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Marriage Rituals

regional differences. New Orleans is an example of is a universal institution, but defining it how intense differences can be within even a single adequately presents a challenge. One authoritative region. The vast parades of New Orleans are a specif- definition focuses on perhaps the most common char- ically urban Mardi Gras. The rural areas of south- acteristic—children: “Marriage is a union between a western Louisiana provide a very different Mardi man and a woman such that children born to the Gras experience. woman are recognized legitimate offspring of both Elena G. Procario-Foley ” (Royal Anthropological Institute 1951, 110). Other definitions generally emphasize that the mari- See also Catholicism; Easter; Humor and Rituals; tal union is socially and legally recognized and estab- Inversion, Rites of; Music; Performance, Ritual of lishes a as a social unit that regulates sexual activity, produces and raises children, implies some reciprocal rights between the and between Further Reading them and their offspring, and constitutes a basic eco- nomic unit. In short, marriage could be seen as a set of Gulevich, T. (2001). Encyclopedia of Easter, , and rights that gives access to the ’s sexuality, labor, Lent. Detroit, MI: Omnigraphics. and property, although not all of these aspects are Huber, L. V. (1989). Mardi Gras: A pictorial history of necessarily present in all . Carnival in New Orleans. New York: Pelican. Anthropological literature on rituals places mar- Humphrey, C. (2001). The politics of Carnival: Festive mis- riage in the category of life crises because it marks a rule in medieval . New York: Manchester transition from one phase of life to another. Indeed, in University Press. many cultures it is the most important rite of passage Kinser, S. (1990). Carnival, American style: Mardi Gras at into adulthood. In most cases it is a happy occasion, New Orleans and Mobile. Chicago: University of celebrated universally by music, dance, food, and Chicago Press. drink. In a flute starts playing early in the morn- Lindahl, C. (Ed.). (2001, Spring). Journal of American ing a day or two before the day, and contin- Folklore, 114(452). ues for two or three days, changing tunes at Ludwig, J. B. (1976). The great American spectacles: The appropriate times, and people sing specially com- Kentucky Derby, Mardi Gras and other days of celebra- posed songs. In a Zapotec (ancient Mesoamerican civ- tion. New York: Doubleday. ilization) wedding ritual in Mexico a band of Martin, C. (1999). Carnival: A theology of laughter and a musicians plays from early morning on the wedding ritual for social change. Worship, 73(1), 43–55. day throughout the ceremonies, which last until early Santino, J. (1994). All around the year: Holidays and celebra- next morning. Special messengers invite key people tions in American life. Urbana: University of Illinois to the wedding, people hold processions between the Press. ’s and the groom’s house, the village president’s Yancey, P. (1993, April). From Carnival to Mardi Gras. house, the godfather’s house, and the church; people Christianity Today, 37(26), 64. eat four special meals, and two men stage “the dance of the ,” each holding a turkey by its wings (with its feet on the floor) and dancing from the patio to a village-road intersection, joined by two women Marriage Rituals carrying baskets. There are fireworks, candles, gifts, and candies and cookies. Marriage perhaps involves rituals more elaborate Elaborate rituals are typical in traditional, prein- than those of any other life event in most cultures. The dustrial societies that practice and bewildering variety of such rituals makes generaliza- that establish large groups as major economic tions difficult, but placing the rituals in their larger and political units. Modernization tends to increase cultural context shows some similar features in their secularization and correspondingly to decrease the functions and symbolisms. Because in preindustrial ritualistic dimensions of the marriage event. cultures religion covers all spheres of life, most mar- Symbolically, however, even in Western societies ves- riage rituals there place the sexual and economic tiges of rituals connected with ancient customs aspects of marriage also in a religious context, cele- remain, such as asking for the prospective bride’s brated and perpetuated by ritual practices. hand and giving away the bride. 230 RT1806_M.qxd 1/29/2004 6:56 PM Page 231

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LOVE MAGIC

The use of magical means to win the affection of a man or woman is common across cultures. The follow- ing is an extreme example of a magical technique used by desperate men in Central .

The use of dangerously polluted material in magic occurs when a man resorts to the strongest magical means known to ensure the love of a woman. It entails putting but a single drop of namman phraaj, the fluid which magical practitioners extract from certain corpses, in the food of the woman. Upon swallowing the food, she will become totally enslaved to the man. This occurs only rarely, because namman phraaj is rare. Only a specialist with great magical powers will try to obtain the liquid from the corpse of a person who died inauspiciously, preferably from the most dangerous kind of corpse: that of a woman who died whilst pregnant or during childbirth. Reputedly, in the deep of the night the lay magical specialist approaches the place where such a corpse lies. He should grasp the dead body firmly in his arms, and extract some liquid from the skull by holding a lighted candle under the chin of the cadaver. A terrible struggle may ensue before the corpse releases some of this namman phraaj. The liquid is extremely dangerous, and in present times there are only a few men who are reputed to pos- sess it. Only a desperate man will try to use it as love magic, for whilst it certainly causes a woman to be enslaved to a man, it may make her very ill at the same time. It is said that she may become mentally deranged for the rest of her life by consuming some of the liquid.

Source: Terweil, Barend J. (1975). Monks and Magic; An Analysis of Religious Ceremonies in Central Thailand. Scandinavian Institute of Asian Studies, Monograph Series, 24. Lund, Studentlitteratur; London: Curzon Press, p. 144.

Rituals Leading to Marriage people have several such relationships—but it is rec- ognized as a prelude to marriage. Parents have a final Rituals of marriage begin long before the actual wed- say to approve the marriage, and usually no objection ding ceremonies. Whether the bride and groom fall in is voiced if the man owns cattle. love or someone makes the match, meeting involves Arranged marriage is sometimes characterized as ritual. , makeup, hairstyles, ornaments, and parents choosing a set of in-laws. The attention is not other efforts to enhance personal appearance are often as much on the feelings of the prospective marital ritualistic efforts to attract the opposite , as are flir- partners as on the kin network that is established tations of various kinds. Young men in the Trobriand or that has to be maintained by the impending Islands of the southwest Pacific Ocean may decorate marriage. themselves with Johnson’s Baby Powder, and girls The matchmaker is most often the of the like to put flowers in their hair or a garland around bride or of the groom (often at the prompting of the their neck. Nuer youth around in attend ), a maternal uncle, or some other trusted per- dances and afterward sit in the tall grass around the son—often a Brahman (a Hindu of the highest caste dancing ground and exchange endearments, the traditionally assigned to the priesthood) or a barber in young men flattering their , who are traditional Indian cultures. The transaction begins “decked with flowers and ornaments and anointed with negotiations between the parents. The young with oil for dancing” (Evans-Pritchard 1951, 52). In people may or may not know one another or meet at another context a Nuer young man leaps behind his this stage. In one tradition in Upper a potential oxen to show his masculinity and chants poems to the mother-in-law comes to the house of the bride-to-be girl, especially if he is interested in marrying her. to assess her suitability. is considered may not lead to marriage—most young irrational and therefore suspect, although young 231 RT1806_M.qxd 1/29/2004 6:56 PM Page 232

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A Jewish bride and groom dance the hora—a traditional Israeli folk dance—with friends and family at their . COURTESY OF MARCY ROSS.

people increasingly meet at universities or work places, fall in love, and demand and get their way. In the warrior culture of the Sambia of Papua New Guinea an ideal warrior—one who ideally has killed An American bride and groom in traditional wedding attire per- another human—captures a woman, steals a form a Celtic hand-wrapping ceremony as part of their mar- from the enemy tribe. For the !Kung of the Kalahari riage ritual in 2001. COURTESY OF BECCI SEARLE-SCHRADER. Desert of , however, killing two large ani- mals suffices to define a man as an adult who is ready to marry. The man asks his parents to arrange a mar- of the man’s gather at the compound of the riage. He may be ten years older than his prospective woman’s lineage. They offer kola (a beverage made bride, most likely a teenager. The girl’s parents also from the seed of the kola tree) and other refreshments, stress the demonstrated hunting ability of their perhaps even some money. The woman’s representa- prospective son-in-law because the hunter whose poi- tives share these to show their acceptance of the soned arrow hits the animal first receives the hide, betrothal. In Christian betrothals there, the man pres- which is used to make pubic coverings for both men ents his fiancée with a and a gold wedding and women. band. This custom is not much different from a U.S. In the !Kung society and in many others, further- in which the man presents a ring to his more, parents may arrange a son’s marriage during prospective fiancée as he proposes to her. In Africa, infancy—sometimes before the prospective bride is however, the man does not kneel in front of the born. The marriage is then consummated and cele- woman, as is the idealized custom in the United brated when the spouses come of age. This custom States. usually occurs in societies in which marriage is A is a special prenuptial tradition in considered ideal; it ensures that the wealth stays in the United States. A close friend or relative invites a the . group of friends together as a surprise to the bride. The friends gather in an informal atmosphere in Premarriage Rituals someone’s home and “shower” the bride with small personal or household items that she will need as a Courtship customs (or their absence, e.g., seclusion of married woman. This custom has both functional and the practiced in some Islamic societies) have a symbolic meanings as the woman is about to enter a ritualistic character, but a series of more specific new phase in life. Games played during the evening rituals usually starts when the relatives have agreed often symbolize the bride’s fertility and future repro- to the marriage. The first stage is the formal betrothal. ductive role. The groom’s friends organize a some- In a Yoruba community in , representatives times rowdy bachelor that symbolizes the end 232 RT1806_M.qxd 1/29/2004 6:56 PM Page 233

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of the groom’s freedom, independence, and responsi- objections if necessary. “To be marriage, the institution bility solely for himself. Lately, both the prospective requires public affirmation” (Cott 2000, 1). bride and groom may attend the wedding shower, The degree of formality in marriage contracts and and some women organize bachelorette for associated ceremonies, however, ranges from none at the bride. all among the Inuit of northern Alaska and Western The Yoruba betrothal marks the transfer of rights cohabiting couples to several days of transactions and to the woman and the beginning of a series of obliga- celebrations among people in many parts of the tions between the two lineages. The man now calls the world, such as Mexico, the Middle East, Asia, and woman his wife and has sexual relations with her. He Africa. The Nuer carry out an official, public marriage also presents gifts of agricultural produce or money to ritual in three basic stages that are spread over sever- her father or helps in some labor each year until the al months—the betrothal, the wedding, and the con- woman moves to her ’s home. This phase summation—and some additional ceremonies takes place when the bridewealth (wealth transferred complete the marriage contract years later. In many from the groom’s family and kin to the bride’s family) preindustrial societies marriage involves a long is completely paid off. The ceremony marking this process. point in the process is also celebrated with gifts and Symbolic rituals are used to express the new unity refreshments. of the couple. In many U.S. the bride and groom together light a . Tali-tying is a Tying the Knot common ritual in India, and in some ceremonies the bride’s father ties the couple’s right hands together Marriage is a contract in most cultures, defined by with a scarf. In a Tamil Brahman wedding seven steps either tribal laws or the laws of modern nation-states taken by the couple around a sacrificial fire make the and recognized by the public. A ritualistic signing of marriage binding, although other ceremonies take the contract in the presence of witnesses and/or reli- place as well. This symbolism apparently is more gious or civil authorities is part of most wedding cer- prevalent in cultures that emphasize marital unity— emonies. In a temple wedding in India the officiating or where the law dictates what a marriage is; many Brahman fills out the temple marriage register that other cultures focus more on alliances among and has been signed by the groom and witnessed by at between kin groups than on the special relationship least one other important person, such as a village between the spouses. president. Common expressions such as “tying the knot” Symbolic or Unusual Marriages illustrate the solidity and permanence of this contract, and the exchange of rings in Western cultures Symbolic marriages extend the meaning of marriage becomes a physical symbol of the bond. Historical beyond the usual union between a living man and a records show that even in clandestine marriages in living woman. The Nuer practice a “ghost marriage” medieval England that were performed without cler- in which a male kinsman marries a woman in the gy, some ritual was involved, including witnesses, name of a man who died before having any heirs, and gifts, and sometimes a wedding ring. Church wed- the bride is thus legally the ghost’s bride. In northern dings involved vows, blessing of the rings, and a pub- a memorial practice of a “bride-doll marriage” lic ban (legal or formal prohibition) read several emerged during World War II in which the soul of weeks ahead of time to preclude any objections to the someone who has died before being married—repre- marriage. sented by the dead person’s picture in a glass box—is Wedding ceremonies generally include a public married to a spirit spouse embodied in a consecrated declaration that confers a new status to the spouses as figurine in the same box, a doll “which is believed to mature adults. The officiating clergy declares the cou- have been animated with the miraculous power of ple as husband and wife by “the authority vested in Jizo, a prominent Buddhist Bodhisattva [deity].” The me” by the state, witnesses must sign the contract, “couple” is enshrined in the temple from five to thirty wedding bells ring, and pictures may be printed in years, during which “Jizo is believed to guide the the newspaper to mark the event. Thus, even in reli- dead person, stranded between worlds, toward gious ceremonies there is a secular authorization by successful rebirth and eventual salvation” the state, and the public is given a chance to voice its (Schattschneider 2001, 854). 233 RT1806_M.qxd 1/29/2004 6:56 PM Page 234

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Another example of a symbolic marriage is a tiates in the clubhouse. When the groom finally has token prepuberty marriage in central India in which a sex with his wife—after her menarche (the onset of physically immature girl is “married” to an object menstruation) ceremony—he must perform a nose- such as an arrow from a tribal group or a wooden bleeding after each menses of his wife to purify him- rice-pounder. One of her male relatives acts on behalf self of the pollution created by having sex with a of the object, and the event is celebrated for two days woman. with ceremonies that involve all other rituals except Sexuality is also part of the requirement in Islamic gifts. The girl will later have a regular marriage, but and Christian cultures that the bride be a virgin. not going through the ceremony before puberty Among the Kanuri people in northeastern Nigeria, makes the girl permanently unclean. virginity of the bride is the ideal; a virgin bride is con- The Nuer also practice a form of marriage in sidered prestigious and commands a high price, thus which one woman marries another. The marriage rit- girls often have to marry older men who can afford uals are the same as in a regular marriage, but the them. In most societies a double-standard allows a woman-husband gets a male kinsman or friend to man to have premarital or , but the beget children on her behalf and to assist in some woman must be a virgin at marriage and faithful to chores. The woman who chooses to marry this way is her husband afterward. Sambia men normally contin- usually barren and counts as a man; she may even ue their homosexual relations for some time, but the marry several if she is rich, and her children birth of the first child confers a full status to men as address her as “father.” This is not the same as a and requires them to settle down. Thus, mar- homophilic marriage, a same-sex marriage, legalized riage and the onset of fatherhood constitute final rites so far only in Denmark, Greenland, Sweden, and of passage into manhood. Norway. Symbols of fertility are part of marriage rituals everywhere. A bridal couple in the United States is Rituals Relating to Sexuality and Fertility often showered with rice—or lately seeds—as a symbol of fertility. Sexuality is present in most marriages throughout the In India bamboo is considered such a symbol, so world, and the marriage bed is sometimes decorated the wedding canopy is supported by bamboo poles, for the wedding night, although in some cultures the and a mango twist is tied together with the bamboo couple are not supposed to engage in sexual relations pole because mango, too, is associated with marriage the first night, or even for a while. Indian marriages and fertility. In many societies marriage is simply a employ a ritual bath for purification of both bride and continuation of the sexuality and fertility rituals that groom, and they change into new clothing for the rest begin with puberty rites. These rites are society’s of the ceremony. attempt to control sexual relations. It is in the society’s Although the bride’s femininity is usually empha- interest to channel sexuality toward reproduction. sized in the marriage context, curiously in some cul- tures the bride must become masculine at least for Economic Rituals part of the ceremony. In an old Tamil Brahman tradi- tion on the fourth day of the wedding the bride was Marriage is everywhere also an economic transaction, dressed up as a boy and made to speak to the bride- and this aspect is observed ritually in many societies, groom somewhat rudely. Sambia grooms first see especially those in which the kinship group is a major their in a group ritual. The brides are dressed economic and political unit. Arranged marriage is the in bark capes and lie flat, their faces on the ground, norm in such societies, and marriage negotiations while the grooms, in full warrior garb, stand stiff and between the two sets of kin focus on the financial cast their stony faced gazes to the sky. Looking at the aspects of the deal, often with mutual suspicion until women’s faces would contaminate them and show understanding has been reached. Bargaining may their inner panic. They have been isolated in young continue even into the wedding festivities. men’s clubhouses, engaged in prescribed homosexual The best-known economic customs relating to activities, so marriage with its heterosexual contact is marriage are and bridewealth. Dowry is given a new and scary experience; it takes some time before to the woman from her parents as an advance on her the marriage is consummated. To make the transition inheritance, and it is hers, although often adminis- easier, the bride’s dress is similar to that of the boy ini- tered by her husband. In case of , she will take 234 RT1806_M.qxd 1/29/2004 6:56 PM Page 235

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it with her. It establishes a conjugal fund. Dowry is there is a new appreciation of tradition, and many most common in Asia and some European countries people—especially in the (scatterings of and generally in agricultural or pastoral societies. It people)—seek to employ their native rituals in the reflects the status of the woman at marriage, and a celebration of life events, whereas others create new good dowry can gain a desirable husband. rituals and traditions. Wedding ceremonies are a rich Bridewealth, on the other hand, is paid to the part of cultural heritage and help establish the new bride’s family, in part to compensate it for the loss of family entity on a firm cultural footing. With increas- a worker. Among the Nuer ideal bridewealth is forty ing geographical mobility, change, and globalization, cows, to be paid in installments, but few can afford rituals give a sense of permanence and continuity that such a high price. Bridewealth is often referred to as can provide a feeling of security and stability in times “brideprice,” but that term may be misleading of social change. because most societies resent the idea that the woman Sara Kärkkäinen Terian is purchased. It is rather a form of circulating the wealth; the bride’s brother can then pay his bride- See also Gender Rituals; Passage, Rites of wealth at his marriage. Bridewealth is more common in Africa, where most societies practice it. Dowry and bridewealth, Further Reading however, need not be mutually exclusive; a combina- tion is often used. The ritualistic part of these arrange- Boodhoo, S. (1993). Kanya dan: The why’s of Hindu marriage ments involves visits and negotiations between the rituals. : Bhojpuri Institute. two sets of kin and sometimes special displays of the Burch, E. S. (1970). Marriage and divorce among the items. north Alaska Eskimos. In P. Bohannan (Ed.), Divorce Other economic aspects of marriage include mar- and after. Garden City, NY: Doubleday. rying within one’s own social class—a concern for the Cohen, R. (1970). Brittle marriage as a stable system: The rich even in Western societies to keep the wealth in Kanuri case. In P. Bohannan (Ed.), Divorce and after. the family. Cousin marriages in many societies, such Garden City, NY: Doubleday. as the Fulani in Africa, not only strengthen family ties Cott, N. (2000). Public vows: A history of marriage and the but also solve the problem if the family has difficulty nation. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. coming up with bridewealth. Research has shown Douglass, L. (1992). The power of sentiment: Love, hierarchy, that marriage between relatives is more frequent and the Jamaican family elite. Boulder, CO: Westview when there is scarcity of cattle; bridewealth demands Press. appear to be reduced with close-kin marriage. It is El Guindi, F., & Hernandez Jimenez, A. (1986). The myth also worth noting that in societies where is of ritual: A native ethnography of Zapotec life-crisis ritu- legal (one man with two or more wives), it is not prac- als. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. ticed very widely because few men can afford several Evans-Prichard, E. E. (1951). Kinship and marriage among wives. As to wedding ceremonies, they are most elab- the Nuer. New York: Oxford University Press. orate with the first marriage; subsequent marriages Fried, M., & Fried, M. H. (1980). Transitions: Four rituals may take place fairly quietly. in eight cultures. New York: W. W. Norton. Good, A. (1991). The female : A comparative Marriage Rituals in Times of Change study of life-crisis rituals in and . New York: Oxford University Press. Marriage represents the launching of the most uni- Goody, J. (1973). Bridewealth and dowry in Africa and versal institution—the family. The rituals by which Eurasia. In J. Goody & S. J. Tambiah, Bridewealth and marriage is celebrated are as diverse as the cultures of dowry. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University which they are a part, but in various ways they all cel- Press. ebrate and strengthen the couple’s unity and kin net- Goody, J., & Tambiah, S. J. (1973). Bridewealth and dowry work. By their religious dimension they help reinforce (Cambridge Papers in Social No. 7). the meaning of the event. London: Cambridge University Press. Old rituals are in danger of being gradually elimi- Gough, K. (1959). The Nayars and the definition of mar- nated as more and more people around the globe riage. Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, 89, emulate Western ways. At the same time, however, 23–34. 235 RT1806_M.qxd 1/29/2004 6:56 PM Page 236

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Hampshire, K. R., & Smith, M. T. (2001). Consanguineous The popularity of martial arts in the West seems to marriage among the Fulani. Human Biology, 73(4), wax and wane depending on the current crop of action 597–603. films and television shows. Some have become more Hanawalt, B. A. (1986). The ties that bound: Peasant like Western sports, with competitions, rankings, and in medieval England. New York: Oxford University scoring systems, whereas the appeal of others is the way Press. they combine physical training with a more traditional Herdt, G. (1987). The Sambia: Ritual and gender in New focus on social, philosophical, and spiritual develop- Guinea. Fort Worth, TX: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. ment. Some, such as iaido, a Japanese martial art using Kensinger, K. M. (Ed.). (1984). Marriage practices in lowland swords, are practiced by a relatively few skilled people. . Chicago: University of Illinois Press. Others, such as karate and tae kwon do, are popular Malinowski, B. (1929). The sexual life of savages in north- with schoolchildren and with women for self-defense. western Melanesia. New York: Halcyon House. The ancient origins of martial arts are thought to lie Mann, K. (1985). Marrying well: Marriage, status and social in religious combat rituals, imitating the gods who were change among the educated elite in colonial Lagos. New able, according to myth, to triumph without weapons. York: Cambridge University Press. Early styles in Japan were associated with the Japanese Pasternak, B. (1983). Guests in the dragon: Social demogra- religion Shintoism and with Mikkyo, an esoteric form of phy of a Chinese district 1895–1946. New York: , and some forms of Chinese wushu are cate- Columbia University Press. gorized as Daoist/Buddhist. Many martial arts devel- Roy, B. (1984). Marriage rituals and songs of Bengal. oped within the confines of temples, which were places Calcutta, India: Firma KLM Private. of refuge during the troubled periods when martial arts Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and tended to develop most quickly. The temple of Shaolin, Ireland. (1951). Notes and queries on anthropology (6th in , for example, became a sort of university rev. ed.). London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. where martial arts experts lived together, shared their Rugh, A. B. (1984). Family in contemporary Egypt. knowledge, and trained their students. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press. One aspect of the development of modern “sport” Schattschneider, E. (2001). “Buy me a bride”: Death and forms of traditional martial arts is the desire to elimi- exchange in northern Japanese bride-doll marriage. nate the spiritual or mystical elements. This transfor- American Ethnologist, 28(4), 854–880. mation—sometimes referred to as “sportification”—is Singh, K. (1993). Foreword. In S. Boodhoo, Kanya dan: intended to make martial arts more like Western sports, The why’s of Hindu marriage rituals. Singapore: in which competing and winning are the only goals. For Mauritius Bhojpuri Institute. example, the idea of chi or ki (universal energy or breath Stone, L. (1979). The family, sex and marriage: In England concentrated in a person’s center) is basic to martial arts 1500–1800 (Abr. ed.). New York: Harper and Row. practice. This idea can be translated into physiological Tambiah, S. J. (1973). Dowry and bridewealth and the terms as the center of gravity, but in traditional practice property rights of women in South Asia. In J. Goody ki is far more than a physical spot or force, and the ai in & S. J. Tambiah (Eds.), Bridewealth and dowry. London: aikido can be translated as “harmony” or “love.” Cambridge University Press. Self-mastery and self-knowledge are important goals in martial arts practice, and the student is guided in a variety of ways in personal development as well as physical training. The practice of zazen, the basic seated Martial Arts meditation of Zen Buddhism, has been incorporated into a number of modern martial arts because it can Martial arts include a wide range of practices from easily be used out of context, without any demand on many Asian countries and religious traditions. They the student for a particular religious affiliation. range from Chinese wushu (sometimes inaccurately The practice of martial arts contains a variety of called “kung fu”) to Korean tae kwon do and a variety ritual elements. In aikido, the dojo (practice room) of Japanese arts: karate, aikido, kendo, iaido, naginata, includes an altar with a photograph of the founder, and judo. Almost all martial arts are connected with Ueshiba Morihei (1883–1969), a scroll with calligra- some religious or spiritual belief system, although phy, and fresh flowers. Students bow to their instruc- their origins also lie in the practical need that people tor, to the photograph, and to one another, and in had to defend themselves without weapons. many clubs clap two or four times at the beginning 236