~/,/he-ZI-tat/, in-tr+dnk-janl, /I-lelc-tn-si-tr/, Jkz-rrl-ta-rar-zel-jenl (we thus must remember that the diagrapl~- i.e., a sequence of two letters, such as Jar, erl represent only one vowcl sound). However, we may sonietimes find it difficult to decide where to draw the syllnble boundary. For, while we would seldom disagree on the number of syllables of a word we might differ regarding the placement of the syllable boundaries in a word.

There are two kinds of PI-oblemsthat make it difficult for 11s to decide where to clraw the syllable boundary. Tlie first problem is that is spelling. Words wit11 doublc letters in the spelling and words wit11 the lctter x in the spelling. Tlie syllable boundary is to be marked witli a hyphen between tlie double lencrs in wotds where the double letters occurs for example, ac-cept, af-ford, ac-corn-nzo-date, al-lo-care, coru-mzttc, as -s urn e.

111the case of words witli the letter we are faced wit11 just the reverse of the problem, we face when dividing wol-ds with double lelters into syllables. x stands Tor two sounds. For instance, in tlie words exercise, exact, and ITIXZII'Y,the lcfler x represalts the sounds /ks, gz, kj/ respectively. lf we go by the spelling it will be difficult to decide whether to divide these words as ex-el.-cise, ex-ncl and lzlx-z1-ry, or e--ver-ciscz, e-xact,bnd 121-xu-ry, When we transcribe all these words we fi~i~-lIllat syllable division is easy. /ak-septl, /a-/a:d/, /&k~-ma-de~t/,/ %-la -kerl/, /Ic~-III~LI:~/ln-sj~l:m/ Iek-s&sarz/ leg-zzktl /IA~-fa-ri/ I

. : i It would therefore be advisable to transcribe such words before we can divide The Consonants them into syllables. of English There is yet another difficulty we are likely to face while deciding wliere to mark syllable boundaries in a word. For example, let us talte up the words, astride, /astrard/, exctne /rltskju:s/, and extra /ekstra/. There are two or more ways ol syllabying these words. The question is, wliicli one oltliese two, or three alternatives should we clioose. Two possible ways of marking syllable division would be - /a-stra~dlor 18s-tra~dl.Tliere is 110 fixed rule regarding the choice of alternative divisions apart from the constraint tliat the division should not violate any rules of the phonology of the language. Thus both the divisions are possible. Thus while dividing words containing two or Inore consonants illto their constituent syllables, we need to ensure tliat tlit: ~~ulesof regarding tlie occurrence of these clusters are not violated. To understand this better we will now study in detail the structure of tlie syllable and tlie possible initial and final consonant clustcrs in English.

4.5.2 The strticture of the syllable

As we liave said earlier the syllable is tlie next liiglier unit, that is made up olone or more than one speech sound. The vowel elenient is so essential to the structure of a syllable that we cannot liave a syllable without a vowel element. We count the number of syllables in a word on tlie basis ofthc niunber of vowel sounds in thc syllable. Tlie vowel element being obligatory ill a syllable, tlierefore if we have a syllable of only one sound, the sou~ldwill be a vowel, for exa~nplei/ar/, a/a/, eye /a]/, air /el/. The vowel is therefore known as the nzzcleas of the syllable. The consonants on the other hand occupy the marginal place in a syllable. The consonants which begins a syllable is called the releasing consonant. For example, in tlie words do, raw, see the consonants Id, v and s/ are releasing consonants. The consonant that ends a syllable is known as the arldestingconso~iant. In,llie words boat, nose, get, bid, for instance, tlie releasing consonants are /b, ng, 11 and tlie arresting consonants are /t,z,t,d/. NOW if we represent tlie obligatory element by the letter V and the marginal element by the letter C, tlie syllable seed can be represented as CVC. However, it is not always the case tliat a consonant occupies only the marginal position in a syllable. Tliere are syllables in which the nuclear place is occupied by certain consonants, Let us take the words cotton /kdtn/, battle, /b~tl/,and rhythm /r~arn/.It is generally agreed that these words have two syllables each and not one. Thus the syllable clivisio~~of these words woulcl be /kb-tn/, /b~-tl/and /rr- am/. The second syllable in each word apparently has no vowel only the consonants / -tn/, / -tl/, with no vowel between them. In such cases, the sounds In, 1 and m/ perform the function of the V element or the nucleus of the syllable and are called syllabic consonants. This is possible beca~~se/n,l and m/are all plionetically vowel-llke. When In/, /I/ and /nil f~~nctionas syllabic consonants, thcy are generally marked in a narrow transcription, with the [ 1 [as in [sndp]; [b~tl]. I - I 4.5.3 Types of the Syllable Using the sylnbols and C to represent tlie obligatory and marginal elements in the syllable. The different types of syllables possible in English are as follows:

Syllable Type Example (a> v eye, a, I, ear (b) VC eat, aclie, all (c> cv hay, saw, tea (d) cvc bun, pit, miss (e> CCV stay, sky, play, cry, small I CCCV stt~y,spree, straw, screw CCCVC steam, scr'eech, stroll, spring, spread, sq~~ad CCCVCC screeched, strained, sprawled, sprint, squeal

4.6 INITIAL AND FINAL CONSONANT CLUSTERS

I-laving st~~dieclthe syllable in detail i~ndtile clusles types that are permitted in English, let LIS list the combinations of consonants that are possible in 2, 3 01. 4 co~iso~iantclusters in tlie initial and the final position in a syllable.

4.6.1 Initial two-consonant clusters

(a) Two-consonant cl~~sterswith Is/ as the first consoiiant. .

Spot stick skin - - - sphere------smoke snail

(b) Two consonant clusters with 1 I ,v, w, j/ as tlie second consonants.

- pt I< -(L_L~'-.-.--b 0 --- f 11 - - I pIunl clown blow ' glow llag - sIo\v -- - -- r pray tray crow brown dre- gross liy Lhsow - Shs- -

---II -ep . 11uny tune queue beauty dew Y* I'eucl - suic- - l111e view iclr 4.6.2 Znifial three-consonant clusters When three consonants fom an initial cluster in English, tlie first consonant is invariably /s/, the second one of the three voiceless plosivcs /p,t,l

I I Tllc Consonants of English

spleen, splutter, splint, splice sprint, sprain, sprout, sprflce spurious stress, strive, strange stew, student, stupid * sclerosis screech, script, screen squad, squat, squint, squeeze

4.6.3 Final two-consonant clusters

Example

/p/ as the lirst consonant I-pt. 1 stopped, wept /-pel depth 1-ps/ lapse, tops

It/ as the first consonant /-to/ eighth /-is/ mats, huts

/kt as the first consonant /-kt/ act, sect 1-ks/ books, fox

/b/ as tile first consonant 1-bd.1 sobbed, rubbed 1-bd robes, cubs

/dl as the first consonant -id/ seeds, birds

/g/ as the first consonant 1-gdl dragged, plugged 1-gd flags, slugs /tJ/ as the i.irst consonant I-tJt/ parclzed, watched

/d3/ as the first consonant 1-d3d/ smudged, judged

If/ as the first consonant 1-fi/ theft, coughed, -1 fifth 1-fs/ sniffs,bIuffs

/O/ as tlie first consonant I-8tl breaihedlbreetl (a phonetic terin) 1-Qs/ myths, l~eaths

/sl as the first coilsonant /-spl wasp, lisp /-st/ fast, host 1-skl ask, risk

/I/ as the first consonant -1 crashed, pushed

/v/ as the iirst consonant 1-vdl solved, saved 1-vd thieves, caves

/a/ as tlie first consonant 1-Bdl writhed, breathed 1-Bzl . paths, wreaths, Endish Phonetics Id as the first consonant 1-zdl (sur)prised, (ad)vised 131 as the first consonant 1-3dI rouged

Imlas the first consonant I-mpl cramp, lamp /-indl combed, summed I-mfl nympll /-me/ wannth IinzI sums, liinbs

In/ as the first consonant I-ntl slant, scent 1-ntll lunch, wrench Ind31 hinge, range I-nQ/ ninth, plinth I-nsl dance, fence I-nzl fins, buns

131 is the first consonant I-qtl tank, brink /-?dl hanged, wronged 1-longs, brings

/I/ as the lirst consonant 1-11 pulp, help I- belt, quilt I- bulk, milk I-I bulb -Id bold, curled I- belch, ~nilch /-Id31 bulge, (di)vulge 1-11 film 1-11 kiln I-tfl elf, shelf I-I valve, shelve I- health, wealth I-I false, else I- fills, kills

Final three-consonant clusters (-CCC)

In all the consonant clusters listed below, Is1 is the last consonant, which usually represents the suffixes -(e)s, -'s, and -s':

Consonant Cluster Example(s)

I-ptsl (a)clopts I-pest depths I-test eights I-ktsl facts

I I-mpsl pumps I-mfsl nymphs, nymph's I-ntsl ants I-nos1 Lenths, plinths I-nksl links, iliinlts, sinks /-Ips/ I1clps I-lts colts I-lksl hulks, silks 1-1 fsl gulfs I-19sl I~ealths 5 6 I-Ft sl liilts

I fifths The Consonants wasps, g1.asps of English toasts asks 171 is the t?nal consona~itin the clusters listed below; it ~~suallyrepresrnts the s~~ffixes - [e) s, -'s, -sq:

Consonant Cluster Examplc bands bulbs welds realms kilns shelves /t/ is tlie last consonant in tlie clusters listed below, which ~lsuallyrepresents the past suffix -(c)d:

Co~isonanlCluster Esnmplc(s) . I-pst/ l apsccd /-list/ tcxt, ljxed 1-dstl midst /-1npt1 dumped /-nst/ fenced /-ntjt/ clinched, drcncliccl /-l]l

Consonant Claster Example I-nd3d/ clinngctl 1-nzcll cleariscd I-ld3dI bulged I-lmdl oveswliel~iied I-lvdl solved 181 is tlie final element in all the cluslers listed below:

Consollant Cluster Exnln plc I-ksB1 sixth 1-11kOl leng-rl~ I-IfQI twcl Rli

Final four-consoannt clusters (-CCCC)

151 os It1 is tlie final element in all tlie consonant clusters listed below; it invariably represelits the suffix -(e)s or the past suffix -(c)d: prompts, exempts gl i~npsed mulcts sculpts twelfths texts sixths

4.7 LET US SUM LIP

In this nit we have described and classified the consonalits of English in detail. Tlie phonemes liave been classified according to manner and place of articulation, and the state of the glottis Each consonant phoneme has been sub-classified ~~nderthe manner of articulation and we have described tlie allophones of the consonant phonemes. In other wol-ds, we have seen that each consonant phoneme is realisecl differently in different contexts in words and in connected speecli. For example, tlie /b/ is not fully voiced, or is devoiced when it occurs in the initial position in words such as beak, bat, and in the final position in words such as cub, rib. This /b/phoneme is, however, fi~llyvoiced when it occurs between two vowel sounds, or between two voiced sounds as in ribbon, husband, iub it.

We have said tliat sequences of consonants tliat occur within tlie syllable are called consonant clusters. There are restrictions on the combinatorial possibilities of consonants in every langl~age.Each language has Its own restrictions.

We Iiave seen tliat 3 syllable !nust have a vowel element wliicll Is obligntory ~nd consonant eIement which is optional. Tlie number of consonant elements before and alter tlie vowel elernelit vary from language to lapguage. In English tlie maxi~~~um n~~inberof consonants permissible before the vowel element is three and tlie ~naximu~nnumber of consonants permissible al'ter tlie vowel elenlent is four. Thus the structure oftlie syllable in Eng!ish wovld be like this - Co-C3 V Co-C4. We liave giyep flie co~i!binqtions af conspnanls p~ssiblein r!le initial (1116 Iri tlic fnal positions ...in a syl!ab!e in En~lish,

We have also learnt to divide B bilpolysyllabic word Into syllables by sing a hyphen to indicate syllable division.

Thus qfter a description of tlie consonant sounds of Engllsh we Iiave exn~nlnedthe next higher unit, viz. the syllable. We liave seen that one niore syllslbles constitutg the nexi higher unit, that is, tlie word, just as one or more consonants and a vowel constitute the syllable.

- 4.9 KEY WORDS

1

Two or lwrs cpnsonants in n r~wwlthln n single syllable.

A central but elusive unit in phonology. A syllable I typically consists of one vowel or diplithoiiK I possibly preceded or followed by one or more I consonants. Attempts Iiave been made to define the , syllable in terrns of muscular contractions, neural 1 programming, and in terms of peaks in sonority, but I no completely satisfactory definition has been ibund. t

f \ b The Consonants 4.9 EXERCISES of English

Say whether the following statements arc true or false.

For example: (I) All vowels in English are voiced (True) In English (R.P.) all the plosives are aspirated. ( 1 The English affricate Id31 consists oftwo phoneipes. ( 1

There are 9 fricatives in English. (

A plosive is unexploded when it occurs before another plosive or affricate. ( 1. In the word co~~fliedthe last sound is pronounced Id/. ( 1

In the word al*laangedthe last sound is pronounced /dl. (

/m i The English consonants ,n 31are produced with a velic closure. ( 1 The English consonants /b,d,g/ are f~~llyvoiced before vowels. (

The suffix - s and - es in the plural formation of nouns 1s pronounced Is/ after a voiceless consonant. (

The Dark pr3 in English is used whenever the lateral occurs before consonants. ( )

The last letter in the words cupboards, and trees is pronounced Is/. (

In the production of 11.1 In the English word rose the vocal ciords are wide apart. (

(m) The variety of /r/ often used in the word leais called a voiced alyeglap flap: ( 1

(11) No variety of /r/ can be devolced. ( 1

(0) The consonants /w and jl do not occur In the final positior) in vyords (

I1 Describe each of the consonant phonemes in the following words using a tlu-ee-tel.111 label. Example: pack ----- /p/ voiceless bilabial plosive lW

(a) question (b) healthy (c) exist (d) ribbon (e) fingers (0 resist (g) causes (h) tl-rcmsalves(i) majestic, (j)moustache

111 Give a pair of words to distinguish between each ofthe following;

Example: If/ /v/ - fail -veil Et1k'lisi7Pl~o~letic~ . Note: Remenlber that t!ie two \vords for each pair of consonant sounds IIIIJSI: differ in a~~dPhono10g~1-I respect of one snuncl only, i.c., the sour-~ds~iientio~~eci in cncli pair. Thus the \Y

IV Give two c~amplcseach ofw~lldscontniriitig the follo\\'ing allophones of tlie consonants mer~tionedheloiv

A devoiced Id A laterally released ill A nasally rele:isecl 'tll An aspirated /k/ A Darli /I/ The post-alveolar ti-icltive varicty of /I./ An riasp spirited /p/ A f~illy voiced /b/ A voiced labio-dental nasal [m] A voiced denla I nasai I q]

V The- lbllowing \vords have the s~il'fix-(ejtl. Group tl~emaccordinq to 111e prontlnciation of tlic SLI~~~X.Fxample: parched, pnrtcd, judqed, q~lntcrl, hissed.

parched, hissed judged pnrkd, quoted

I fished, cautionecl, suggested, preacl~ed,bowed, flecceti, prornp1t:rl. ceosccl, seized, praised, defended, wrestled, dipped, stuffed, collided, gruclgecl, bagged I I I VI Arrange the following words in groups according to Ille prnnunicalion ol'the I I suffix - (e)s, I Br~lshes.watches, tables, filters, briclges, crows, hands, caps, clifti, clucts, sizes, ~IiarI~s.

VII Give two examples each of the following types oSsyllahlc

I 1) ccvc 2) cccvcc 1 3) CVCC I I 4) ccvcc '1 5) ccvccc ! I VIII Divide the following English words into syllables. Indicate thc syl lnh]c division with a hyphen between each. Exiunples: watclics -/ 'w'htl-I;//, colour i I - 'kn-la/. Consult the dictionary for the transcription or eacll word. I Satisfy, excel, created, magazine, rnethoclology, occurrence, r~cgoti~~te,linguistic, exasperate, discrepancy.

IX Give two wards as examples of the following types of consonanl cl ~~ster,

! / I (I) Initial cluster with ~WOconsonants

I (2) Initial cluster with three consonants I Final cluster with t_wo consonants i 50 (3) I

/\

I , ,I: ! Final clusler with aconsonants The Corlsoi-lants Final clustut. with four consonants. of Emelish

Using the dictionary, wire a phonemic transcription of the following words and point out the initial andlor final consonant clusrers. Example:- trippedltrrpd i~ritialcluster:/tr-/ final cluster:/-pt/

glanced length slings bnlised lisps sn~udged strailds quench tulip twists squall scratched realms mixed plintli

4.10 ANSWERS 'I'O EXERCISES-

I (a) false (e) lalse (I) true (~n) true (b) hlse (t true 0) true (n) false (c) true (g) ialsc (k) false (0) true . (d) t~ue (11) false (1) tjlse

11 (a) (i) /kl voiceless velar plosive (ii) /w/ voiced lahio-velar semi-vowel (i i i) IS/ voiceless alveolar fricative (iv) /tJ/ voiceless paiato-alveolar affricate (v> In/ vviced alveolar nasal

(b) 0) /h/ voiceless glottal fricative (i i) /I/ voiced lateral approxirnant (iii) /8/ voiceless

(c) (9 /g/ voiced velar plosive (i i) /z/ vuiced alveoiar fricative (iii) IS/ voiceless alveolar fricative (iv) It/ voiceless alveolar plosive voiced post-alveolar approxir~aator bictionless continuant (i i) /b/ voiced bilabial plosive (iii) In/ voiced alveolar nasal

(e) (i) If/ voiceless labio-dental fricative (ii) /TJ/ (iii) /gl voiced velar plosive iv) Id voiced alveolar fricative

C_ Errglish Phonetics (0 (i) /r/ voiced post-alveolar approximant and Pltonofogy-1 (ii) /z/ voiced alveolar fricative .(iii) , IS/ voiceless alveolar fricative (iv) /ti voiceless .alveolar plosive

(g) (i) lW voiceless velar plosive (ii) /A voiced alveolar fricative (iii) /A voiced alveolar fricative

(h) (i) /iS/voicedd,entalplosive (ii) /m/ (iii) IS/ voiceless alveolar fi'icative (iv) 111 voiced alveolar lateral (v) /v/ voiced labio-dental fricative (vi) /zl voiced alveolar fricative

(i) (i) /m/voiced bilabial nasal (ii) /d3/voiced palato-alveolar affjicate (iii) IS/ voiceless alveolar fricative (iv) It1 voiceless alveolar plosive (v) Vk/voiceless velar plosive

1 I I I 6) (i) /I/ voiced bilabial nasal I 1 (ii) IS/ voiceless alveolar fricative i (i ii) It/ voiceless alveolar plosive j (iv) If/ voiceless palato-alveolar ai'frjcate 111 Any exarnple of words distinguishing between Is/ and lz~is peace and peas

fished cautioned suggested preached bowed defended dipped wrestled collided stuffed grudged prompted fleeced bagged ceased seized praised

caps tables brushes cliffs filters watches ducts crows bridges sharks hands sizes

VI (i) 'se-trs-fa1 (ii) I-el (iii) hie-d (iv) m~-g;,-'zr:n (v) me-8a- 'do-la-dzr (vi) a -'h-rans (vii) nr-'gau-lr-ert (viii) li3g-'wrs-trk (ix) ~g-'z~s-pa-re~t(x) drs-'kre-pan-sr NOTES

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