Hexachlorobenzene - Sources, Environmental Fate and Risk Characterisation
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SCIENCE DOSSIER Hexachlorobenzene - Sources, environmental fate and risk characterisation Dr Jonathan Barber Dr Andrew Sweetman Professor Kevin Jones January 2005 January 2005 This publication is the eighth in a series of Science Dossiers providing the scientific community with reliable information on selected issues. If you require more copies, please send an email indicating name and mailing address to [email protected]. The document is also available as a PDF file on www.eurochlor.org Science Dossiers published in this series: 1. Trichloroacetic acid in the environment (March 2002) 2. Chloroform in the environment: Occurrence, sources, sinks and effects (May 2002) 3. Dioxins and furans in the environment (January 2003) 4. How chlorine in molecules affects biological activity (November 2003) 5. Hexachlorobutadiene – sources, environmental fate and risk characterisation (October 2004) 6. Natural organohalogens 7. Euro Chlor workshop on soil chlorine chemistry 8. Biodegradability of chlorinated solvents and related chlorinated aliphatic compounds 9. Hexachlorobenzene - Sources, environmental fate and risk characterisation Copyright & Reproduction The copyright in this publication belongs to Euro Chlor. No part of this publication may be stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying or recording, or otherwise, without the permission of Euro Chlor. Notwithstanding these limitations, an extract may be freely quoted by authors in other publications subject to the source being acknowledged with inclusion of a suitable credit line or reference to the original publication. Table of Contents Foreword ............................................................................................................................................. 1 Summary ............................................................................................................................................. 3 1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 5 1.1 Aims and Scope of the Report ........................................................................................... 5 1.2 Legal Status ....................................................................................................................... 5 1.3 Background Information on HCB ....................................................................................... 5 1.3.1 Structure ....................................................................................................................... 5 1.3.2 Synonyms and Trade Names ........................................................................................ 5 1.3.3 Physicochemical Properties .......................................................................................... 5 2 Sources of HCB in the Environment ........................................................................................ 7 2.1 Industrial Production .......................................................................................................... 7 2.2 HCB Uses .......................................................................................................................... 7 2.3 By-Product Emissions ........................................................................................................ 8 2.3.1 Chlorinated Solvent Production ..................................................................................... 8 2.3.2 Pesticide By-Product ................................................................................................... 10 2.4 Auxiliary Activity Releases ............................................................................................... 12 2.4.1 The Metals Industry .................................................................................................... 13 2.4.2 The Chlor-Alkali Industry ............................................................................................. 14 2.4.3 Pulp and Paper Mills ................................................................................................... 14 2.5 Combustion-Related Sources .......................................................................................... 14 2.5.1 Incineration ................................................................................................................. 14 2.5.2 Cement Production ..................................................................................................... 15 2.5.3 Uncontrolled Combustion ............................................................................................ 15 2.6 Leaks from Landfill Sites and Stockpiled Pesticides ........................................................ 15 2.7 Metabolism of Lindane ..................................................................................................... 16 2.8 Secondary Sources ......................................................................................................... 16 2.9 Historical Changes in Importance of Emission Sources .................................................. 17 3 Environmental Loss Processes ............................................................................................. 21 3.1 Degradation in Air ............................................................................................................ 21 3.2 Degradation in Water ....................................................................................................... 21 3.3 Degradation in Soils ......................................................................................................... 21 3.4 Degradation in Sediment ................................................................................................. 22 3.5 Degradation in Plants ...................................................................................................... 22 3.6 Degradation in Biota ........................................................................................................ 23 4 Factors Controlling Transfer of HCB around the World ...................................................... 25 4.1 Observed Occurrence of HCB in the Environment .......................................................... 25 4.2 Air .................................................................................................................................... 26 4.2.1 Deposition Processes ................................................................................................. 28 4.2.2 Rain............................................................................................................................. 28 4.2.3 Snow ........................................................................................................................... 28 4.3 Water ............................................................................................................................... 28 4.4 Sediments ........................................................................................................................ 30 4.5 Soil ................................................................................................................................... 32 4.6 Vegetation........................................................................................................................ 33 4.7 Biota ................................................................................................................................ 35 4.7.1 Plankton and Shellfish................................................................................................. 35 4.7.2 Fish ............................................................................................................................. 36 4.7.3 Reptiles and Amphibians ............................................................................................ 37 4.7.4 Aquatic Birds ............................................................................................................... 37 4.7.5 Marine Mammals ........................................................................................................ 39 4.7.6 Terrestrial Mammals and Birds ................................................................................... 39 4.8 Foodstuffs ........................................................................................................................ 40 5 Reported Human Exposure Levels ........................................................................................ 43 5.1 Background Human Exposure Levels .............................................................................. 44 5.2 Elevated (Occupational) Human Exposure ...................................................................... 45 6 Toxicity ..................................................................................................................................... 47 6.1 Acute Toxicity .................................................................................................................. 47 6.2 Subchronic Toxicity .......................................................................................................... 47 6.3 HCB-Induced Porphyria ................................................................................................... 47 6.4 Non-Hepatic Effects ......................................................................................................... 48 6.5 Genetic