A Critique of Water Security in Australia, China and Japan

UNIVERSITY OF NEW ENGLAND A CRITIQUE OF WATER SECURITY IN AUSTRALIA, CHINA AND JAPAN A Dissertation submitted by Peter J Crawford, BSC (Hons I), MA, PhD For the award of Doctor of Philosophy 2020 ii ABSTRACT This thesis provides a critique of how Australia, China and Japan are addressing water security through their policies, programs, major projects and legal measures. An assessment framework assures consistency in analysis, facilitates comparisons and builds a comprehensive picture of water security in each country by examination of primary and secondary sources. Major river systems and other water sources have been greatly modified in each country to meet the needs of cities, industries and agriculture as well as opportunities for water-based economic development. This has often seriously diminished the health of these vital systems, their ability to continue to meet current and future water demands and to deliver water services. It is widely recognised that water security is critical for human and environmental health, food, industrial and energy production, but official documentation seldom explores these linkages in any of the states. While public statements and policy documents in all three countries refer to sustainable development and integrated water management, the analysis shows that there is little if any understanding in the current governing regimes that ecological and environmental health are critical ingredients of water security. In fact, this research has found situations where deterioration in national water security not only threatens human and environmental welfare but could if unchecked undermine future national prosperity and stability. This situation is most acute in large heavily populated regions of China and in the Murray-Darling Basin, food bowl of Australia. Analysis of the contrasting ways the three nations are handling current water management problems reveals the ways that national financial, administrative, institutional and political factors have constrained and limited national approaches to water resources management and water security. A common theme is that each state lacks sufficient focus on those patterns of leadership, governance, management and reform needed to deliver water security in complex water-based, socio-economic systems. Political decision-making and influence shape water management and water security outcomes in unexpected or unwanted ways, often as a result of the failure to accept independent, expert advice. As well, financial and administrative arrangements are too complex, involving too many government actors, to focus on water security goals. The detailed country critiques and comparative assessments make distinct contributions to the literature by demonstrating the extent to which each nation is positioned to ensure present and future water security for human and environmental welfare and for critical users. National water security is in turn vital for the security of the state. iii CERTIFICATION OF DISSERTATION I certify that the ideas, results, analyses and conclusions reported in this dissertation are entirely my own effort, except where otherwise acknowledged. I also certify that the work is original and has not been previously published or submitted for any other award. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I have been grateful for the opportunity to carry out the research in this thesis under the auspices of the University of New England. Dr Karin von Strokirch has provided incisive advice throughout, in ways that have helped to maintain research direction, language precision and a balanced examination of water security in Australia, China and Japan. I have appreciated the opportunity to review the thesis goals and orientation with both Dr von Strokirch and Professor Adrian Walsh. Latterly suggestions by Dr Xiang Gao have been very welcome. My wife Linda has been a continuing source of love, support and encouragement in this late life endeavour, as she has been in my various previous ventures. v PREFACE After some years of retirement, I decided to follow my interests in politics and international relations, political theory and political science, often stirred by professional interactions with politicians. It led me initially to formal study and latterly to research. This thesis concerns the critical domain of water security in Australia, China and Japan. The research spans the fields of politics, political science, governance and public policy as well as environmental and water resource management, all of which influence national water security. In examining policies and programs and their influence on water security there are times when my commentary has built on the following knowledge base. Much of the focus throughout my career was on water, its management, conservation and use. As a trained scientist, I had the early opportunity to become involved in environmental and water resource management. That later broadened into research into public policy, public sector leadership, governmental systems and change. Most of my positions were in the public sector, internationally at the OECD, and at state and national level in Australia, with several short periods in academe and business. I was fortunate in the later years to lead various agencies, authorities and commissions, including Sydney Water Corporation, the NSW Healthy Rivers Commission and the South Australian Premier’s Department. Many of my roles allowed me to contribute through reports, papers and public inquiries and to write several books. Peter J Crawford vi CONTENTS Tables xii Abbreviations xiii CHAPTER 1 WATER SECURITY IS CENTRAL TO NATIONAL SECURITY 1.0 THE CRITICAL ROLE OF WATER SECURITY 1 2.0 RESEARCH ORIENTATION AND METHODOLOGY 3 3.0 THE CONCEPT OF NATIONAL SECURITY 7 4.0 DEFINING WATER SECURITY 8 5.0 MAJOR FACTORS IMPACTING ON WATER SECURITY 10 5.1 Political Influence on Water Security 11 5.2 Good Governance and Water Security 12 5.3 Integrative Management 14 5.4 Climate Change and Water Security 19 6.0 ASSESSMENT FRAMEWORK: MAJOR IMPACTS 19 6.1 Politics 20 6.2 Governance 20 6.3 Management 20 6.4 Climate Change 21 vii 7.0 ASSESSMENT FRAMEWORK: DOMAINS 21 7.1 The State 22 7.2 Human Welfare 22 7.3 The Environment 23 7.4 Consumptive Users 23 8.0 THE FINAL CHAPTER 23 CHAPTER 2 A CRITIQUE OF WATER SECURITY IN AUSTRALIA 1.0 INTRODUCTION 25 2.0 WATER CHALLENGES 26 3.0 THE LEGAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE FRAMEWORK 28 4.0 THE NATIONAL WATER INITIATIVE (NWI) 30 5.0 THE POLITICAL CONTEXT 32 6.0 WATER PLANNING 34 7.0 THE MURRAY DARLING BASIN 42 8.0 URBAN WATER SECURITY 53 9.0 RURAL WATER SECURITY 59 10.0 GROUNDWATER SECURITY 65 11.0 WATER MARKETS AND WATER TRADING 69 12.0 EXTRACTIVE INDUSTRIES 74 viii 13.0 CURRENT WATER SECURITY 78 13.1 Impacts of Politics 78 13.2 Impacts of Governance 79 13.3 Impacts of Management 81 13.4 Impacts of Climate Change 82 13.5 Water Security for The State 83 13.6 Water Security for Human Welfare 84 13.7 Water Security for the Environment 84 13.8 Water Security for Consumptive Users 85 CHAPTER 3 A CRITIQUE OF WATER SECURITY IN CHINA 1.0 INTRODUCTION 87 2.0 THE WATER CRISIS IN CHINA 89 3.0 SYSTEMIC CONSTRAINTS 93 4.0 CONSERVING AND PROTECTING WATER 103 5.0 RIVER BASIN MANAGEMENT AND PLANNING 110 6.0 WATER INFRASTRUCTURE 116 7.0 MARKET-ORIENTED WATER REFORMS 121 8.0 URBAN WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION 128 9.0 TRANSNATIONAL RIVER BASINS 132 ix 10.0 CURRENT WATER SECURITY 136 10.1 Impacts of Politics 137 10.2 Impacts of Governance 137 10.3 Impacts of Management 138 10.4 Impacts of Climate Change 139 10.5 Water Security for the State 139 10.6 Water Security for Human Welfare 140 10.7 Water Security for the Environment 140 10.8 Water Security for Consumptive Users 141 CHAPTER 4 A CRITIQUE OF WATER SECURITY IN JAPAN 1.0 INTRODUCTION 143 2.0 THE CHANGING WATER CONTEXT 145 3.0 SOURCES OF POLITICAL POWER 147 4.0 THE LEGAL AND PLANNING FRAMEWORKS 150 5.0 INSTITUTIONAL CONSTRAINTS 156 6.0 TOWARDS NEW WATER MANAGEMENT PARADIGMS 157 7.0 RIVER MANAGEMENT AND PLANNING 163 8.0 WATER INFRASTRUCTURE 168 9.0 WATER RIGHTS, PERMITS AND PRICING 174 x 10.0 WATER QUALITY AND WATER CONSERVATION 179 11.0 WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION 185 12.0 CURRENT WATER SECURITY 190 12.1 Impacts of Politics 190 12.2 Impacts of Governance 191 12.3 Impacts of Management 192 12.4 Impacts of Climate Change 192 12.5 Water Security for the State 193 12.6 Water Security for Human Welfare 194 12.7 Water Security for the Environment 194 12.8 Water Security for Consumptive Users 195 CHAPTER 5 WATER SECURITY IMPERATIVES 1.0 INTRODUCTION 196 2.0 NATIONAL CONSTRAINTS AND LIMITS 198 2.1 The Water Legacy 198 2.2 Sources of Political Power 199 2.3 The Legislative Framework 201 2.4 National Planning Networks 202 2.5 Impediments to Reform 204 xi 3.0 COUNTERING ADVERSE IMPACTS ON NATIONAL WATER SECURITY 205 3.1 Dealing with Political Interventions 205 3.1.1 State and Regulatory Capture 206 3.2 Achieving Good Water Governance 207 3.3 Integrative Water Management 208 3.4 Groundwater Management 210 3.5 Addressing Climate Change 211 4.0 ADVANCING NATIONAL WATER SECURITY 213 4.1 The Role of the State 213 4.2 Contributing to Human Welfare 214 4.3 Variable Results for Aquatic Systems 216 4.4 Gains and Losses of Commercial Users 217 5.0 WATER SECURITY CHALLENGES 218 5.1 Country Specific Challenges 219 5.2 Generic Challenges for the State 220 6.0 FUTURE WATER SECURITY 222 References 225 Appendix Water Planning in Australian Jurisdictions 291 xii TABLES Table 2.1 Nationally Agreed Goals for Water Planning 31 Table 2.2 NWC Assessment of Conformity with NWI Criteria

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