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Download Date 28/09/2021 12:49:35 Violent peace in Liberia. A Study of the Roles and Ambitions of Ex-combatants Item Type Thesis Authors Agoha, Christopher Rights <a rel="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by-nc-nd/3.0/"><img alt="Creative Commons License" style="border-width:0" src="http://i.creativecommons.org/l/by- nc-nd/3.0/88x31.png" /></a><br />The University of Bradford theses are licenced under a <a rel="license" href="http:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/">Creative Commons Licence</a>. Download date 28/09/2021 12:49:35 Link to Item http://hdl.handle.net/10454/15060 University of Bradford eThesis This thesis is hosted in Bradford Scholars – The University of Bradford Open Access repository. Visit the repository for full metadata or to contact the repository team © University of Bradford. This work is licenced for reuse under a Creative Commons Licence. VIOLENT PEACE IN LIBERIA A Study of the Roles and Ambitions of Ex-combatants Christopher Agoha Submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Peace Studies University of Bradford 2015 Abstract Christopher Agoha Violent Peace in Liberia A Study of the Roles and Ambitions of Ex-Combatants Keywords: Violence, Post-Conflict, Disarmament, Demobilization, Rehabilitation and Reintegration (DDRR), Ex-combatants Liberia emerged from 14 years of brutal civil conflict, demobilized and “reintegrated” large numbers of ex-combatants, but there are still concerns about ex-combatants’ re-engagement in violence. Yet, adequate knowledge and empirical evidence about this are still sketchy. Qualitative fieldwork among ex-combatants conducted in five locations in Monrovia from 2012-2013, suggests that ex-combatants are re-marginalized. This research presents ex- combatants’ current status, their re-marginalization, and factors indicative of their re-engagement in violence in post-conflict Liberia. The study contends that ex-combatants were apparently not satisfied with the outcome of the DDRR programme, as it failed to reintegrate them successfully. The study developed a four dimensional analytical framework that includes, (a) re-marginalization (b) re-criminalization (c) exploitation, and (d) economic insecurity, which are then applied to the outcome of the reintegration of ex-combatants in Liberia. On the basis of the data collected in fieldwork, the analytical framework reveals how these factors and dynamics interacted and facilitated the occurrence of violence. The study argues that an awareness of ex-combatants’ vulnerability and re-marginalization should put state actors in a position to better predict their violent inclinations. It further notes that ex-combatant re-engagement in violence is largely manifested at the political and economic levels and this has the potential to lead to a renewed conflict if not mitigated. This study by no means completes the tasks of research and analysis on violence and ex- combatants, but it outlines theoretical propositions and conclusions, which can hopefully spark further debate and collective efforts among researchers to push this field of study forward. i Acknowledgements This research was made possible through the efforts of many people who were directly or indirectly involved. I owe them a great deal of gratitude. I could not have wished for a more appropriate place from which to reflect and write this thesis. The Political Affairs Section at the United Nations Mission in Liberia (UNMIL), where I served as a Political Affairs Officer, is a collection of scholars and practitioners from the Political Science discipline and regions around the world. It offered opportunities for collegial contestation, debate, rigorous analysis and exploration of the links between theory and practice in the work of the United Nations. I have greatly benefitted from the intellectual simulation this community has provided. At another level, Professor Toyin Falola chair of the Annual African Conference at the University of Texas, Austin, provided the opportunity to make academic presentations and interact with an array of scholars from all parts of the world. Four published works have emerged from my participation in these conferences. I thank Professor Falola for leading this intellectual forum. At the University of Liberia, I served as an Adjunct Professor for six years and taught students at its Graduate School of International Affairs as a volunteer under a United Nations/University of Liberia Memorandum of Understanding. I thank Professors Alhassan Conte (then) President of the University and Jonathan Taylor, Director of the Graduate School for giving me the opportunity to serve and benefit from the rich knowledge of the University’s post-war students. I am especially indebted to my Principal Supervisor, Professor Donna Pankhurst, a scholar with great intellectual power, for her diligent review and incisive comments on the drafts of this work. Her advice, comments and suggestions were invaluable. I could not but give an account of a very special period during the course of my supervision. Donna unfortunately took ill for a long time, in her absence I was left in a limbo and could not get the needed support elsewhere; my research suffered a huge setback. Upon her return and not fully recovered from her illness, Donna resumed my supervision with increased vigour. She endured my persistent emails and telephone calls and in ii her very busy schedules she responded to all. Donna, sorry for putting you under such pressure, and thank you most sincerely for taking the time to ask about my well-being in an Ebola infested country, Liberia, as well the well-being of my family. I must thank my lead Research Assistant, Kelvin Kollie, a young and bright colleague and an undergraduate student at the University of Liberia. With abundant local knowledge, Kelvin provided a platform for the conduct of interviews and focus groups discussions. Engaging Kelvin in daily discussions provided intelligent feedback. My thanks also go to other national colleagues, Clara Mallah, Alex Dukuly, Jeremiah Kolleh and Moses Nimnen for their support. My special thanks go to my supervisors at UNMIL, Mr. Robert Kett and Adam Edge who greatly supported my academic pursuit, and provided the platform for me to succeed. Adam, you have confidence in me elevated me beyond my expectations, and made me proud. You spoke highly about my intellectual capacity before the dynamic Mission Chief of Staff, Denise Wilman, and presented me to SRSG Farid Zarif following the successful defence of my thesis. I am indebted to both of you. My wife, Helen Agoha realized early the kind of life I want to lead as a scholar/practitioner, spending countless hours studying, traveling, attending conferences, and regrettably being an absentee husband and father. Working in Liberia for over 10 years, away from her and my three daughters, Nicole, Kimberly and Latoya (in the United States) was indeed a painful experience. Helen you are my jewel of inestimable value. To my children, you are sources of wonders, delight and hope. I am also indebted to my elder brother, Alhaji Aminu Agoha, who led me into an academic path by providing the funding for my education in a sustained manner. To all my friends and colleagues who remained steadfast with me during these years of academic enterprise, and who are dear to my heart, I wish to acknowledge their enormous support. iii Dedication I dedicate this effort and work posthumously to my parents, Adolphus and Cecelia Agoha, both of whom I love and owe so much for inspiring me to achieve a life time academic success. iv CONTENTS Abstract……………………………………………………………………………..i Acknowledgement………………………………………………………………..ii Dedication………………………………………………………………………….iv Table of Contents…………………………………………………………………v List of Abbreviations…………………………………………………………….viii Chapter One: Introduction……………………………………………………….1 1.1 Research Question......................................................................................8 1.2 Genesis of Research Focus…………………………………………………..9 1.3 Aims and Objectives of the Study……………………………………………10 1.4 Main Arguments and Rationale for the Research………………………….10 1.5 Thesis Structure……………………………………………………………….16 1.6 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………..17 Chapter Two: Civil Wars and Post-War Violence – Previous Research……19 2.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………...18 2.2 Explaining Wars and Civil Wars…………………………………………….18 2.3 Interpretations of Civil Wars…………………………………………………18 2.4 Causes of Civil Wars – “Greed and Grievance Perspectives”……....…..32 2.5 Link between Civil Wars and Post-War Violence…………………………41 2.6 Civil War Peace Agreements………………………………………………..49 2.7 Context of DDRR in Africa…………………………………………………...57 2.8 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………….62 Chapter Three: Analytical Framework……………………………………….63 3.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………63 3.2 Explaining the Process of Marginalization…………………………………63 3.3 Conceptualizing Violence in Post-Conflict Setting…………………………65 3.4 Contextualizing Political Economy and Neo-Patrimonialism……………..71 v 3.5 Re-marginalization, Re-criminalization, Exploitation, and Economic Insecurity of Ex-combatants………………………………………………………78 3.6 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………..96 Chapter Four: Research Methodology……………………………………….97 4.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………97 4.2 Methodological Approach……………………………………………..……..97 4.3 Ex-combatants as Special Category in the Research……………..…….104 4.4 Sample Groups………………………………………………………………108 4.5 Research Sites………………………………………………………………109 4.6 Data Collection……………………………………………………………….114 4.7 Ethical
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